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NDT Tools for Life Assessment of High Temperature Pressure Components

Conference Paper · September 2006

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ECNDT 2006 - Tu.2.7.4

NDT Tools for Life Assessment of High

Temperature Pressure Components
Corrado DELLE SITE, Carlo DE PETRIS, Canio MENNUTI
ISPESL, Rome, Italy

Abstract. Creep damage of pressure equipment involves a great variety of high

temperature components ranging from superheaters, reheaters, furnaces, reactors, etc..
Consequence of failures of these components are of high economic and safety concern.
Moreover, the probability of failure of high temperature components is now increasing
due to frequent cyclic of power plants imposed by a deregulated market and the search
for increasing temperatures in ultrasupercritical plants. In this scenario, a complete
NDT campaign is necessary both during the design stage and during the in-service
stage. The choice of the specific NDT tecnique for each component type is of great
importance. In this work an overview of the existing NDT techniques for creep
designed and operated components are presented. Together with metallographic replica,
which is still considered the fundamental tool for creep damage assessment in the
majority of materials, other NDT tecniques which are able to detect creep cavity or
cracks are presented and compared: ultrasonic techniques (tofd and phased-arrays),
acoustic emission, holographic interferometry. In the second part of this paper the
ability of some NDT tools to support residual life assessments are discussed. Among
the most interesting tools are oxide scale ultrasonic measurement, micro-hardness
testing, small-punch testing and on-stream deformation measurement. This tools are not
strictly devoted to detecting creep defects (such as microcavities or microcracks) rather
they give useful information related to creep damage, such as component deformation,
material degradation and maximum service temperature. Moreover, a global procedure
developed by ISPESL for inspection planning and interpretation of results of NDT
examination according to a risk-based approach is presented. Eventually the new
features of EN 13445-5 “Creep Amendments” concerning inspection and testing on
creep designed components are briefly illustrated.

1. Introduction

High temperature components of pressure equipment in modern power plants are subject
to increasing temperatures and cyclic loading. Moreover, economic concerns suggest to
operate the plant close to design conditions. As a result the risk of creep, fatigue and
corrosion damage of the most critical components increases more and more.
The increasing use of CEFS (“Creep Enhanced Ferritic Steels”) due to their ability to
withstand high temperature loading may lead to serious problems during the welding
process. Experience has shown several cases of high temperature cracking in high energy
steam piping localized in HAZ.
As a result, the role of NDT in assessing component integrity of creep designed and
operated components is becoming more and more relevant.
The aim of this work is to analyse the importance of NDT during the design stage and
during the service stage of creep operated components.
NDT during fabrication focused on creep designed components are aimed at creating a
“snapshot” of the “as-built” situation of the components at a starting baseline. For this
purpose metallographic examinations together with dimensional measurements seem to be
the most useful NDT techniques

1
NDT during service are a fundamental tool for residual life assessment as well.
Together with metallographic replica, which is still considered the fundamental tool for
creep damage assessment in the majority of materials, other NDT tecniques which are able
to detect creep cavity or cracks are presented and compared: ultrasonic techniques (tofd
and phased-arrays), acoustic emission, holographic interferometry.
In the second part of this paper the ability of some NDT tools to support residual life
assessments are discussed. Among the most interesting tools are oxide scale ultrasonic
measurement, micro-hardness testing, small-punch testing and on-stream deformation
measurement.
This tools are not strictly devoted to detecting creep defects (such as microcavities or
microcracks) rather they give useful information related to creep damage, such as
component deformation, material degradation and maximum service temperature.
ISPESL, namely the Italian Authority for Pressure Vessels and Boilers, has recently
implemented a global procedure for the inspection campaign based on a risk-based
approach. In this procedure NDT play a fundamental role, both during the preliminary
stage (inspection planning) and during the final stage (determination of the inspection
intervals).
Eventually the new features of EN 13445-5 “Creep Amendments” concerning inspection
and testing on creep designed components are briefly illustrated in order to show the
importance of NDT during the design stage.

2. NDT tools for creep damage detection

As known, incipient creep damage begins in the form of isolated micro-cavities. With time
the micro-cavities increase in dimension and size and eventually degenerate into micro-
cracks.
With no doubt metallographic replication is the most common tool for detecting cavities
and cracks of microscopic amplitude.
Recently a great emphasis has been put on modern ultrasonic techniques such as TOFD or
Phased Array which seem to have interesting features with respect to creep damage
detection and characterization.
Some relevance seem to have Acoustic Emission techniques with the limitations on the
minimum detectable damage.
A typical inspection program on creep operated components is divided into three steps:
1. Standard inspection devoted to detecting surface and volume defects (Visual
Testing, Dye Penetrant, Ultrasonic and X-Rays techniques, etc.);
2. Extended inspection for detecting and characterizing creep micro-defects
(metallographic replication, advanced ultrasonic techniques, acoustic emission,
etc.);
3. Additional inspection with specific NDT tools for supporting residual life
assessments (strain measurements, temperature assessment, etc.).

2.1. Metallographic replicas

The extensive use of metallographic replicas during the in-field inspections of creep
operated components is justified by their effectiveness and simplicity to detect creep
damage from the early stage of micro-cavities.
On the other hand for some steels (such as 9-12% Cr steels) local micro-structural changes
in HAZ are brought about in a rather late phase of the lifetime. According to some authors
[8] results of metallographic replicas are strongly related to the skill of the operator.
Onother limitation of the method is related to the ability to detect only surface or defects.

2
To keep the replica investigation non-destructive the total material removed by grinding
must not exceed 0.5-1mm.

2.2. Ultrasonic Techniques

UT techniques are very helpful for detecting creep damage even if their in-field use is not
so broad as for metallographic replicas.
Among them TOFD and Phased Array are the most interesting.
TOFD is able to detect defects down to the size of micro-cracks and, in certain
corroborated cases, to relatively high density aligned cavitation. TOFD is utilized over the
entirety of weld seam lengths for cost-effective and expedient detection.
UT methods based on Phased Arrays are highly effective due to the use of a number of
array elements pulsed with the appropriate time phasing. Time delays applied to each
transducer allows for longitudinal scanning, electronic focusing and beam steering.
These enhanced features of LPA (Linear Phased Arrays) allows for a faster inspection than
TOFD.
Using focused beam inspection the phased array technology becomes even more effective:
focus is accomplished using a special focusing lens to concentrate the available energy
into a small focal spot. In the FATS technology small spot size and high beam intensity
provide a superior sensitivity and resolution for detecting incipient creep damage.

However, like any other UT technique, FATS has a detection threshold so that the
minimum detectable size cannot identify with a single cavity but with a given alignment.
A common inspection protocol utilizes a combination of time-of-flight diffraction
(TOFD) and focused array transducer system (FATS).
In such a way it is possible to scan rapidly long portions of seam welds (TOFD) and
investigate in deeper detail areas of greater interest wherever creep damage is suspected
(FATS).

2.3 Acoustic Emission

Acoustic emission techniques are passive monitoring techniques able to detect “active” or
growing defects. Moreover emission sources can be “source-located” by time-of-arrival
techniques.
EPRI experience [5] has shown the importance of Acoustic Emission techniques for
standard inspection of pressure equipment. A preliminary AE inspection can point out
critical areas to inspect by specific NDT methods devoted to detecting creep damage.

As specified by some authors AE is able to detect small cavitation as well [12]. Anyway
this feature of AE is not confirmed by practical experience. Other authors more
realistically indicate that microvoid coalescence is not detectable by AE [13].

2.4 Holographic and Speckle Interferometry

The ESPI methodology (Electronic speckle pattern interferometry) [6] requires the use of a
laser source and a video camera.

The main use of these methods is to detect defects and flaws just looking at the
interference patterns. By comparing two images (reference signal and perturbed state) this
method allows to detect deformations and displacement (allowing precise strain
measurements up to 10-5).

3
A useful application of this method is to monitor critical areas of components, by a
combination of several NDT techniques. At the moment ESPI and Holography are seldom
utilized for practical applications.

3. NDT tools for residual life assessments

3.1 Oxide scale measurements

In order to determine the residual life of SH/RH headers it is fundamental to estimate its
average operating temperature. This value can be determined as a function of the thickness
of the oxide scale in the inner side of the tube. In fact a higher steam temperature leads to a
faster oxidation kinetic.
Measurement of both oxide thickness and base material thickness can be made
simultaneously using a special UT technique.
Oxide Kinetics can be used as an effective fitness-for-service tool which can give useful
information for the determination of re-inspection intervals.

3.2 Hardness measurements

Hardness test and replicas are commonly performed simultaneously in order to have
additional information on the mechanical characteristics of the component.
Hardness normally varies with time, temperature and stress. In general hardness decreases
with time whenever the component is operated at creep loads.
One of the possible applications of the hardness measurement is to estimate the real
working temperature of the component. On the other hand creep resistance cannot be
correlated with hardness measurements.
A possible correlation between hardness and Larson-Miller Parameter is the following
[11]:

H
= a * PLM + b * PLM 2 + c
H0

where a, b and c are numerical coefficients.

A particular application of hardness measurement is micro-hardness. A special prototype

was set up in 1956 for creep measurement. An interesting application of the method is for
on-line hardness measurements [6].

3.3 Small-punch testing

The small punch testing can be considered as a non-destructive technique because of the
limited amount of material to be sampled with the specimens being discs 0.25 – 0.5 mm
thick and 8 – 10 mm diameter. No repair is usually necessary after the removal of the disc.
It is a efficient and cost effective technique which has the potential to measure the realistic
material properties (such as material toughness or creep resistance) of the component
under consideration.
This technique is undergoing a harmonisation procedure (CEN WS 21) in order to
develop a european standard.

4
An important application of the method is to support residual life assessments. For this
purpose this technique is included in the ISPESL Fitness-for-Service procedure for creep
operated components.

3.4 Meaurement of creep deformation

Creep damage is always characterized by component deformation whose rate depends

strongly by the creep stage (primary, secondary, tertiary).
Therefore, it is obvious that measurement of deformations during inspection campaigns,
can give precious information on the level of creep damage.

ƒ Continuous on-line monitoring is the most effective and can be carried out using
capacitive strain sensors;
ƒ Off-line monitoring is carried out at given time intervals using Image Correlation or
Laser Profilometry.

Capacity strain sensors are commonly used for monitoring the strain in the base material.
Image correlation methods are more suitable for monitoring the heat –affected zone in a
weld. The method developed by Kema (SPICA) involves making an optical fingerprint of
a given surface in order to compare it with another image recorded at a following step.
Local and integral strain can be calculated. Evaluation criteria are based on the results of
tests conducted on test specimens; for HAZ the criteria are based on the elongation on this
particular area.

Laser profilometry is used for measuring the inner profile of piping. With this technique
accurate measurements of tube diameters are possible, allowing to detect incipient creep
damage by measuring a 2% diameter increase.

3.5 Correlation between metallographic replicas and life fraction

A very important application of metallographic replicas is to correlate the result of the test
with the actual residual life of the material.
The experimental correlation of Ellis [9] (partially revised by Sampietri [10]), shown in
table 1, is valid only for some steels (1-1/4 Cr – ½ Mo, 1 Cr 0.5 Mo, 2.25 Cr- 1Mo) and is
not applicable to weld metal.

Any other model (for example A-Parameter) based on the number of cavitated grain
bounderies is scarcely reliable.

Table 1 – Correlation between Creep Damage and Life Fraction

Classificazione Life fraction Life fraction

Welder-Neubauer (Ellis) (Sampietri)
- 0,27 0,181
A 0,46 0,442
B 0,65 0,691
C 0,84 0,889
D 1 1

5
Only by taking real pictures of metallographic structures it is possible to create a
metallographic atlas which enables to show the material evolution with temperature and
time.
In such a way it is possible to compare the actual material structure with the one given in
the atlas in order to assess the component working temperature which may lead to more
reliable residual life evaluations.

4. NDT effectiveness

Each of the previously described NDT technique is effective with respect to a particular
level of creep damage. As shown in table 2 replica and focused array transducer system
(FATS) seem to be very effective from the stage of incipient creep damage.

Table 2 – NDT effectiveness with respect to creep damage detection

(1: very effective, 2: moderately effective, 3: possibly effective, X: not normally used)
(*) only active defects, (**) only surface defects

TOFD FATS AE ESPI Replicas

LPA

Isolated micro-cavities X 1-2 3* X 1**

Aligned cavities 3 1 3* X 1**

Micro-cracks 1-2 1 1* 1-3 1**

Macro-cracks 1 1 1* 1 1**

Table 3 shows the effectiveness of some NDT tools to support residual life assessments.
These techniques are aimed at detecting physical variables (working temperature,
mechanical properties, strains, etc.) which are directly related to the consumed life.

Table 3 – NDT effectiveness to support residual life assessments.

(1: very effective, 2: moderately effective, 3: possibly effective, X: not normally used)

UT Oxide Hardness Small ESPI - Metallographi Estractive

scale Punch Laser c Replicas. Replicas
measurements Profilometry

Working 1 1-2 X X X 1-3

temperature
Mechanical X 1-2 1 X X 1-2
properties
Deformations X X X 1 X X

Life fraction X X X X 1 X

6
5. NDT on high energy piping
High energy piping are critical components with respect to creep and fatigue damage due
to the very high working temperature (>500 °C).
UT techniques are very effective for inspecting this kind of components. A typical
inspection strategy includes a TOFD (time-of-flight diffraction) scanning of the whole
tube length followed by a specific FATS (focused array transducer system) investigation
on critical areas.
UT techniques require removal of scaffolding and plant outage. On the contrary acoustic
emission techniques can on-line monitor the plant and are very cost effective.
They only require the installation of wave guides welded to the tubes. Monitoring is
normally conducted on-line during a whole week of operation.

6. NDT during fabrication of pressure equipment

Among the various standards that can be used to fulfill the essential safety requirements of
PED Directive a major role is played by European Harmonized Standards. The most
important standard harmonized with the PED Directive is EN13445 “Unfired Pressure
Vessels”. In the original version the norm did not include creep features. Recently the
Task Group “Creep” of CEN TC54 has released a first draft of “Creep Amendments”
which has undergone public enquiry and therefore it is now under revision.
The Italian delegation was appointed to prepare a proposal for EN13445 part 5
conecerning EN 13445-5 “Inspection and Testing”.
The main aspects that were taken into account are the following:
o Definition of the testing groups;
o Extent of non-destructive testing;
o Additional NDT during fabrication.

6.1 Definition of the testing groups

For creep designed welded joints the Task Group “Creep” of CEN – on the basis of the
comments received – has decided to accept both testing group 1 and 3 (Addressed as 1c
and 3c). This applies only for welded joints working under creep load. For the remaining
welded joints the usual groups apply.

6.2 Extent of non-destructive testing

As far as the extent of NDT is concerned the Working Group has proposed a general
increase the percentages contained in EN13445 in order to guarantee a sufficient degree of
confidence regarding the absence of defects which may grow under creep load.
The comments regarding this part should be furtherly discussed by the Working Group.

6.3 Additional NDT during fabrication

The new feature of the “creep amendments” of EN13445 is to take into account - to some
extent - the future service life of the component. For instance, a smaller safety coefficient
is permissible whenever a monitoring system for the operating conditions will be provided.
In order to have some information concerning the as-built metallurgical state of the welded
joints of creep designed vessels it is advisable to perform - in addition to conventional
NDT - metallographic replicas and hardness test. These information might be useful for
assessing the structural evolution during service.

7
The norm also suggests to execute high precision diameter examinations of creep
designed components (piping, etc.) in order to be able to detect any creep deformation at
future inspections.
This part of the standard might be subject to modification after further discussion.
Dimensional measurement should guarantee the following degree of precision:
0.01 mm up to 100 mm
0.02 mm 100<D≤500 mm
0.05 mm 500<D≤1000 mm
0.1 mm from 1000 mm

7. Monitoring

Monitoring of operational parameters (temperature and pressure), is highly recommended

for creep operated components.
Two different types of monitoring are possible:
ƒ On-line monitoring of operational parameters (temperature, pressure) and
mechanical parameters (typically strains);
ƒ Off-line monitoring of operational parameters (temperature, pressure) and
mechanical parameters (strains, hardness, creep damage, etc).

8. Risk-Based approach for defining re-inspection intervals

A risk-based procedure for defining re-inspection intervals was implemented by ISPESL.

In this procedure a fundamental role is played by NDT.
In order to determine which type of NDT technique to perform it is advisable to refer to
the type of weld.
Weld types are classified according to their criticality. This parameter is strictly correlated
with the consequences of a failure of a given welded joint: very low (A), low (B), medium
(C), high (D). Criticality of base material is considered to be very high (E).
As an example table 4 shows a typical chart for the determination of the extent of NDT in
a boiler header working in the creep range. As shown in the chart for each type of welded
joint specific NDT are suggested whose extent increases as the PEC parameter increases.
Additional NDT are suggested whenever a deeper investigation is required.
The procedure under consideration considers two different routes that can be followed to
define inspection intervals on the basis of the result of NDT.
The first route (route A) applies to the case of creep damage only as long as no creep
cracks are detected (uniform creep damage with cavitation).
The second route (route B) applies to the case of creep cracks (creep level 4 and 5).
Route A refers to a chart which correlates the Creep Damage Level with the criticality of
the welded joint, giving as a result a Global Risk Level (PIR – table 5).
In case of damage levels IV and V corresponding to microcracks and macrocracks table 5
cannot be applied. In this cases the Fitness for Service procedure should be applied.
From the PIR level it is possible to enter table 6 which gives the inspection intervals as a
function of the category of the inspection.
Using this procedure it is possible to increase the inspection interval by increasing the
effectiveness of the inspection. This can be done – for example - by incresing the extent of
NDT choosing a higher value of the PEC parameter.
Referring to the boiler header with a creep damage level 3 on a B type weld, the
application of this method leads to a global risk level of 3 and a short re-inspection interval
(around 10’000 hours). The interval can be increased (up to 15’000 hours) by increasing
the inspection effectiveness from medium to very high.

8
The re-inspection interval can be extended in the following cases:
• a monitoring system is provided;
• additional tests during fabrication are conducted;
• the operating hours are relatively low;
• the creep rate is low as confirmed by replica examinations;
• strain measurements are carried out;
• additional NDT tools are carried out during service (Oxide scale measurement,
hardness, etc).
Table 4 - Extent of NDT for a boiler header as a function of weld type
Extent of NDT (PEC)
*

Weld Type NDT Limited Low Medium High Very

PEC 1 PEC 2 PEC 3 PEC 4 High
PEC 5
A: header/non- VT 100% 100% 100% 100% 100%
pressure parts PT 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
(or
MT)
Additional ST * * * * *
B: header/small VT 100% 100% 100% 100% 100%
nozzles (De<100) ST 1% 1,5% 2% 3% 5%

(max 2, (max 2, (max 2, (min 2) (min 2)

min 1) min1) min 1)
MT 10% 20% 30% 40% 50%
(or
PT)
Additional ET * * * * *
B: header/big VT 100% 100% 100% 100% 100%
nozzles (De≥100) ST 1 1 1 2 2
UT 70% 80% 90% 100% 100%
MT 70% 80% 90% 100% 100%
(or
PT)
Additional RT * * * * *
D: circumferential VT 100% 100% 100% 100% 100%
or shell/flat heads ST 1 1 2 2 2
UT 80% 90% 100% 100% 100%
MT 70% 80% 90% 100% 100%
(or
PT)
Additional RT * * * * *
E: VT 100% 100% 100% 100% 100%
Base material UTS ** ** ** ** **
Additional DM * * * * *
Internal surfaces VTE 20% 30% 50% 80% 100%

extent to be decided on-site,

** mesh of measurement to be decided on-site

DM dimensional examination ST replication

ET eddy currents UT ultrasonic test
MT magnetic particles UTS thickness examination
PT dye penetrants VT visual testing
RT radiographic test

9
 Table 5 - Global Risk Level Table 6 – Inspection intervals (ΔI)

V - - - -
Creep Damage Level

IV 4
- - - -

PIR
III PIR 3 PIR 3 PIR 4 PIR 5 3

II PIR 2 PIR 2 PIR 3 PIR 3 2

I PIR 1 PIR 1 PIR 1 PIR 1 1

A B C D 1 2 3 4 5
PIR ΔI
Weld Type Inspection Category

Very short
Short
Short/Medium
Medium
Medium/Long
Long

9. Conclusions

Non-destructive testing represent a fundamental tool for assessing the integrity of pressure
vessels and boilers subject to creep both during design and service.
NDT constitute an important tool during service to assess material degradation and
integrity. From ISPESL experience it is clear that replicas play a fundamental role in life
assessment procedures of creep operated components. It could be very useful to compare
result of replicas during service inspections with replicas performed during the fabrication
stage in order to assess material ageing evolution. For this reason the new draft of “creep
amendments” of EN 13445 regarding unfired pressure vessels is suggesting to perform
replicas at the end of the fabrication stage together with high precision diameter
measurements.
Some NDT techniques for creep damage detection are becoming more attractive: among
them phased array methods seem to be very interesting for their ability to detect incipient
creep damage, but for the time being they do not seem to be able to replace the replica
examination.
High energy piping can be quickly inspected with AE or TOFD but a complete
investigation of creep damage should include TOFD or Replicas.
Ultrasonic techniques are very interesting for detecting working temperature by oxide
scale measurements or, alternatively, by hardness measurement or extractive replicas.

10
 A very effective technique for material characterization of creep operated components is
the “small-punch”, especially for what concerns FFS evaluations.
Very interesting methods for strain monitoring seem to be the SPICA method and laser
profilometry, both of very straightforward application.
As shown in this paper NDT also play a fundamental role in the RBI procedure for the
determination of re-inspection intervals and in the FFS procedure to be used in case of
creep cracks.

References
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Assessment and Optimization of Fossil Power Plants, 11-13 March 2002, Orlando, Florida;
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