"The Old Seven.

"
"The First Seven."
"The Basic Seven."
Quality pros have many names for these seven basic tools of quality, first emphasized by Kaoru Ishikawa, a
professor of engineering at Tokyo University and the father of “quality circles.”

1. Cause-and-effect diagram (also called Ishikawa or fishbone chart): Identifies many possible causes
for an effect or problem and sorts ideas into useful categories.
2. Check sheet: A structured, prepared form for collecting and analyzing data; a generic tool that can
be adapted for a wide variety of purposes.
3. Control charts: Graphs used to study how a process changes over time.
4. Histogram: The most commonly used graph for showing frequency distributions, or how often each
different value in a set of data occurs.
5. Pareto chart: Shows on a bar graph which factors are more significant.
6. Scatter diagram: Graphs pairs of numerical data, one variable on each axis, to look for a
relationship.
7. Stratification: A technique that separates data gathered from a variety of sources so that patterns
can be seen (some lists replace "stratification" with "flowchart" or "run chart").

Quality Control Charts:

 General Purpose
 General Approach
 Establishing Control Limits
 Common Types of Charts
 Short Run Control Charts

 Short Run Charts for Variables

 Short Run Charts for Attributes
 Unequal Sample Sizes
 Control Charts for Variables vs. Charts for Attributes
 Control Charts for Individual Observations
 Out-of-Control Process: Runs Tests
 Operating Characteristic (OC) Curves
 Process Capability Indices
 Other Specialized Control Charts

General Purpose:
In all production processes, we need to monitor the extent to which our products meet specifications. In the most
general terms, there are two "enemies" of product quality: (1) deviations from target specifications, and (2) excessive
variability around target specifications. During the earlier stages of developing the production process, designed
experiments are often used to optimize these two quality characteristics. The methods provided in Quality Control are
on-line or in-process quality control procedures to monitor an on-going production process.

General Approach: The general approach to on-line quality control is straightforward: We simply extract samples of
a certain size from the ongoing production process. We then produce line charts of the variability in those samples,
and consider their closeness to target specifications. If a trend emerges in those lines, or if samples fall outside pre-
specified limits, then we declare the process to be out of control and take action to find the cause of the problem.
These types of charts are sometimes also referred to as Shewhart control charts.
Interpreting the chart. The most standard display actually contains two charts (and two histograms); one is called
an X-bar chart, the other is called an R chart.

In both line charts, the horizontal axis represents the different samples; the vertical axis for the X-bar chart represents
the means for the characteristic of interest; the vertical axis for the R chart represents the ranges. For example,
suppose we wanted to control the diameter of piston rings that we are producing. The center line in the X-bar chart
would represent the desired standard size (e.g., diameter in millimeters) of the rings, while the center line in the R
chart would represent the acceptable (within-specification) range of the rings within samples; thus, this latter chart is
a chart of the variability of the process (the larger the variability, the larger the range). In addition to the center line, a
typical chart includes two additional horizontal lines to represent the upper and lower control limits (UCL, LCL,
respectively); we will return to those lines shortly. Typically, the individual points in the chart, representing the
samples, are connected by a line. If this line moves outside the upper or lower control limits or exhibits systematic
patterns across consecutive samples, then a quality problem may potentially exist.

Elementary Concepts discusses the concept of the sampling distribution, and the characteristics of
the normal distribution. The method for constructing the upper and lower control limits is a straightforward
application of the principles described there.

Establishing Control Limits:

Even though you could arbitrarily determine when to declare a process out of control (that is, outside the UCL-LCL
range), it is common practice to apply statistical principles to do so.Example. Suppose we want to control the mean
of a variable, such as the size of piston rings. Under the assumption that the mean (and variance) of the process
does not change, the successive sample means will be distributed normally around the actual mean. Moreover,
without going into details regarding the derivation of this formula, we also know (because of the central limit theorem,
and thus approximate normal distribution of the means) that the distribution of sample means will have a standard
deviation of Sigma (the standard deviation of individual data points or measurements) over the square root of n (the

sample size). It follows that approximately 95% of the sample means will fall within the limits ± 1.96 *
Sigma/Square Root(n). In practice, it is common to replace the 1.96 with 3 (so that the interval will include
approximately 99% of the sample means), and to define the upper and lower control limits as plus and minus 3 sigma
limits, respectively.
General case. The general principle for establishing control limits just described applies to all control charts. After
deciding on the characteristic we want to control, for example, the standard deviation, we estimate the expected
variability of the respective characteristic in samples of the size we are about to take. Those estimates are then used
to establish the control limits on the chart.

Common Types of Charts:

The types of charts are often classified according to the type of quality characteristic that they are supposed to
monitor: there are quality control charts for variables and control charts for attributes. Specifically, the following charts
are commonly constructed for controlling variables:

 X-bar chart. In this chart the sample means are plotted in order to control the mean value of a variable (e.g.,
size of piston rings, strength of materials, etc.).
 R chart. In this chart, the sample ranges are plotted in order to control the variability of a variable.
 S chart. In this chart, the sample standard deviations are plotted in order to control the variability of a
variable.
 S**2 chart. In this chart, the sample variances are plotted in order to control the variability of a variable.

For controlling quality characteristics that represent attributes of the product, the following charts are commonly
constructed:

 C chart. In this chart (see example below), we plot the number of defectives (per batch, per day, per
machine, per 100 feet of pipe, etc.). This chart assumes that defects of the quality attribute are rare, and the
control limits in this chart are computed based on the Poisson distribution (distribution of rare events).

 U chart. In this chart we plot the rate of defectives, that is, the number of defectives divided by the number
of units inspected (the n; e.g., feet of pipe, number of batches). Unlike the C chart, this chart does not
require a constant number of units, and it can be used, for example, when the batches (samples) are of
different sizes.
 Np chart. In this chart, we plot the number of defectives (per batch, per day, per machine) as in the C chart.
However, the control limits in this chart are not based on the distribution of rare events, but rather on the
binomial distribution. Therefore, this chart should be used if the occurrence of defectives is not rare (e.g.,
they occur in more than 5% of the units inspected). For example, we may use this chart to control the
number of units produced with minor flaws.
 P chart. In this chart, we plot the percent of defectives (per batch, per day, per machine, etc.) as in the U
chart. However, the control limits in this chart are not based on the distribution of rare events but rather on
the binomial distribution (of proportions). Therefore, this chart is most applicable to situations where the
occurrence of defectives is not rare (e.g., we expect the percent of defectives to be more than 5% of the
total number of units produced.
  All of these charts can be adapted for short production runs (short run charts), and for multiple process
streams

Short Run Control Charts: The short run control chart, or control chart for short production runs, plots
observations of variables or attributes for multiple parts on the same chart. Short run control charts were
developed to address the requirement that several dozen measurements of a process must be collected
before control limits are calculated. Meeting this requirement is often difficult for operations that produce a
limited number of a particular part during a production run.

For example, a paper mill may produce only three or four (huge) rolls of a particular kind of paper (i.e., part) and then
shift production to another kind of paper. But if variables, such as paper thickness, or attributes, such as blemishes,
are monitored for several dozen rolls of paper of, say, a dozen different kinds, control limits for thickness and
blemishes could be calculated for the transformed (within the short production run) variable values of interest.
Specifically, these transformations will rescale the variable values of interest such that they are of compatible
magnitudes across the different short production runs (or parts). The control limits computed for those transformed
values could then be applied in monitoring thickness, and blemishes, regardless of the types of paper (parts) being
produced. Statistical process control procedures could be used to determine if the production process is in control, to
monitor continuing production, and to establish procedures for continuous quality improvement..

Short Run Charts for Variables:

Nominal chart, target chart. There are several different types of short run charts. The most basic are the nominal
short run chart, and the target short run chart. In these charts, the measurements for each part are transformed by
subtracting a part-specific constant. These constants can either be the nominal values for the respective parts
(nominal short run chart), or they can be target values computed from the (historical) means for each part (Target X-
bar and R chart). For example, the diameters of piston bores for different engine blocks produced in a factory can
only be meaningfully compared (for determining the consistency of bore sizes) if the mean differences between bore
diameters for different sized engines are first removed. The nominal or target short run chart makes such
comparisons possible. Note that for the nominal or target chart it is assumed that the variability across parts is
identical, so that control limits based on a common estimate of the process sigma are applicable.

Standardized short run chart. If the variability of the process for different parts cannot be assumed to be identical,
then a further transformation is necessary before the sample means for different parts can be plotted in the same
chart. Specifically, in the standardized short run chart the plot points are further transformed by dividing the deviations
of sample means from part means (or nominal or target values for parts) by part-specific constants that are
proportional to the variability for the respective parts. For example, for the short run X-bar and R chart, the plot points
(that are shown in the X-bar chart) are computed by first subtracting from each sample mean a part specific constant
(e.g., the respective part mean, or nominal value for the respective part), and then dividing the difference by another
constant, for example, by the average range for the respective chart. These transformations will result in comparable
scales for the sample means for different parts.

Short Run Charts for Attributes:

For attribute control charts (C, U, Np, or P charts), the estimate of the variability of the process (proportion, rate,
etc.) is a function of the process average (average proportion, rate, etc.; for example, the standard deviation of a
proportion p is equal to the square root of( p*(1- p)/n). Hence, only standardized short run charts are available for
attributes. For example, in the short run P chart, the plot points are computed by first subtracting from the respective
sample p values the average part p's, and then dividing by the standard deviation of the average p's

Control Charts for Variables vs. Charts for Attributes:

Sometimes, the quality control engineer has a choice between variable control charts and attribute control charts.

Advantages of attribute control charts. Attribute control charts have the advantage of allowing for quick summaries
of various aspects of the quality of a product, that is, the engineer may simply classify products as acceptable or
unacceptable, based on various quality criteria. Thus, attribute charts sometimes bypass the need for expensive,
precise devices and time-consuming measurement procedures. Also, this type of chart tends to be more easily
understood by managers unfamiliar with quality control procedures; therefore, it may provide more persuasive (to
management) evidence of quality problems.

Advantages of variable control charts. Variable control charts are more sensitive than attribute control charts (see
Montgomery, 1985, p. 203). Therefore, variable control charts may alert us to quality problems before any actual
"unacceptables" (as detected by the attribute chart) will occur. Montgomery (1985) calls the variable control charts
leading indicators of trouble that will sound an alarm before the number of rejects (scrap) increases in the production
process.

Control Chart for Individual Observations:

Variable control charts can by constructed for individual observations taken from the production line, rather than
samples of observations. This is sometimes necessary when testing samples of multiple observations would be too
expensive, inconvenient, or impossible. For example, the number of customer complaints or product returns may only
be available on a monthly basis; yet, you want to chart those numbers to detect quality problems. Another common
application of these charts occurs in cases when automated testing devices inspect every single unit that is produced.
In that case, you are often primarily interested in detecting small shifts in the product quality (for example, gradual
deterioration of quality due to machine wear). The CUSUM, MA, and EWMA charts of cumulative sums and weighted
averages discussed below may be most applicable in those situations.

1.Basic charts for variable data in which each point represents the most recent data, including
X-Bar and R charts, X-Bar and S charts, X-Bar and S-squared charts, Median and Range charts,
and Individuals charts based on X and MR(2).

2. Basic charts for attribute data, including P, NP, U, and C charts. 3. Time-weighted charts in
which the points plotted are calculated from both current and historical data, including MA,
EWMA, and CuSum charts.

4. Multivariate charts, designed for situations where multiple correlated measurements

are collected.

5. ARIMA control charts for autocorrelated data in which the samples collected from one
time period to the next are not independent.

6. Toolwear charts for monitoring data that is expected to follow a trend line, not remain
constant at a fixed level.

7. Acceptance control charts for high Cpk processes, where the control limits are placed
at a fixed distance from the specification limits rather than the centerline of the chart.

8. CuScore charts, which are designed to detect specific types of patterns when they
occur.

All control charts can be used for Phase I studies, in which the data determine the
location of the control limits, and Phase II studies, in which the data are compared
against a pre-established standard. A special procedure is also provided to help design
a control chart with acceptable power.

Basic Variables Charts: The classical type of control chart, originally developed back
in the 1930's, is constructed by collecting data periodically and plotting it versus time. If
more than one data value is collected at the same time, statistics such as the mean,
range, median, or standard deviation are plotted. Control limits are added to the plot to
signal unusually large deviations from the centerline, and run rules are employed to
detect other unusual patterns.

Basic Attributes Charts:

For attribute data, such as arise from PASS/FAIL testing, the charts used most often
plot either rates or proportions. When the sample sizes vary, the control limits depend
on the size of the samples.
Time-Weighted Charts:

When data is collected one sample at a time and plotted on an individuals chart, the
control limits are usually quite wide, causing the chart to have poor power in detecting
out-of-control situations. This can be remedied by plotting a weighted average or
cumulative sum of the data, not just the most recent observation. The average run
length of such charts is usually much less than that of a simple X chart.

Multivariate Control Charts: When more than one variable are collected, separate
control charts are frequently plotted for each variable. If the variables are correlated, this
can lead to missed out-of-control signals. For such situations, STATGRAPHICS
provides several types of multivariate control charts: T-Squared charts, Generalized
Variance charts, and Multivariate EWMA charts. In the case of two variables, the points
may be plotted on a control ellipse.

ARIMA Control Charts

With today's automated data collection systems, samples are frequently collected at
closely spaced increments of time. Any sort of process dynamics introduces correlation
into successive measurements, which causes havoc with standard control charts that
assume independence between successive samples. In such cases, a control chart that
captures the dynamics of the process must be used to properly detect unusual events
when they occur.The proper chart for such situations is often an ARIMA control chart,
which is based upon a parametric time series model for process dynamics. Such charts
either plot the residual shocks to the system at each time period, or they display varying
control limits based upon predicted values one period ahead in time.

Toolwear Charts: Control charts can also be used to monitor processes in which the
mean measurement is expected to change over time. This commonly occurs when
monitoring the wear on a tool, but also arises in other situations. The control charts for
such cases have a centerline and control limits that follow the expected trend.
Acceptance Control Charts: For processes with a high Cpk, requiring the
measurements to remain within 3 sigma of the centerline may be unnecessarily
restrictive. In such cases, the process may be allowed to drift, as long as it does not
come too close to the specification limits. A useful type of control chart for this case is
the Acceptance Control Chart, which positions the control limits based on the
specification limits rather than the process mean.

Cuscore Charts: When monitoring a real-world process, the types of out-of-control

situations that are likely to occur may be known ahead of time. For example, a pump
that begins to fail may introduce an oscillation into the measurements at a specific
frequency. In such cases, specialized CuScore Charts may be constructed to watch for
that specific type of failure. 

STATGRAPHICS will construct CuScore charts to detect: spikes, ramps,  bumps of

known duration, step changes, exponential increases, sine waves with known frequency
and phase, or any custom type of pattern that the user wishes to specify.
Control Chart Design: For a control chart to be effective, it must be able to distinguish
between situations in which the process is operating as expected and those in which it
has deviated seriously from its target values. STATGRAPHICS Centurion provides a
procedure for designing control charts that will detect deviations of a specified
magnitude within an acceptable time. In a typical application, the user specifies a target
mean and the desired average run length before a deviation of that magnitude is
detected:
The procedure then determines the number of samples and smoothing parameter that
will achieve the desired performance.

“Capability” Measures
• Where a process is stable and normal, what it will do can be described by two numbers,/u and
sigma()
• Where in addition, there are engineering specifications, L and U, (i.e. I want L<x<U in order to
have product functionality) there is sometimes pressure to invent further onenumber summaries
m and s

Process Capability Indices:

Description

Discuss the various process capability indices that are commonly used as baseline
measurements in the MEASURE phase and in the CONTROL phase.
The concept of process capability is relevant for only processes that are in
statistical control.

There are two types of data being analyzed:

CONTINUOUS DATA:

 PPM  DPMO(Draft Plans of Management)  Z-short term  Z-long term

VARIABLE DATA:  Cp(process capability ratio)  Cpk  Pp(process index) 

Ppk(measure probability)  Cpm(capability index)

Capability estimates are strongest (but not always required) when:

 Process is in stable and in statistical control - use SPC charts to verify

(note: Description: SPC Charts are used to analyze process performance by plotting data
points, control limits, and a centerline. A process should be in control to assess the process
capability.

Objective: Monitor process performance and maintain control with adjustments only when
necessary and with caution not to over adjust. These are used as predictive tools. Regular
monitoring of a process can save unnecessary inspection, adjustments, and prevent trouble
by being proactive.)

 Data is normally distributed (however data does not have to be normally distributed to
use control charts)

 If not normal, the data is transformable

 Satisfies the Central Limit Theorem and normality assumptions apply

The capability indices of Ppk and Cpk use the mean and standard deviation to estimate
probability. A target value from historical performance or the customer can be used to
estimate the Cpm.

Cp and Pp are measurements that do not account for the mean being centered around the
tolerance midpoint. The higher these values means the narrower the spread (more precise)
of the process. That spread being centered around the midpoint is part of the Cpk and Ppk
calculations.

The midpoint = (USL-LSL) / 2

The addition of "k" quantifies the amount of which a distribution is centered. A perfectly
centered process where the mean is the same as the midpoint will have a "k" value of 1.

Cp and Cpk are coined as "within subgroup", "short term", or "potential

capability" measurements of process capability because they use a smoothing
estimate for sigma. These indices should measure only inherent variation, that is common
cause variation within the subgroup.
Plotting subgroup to subgroup data as individuals (I-MR) will likely show an out of control
chart and process that is likely in control just showing lot-lot variation, shift-shift variation
or day to day variation which is expected. Therefore the SEQUENCE of gathering and
measuring is mandatory to have a correct calculation of Cp and Cpk. The subgroups should
be the same size and an the highest value is most likely obtained for Cp when the samples
are collected with one operator on one shift on one machine with one set of tools, etc.

Most common estimate for Cp and Cpk uses an average of the subgroup ranges, R-bar, in a
process with only inherent variation (no special causes) formula that lowers the width of the
data distribution (sigma) from the X-bar & R chart. This optimization of sigma reduces its
spread and value further increasing the value Cp and Cpk over Pp and Ppk.

Pp and Ppk use an estimate for sigma that takes into account all or total process variation
including special causes (should they exist) and this estimate of sigma is the sample
standard deviation, s, applies to most all situations. This estimation accounts for "within
subgroup" and "between subgroup" variation.

Cp, since it is a short term index and not dependent on centering and uses an optimal
smoothed and reduced estimate for sigma, represents the process entitlement. Process
entitlement the best a process can be expected to perform in terms of minimal variation
under existing conditions.

Cpk value can never exceed Cp. A perfectly centered distribution on the midpoint will have a
Cpk = Cp. Any movement either way from the midpoint will have a "k" value of <1.0 and
Cpk < Cp.

In Cp and Pp, consider the numerator (USL-LSL) as a constant. As the estimate for standard
deviation (sigma) of a distribution reduces and approaches zero the value of Cp and Pp will
increase towards infinity.

Cp and Pp are meaningless if only unilateral tolerances are provided, in other words if only
the USL or LSL are provided. Both tolerances (bilateral) must be provided to calulate a
meaningful Cp and Pp. A boundary can be used (such as 0 lower limit) but the meaning of
Cp to Cpk will differ from the meaning using bilateral tolerances.

The overall process performance indices, Pp and Ppk, most often uses the sample
standard deviation, s, formula as an estimate for sigma. There are other methods available
for estimating the overall (total) process sigma.

The Cpk and Ppk will require two calculations, selecting the mininum is the value use as
baseline and to compare to customer acceptability level. These can be calculated using
unilateral or bilateral tolerances. Shown in the table below is the formula for bilateral
tolerances where a LSL and USL are provided. If only one specification is provided
(unilateral) then the value used for Cpk and Ppk is provided by the calculation that involves
the specfication limit provided.

Pp and Ppk are rarely used compared to Cp and Cpk. They should only be used as relative
comparisons to their counterparts. Capability indices, Cp and Cpk, should be compared to
one another to assess the differences over a period of time. The goal is to have a high Cp,
and get the process centered so the Cpk increases and approaches Cp. The same applies for
Pp and Ppk.
Cpk and Ppk account for centering of the process among the midpoint of the specifications.
However, this performance indice may not be optimal if the customer wants another point
as the target other than the midpoint. The calculation of Cpm accounts for the addition of a
target value.

Capability Analysis for VARIABLE Data:

STEP 1: Decide on the characteristic being assessed or measured. Such as length, time,
radius, ohms, hertz, thickness, hardness, tensile strength, distance.

STEP 2: Validate the specification limits and possibly a target value provided by
customer(s).

STEP 3: Collect and record the data in order at even intervals in the Data Collection Plan. If
you are taking multiple readings in a group then you have subgroups and you need to get
the same amount of readings at each group. If you have a destructive test such as tensile
testing, then you will get one reading per part and subgroup size is one.(You will have to
indicate the subgroup size when analyzing the data using statistical software. Ensure this is
correctly done and entered into the software dialog box.)

STEP 4: Assess process stability using a control chart such as I-MR, X-bar & R, or other
proper control chart. There may be a specific customer required charting method.

STEP 5:If the process is stable, assess the "Normality" of the data. Assuming 95% level of
confidence, the P-value should be greater than 0.05. Data must be normal, able to be
assumed normal, or transformed in order to proceed.

STEP 6: Calculate the basic statistics such as the mean, standard deviation, and variance.
Calculate the capability indicices (Cp, Cpk, Pp, Ppk, Cpm) as applicable.

STEP 7: Verify to the customer requirement for capability where the process is acceptable.

NOTE: This is a SAMPLE analysis. These results are used to make inferences about the
POPULATION.
Explaining the Indices

Defining Standard Deviation

In many automotive standards the data is plotted using 125 samples in subgroup sizes of 5
on an X-bar & R chart. The R-bar value used in estimation for sigma for Cp and Cpk is the
average of each subgroup's range.

The estimation for sigma, s, in Pp and Ppk, is commonly the same formula as the sample
standard deviation calculation. It is free from dependency on sequence of sample gathering
and is not a function of the subgroup spreads. If the parts being analyzed are being pulled
out of carton or pallet randomly and the order of production or subgrouping is unknown
then the ONLY estimate is to use the (or one of) "long term" estimate or the "short term"
estimate.
It takes into account the total spread of all data points for true performance. However, if the
order isn't maintained and measurement plotted vs. time, control charts can't be employed
to assess stability and control of the process. Always try to avoid to assessing capability of
measurements where process control isn't first understood.

There are many other types of sigma estimates and often statistical software programs
allow these choices. There is also much confusion among terminology and the true meaning
of the capability indices. The underlying assumptions of control are debatable. As mentioned
before, a control chart of may appear out of control as some of the special cause points may
be actual common cause due to inherent operator-operator or shift-shift variability.
Therefore (whenever possible) when assessing process capability, Cp and Cpk, of a
manufacturing process (the best it can perform) use only one shift with one operator with
same lot of material with same tools on the same machine, etc. Correct sequence gathering
and plotting is required for Cp and Cpk. Since Pp and Ppk measure total observation
capability the sequence is not as important.

More importantly, select the calculation for estimating the standard deviation and the
capability indices that the team and the customer agree on. Use the same calculations and
indices throughout the project.

NOTES:Processes that are in control should have a process capability that is near the
process performance. The more significant the gaps between capability and performance
the higher the likelihood of special cause data.

It is possible to have data that falls outside the specification limits (LSL,USL) and still have a
capable process. It depends on the performance of the other data, and the customer
acceptability levels and any specific rules that may apply from the customer, standard, law,
or company.

This is all a part of gathering the Voice of the Customer (VOC), and validating the
specifications when using them. Due to the dynamics of customer needs and expectations it
is important to continually validate the limits and acceptability levels throughout the project.
There could be a long period of time between the SIPOC and the development of the Control
Plan and assessing final capability and any changes are better captured sooner than later.

MORE GRAPHS shown below to help explain indice relationships.

PROCESS IMPROVEMENT USING PROCESS ANALYSIS.

Flow Charts:
Understanding and communicating how a process works
Flow charts are easy-to-understand diagrams showing how steps in a process fit together. This makes them useful
tools for communicating how processes work, and for clearly documenting how a particular job is done. Furthermore,
the act of mapping a process out in flow chart format helps you clarify your understanding of the process, and helps
you think about where the process can be improved.
A flow chart can therefore be used to:
 Define and analyze processes.
 Build a step-by-step picture of the process for analysis, discussion, or communication.
 Define, standardize or find areas for improvement in a process
Also, by conveying the information or processes in a step-by-step flow, you can then concentrate more
intently on each individual step, without feeling overwhelmed by the bigger picture.
How to Use the Tool:

Most flow charts are made up of three main types of symbol:

 Elongated circles, which signify the start or end of a process.

 Rectangles, which show instructions or actions.

 Diamonds, which show decisions that must be made

Within each symbol, write down what the symbol represents. This could be the start or finish of the process, the
action to be taken, or the decision to be made.

Symbols are connected one to the other by arrows, showing the flow of the process.

Tip:
There are many other flowchart symbols that can also be used. However, remember that an important use of flow
charts is in communication: If you use obscure symbols that only part of your audience understands, there's a good
chance that your communication will fail. As ever, keep things simple!

To draw the flow chart, brainstorm process tasks, and list them in the order they occur. Ask questions such as "What
really happens next in the process?" and "Does a decision need to be made before the next step?" or "What
approvals are required before moving on to the next task?"Start the flow chart by drawing the elongated circle shape,
and labeling it "Start".Then move to the first action or question, and draw a rectangle or diamond appropriately. Write
the action or question down, and draw an arrow from the start symbol to this shape.

Work through your whole process, showing actions and decisions appropriately in the order they occur, and linking
these together using arrows to show the flow of the process. Where a decision needs to be made, draw arrows
leaving the decision diamond for each possible outcome, and label them with the outcome. And remember to show
the end of the process using an elongated circle labeled "Finish".

Finally, challenge your flow chart. Work from step to step asking yourself if you have correctly represented the
sequence of actions and decisions involved in the process. And then (if you're looking to improve the process) look at
the steps identified and think about whether work is duplicated, whether other steps should be involved, and whether
the right people are doing the right jobs.

Tip:
Flow charts can quickly become so complicated that you can't show them on one piece of paper. This is where you
can use "connectors" (shown as numbered circles) where the flow moves off one page, and where it moves onto
another. By using the same number for the off-page connector and the on-page connector, you show that the flow is
moving from one page to the next.

Example:

The example below shows part of a simple flow chart which helps receptionists route incoming phone calls to the
correct department in a company:
Key Points:

Flow charts are simple diagrams that map out a process so that it can easily be communicated to other people.To
draw a flowchart, brainstorm the tasks and decisions made during a process, and write them down in order. Then
map these out in flow chart format using appropriate symbols for the start and end of a process, for actions to be
taken and for decisions to be made.

Finally, challenge your flow chart to make sure that it's an accurate representation of the process, and that that it
represents the most efficient way of doing the job.

Process Improvement Made Easy: The 8d Problem Solving Process

Explained:

What is the 8d Problem Solving Process? Anything that involves “eight disciplines” must be
complicated and difficult to learn, right? Here to help you, is the 8d problem solving process
explained in everyday language. The 8d problem solving is about teams working together to
resolve problems, using a structured 8 step process to help focus on facts not opinion.

Discipline 1 – Build The Team: Assemble a small team of people with the right mix of
skills, experience and authority to resolve the problem and implement solutions. Ensure
these people have the time and inclination to work towards the common goal. Get your
people “on board” by using team building tools such as ice-breakers and team activities.
Discipline 2 – Describe the Problem: How can you fix it if you don’t know what’s broken?
The more clearly you describe the problem, the more likely you are to resolve it. Be specific
and quantify the problem where possible. Clarify what, when, where and how much e.g.
what is the impact to customers? Consider using checklists from professional 8d problem
solving suppliers to stimulate and open up your thinking.

Discipline 3 – Implement a Temporary Fix: What “sticking plaster” can you use until
you figure out what’s really causing the problem? Implement a temporary fix and monitor
and measure the impact to ensure it’s not making things worse. Remember to keep going,
as a sticking plaster will never cure a broken leg!
Discipline 4 – Eliminate Root Cause: There will be many suspects causing the problem,
but usually only one culprit. The key is figuring out which one. This is where it can get a bit
numerically challenging, as statistical tools are often used to get a deep understanding of
what is going on in a process.
Discipline 5 – Verify Corrective Action: You know what’s causing the problem – how are
you going to fix it? Test to make sure that your planned fixes have no undesirable side
effects. If so, are there complementary fixes that eliminate side effects? If your solution just
isn’t feasible, you can still change your mind before you move to the next “go live” stage.
Discipline 6 – Implement Permanent Fix: Go for it! Implement your permanent and
complementary fixes and monitor to make sure it’s working. Usually you will get it right, but
if not, go back a few steps and try again – the culprit is there to be caught!
Discipline 7 – Stop It Happening Again: If you’ve gone to all this trouble, you don’t
want the problem to sneak up on you again! Prevent recurrence of the problem by updating
everything related to the process e.g. specifications, training manuals, or “mistake proofing”
the process.
Discipline 8 – Celebrate Success: Teamwork got you this far, so put on your collective
party shoes and celebrate your success. Going public with success spreads knowledge and
learning across your organisation, and let’s face it, we all like a little recognition now and
again.
The 8d problem solving process is used by big businesses such as National Semiconductor,
Shell and Toyota. The key is focusing on facts and not opinion, being disciplined enough to
follow the process and remembering that a good team are worth more than the sum of the
individuals. Do that, and you’ll save time, money and lift your employees.