Flow in Open Channels

OPEN-CHANNEL FLOW
 Open-channel flow is a flow of liquid (basically
water) in a conduit with a free surface. That is a
surface on which pressure is equal to local
atmospheric pressure.

Free surface
Patm

Patm
Classification of Open-Channel Flows
Open-channel flows are characterized by the presence of a liquid-gas
interface called the free surface.

 Natural flows: rivers, creeks,  Human-made systems: fresh-

floods, etc. water aquaducts, irrigation,
sewers, drainage ditches, etc.

p=patm
 Comparison of OCF and Pipe Flow

1 V12/2g
2 EGL
hf HGL
V12/2g
EGL V22/2g
V22/2g
P1/g
HGL P2/g
y1
y2

Channel bottom
z1
z2 z1 z2
Datum line Datum line

1 Pipe Flow 2
Open-Channel Flow
 Comparison of OCF and Pipe Flow

1) OCF must have a free surface 1) No free surface in pipe flow

2) A free surface is subject to 2) No direct atmospheric pressure,

atmospheric pressure
hydraulic pressure only.

3) The driving force is mainly the

component of gravity along the flow 3) The driving force is mainly the
direction. pressure force along the flow
direction.
4) HGL is coincident with the free
surface. 4) HGL is (usually) above the conduit

5) Flow area is determined by the 5) Flow area is fixed by the pipe

geometry of the channel plus the dimensions The cross section of a
level of free surface, which is likely pipe is usually circular..
to change along the flow direction
and with as well as time.
 Comparision of OCF and Pipe Flow

6) The cross section may be of any

6) The cross section of a pipe is
from circular to irregular forms
usually circular
of natural streams, which may
change along the flow direction
and as well as with time.

7) Relative roughness changes with 7) The relative roughness is a fixed

quantity.
the level of free surface
8) No such dependence.
8) The depth of flow, discharge
and the slopes of channel
bottom and of the free surface
are interdependent.
Energy grade line and hydraulic grade line
 Kinds of Open Channel

 Canal
 Flume
 Chute
 Drop
 Culvert
 Open-Flow Tunnel
 Kinds of Open Channel

 CANAL is usually a long and mild-sloped channel

built in the ground.
 Kinds of Open Channel

 FLUME is a channel usually supported on or above the surface

of the ground to carry water across a depression.
 Kinds of Open Channel

 CHUTE is a channel having steep slopes.

 Kinds of Open Channel

 DROP is similar to a chute, but the change in

elevation is affected in a short distance.
Kinds of Open
Channel
 CULVERT is a covered
channel flowing partly
full, which is installed
to drain water through
highway and railroad
embankments.
 Kinds of Open Channel

 OPEN-FLOW TUNNEL is a
comparatively long covered
channel used to carry
water through a hill or any
obstruction on the ground.
 Channel Geometry
 A channel built with unvarying cross section and
constant bottom slope is called a PRISMATIC
CHANNEL.

 Otherwise, the channel is NONPRISMATIC.

 THE CHANNEL SECTION is the cross section of
a channel taken normal to the direction of the
flow.

The channel section (B-B)

The vertical channel section (A-A)

 THE VERTICAL CHANNEL SECTION is the
vertical section passing through the lowest or
bottom point of the channel section.

The channel section (B-B)

The vertical channel section (A-A)

Geometric Elements of Channel Section

 THE DEPTH OF FLOW, y, is the vertical

distance of the lowest point of a channel section
from the free surface.

y d

h 
z
Datum
Geometric Elements of Channel Section

 THE DEPTH OF FLOW SECTION, d, is the

depth of flow normal to the direction of flow.

is the channel

y d bottom slope
d = ycos.

h 
z
For mild-sloped
Datum
channels y ≈ d.
 Geometric Elements of Channel Section
THE TOP WIDTH, T,
is the width of the channel section at the free
surface.
THE WATER AREA, A,

is the cross-sectional area of the flow normal to

the direction of flow. T
THE WETTED PERIMETER, P,

is the length of the line of intersection of the d

channel wetted surface with a cross-sectional
plane normal to the direction of flow.
THE HYDRAULIC RADIUS, R = A/P, P
is the ratio of the water area to its wetted A = A(d)
perimeter.
THE HYDRAULIC DEPTH, D = A/T,

is the ratio of the water area to the top width.

 Channel
Geometry

 The wetted perimeter does

not include the free
surface.
 Examples of R for common
geometries shown in Figure
at the left.
 Types of Flow

 Criterion: Change in flow depth with respect to

time and space

OCF
Time is a criterion
Steady flow Unsteady flow
(y/t=0) (y/t0)

Space is a criterion

Uniform Flow Varied Flow Uniform Flow Varied Flow

(y/x=0) (y/x=0) (y/x0)
(y/x0)

GVF RVF GVF RVF

 Types of Flow

 Criterion: Change in discharge with respect to

time and space

OCF
Time is a criterion
Steady flow Unsteady flow
(Q/t=0) (Q/t0)

Space is a criterion

Continuous Spatially- Continuous Spatially-Varied

Flow Varied Flow Flow Flow
(Q/x=0) (Q/x0) (Q/x=0) (Q/x0)
Classification of Open-Channel Flows

 Obstructions cause the flow depth to vary.

 Rapidly varied flow (RVF) occurs over a short distance near the
obstacle.
 Gradually varied flow (GVF) occurs over larger distances and usually
connects UF and RVF.
Steady non-uniform flow in a channel.
 State of Flow

 Effect of viscosity:
VR
Re 


Laminar OCF, Re < 500

Transitional OCF, 500 < Re < 1000

OCF

Turbulent OCF, Re > 1000

Note That R in Reynold number is Hydraulic Radius

 Effect of Gravity
 In open-channel flow the driving force, that is the force
causing the motion is the component of gravity along the
channel bottom. Therefore, it is clear that, the effect of
gravity is very important in open-channel flow.
 In an open-channel flow Froude number is defined as:

2
Inertia Force 2 V V
Fr = , and Fr == or Fr =
Gravity Force gD gD

 In an open-channel flow, there are three types of flow

depending on the value of Froude number:

Fr>1 Supercritical Flow

Fr=1 Critical Flow
Fr<1 Subcritical Flow
In wave mechanics, the speed of propagation of a small
amplitude wave is called the celerity, C.
The celerity, C is equal to: C = gy

For a rectangular channel, the hydraulic depth, D=y. Therefore,

Froude number becomes: V V
Fr = =
gy C
If we disturb water, which is not moving, a disturbance wave
occur, and it propagates in all directions with a celerity, C, as:
C C

C C = gy

C C
 Now let us consider propagation of a small amplitude wave in
a supercritical open channel flow:

Fr> 1, i.e; V > C V>C

C C

 Since V > C, it CANNOT propagate upstream it can

propagate only towards downstream with a pattern as
follows:

V Disturbance will be felt

only within this region

 This means the flow at upstream will not be affected.

In other words, there is no hydraulic communication between
upstream and downstream flow.
 Now let us consider propagation of a small amplitude wave in a
subcritical open channel flow:

Fr< 1, i.e; V < C V<C C C

 Since V < C, it CAN propagate both upstream and downstream with a

pattern as follows:

V<C

 This means the flow at upstream and downstream will both be

affected.
 In other words, there is hydraulic communication between upstream
and downstream flow.
Now let us consider propagation of a small amplitude wave
in a critical open channel flow:

Fr= 1, i.e; V = C V=C C C

Since V = C, it can propagate only downstream with a pattern

as follows:

This means the flow at downstream will be affected.

 State of Flow

 Effect of gravity: V
Fr 
gD

V  gD V  gD V  gD

D in Froude Number is Hydraulic Depth

 It follows that at low flow velocities (Fr < 1), a
small disturbance travels upstream (with a velocity
c − V relative to a stationary observer) and
affects the upstream conditions. This is called
subcritical or tranquil flow.
 But at high flow velocities (Fr > 1), a small
disturbance cannot travel upstream (in fact, the
wave is washed downstream at a velocity of V − c
relative to a stationary observer) and thus the
upstream conditions cannot be influenced by the
downstream conditions. This is called supercritical
or rapid flow, and the flow in this case is
controlled by the upstream conditions.
 Therefore, a surface wave travels upstream when
Fr < 1, is swept downstream when Fr > 1, and
appears frozen on the surface when Fr = 1.
 Also, when the water is shallow compared to the
wavelength of the disturbance, the surface wave
speed increases with flow depth y, and thus a
surface disturbance propagates much faster in
deep channels than it does in shallow ones.
 Pressure Distribution
n

A
yA yA hA
A
P
A
 DA
zA

DATUM 
W

Let us consider a rectangular element, which has a height of dA,

and base area of DA.
∑Fn=0 → PDA-Wcos0
PDA=Wcos, W=gV=gDA.dA  P=gdAcos =gyAcos2
If  is small  P =g y  Hydrostatic Pressure Distribution
 Pressure Distribution

Convex and concave geometries

 Velocity Distribution
The velocity distribution in an open-channel flow is quite nonuniform because of :
•Nonuniform shear stress along the wetted perimeter,
•Presence of free surface on which the shear stress is zero.
 Velocity Profiles

 In order to understand the velocity distribution, it is

customary to plot the isovels, which are the equal velocity
lines at a cross section.

isovel
– Velocity is zero on bottom and sides of channel due to no-slip condition
– the maximum velocity is usually below the free surface.
– It is usually three-dimensional flow.
– However, 1D flow approximation is usually made with good success for
many practical problems.
Velocity Distribution across a vertical line:
y

u
5-25 % of y umax

0.6 y y
uave

 u dA  u DA  u dA  u DA
3 2
3 2

 A
3
, 3
 A

u A u A u2 A u2 A
Equation Of Continuity
  
  u d A  -   d
cs t cv

dy T

Q Q
Q+ Dx y
x
x
 i) Unsteady Flow
     
  u dA  -  d   u dA  - cv
cs t cv cs t
Q  A Q
- Q + (Q + Dx )  - ( A  Dx )  + 0
x t t x
A  A( y ) , y  y ( x, t )
A A y dA
 dA  Tdy T
t y t dy
A y y Q
T T + 0
t t t x
 ii) Steady Flow

y Q
0  0
t x
Q1  Q 2  (U av A )1  (U av A )2
 Total Head at A Cross Section:
 The total head at a cross section is:
P Vav2
H = z+ +α
γ 2g
 Where H=total head
Z=elevation of the channel bottom
P/g = y = the vertical depth of flow (provided that
pressure distribution is hydrostatic)
V2/2g= velocity head

V2/2g EGL

y Q

z
x
Datum
 Energy relationships

p V2 p V2
z + 1+ α 1 z + 2 + α 2 +h
1 γ 1 2g 2 γ 2 2g 

V2 V2 Turbulent flow (α  1)
z + y1 + 1  z + y 2 + 2 + h
1 2g 2 2g  y - depth of flow
Energy Grade Lıne And Hydraulıc Grade Lıne
In Open Channel Flow
Sf :the slope of energy grade line
Sw :the slope of the water surface
So :the slope of the bottom

Sf :the slope of energy grade line

Sw :the slope of the water surface

Uniform Flow in Channels
 Flow in open channels is classified
as being uniform or nonuniform,
depending upon the depth y.

 Depth in Uniform Flow is called

normal depth yn

 Uniform depth occurs when the

flow depth (and thus the average
flow velocity) remains constant
 Common in long straight runs
 Average flow velocity is called
uniform-flow velocity V0
 Uniform depth is maintained as long as
the slope, cross-section, and surface
roughness of the channel remain
unchanged.
 During uniform flow, the terminal
velocity reached, and the head loss
equals the elevation drop
 Uniform Flow in Channels
V2 V2
z + y1 + 1  z + y 2 + 2 + h
1 2g 2 2g 

velocity head 1
V12 hl  Sf Dx
2g energy
V22
2 grade line
2g
Sf Dx
hydraulic
y1
grade line
y2

So Dx

Dx Sf=Sw =So
Datum
Non-uniform gradually varied flow. Sf≠Sw ≠So

hl  Sf Dx
Sf
 Steady-Uniform Flow: Force Balance
Shear force = oP D x Wetted perimeter = P

Gravitational force = gA Dx sin

V2
gADx sin  - oPDx  0 2g
EGL
HGL
A b
o  g sin
P Dx c

So = sin θ
a
d
o  gR So W cos  

Shear force
W

Hydraulic radius A
R W sin 
P
Relationship between shear and velocity?
Steady-Uniform Flow: Force Balance
Relationship between shear and velocity?

 Resistance Equation 0  kV 2 g
V RSo
k

 Wall-Shear Stress 0  g R S o

g
V  C RSo C
k
Manning Equation for Uniform Flow

1 2/3 1/2 (SI System)

V  R So
n
Discharge: Q  VA

1 2 / 3 1/ 2
Q  AR So
n
 Darcy-Weisbach equation
Chezy equation (1768)
(1840)
L V2 L V2
 Introduced by the French hf  f f
engineer Antoine Chezy in D 2g 4Rh 2g
1768 while designing a canal
L V2
for the water-supply system LS f  f
of Paris 4Rh 2g

V = C Rh S f
V2 8g
R hS f  f  V RhS f
8g f
C = Chezy coefficient
m m
60 < C < 150
s s IMPORTANT:
where 60 is for rough and In Uniform Flow
150 is for smooth Sf=So
also a function of R (like f in
Darcy-Weisbach)
 Manning Equation (1891)

1 2/3 1/2
V  Rh S f (SI System)
n

Notes: The Manning Equation

1) is dimensionally nonhomogeneous
2) is very sensitive to n
Is n only a function of roughness? NO!

Dimensions of n? T /L1/3

1.49 2/3 1/2 (English system)

V Rh S f
n
 Values of Manning n

n  0.031d 1 / 6 d in ft d = median size of bed material

n  0.038d 1 / 6 d in m
Relation between Resistance Coefficient
 Example 3.1

A trapezoidal channel has a

base width b = 6 m and side yo
slopes 1H:1V. The channel
bottom slope is So = yo 1

0.0002 and the Manning 1

roughness coefficient is n =
b=6m
0.014. compute
a) the depth of uniform flow
if Q = 12.1 m3/s
b) the state of flow
c) the average wall-shear
stress along the wetted
perimeter.
 Solution of Exp.3.1
a) Manning’s equation is used for uniform flow;
A 2/3
Q R So
n
A  b.y o + 2.(y o /2)  y o (b + y o )
2

P  b + 2 2 yo  6 + 2 2 yo

Qn  y (6 + y o ) 
2/3
AR 2 / 3   11 .978
So 11.978  y o (6 + y o ) o 
 6 + 2 2 y o 

Y(m) A(m2) P(m) R(m) AR2/3

1 7 8.28 0.84 6.23

1.2 8.64 9.39 0.92 8.17

1.4 10.36 9.96 1.04 10.63

1.5 11.25 10.24 1.098 11.976

by trial & error yo=1.5 m

 Solution of Exp.3.1
b) The state of flow
V
Fr  ave , D  A , T  b + 2 y
gD o
T
A = 1.5 (6+1.5) = 11.25 m2
T = 6+2 x 1.5 =9 m
D = 11.25 / 9 =1.25 m
Q 12 .1
V  
ave
 1.076 m/s
A 11 .25
1.076
Fr   0.307 <1 Subcritical
9.81x1.25

c)    g .R.S o
R = A/P ,
P = 6+2√2 x 1.5 = 10.24 m
R = 11.25 / 10.24 = 1.098 m
   9810 x1.098 x0.0002  2.15 Pa
Graphical Solution
 Composite Section

 A channel section, which is composed, of different

roughness along the wetted perimeter is called
composite section. For such sections an equivalent
Manning roughness can be defined as

 ni2 Pi
neq 
 Pi

n1,
P1  Pavlovski ' s eq. 
ni,  
 F F n

Pi
  i 
 i1 

A 2/3
Q R Sf
neq
 Compound Channel

 is the channel for which the cross section is

composed of several distinct subsections

1 3
2
 Discharge computation in Compound Channels

 To compute the discharge, the channel is divided into 3 subsections by

using vertical interfaces as shown in the figure:
 Then the discharge in each subsection is computed separately by using
the Manning equation.
 In computation of wetted perimeter, water-to-water contact surfaces
are not included.

I 1m II 1
n2 I I I 1

1
2m
n1 1 n3
2 2

2/3
Ai  Ai 
Qi    So i  1,2,3
ni  Pi 
3
Q total   Q i
i 1
Compound Channel
Generalized section representation

actual cross section

compound-composite cross section.

 Example 3.2:

Example 3.2: Determine the discharge passing through the

cross section of the compound channel shown below. The
Manning roughness coefficients are n1 = 0.02, n2 = 0.03 and
n3 = 0.04. The channel bed slope for the whole channel is
So = 0.008.

I 1m II 1
n2 I I n 1
I 3

2m
1 1
2 n1 2

10m 4m 5m 4m 10m
 Solution of Example 3.2
 Divide the channel into 3 subsections by using
vertical interfaces as shown in the figure:

I 1m II 1
n2 I I I 1

1
2m
n1 1 n3
2 2

10m 4m 5m 4m 10m

2/3
Ai  Ai 
Qi    So i  1,2,3
ni  Pi 
3
Q total   Q i
i 1
 Example 3.2
Forthe main channel (subsection I):
The main channel is a composite channel too.
Therefore, we need to find an equivalent value of n.

1/2
  n 2P 
neq  i i 
  Pi 
 
1/2 1/2
 n 25 + n 2 5 * 2 + n 2 5 * 2   (0.02)2 5 + 2 5 (0.032 + 0.04 2 ) 
neq  1 2 3   
 5+4 5   5+4 5 
   
neq  0.03074
1
A1  (5 + 13) * 2 + (13 * 1)  31 m2
2
P1  5 + 2 x 2 5  13.944 m
2/3
31  31 
Q1    0.008  154.05 m3 / s
0.03074  13.944 
 Example 3.2
 For the subsection II:
A2  10 * 1  10 m2
P2  10 + 1  11 m
2/3
10  10 
Q2    0.008  27.97 m3 / s
0.030  11 

For the subsection III:

1
A3  (10 + 11) * 1  10.5 m2
2
P3  10 + 2  11.41 m
2/3
10.5  10.5 
Q3    0.008  22.21 m3 / s
0.040  11.41 

Qtotal  Q1 + Q 2 + Q 3  154.05 + 27.97 + 22.21  204.23 m3 / s

FloodPlain
 DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS FOR
UNIFORM FLOW
Hydraulic Efficiency of Cross-sections:
A 2/3
Q R S0
n
Q A 2 / 3 A 5/3
 R  2/3  K 0  Conveyance of the channel
S0 n nP

Best Hydraulic Section:

A channel section having the least wetted perimeter for a given area has the
maximum conveyance; such a section is known as the best hydraulic section.
 BEST HYDRAULIC
SECTIONS

T T
T T

1 1y
m m
1 2
 BEST HYDRAULIC
SECTIONS
Example 3.10 What are the most efficient dimensions (the best hydraulic section)
for a concrete (n=0.012) rectangular channel to carry 3.5 m3/s at So=0.0006?

Given: Find b and y.

y n=0.012
Q=3.5 m3/s
So=0.0006
b

Solution:
The best hydraulic section for a rectangular channel is:
A  by  A
 P must be minimum for a given A : b 
P  b + 2y  y
A dP dP A
P + 2y  0  - 2 + 2  0  A  2y 2
y dy dy y
A 2y 2
b   2y b  2y
y y
 BEST HYDRAULIC
SECTIONS
When Q  3.5 m3 / s , n  0.012 and So  0.0006
AA
2/3
A  by  2y 2  2y 2 y
Q   So R 
n P P  b + 2y  2y + 2y  4 y  4y 2
2/3
2y 2  y 
3 .5    0.0006
0.012  2 
1.36  y 2 y 2 / 3  y 8 / 3 y  1.36 3 / 8  1.123 m.
b  2y  2.245 m.
y  1.12 m , b  2.25 m
 BEST HYDRAULIC
SECTIONS

These are NOT good sections.

For BHS, the dimensions

of rectangular channel are y
b=2y, i.e half of a square
which has a length of 2y.
b=2y
 BEST HYDRAULIC
SECTIONS
Example: What are the most efficient dimensions (the best hydraulic section) for
a triangular channel?

T Ty
A Eqn. (1)
2
2
T
1 1y P  2   + y2 Eqn. (2)
m m 2
1 1
From eqn. (1) one can get T  2A then eqn. (2) can be rewritten as:
2
y
A
P  2   + y 2
y
Keeping A constant:
P 2A 2 2A 2 y 2
 - 3 + 2y  0  A  y2 T   2y
y y y y
 BEST HYDRAULIC
SECTIONS

T=2
y
For BHS, the dimensions
of triangular channel are
1 1 T=2y which has 450
y
m1=1/ m2=1/ inclinations on both sides.
2 2
45 45
0 0
BEST HYDRAULIC
SECTIONS
 BEST HYDRAULIC
T=2y
SECTIONS
T=2b
T=2r
T=2c

3
b
2r 1 1
 3
2
 3 r m1=1/2 m2=1/2 c

450 450

3 3 2
A rec tan gular  2 y 2
A trapezoidal  b A circular  r 2 A triangular  c 2
4
Prec tan gular  4 y Ptrapezoidal  3b Pcircular  r Ptriangular  2 2c

A rec tan gular  314.159 A trapezoidal  314.159 A circular  314.159 A triangular  314.159
Prec tan gular  50.132 Ptrapezoidal  46.653 Pcircular  31.416 Ptriangular  50.134

Having the same cross-sectional area:

Pcircular  Ptrapezoidal  Prec tan gular  Ptriangular

Continuity and Energy Equations
 1D steady continuity equation can
be expressed as
V1A1  V2 A 2
 1D steady energy equation
between two stations

V2 V2
z + y1 + 1  z + y 2 + 2 + h 
Δx 1 2g 2 2g
 Head loss hL
h  Sf Dx
 The change in elevation head can
be written in terms of the bed
slope 
( z1 - z 2 )
So 
Dx
V2 V2
y1 + 1  y 2 + 2 + (S f - So )Dx
2g 2g
 Example 1

 Water flows under a sluice gate in a horizontal

rectangular channel of 2 m wide. If the depths of
flow before and after the gate are 4 m, and 0.50 m,
compute the discharge in the channel.

y1=4 m b=2 m

y2=0.50 m
x
1 2
 Solution:

The energy equation between sections (1) and (2) is:

 H1=H2+hf

 The head loss between sections (1) and (2) can be neglected.

 Therefore:
V2 1 V2 2
z 1 + y1 + α 1 = z2 + y2 + α2
2g 2g
Choose the channel bottom as datum. Then z1=z2=0, =1
For rectangular channels, we can define unit discharge, q, as:
Q Vby q
q= = = Vy V=
b b y
Therefore Energy equation between sections (1) and (2) becomes:
q2 q2
y1 + 2 = y2 +
2gy 1 2gy 22
 Solving for q:
q 2  1 1 
- 2  y1 - y 2 substituting the values :
2 g  y 2 y1 
 2

q2  1 1 
 -   3 . 5 solving for q  4.176 m 3
/s/m
2 g  0.50 4 
2 2

 The total discharge is Q=q.b=4.176*2=8.35 m3/s

Example 2:

Water flow with a velocity of 3 m/s, and a depth of 3 m in a

rectangular channel of 2 m wide. Then there is an upward
step of 30 cm as shown in figure below. Compute the depth
of flow over the step.
 V1=3 m/s y2=?
y1=3 m
Datum Dz=0.30 m
(1) (2)
 Energy Eq. Between Sections (1) & (2):

q2 q2
z 1 + y1 + = z2 + y2 + q = V1 y1 = V2 y 2 = 3.3 = 9 m 3 / s / m
2gy 12 2gy 22
92 92 4.1284
3+ = 0.30 + y 2 + ⇒ y2 + = 3.1587
2g3 2 2gy 22 y 22
The last equation contains only one unknown: y2.
However, it is a third degree polynomial of y2.
 Y3-3.1587y2+4.1284=0 This polynomial has three possible
solutions:
 Y(1)=2.496≈2.5 m
 Y(2)=1.66 m
 Y(3)=-0.996 ≈-1 m Negative depth is not acceptable
 But both 2.5 m and 1.66 m depths are quite possible.
 Which one will occur on the step????
 Nor Energy equation neither continuity equation will help to
decide.
 Luckily, in 1912, Bakhmeteff introduced the concept of
 SPECIFIC ENERGY, which is the key to even the most
complex open-channel flow phenomena.
 Then let’s learn the specific energy concept.
 SPECIFIC ENERGY CONCEPT

V2 V2
y1 + 1  y 2 + 2 + (S f - So )Dx
2g 2g
E1  E 2 + (S f - So )Dx

V2
E1  y1 + 1 E is called as specific energy
2g
V2
E2  y 2 + 2
2g

If channel bottom is horizontal and no head loss E1  E 2

For uniform flow Sf=So then
 SPECIFIC ENERGY CONCEPT
 Specific Energy, E, is the energy referred as the channel
bed as datum,i.e:
 Taking the datum z=0 as the bottom of the channel, the
specific energy E is the sum of the depth of flow and the
velocity head is the specific energy.

V2 Q2
E = y+ = y+
2g 2gA 2 (y)

A=A(y)
 Specific-Energy Curve

 For a given Q, E is only a function of y, i.e: E=E(y)

 Above equation can be written as:

Q2
E - y A y 2   cons tan t
2g

The plot of E vs y is called specific-energy curve. Above

equation has two asymptotes:
(E-y)=0 and y=0, in fact one section of the curve falls within
the 45o angle between these two asymptotes in the first
quadrant as in figure below.
There is another section of the curve shown as broken line, but
this is of no practical interest as it yield negative values for y.
 y

A
V12 2g
y1 y1

yc Fr=1
y2 C
y2
45o V22 2g E=E1 B
E
 If we regard this curve as a means of solving Eq.:

V2 Q2
E = y+ = y+
2g 2gA 2 (y)
 for y, given E and Q, the three solutions of cubic are clearly shown by
drawing a vertical line coresponding to the given value of E.
 Only two of them are physically real, so for given values of E and Q,
there are two possible depths of flow, unless the vertical line
referred misses the curve altogether, a case which will be discussed
later.
 These two possible flow depths, for a given E and Q, are referred as
alternate depths.
 Alternatively we may say that the curve represents two possible
regimes of flow- slow and deep on the upper limb, fast and shallow on
the lower limb-meeting at the crest of the curve, C.
 Other curves might be drawn for other values of Q; since, for a given
value of y, E increases with Q, curves having higher values of Q will
occur inside and to the right of those having lower values of Q.
 y

V12 2g
y1 y1

yc
y2 C
y2
45o V22 2g E=E1
E
Specific Energy for rectangular channels

 Specific Energy, E, for rectangular channels is defined in

terms of unit discharge q as:

V2 q2
E = y+ = y+
2g 2gy 2
 Therefore specific- energy curve is drawn for a given unit
discharge.
 y

A
V12 2g
y1 y1

yc Fr=1
y2 C
y2
45o V22 2g E=E1 B
E
 y

V12 2g
y1 y1

yc
y2 C
y2
45o V22 2g E=E1
E
 SPECIFIC ENERGY CONCEPT

V2 Q2
E y+  y+
2g 2gA 2

Fora given Q, E = E(y) only. The plot of E vs. y gives

Specific Energy Curve.
 Specific Energy
 Plot E vs y for constant Q
– Easy to see breakdown of E into pressure (y) and
dynamic (V2/2g) head
– E   as y  0 What is the physical
– E  y for large y interpretation of local
– E reaches a minimum minimum?
4

3
y
V2/(2g)
2
y

1 y

45°
0
E
0 1 2 3 4
 Minimum Specific Energy
Remember that:

2 2 2 2 2
V Q A 2 Q A Q Q Q T
Fr = = ⇒ Fr = = 2 = =
gD gD gD gDA A gA 3
g A
T
2
2 Q T
∴ Fr = T
gA 3
dy
A=f(y)
y dA=T*dy

dA
T
dy
 Minimum Specific Energy
Q2
Ey+
2gA 2
dE
For a given Q, when specific energy is minimum: 0
dy

dE Q2 d  1  dA Q 2 2 dA Q 2T
 1-  2  1  1- or
dy 2 g dA  A  dy 3
2 g A dy gA

dE
 1 Fr2  0
dy Fr=1, i.e: flow is critical
 y

yc Fr=1
C
45o B
E
Emin
Minimum Specific Energy for Rectangular Channels

yc Fr=1
C
45o B
E
Emin
 Characteristics Of The Specific Energy Curve

 Curve has 2 asymptotes: E = y

and y = 0 lines
 Curve has 2 limbs AC and BC
 Limb AC approaches the
horizontal axis as y  0
 Limb BC approaches to E = y line
as y  
 On this curve Q remains constant
 At any point P on this curve, the
ordinate represents the depth
yc

and the abscissa represents the

specific energy.
Emin  For a given specific energy E,
there are 2 possible flow depths:
y1 and y2

Critical depth
 Characteristics Of The Specific Energy Curve
At point C, the specific energy is minimum
Minimum specific energy corresponds to
critical state of flow, i.e. Fr = 1.
At the critical state, the two alternate depths

y2 become one, which is known as critical depth, yc.

If y  yc , V  Vc  Fr  1
the limb AC corresponds to supercritical flow
yc and y2, corresponding to supercritical depth
y1
If y  yc , V  Vc  Fr  1
Emin
the limb BC corresponds to subcritical flow and
E
y1 corresponding to subcritical depth
V Q2T
Fr   Fr 
2

gA 3
gD
The depths y1 and y2 are called alternate
depths.
 As Q increase, the curves will move towards right
Specific Energy For rectangular Channel

Q
y A Q  AV  byV  q unit disch arg e
b
b

V2
Ey+
2g

Q2
Ey+
2gA 2

q2
Ey+
2gy2
 Critical Flow:Rectangular channel

Q 2 Tc Tc = b
1
gA 3c

Q = qb Ac = yc b Tc

q2b2 q2 yc
1= 3 3 =
Ac
gy c b gy 3c

1/ 3
q 2
 Only for rectangular channels!
y c   
 g 
q  gy 3c Given the depth we can find the discharge

Vc = gy c q = Vc y c
 Critical Flow Relationships:
Rectangular Channels
2 1/ 3
q   V 2 2
c yc
 q  Vc y c
y c    y c  
3
 because
g   g 
Vc
1
yc g Froude number for critical flow

Vc2 y c Vc2
yc   velocity head = 0.5 (depth)
g 2 2g
V2
Ey+
2g
y 2
Therefore: E = y + c = 3 y or y c  Ec
c c
2 2 c 3
 Critical Depth

Minimum energy for q 4

dE
0
3

dy 2

y
2
yc V
Fr=1  c
1
2 2g
0
0 1 2 3 4
Fr>1 = Supercritical
E
Fr<1 = Subcritical

2
yc = E
3 c
 Koch Parabola
 For a given E,
Q  [2gA 2 (E - y )]1/ 2 or q  y 2 g E - y 

 and since A=A(y), then Q = Q(y) [q=q(y) for rectangular channels]

 The plot of Q vs. y [q vs y] gives Koch Parabola.
y y
Fr < 1 Fr < 1
E0 E0

yc yc
c Fr =1 c Fr = 1

Fr > 1 Fr > 1
Q q
Q = Qmax q = qmax

Therefore, the total discharge Q for arbitrary cross sections, and unit discharge q
for rectangular cross sections become maximum for a given E, when the flow is
critical.
Variation of specific energy and (unit) discharge with
depth: (a) E versus y for constant q; (b) (q) Q versus y for
constant E.
 Characteristics of Critical Flow

Rectangular Cross
Arbitrary Cross Section
Section
3
 Fr  1 
Q 2 Ac
  Fr  1 q  2
gy c3 yc 
q2
3
g Tc g

Vc2 Vc2 yc
 
Dc
 Ec  yc +
Dc
   Ec 
3
y
2g 2 2 2g 2 2 c

 For a given Q, E = Emin  For a given q, E = Emin

 For a given specific  For a given specific
energy, energy
Eo, Q = Qmax Eo, q = qmax
 Discussion
A long rectangular channel carries water with a flow depth of y1
on a horizontal channel. If there is a rise on the channel bed:
a) What is the relation of total head between section 1 and 2, if head
loss assumed to be negligible.

H1  H2

a) What is the relation of specific energy between section 1 and 2

E1  E 2 + Dz E1  E 2 + Dz

b) How does the water surface profile react to channel bed elevation
change
E1  E 2 + Dz

Side view H1  H2
 CHANNEL TRANSITION
for rectangular channels

Change on the bottom elevation of channel

Change on the width of the channel
Change on the bottom elevation and width of the channel
 Upward Step-Constant width
Q  VA  V1( y1b)  V2 ( y 2b)  q1  q2 H1  H2
1/ 3
q
2
 E1  E 2 + Dz
y c   
g 

1) Subcritical flow
Upward Step-Constant width
q1  q2
1/ 3
 q2 
yc  
 g 
 
H1  H2
E1  E 2 + Dz
 Downward Step-Constant width
Q  VA  V1( y1b)  V2 ( y 2b)  q1  q2 H1  H2
2 1/ 3 E 2  E1 + Dz
q 
1) Subcritical flow y c   
g 
q1  q2
1/ 3
 q2 
yc   g 
 
H1  H2
E 2  E1 + Dz
 Upward Step-Constant width

Subcritical flow

y3
E1  E2 + Dz

(3)

E1  E2 + Dz E3  E2 + Dz
 q1  q2
Specific Energy: q 
2 1/ 3

y c   
Step Up  g
Additional H1  H2
Consideration E1  E 2 + Dz
E 2  E1 - DZ
4

2
y

1
Dz
0
0 1 2 E1=3.3
3 m4
E
 q1  q2
Specific Energy: q 
2 1/ 3

y c   
Step Up  g
Additional H1  H2
Consideration E1  E 2 + Dz
E 2  E1 - DZ
4 4

3 3

2 2
y

y
1 1
Dz
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3
E E
 Choking
 In an open-channel flow, whenever there is a
contraction in a flow area, there may be a case
where the specific energy of the flow may not be
enough to pass the given discharge.
 Let us consider different cases where this may
happen:
a) Consider the case where there is an upward step
in a rectangular channel which has a constant
width b:

V1
y1
F1<1 Dz
 The energy equation between sections (1) and (2):
 E1=Dz+E2, or E2=E1-Dz,
 if E2<Emin, as shown in figure below,
 What does it mean?

C
Dzmax
45o B
E
E2 Emin Dz E1
 It means that the available specific energy is not
enough to pass the given discharge. Therefore this
means that:
 E1, q, and Dz cannot occur simultaneously in the
channel. One of them must change.
 This phenomenon is called choking.
 Which one will change and how will it change?
 In a design problem, we can change Dz easily, such
that:
Dz ≤ Dzmax
 However, if it is not a design problem and if Dz is a
fixed quantity, then either E1, or q will change, i.e:
 Either E1 will increase, or q will decrease.
 Which one will change depends on the controls in
the channel.
 Let’s see how they will change:

 Case 1) How E1 will increase?

 E1 will increase such that E2 =E1- Dz have a point of
contact with q constant curve. Therefore:
 E2 =E1- Dz= Emin for the given q value.
 Change in E1, keeping q constant
y

A
y1new

y1

Dz

C
Dzmax
45o B
E
Dz E1
E2 = Emin E1new
 Case 2) How q will decrease?
 q will decrease such that E1- Dz have a point of
contact with a new q constant curve. Therefore:
 E2 =E1- Dz= Emin for the new q value.
 Change in q, keeping E1 constant

A
y1new
y1

Dzmax
45o B
E
E2 = Emin for newDz
q E1
q1  q2
1/ 3
q  2
yc  
 g 
 
H1  H2
E1  E 2 - Dz
Channel Expansion (constant bed elevation)
q1  q2
1/ 3
q 2

y c   
 g 
H1  H2
E1  E 2
Channel Contraction (constant bed elevation)
q1  q2
1/ 3
q 2

y c   
 g 
H1  H2
E1  E 2
CHOKING
Figure E10.7
Figure 10.7 – Channel constriction: (a) raised channel
bottom; (b) specific energy diagram.
 Example 3.3
Water is flowing in a rectangular channel. Find the change in depth and
in absolute water level produced by a smooth downward step of
0.30 m if the upstream velocity and depth are given as.
a) V1=3 m/s and y1=3 m.
b) V1=5 m/s and y1=0.60 m.
Draw the water-surface profiles for both cases

Dyabs=?

V1=3m/s y
y1=3 m

Dz=30 cm Datum

b
(1) (2)
 Example 3.3 Solution
Energy Eq’n between (1) and (2) :E1+Dz=E2 +hl

V12 32
E1  y1 + 3+  3.46m  E 2  3.46 + 0.30  3.76 m
2g 19.62
q2
E2  y 2 + 2
, q  V1y1  3  3  9 m2 / s
2g y 2
92 4.128
3.76  y 2 + 2
 y2 + There are 2 possible solutions. To determine
19.6 2y 2 y 22
which one occurs we should compute upstream Froude number.
V1 3
F1    0.553  1 subcritical flow. Therefore, y2 will correspond to
gy1 9.81  3
subcritical flow.

y2=3.40 m q=9 m2/s

y1=3.00 m
yc

E
E1=3.46 m E2=3.76 m
Dz=0.30 m
 y2 must be greater than 3 m. The
root of greater than 3 m can
found by trial and error as;

y2=3.40 m q=9 m2/s

y2 = 3.40 m

Δyabs = y2 - ( Δz + y1 )
y1=3.00 m
= 3.40 - ( 3.0 + 0.30 )
yc
Δyabs = 0.10 m.
E
E1=3.46 m E2=3.76 m
Dz=0.30 m
V1=5m/s
y1=60cm Dyabs=? y

Dz=30 cm
b

Energy equation between section (1) and (2)

0
V 12 52
Dz + E1  E1 + h  E1  y 1 +  0.60 +  1.874 m
2g 19.62
q2
E 2  0.30 + 1.874  2.174 m  y 2 + , q  V1 y 1  5  0.6  3 m / s
2
2
2gy 2

32 0.4587
2.174 m  y 2 +  2.174 m  y 2 + Two possible solutions.
19.62y 22 y 22
The upstream Froude number
V1 5
Fr1    2.06  1, supercritical flow
gy1 9.81  0.60
 y2 must be smaller than 0.60
q=3m2/s
m
can be solved by trial and
error to obtain y2=0.528
yc m.
y1=0.60m
y2=0.53m Or y2 = 0.53 m.
E1=1.874m
Dz=0.30m
E2=2.174m
Dyabs = ( Δz + Dy1 ) - y2
= ( 0.30 + 0.60 ) - 0.53
Δyabs = 0.37 m.
Solution of Specific Energy Equation

q2
q2 C
Ey+
2gy2
Ey+ 2
E  y+ 2
2gy y

Subcritical Root
C
y*  E -
y2

Supercritical root

E-y
y* 
C
 SPECIFIC FORCE CONCEPT

Momentum Equation in x-direction:

FT  P1 - P2 -F f +FH  QV2 - QV1 ........ (1)
For uniform vel. distn. and horizontal channel,
FT  Q( V2 - V1 )
If the vel. distribution is not uniform,
FT  Q( 2 V2 -  1V1 ) where  is the momentum correction factor
Momentum Equation in Open-Channel flow

 Consider a steady flow in an open-channel of arbitrary cross

section:

FP1 y1
Ff1 Wsin Q
y
gy1 y2 y
Ff2 FP2
W 
gy2 x

 The momentum Equation along the x-direction is:

 FP1-FP2-Ff1-Ff2+WSin=Q(2V2-1V1)
 Where:
 Fpi= pressure force at section (i), i=1,2
 Ff1=resistance to the flow applied by the obstacle in the channel
 Ff2= resistance due to wall shear stress
Assume that 1=2=1, and Pf=Ff1+Ff2= total resistance to the flow
note that Vi=Q/Ai, i=1,2 and

FPi = γy i A i i = 1,2
 Where y is the depth of the centroid of the cross section
 Substituting these into the momentum equation:

 1 1 
gy1 A1 - gy 2 A2 - Pf + W sin   Q 2  - 
 A2 A1 

 Now, let’s divide by g, and assume that  is small, and reaarange the
equation as:
 Pf Q2 Q2
= y1 A 1 + y2A2 +
γ gA 1 gA 2

In this equation, the total friction force is in the form of

difference of two terms. These terms are in the form as:
Q2
F
 = y +
Specific Force pressureforce
gA

per unit weight momentum flux
per unit weight

The term F is defined as the specific force in open-channel

flow. In terms of specific force above equation becomes:

Pf
 F1 - F2 Hence, momentum equation is reduced
g to a simple force balance equation in
the direction of flow.
Specific force for any channel section
2 For a given Q, F = F (y)
Q
F  yA + The plot of F vs y gives specific
gA
force curve
 Characteristics of the Specific Force Curve:
•Specific force curve has two
limps AC and BC A
•At point C, flow is critical, and
•Specific force becomes minimum
when the flow is critical
•Lower limp AC corresponds to
supercritical flow
•Upper limp BC corresponds to C
subcritical flow.
•For a given F and Q, there are B
two possible flow regimes
represented by the depths y1 and Fmin F
y2 which are called conjugate or
sequent depths, corresponding to
supercritical and subcritical flows,
respectively.
y Q3
Q2 Q1

Q1>Q2>Q3

F
Characteristics of the Specific Force Curve:
•For rectangular channels, the specific force can be
written as specific force per unit width as

2
F 1 2 q
 y +
b 2 gy
 Application of Specific Force Concept
 The specific force concept reduces momentum equation to a
force balance equation in the direction of flow
 The direction of specific force can be considered as the
direction of the pressure force.
 Let us discuss the various flow cases:
Case A) Head loss, hf=0, Pf0
i) Flow over a smooth step

F1 y1 y2 F2
V1 V2
Pf
Dz
(1) (2)
Pf
E1 = Δz + E 2 , and F1 = F2 +
γ
2) Flow under a sluice gate:

Pf

F1 y1
Q F2
y2
(1) (2)
Pf
E1 = Δz + E 2 , and F1 = F2 +
γ
Case B) Head loss, hf  0, Pf=0
This is the case of hydraulic jump. Then let’s learn the
hydraulic jump.
 HYDRAULIC JUMP

 Hydraulic jump is a rapidly varied flow in which

flow changes abruptly from supercritical state to
a subcritical state accompanied by considerable
turbulence and energy loss.

Q2 Q2 E1  E 2 + h 
F1  F2  y1 A1 +  y2 A 2 +
gA1 gA 2
 Rectangular Channels
Q2 Q2
F1  F2  y1 A1 +  y2 A 2 +
gA1 gA 2

For a rectangular channel,

y above equation reduces to a simple form:
y=
2

A=by, Q=qb

y y1 q2b2 y2 q2b2
by1 + = by 2 +
2 gby 1 2 gby 2
b Dividing by b, and rearranging:

q2  1
 -
1  1 2

  y 2 - y1 
2

q 2  y 2 - y1  1
    y 2 - y1  y 2 + y1 
g  1
y y 2  2 g  1 2  2
y y

2
Simplifying, and dividing by y 1 and reaaranging
 q2 y2  y2  this equation is a second order
2 3   + 1  2 F12
gy1 y1  y1  polynomial of y2/y1:
2
 y2   y2 
  +   - 2 F12  0 The positive root is the solution:
 y1   y1 
y2 1

y1 2
 1 + 8F 2
r1 
-1

The energy equation: E1=E2+hf , subtituting, E values and

after certin manupulations, the head loss can be written as:

( y 2 - y1 ) 3
hf 
4 y1 y 2
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF HYDRAULIC
JUMP
 To dissipate energy
 To recover head or raise the water level
 To increase weight on apron
 To mix chemicals used for water purification
 To aerate water
Figure 10.14 – Variation of the momentum function with depth.
Rapidly Varied Flow and Hydraulic Jump
 Consider the CV surrounding
the hydraulic jump
 Assumptions
1. V is constant at sections (1)
and (2), and 1 and 2  1
2. P = gy
3. w is negligible relative to the
losses that occur during the
hydraulic jump
4. Channel is wide and
horizontal
5. No external body forces other
than gravity
Rapidly Varied Flow and Hydraulic Jump
 Flow is called rapidly varied
flow (RVF) if the flow depth
has a large change over a
short distance
– Sluice gates
– Weirs
– Waterfalls
– Abrupt changes in cross section
 Often characterized by
significant 3D and transient
effects
– Backflows
– Separations
Rapidly Varied Flow and Hydraulic Jump
 Continuity equation

 X momentum equation

 Substituting and simplifying

Quadratic equation for y2/y1

Rapidly Varied Flow and Hydraulic Jump
 Solving the quadratic equation and keeping only the positive root
leads to the depth ratio

 Energy equation for this section can be written as

 Head loss associated with hydraulic jump

Rapidly Varied Flow and Hydraulic Jump
 Often, hydraulic jumps are
avoided because they
dissipate valuable energy

 However, in some cases, the

energy must be dissipated so
that it doesn’t cause damage

 A measure of performance of
a hydrualic jump is its fraction
of energy dissipation, or
energy dissipation ratio
Rapidly Varied Flow and Hydraulic Jump
 Experimental studies indicate that hydraulic jumps can be
classified into 5 categories, depending upon the upstream Fr
Flow Control and Measurement

 Flow rate in pipes and ducts is controlled by

various kinds of valves
 In OC flows, flow rate is controlled by
partially blocking the channel.
– Weir : liquid flows over device
– Underflow gate : liquid flows under device
 These devices can be used to control the
flow rate, and to measure it.
Flow Control and Measurement
Underflow Gate
 Underflow gates are located at the
bottom of a wall, dam, or open
Free outflow channel
 Outflow can be either free or
drowned
 In free outflow, downstream flow is
supercritical
 In the drowned outflow, the liquid
jet undergoes a hydraulic jump.
Downstream flow is subcritical.
Drowned outflow
 Flow Control and Measurement
Underflow Gate
Schematic of flow depth-specific
energy diagram for flow through  Es remains constant for
underflow gates idealized gates with negligible
frictional effects
 Es decreases for real gates
 Downstream is supercritical
for free outflow (2b)
 Downstream is subcritical for
drowned outflow (2c)
 Hydraulic Jump

 Used for energy dissipation

 Occurs when flow transitions from supercritical to
subcritical
– base of spillway
 We would like to know depth of water downstream
from jump as well as the location of the jump
 Which equation, Energy or Momentum?
Hydraulic Jump!
Gradually Varied Flow
Gradually Varied Flow

 This result is important.

It permits classification
of liquid surface profiles
as a function of Fr, S0,
Sf, and initial conditions.
 Bed slope S0 is classifed
as
– Steep : yn < yc
– Critical : yn = yc
– Mild : yn > yc
– Horizontal : S0 = 0
– Adverse : S0 < 0
 Initial depth is given a
number
– 1 : y > yn
– 2 : yn < y < yc
– 3 : y < yc
 Gradually Varied Flow
 12 distinct configurations for surface profiles in GVF.
Gradually Varied Flow

 Typical OC system involves

several sections of
different slopes, with
transitions
 Overall surface profile is
made up of individual
profiles described on
previous slides
Figure E10.7
Figure 10.15 – Idealized hydraulic jump.
Figure 10.16 – Translating hydraulic jump: (a) front moving
upstream; (b) front appears stationary by superposition.
Figure 10.17 – Stilling basin with baffle blocks.
Figure E10.10
Figure 10.18 – Non-uniform gradually varied flow.
Figure E10.12
Figure 10.19 – Representative controls: (a) sluice gate; (b)
change in slope from mild (S01)to steep (S02); (c) entrance to a
steep channel; (d) free outfall.
Figure 10.20 – Example of profile synthesis
Figure E10.14
 Dxi

Figure 10.21 – Notation for computing gradually varied flow.

Figure E10.16
Channel flow over an obstacle: (a) idealized flow; (b) control volume.
Outflow from a reservoir with critical flow at the channel
entrance.
 Dxi

Figure 10.21 – Notation for computing gradually varied flow.

Figure 10.3 – Reach of open-channel flow.
Figure 10.4 – Representative regular cross sections:
(a) rectangular; (b) trapezoidal; (c) circular.
The Manning formula

Q = 1.49 A R 2/3 S 1/2

n

where: Q = quantity of flow in cubic feet per second

n = Manning coefficient of roughness dependent upon
material of conduit
A = cross sectional area of flow in square feet
R = hydraulic radius in feet (cross sectional area
divided by the wetted perimeter)
S = slope of the hydraulic gradient

For flow rate in million gallons per day, the Manning formula is

Q = 669 A R 2/3 S 1/2

n
Further for Choking
 8
7
6 q1
5 q2
y(m)

4 q3
3
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
E(m)

Specific Energy Depth Curve

 Critical Flow
4

y
Difficult to measure depth 1

Characteristics
0 1 2 3 4
 E

– Unstable surface
– Series of standing waves
 Occurrence
– Broad crested weir (and other weirs)
– Channel Controls (rapid changes in cross-section)
– Over falls
– Changes in channel slope from mild to steep
 Used for flow measurements

Unique relationship between depth and discharge

Classification of Open-Channel Flows

 Like pipe flow, OC flow can be laminar, transitional, or turbulent

depending upon the value of the Reynolds number

– Where
  = density,  = dynamic viscosity,  = kinematic viscosity
• V = average velocity
• Rh = Hydraulic Radius = Ac/p
– Ac = cross-section area
– P = wetted perimeter
– Note that Hydraulic Diameter was defined in pipe flows as
Dh = 4Ac/p = 4Rh (Dh is not 2Rh, BE Carefull!)
Figure P10.44
Figure 10.2 – Steady non-uniform flow in a channel.
Non-uniform gradually varied flow. Sf≠Sw ≠So

hl  Sf Dx
Sf
 TYPES OF SLOPES
(For a Given Q,n, Cross-section, So)
1) Calculate Uniform Flow of the Channel
2) Calculate Critical Depth of the Channel
3) Compare them
a) If yn>yc the state of the flow in the channel under the uniform
flow conditions is subcritical flow. Thus the slope of the
channel is called MILD SLOPE and the channel is called as
MILD Channel
b) If yn<yc the state of the flow in the channel under the uniform
flow conditions is supercritical flow. Thus slope of the
channel is called STEEP SLOPE and the channel is called
as STEEP Channel
c) If yn=yc the state of the flow in the channel under the uniform
flow conditions is critical flow. Thus slope of the channel is
called CRITICAL SLOPE.
 GRADUALLY VARIED FLOW
(dy/dx<<1)
Q (any property) Sf≠Sw ≠So
0 0
x t

Sf

y d=ycos S
dcos =
 ycos2 w

(1)
Datu  S x
m (2)
o
only y, z and v changes along x.
 2 Sf
V
H  z + ycos2θ + α Sw
2g y d=ycos
dcos = ycos2

Q2
H  z+y+ Datum  So
2gA 2 (1) x
(2)
dH dz dy Q 2 (-2) dA dy
 + +
dx dx dx 2g A 3 dy dx
T
dA=Tdy
dy A=A(y)
dH dz dy  Q 2 T 
 + 1 - 
3 
dx dx dx  gA 

dH dz dy
 +
dx dx dx

1 - Fr2 
 Rearranging the equations:
 dH dz 
 - 
dy  dx dx  dH dz
 where  -Sf and  -So
dx 1 - Fr2 dx dx
dy So - Sf

dx 1 - Fr2
Assumptions:
1) Small channel bottom slope; y≈d
2) <8o and constant in the direction of flow
3) n is constant along the reach
4) Sf is calculated using Manning’s equation
dy So - Sf

dx 1 - Fr2
Numerator of governing Equation:
So vs Sf

n 2V2
Sf  4 3 , y  y n  Sf  So
R
If y > yn , V < Vn , R > Rn therefore Sf < So
If y < yn , V > Vn , R < Rn therefore Sf > So
Denominator of governing Equation:

Q T 2 If y = yc Fr2 = 1
Fr 
2
If y < yc Fr2 > 1
g A3 If y > yc Fr2 < 1
 EXAMPLES OF WATER PROFILES
1) Mild Slope (yn>yc)
y

ZONE 1; M1 y >
yn yn > yc
ZONE 2; M2 yn > y
yc >yc
ZONE 3; M3 yn > yc
E >y
M1 y  y n  Sf  So
y  y c  Fr  1
dy So - Sf
 0
dx 1 - Fr 2

( u / s) y  yn dy
0 (Sf  So )
dx
(d / s ) y dy  S (Fr  0, Sf  0)
dx o

( Water surface asymptotically aproach to a horizontal line.)

 EXAMPLES OF WATER PROFILES
2) Steep Slope (yn<yc)
y

ZONE 1; S1 y >
yc > yn
yc
yn ZONE 2; S2 yc > y
ZONE 3;>y
S3 yc > yn
E >y
n
S2 y  y n  S f  S o
y  y c  Fr  1
dy S o - S f
 0
dx 1 - Fr 2

(u / s ) y  yc dy  ( Fr  1)
dx
(d / s) y  yn dy  0 (S f  S0 )
dx
 12 distinct configurations for surface profiles in GVF.
3.5.3 Longitudinal Flow Profiles
Examples of Flow Profiles in Practice
1) Mild Slope (yn>yc)
Examples of Flow Profiles in Practice
2) Steep Slope (yn<yc)
Examples of Flow Profiles in Practice

3) Critical Slope

4) Horizontal Slope 5) Adverse Slope

 The Occurence of Critical Flow;
Controls
In an open channel for a given discharge at any section the following
equation can be written:
q2
H  y+z+ 2
 E + z  constan t
2g y
dE dz
+  0, E  f [ y( x )]
dx dx

dE dy dz
+ 0
dy dx dx Free Outflow from a Lake
(an Example of Critical Flow)
dy
dx

1 - Fr +
2

dz
dx
0
VALID IF ONLY THE
SLOPE OF THE CHANNEL
IS STEEP!
Outflow from a reservoir with critical flow at the channel
entrance.
 An example to control sections
U.C. = upstream control; D.C.=downstream control; A.C. =
artificial control control
Examples of M-Profiles in
Practice

yc
Examples of S-Profiles in
Practice
Figure 10.19 – Representative controls: (a) sluice gate;
(b) change in slope from mild (S01)to steep (S02); (c)
entrance to a steep channel; (d) free outfall.
 SOLUTION OF GVF EQUATIONS
(Direct Step Method)
 dH dz 
 - 
dy  dx dx 
dx

1 - Fr2

dy
dx
2

1 - Fr 
dE
dx

dE dz dH dE
- +   So - Sf
dx dx 
 dx dx
-So -Sf

Using finite difference,

DE E( y + Dy) - E( y)
Dx 
So - Sf ave So - Sf ave

Sf ave  Sf ( y + Dy) + Sf ( y)

1
2
 SOLUTION OF GVF EQUATIONS
(Direct Step Method)
-Determine the flow profile and the limits of the depth yl≤y ≤yu
-Assign values of depth in between these limits.
-Compute

E i +1 - E i
D xi 
1
So - (Sf ,i + Sf ,i +1 )
2
Station: y A=A(y) U=Q/A E=y+U2/2g Sf=(Qn/R2/3)2 <Sf> DE Dx x
(m) (m2) (m/s) (m) (m) (m) (m)

NOTE1: Use at least three significant figures.

NOTE2: Direct step method is applicable only to PRISMATIC CHANNELS