Module 1

Introduction to database systems

Contents
1.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 4
1.2 Basic definitions and concepts ........................................................................................................... 4
1.2.1 Data......................................................................................................................................................... 4
1.2.2 Information ............................................................................................................................................. 4
1.2.3 Meta Data ............................................................................................................................................... 5
1.2.4 Data Dictionary....................................................................................................................................... 5
1.2.5 Database.................................................................................................................................................. 6
1.2.5.1 Fields ..................................................................................................................................... 6
1.2.5.2 Records.................................................................................................................................. 6
1.2.5.3 Files ....................................................................................................................................... 6
1.2.6 Components of a Database ..................................................................................................................... 6
1.2.7 Database Management System (DBMS) ................................................................................................ 7
1.2.8 Components of DBMS ........................................................................................................................... 7
1.2.8.1 Data Definition Language (DDL) ......................................................................................... 8
1.2.8.2 Data Manipulation Language (DML) and Query Language ................................................. 8
1.2.8.3 Software for Controlled Access of Database ......................................................................... 8
1.3 traditional file system Versus database systems ........................................................................... 8
1.3.1 Disadvantages of Traditional File System .............................................................................................. 9
1.3.2 Database Systems or Database System environment ............................................................................ 10
1.3.3 Advantages of Database Systems (DBMS’s)........................................................................................ 11
1.3.4 Disadvantages of Database Systems ..................................................................................................... 12
1.4 dBms users ................................................................................................................................... 13
1.4.1 end users or Naive users ....................................................................................................................... 13

1|Information Management Lec

1.4.2 Online users .......................................................................................................................................... 13
1.4.3 Application Programmers ..................................................................................................................... 13
1.4.4 Database Administrator ........................................................................................................................ 14
1.5 dataBase or dBms languages ....................................................................................................... 14
1.5.1 Data Definition Language (DDL) ......................................................................................................... 15
1.5.2 Storage Definition Language (SDL) ..................................................................................................... 15
1.5.3 View Definition Language (VDL) ........................................................................................................ 15
1.5.4 Data Manipulation Language (DML) ................................................................................................... 15
1.5.5 Fourth-generation Language (4-gL) ..................................................................................................... 15
1.6 schemas, suBschema and Instances ............................................................................................ 15
1.6.1 Schema.................................................................................................................................................. 16
1.6.2 Subschema ............................................................................................................................................ 16
1.6.3 Instances ............................................................................................................................................... 17
1.7 three leVel archItecture of dataBase systems (dBms) ................................................................. 17
1.7.1 Levels or Views .................................................................................................................................... 18
1.7.2 Different Mappings in Three Level Architecture of DBMS ................................................................. 19
1.7.3 Advantages of Three-level Architecture ............................................................................................... 19
1.7.4 Data Independence................................................................................................................................ 19
1.8 data models ................................................................................................................................. 20
Characteristics of Data Models ...................................................................................................................... 20
1.8.1 Types of Data Models ........................................................................................................................... 20
1.8.1.1 Record based Data Models .................................................................................................. 21
1.8.1.2 Object Based Data Models .................................................................................................. 23
Advantages of Object-Oriented Data Models ................................................................................................ 24
Disadvantages of Object-Oriented Data Models ........................................................................................... 24
1.8.2 Comparison of Various Data Models ................................................................................................... 25
1.9 types of database systems ................................................................................................................... 26
1.9.1 According to the Number of users ........................................................................................................ 26
Advantages of Multiuser Database System ................................................................................................... 27
Disadvantages of Multiuser Database System ............................................................................................... 27
1.9.2 According to the Type of use ................................................................................................................ 28
1.9.3 According to Database Site Locations .................................................................................................. 28
Advantages of Centralized Database System ................................................................................................ 29
Disadvantages of Centralized Database System ............................................................................................ 29
Advantages of Parallel Database Systems ..................................................................................................... 29
Disadvantages of Parallel Database Systems ................................................................................................. 30
Advantages of Distributed Database Systems ............................................................................................... 30
Disadvantages of Distributed Database Systems ........................................................................................... 31
Components of Client-Server Architecture ................................................................................................... 31
1.1 Introduction

An organization must have accurate and reliable data (information) for effective decision making. Data
(information) is the backbone and most critical resource of an organization that enables managers and
organizations to gain a competitive edge. In this age of information explosion, where people are bombarded
with data, getting the right information, in the right amount, at the right time is not an easy task. So, only
those organizations will survive that successfully manage information.
A database system simplifies the tasks of managing the data and extracting useful information in a timely
fashion. A database system is an integrated collection of related files, along with the details of the
interpretation of the data. A Data Base Management System is a software system or program that allows
access to data contained in a database. The objective of the DBMS is to provide a convenient and effective
method of defining, storing, and retrieving the information stored in the database.
The database and database management systems have become essential for managing business, governments,
schools, universities, banks etc.

1.2 Basic definitions and concepts

In an organization, the data is the most basic resource. To run the organization efficiently, the proper
organization and management of data is essential. The formal definition of the major terms used in databases
and database systems is defined in this section.

1.2.1 Data
The term data may be defined as known facts that could be recorded and stored on Computer Media. It is also
defined as raw facts from which the required information is produced.

1.2.2 Information
Data and information are closely related and are often used interchangeably. Information is nothing but
refined data. In other way, we can say, information is processed, organized or summarized data. According
to Burch et. al., “Information is data that have been put into a meaningful and useful content and
communicated to a recipient who uses it to made decisions”. Information consists of data, images, text,
documents and voice, but always in a meaningful content. So we can say, that information is something more
than mere data.
Data are processed to create information. The recipient receives the information and then makes a decision
and takes an action, which may triggers other actions

Input Processing Output User Decision

Data Information

In these days, there is no lack of data, but there is lack of quality information. The quality information means
information that is accurate, timely and relevant, which are the three major key attributes of information.
1. Accuracy : It means that the information is free from errors, and it clearly and accurately reflects the
meaning of data on which it is based. It also means it is free from bias and conveys an accurate picture to
the recipient.
2. Timeliness : It means that the recipients receive the information when they need it and within the required
time frame.
3. Relevancy : It means the usefulness of the piece of information for the corresponding persons. It is a very
subjective matter. Some information that is relevant for one person might not be relevant for another and
vice versa e.g., the price of printer is irrelevant for a person who wants to purchase computer.
So, organization that have good information system, which produce information that is accurate, timely and
relevant will survive and those that do not realize the importance of information will soon be out of business.

1.2.3 Meta Data

A meta data is the data about the data. The meta data describe objects in the database and makes easier for
those objects to be accessed or manipulated. The meta data describes the database structure, sizes of data
types, constraints, applications, autorisation etc., that are used as an integral tool for information resource
management. There are three main types of meta data :
1. Descriptive meta data : It describes a resource for purpose such as discovery and identification. In a
traditional library cataloging that is form of meta data, title, abstract, author and keywords are examples
of meta data.
2. Structural meta data : It describes how compound objects are put together. The example is how pages
are ordered to form chapters.
3. Administrative meta data : It provides information to help manage a resource, such as when and how it
was created, file type and other technical information, and who can access it. There are several subsets of
data.
1.2.4 Data Dictionary
The data dictionary contains information of the data stored in the database and is consulted by the DBMS
before any manipulation operation on the database. It is an integral part of the database management systems
and store meta data i.e., information about the database, attribute names and definitions for each table in the
database. It helps the DBA in the management of the database, user view definitions as well as their use.
Data dictionary is generated for each database and generally stores and manages the following types of
information :
1. The complete information about physical database design e.g. storage structures, access paths and file
sizes etc.
2. The information about the database users, their responsibilities and access rights of each user.
3. The complete information about the schema of the database.
4. The high level descriptions of the database transactions, applications and the information about the
relationships of users to the transactions.
5. The information about the relationship between the data items referenced by the database transactions.
This information is helpful in determining which transactions are affected when some data definitions are
modified.
The data dictionaries are of two types : Active data dictionary and passive data dictionary.
1. Active Data Dictionary : It is managed automatically by the database management system (DBMS)
and are always consistent with the current structure and definition of the database. Most of the
RDBMS’s maintain active data dictionaries.
2. Passive Data Dictionary : It is used only for documentation purposes and the data about fields, files
and people are maintained into the dictionary for cross references. It is generally managed by the users
of the system and is modified whenever the structure of the database is changed. The passive dictionary
may not be consistent with the structure of the database, since modifications are performed manually by
the user. It is possible that passive dictionaries may contain information about organisational data that is
not computerized as these are maintained by the users.

1.2.5 Database
A database is a collection of interrelated data stored together with controlled redundancy to serve one or more
applications in an optimal way. The data are stored in such a way that they are independent of the programs
used by the people for accessing the data. The approach used in adding the new data, modifying and retrieving
the existing data from the database is common and controlled one.
It is also defined as a collection of logically related data stored together that is designed to meet information
requirements of an organization. We can also define it as an electronic filling system.
The example of a database is a telephone directory that contains names, addresses and telephone
numbers of the people stored in the computer storage.
Databases are organized by fields, records and files. These are described briefly as follows :
1.2.5.1 Fields
It is the smallest unit of the data that has meaning to its users and is also called data item or data
element. Name, Address and Telephone number are examples of fields. These are represented in the
database by a value.
1.2.5.2 Records
A record is a collection of logically related fields and each field is possessing a fixed number of bytes and is
of fixed data type. Alternatively, we can say a record is one complete set of fields and each field have some
value. The complete information about a particular phone number in the database represents a record. Records
are of two types fixed length records and variable length records.
1.2.5.3 Files
A file is a collection of related records. Generally, all the records in a file are of same size and record type
but it is not always true. The records in a file may be of fixed length or variable length depending upon the
size of the records contained in a file. The telephone directory containing records about the different telephone
holders is an example of file. More detail is available in chapter 3.

1.2.6 Components of a Database

A Database consists of four components as shown in Figure 1.1.

DataItems

Relationships
Physical
Database Constraints

Schema

Figure 1.1. Components of Database.

1. Data item : It is defined as a distinct piece of information and is explained in the previous section.
2. Relationships : It represents a correspondence between various data elements.
3. Constraints : These are the predicates that define correct database states.
4. Schema : It describes the organization of data and relationships within the database. The schema consists
of definitions of the various types of record in the database, the data-items they contain and the sets into
which they are grouped. The storage structure of the database is described by the storage schema. The
conceptual schema defines the stored data structure. The external schema defines a view of the database
for particular users.

1.2.7 Database Management System (DBMS)

DBMS is a program or group of programs that work in conjunction with the operating system to create,
process, store, retrieve, control and manage the data. It acts as an interface between the application program
and the data stored in the database.
Alternatively, it can be defined as a computerized record-keeping system that stores information and
allows the users to add, delete, modify, retrieve and update that information.
The DBMS performs the following five primary functions :
1. Define, create and organise a database : The DBMS establishes the logical relationships among
different data elements in a database and also defines schemas and subschemas using the DDL.
2. Input data : It performs the function of entering the data into the database through an input device (like
data screen, or voice activated system) with the help of the user.
3. Process data : It performs the function of manipulation and processing of the data stored in the database
using the DML.
4. Maintain data integrity and security : It allows limited access of the database to authorised users to
maintain data integrity and security.
5. Query database : It provides information to the decision makers that they need to make important
decisions. This information is provided by querying the database using SQL.

1.2.8 Components of DBMS

A DBMS has three main components. These are Data Definition Language (DDL), Data Manipulation
Language and Query Facilities (DML/SQL) and software for controlled access of Database as shown in
Figure 1.2 and are defined as follows :
 USERS
Databasesystem

ApplicationPrograms

DataDefinitionLanguage
DBMS (DDL)
Components

Softwaretoprocess queries
andprograms
(DML/SQL)

Softwareforcontrolledaccess
ofstoreddata

Physical
MetaData
Database

FIgure 1.2. Components of DBMS.

1.2.8.1 Data Definition Language (DDL)

It allows the users to define the database, specify the data types, data structures and the constraints on the
data to be stored in the database. More about DDL in section 1.5.
1.2.8.2 Data Manipulation Language (DML) and Query Language
DML allows users to insert, update, delete and retrieve data from the database. SQL provides general query
facility. More about DML and SQL in section 1.5.
1.2.8.3 Software for Controlled Access of Database
This software provides the facility of controlled access of the database by the users, concurrency control to
allow shared access of the database and a recovery control system to restore the database in case of ardware
or software failure.

The DBMS software together with the database is called a Database System.

1.3 traditional file system Versus database systems

Conventionally, the data were stored and processed using traditional file processing systems. In these
traditional file systems, each file is independent of other file, and data in different files can be integrated only
by writing individual program for each application. The data and the application programs that uses the data
are so arranged that any change to the data requires modifying all the programs that uses the data. This is
because each file is hard-coded with specific information like data type, data size etc. Some time it is even
not possible to identify all the programs using that data and is identified on a trial-and-error basis.
A file processing system of an organization is shown in Figure 1.3. All functional areas in the organization
creates, processes and disseminates its own files. The files such as inventory and payroll generate separate
files and do not communicate with each other.

Marketing Manufacturing Inventory Payroll

Application Application Application Application

program program program program

File File File File File File File File File File File
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2
FIgure 1.3. Traditional file system.

No doubt such an organization was simple to operate and had better local control but the data of the
organization is dispersed throughout the functional sub-systems. These days, databases are preferred because
of many disadvantages of traditional file systems.
1.3.1 Disadvantages of Traditional File System
A traditional file system has the following disadvantages:
1. Data Redundancy : Since each application has its own data file, the same data may have to be recorded
and stored in many files. For example, personal file and payroll file, both contain data on employee
name, designation etc. The result is unnecessary duplicate or redundant data items. This redundancy
requires additional or higher storage space, costs extra time and money, and requires additional efforts
to keep all files upto-date.
2. Data Inconsistency : Data redundancy leads to data inconsistency especially when data is to be updated.
Data inconsistency occurs due to the same data items that appear in more than one file do not get updated
simultaneously in each and every file. For example, an employee is promoted from Clerk to
Superintendent and the same is immediately updated in the payroll file may not necessarily be updated
in provident fund file. This results in two different designations of an employee at the same time. Over
the period of time, such discrepencis degrade the quality of information contain in the data file that
affects the accuracy of reports.
3. Lack of Data Integration : Since independent data file exists, users face difficulty in getting information
on any ad hoc query that requires accessing the data stored in many files. In such a case complicated
programs have to be developed to retrieve data from every file or the users have to manually collect the
required information.
4. Program Dependence : The reports produced by the file processing system are program dependent,
which means if any change in the format or structure of data and records in the file is to be made, the
programs have to modified correspondingly. Also, a new program will have to be developed to produce
a new report.
5. Data Dependence : The Applications/programs in file processing system are data dependent i.e., the
file organization, its physical location and retrieval from the storage media are dictated by the
 requirements of the particular application. For example, in payroll application, the file may be organised
on employee records sorted on their last name, which implies that accessing of any employee’s record
has to be through the last name only.
6. Limited Data Sharing : There is limited data sharing possibilities with the traditional file system. Each
application has its own private files and users have little choice to share the data outside their own
applications. Complex programs required to be written to obtain data from several incompatible files.
7. Poor Data Control : There was no centralised control at the data element level, hence a traditional file
system is decentralised in nature. It could be possible that the data field may have multiple names defined
by the different departments of an organization and depending on the file it was in. This situation leads
to different meaning of a data field in different context or same meaning for different fields. This causes
poor data control.
8. Problem of Security : It is very difficult to enforce security checks and access rights in a traditional file
system, since application programs are added in an adhoc manner.
9. Data Manipulation Capability is Inadequate : The data manipulation capability is very limited in
traditional file systems since they do not provide strong relationships between data in different files.
10. Needs Excessive Programming : An excessive programming effort was needed to develop a new
application program due to very high interdependence between program and data in a file system. Each
new application requires that the developers start from the scratch by designing new file formats and
descriptions and then write the file access logic for each new file.

1.3.2 Database Systems or Database System environment

The DBMS software together with the Database is called a database system. In other words, it can be defined
as an organization of components that define and regulate the collection, storage, management and use of
data in a database. Furthermore, it is a system whose overall purpose is to record and maintain information.
A database system consists of four major components as shown in Figure 1.4.
1. Data 2. Hardware 3. Software 4. Users
DBMS

Database
(Hardware)

User
(Data)
Application
programs User
(Software)
(Data)

User

(Data)
User
(Users)
 FIgure 1.4. Database system.

1. Data : The whole data in the system is stored in a single database. This data in the database are both
shared and integrated. Sharing of data means individual pieces of data in the database is shared among
different users and every user can access the same piece of data but may be for different purposes. Integration
of data means the database can be function of several distinct files with redundancy controlled among the
files.
2. Hardware : The hardware consists of the secondary storage devices like disks, drums and so on,
where the database resides together with other devices. There is two types of hardware. The first one, i.e.,
processor and main memory that supports in running the DBMS. The second one is the secondary storage
devices, i.e., hard disk, magnetic disk etc., that are used to hold the stored data.
3. Software : A layer or interface of software exists between the physical database and the users. This
layer is called the DBMS. All requests from the users to access the database are handled by the DBMS. Thus,
the DBMS shields the database users from hardware details. Furthermore, the DBMS provides the other
facilities like accessing and updating the data in the files and adding and deleting files itself.
4. Users : The users are the people interacting with the database system in any way. There are four
types of users interacting with the database systems. These are Application Programmers, online users, end
users or naive users and finally the Database Administrator (DBA). More about users in section 1.4.

1.3.3 Advantages of Database Systems (DBMS’s)

The database systems provide the following advantages over the traditional file system:
1. Controlled redundancy : In a traditional file system, each application program has its own data, which
causes duplication of common data items in more than one file. This duplication/redundancy requires
multiple updations for a single transaction and wastes a lot of storage space. We cannot eliminate all
redundancy due to technical reasons. But in a database, this duplication can be carefully controlled, that
means the database system is aware of the redundancy and it assumes the responsibility for propagating
updates.
2. Data consistency : The problem of updating multiple files in traditional file system leads to inaccurate
data as different files may contain different information of the same data item at a given point of time.
This causes incorrect or contradictory information to its users. In database systems, this problem of
inconsistent data is automatically solved by controlling the redundancy.
3. Program data independence : The traditional file systems are generally data dependent, which implies
that the data organization and access strategies are dictated by the needs of the specific application and
the application programs are developed accordingly. However, the database systems provide an
independence between the file system and application program, that allows for changes at one level of
the data without affecting others. This property of database systems allow to change data without
changing the application programs that process the data.
4. Sharing of data : In database systems, the data is centrally controlled and can be shared by all authorized
users. The sharing of data means not only the existing applications programs can also share the data in
the database but new application programs can be developed to operate on the existing data. Furthermore,
the requirements of the new application programs may be satisfied without creating any new file.
5. Enforcement of standards : In database systems, data being stored at one central place, standards can
easily be enforced by the DBA. This ensures standardised data formats
to facilitate data transfers between systems. Applicable standards might include any or all of the
following—departmental, installation, organizational, industry, corporate, national or international.
6. Improved data integrity : Data integrity means that the data contained in the database is both accurate
and consistent. The centralized control property allow adequate checks can be incorporated to provide
data integrity. One integrity check that should be incorporated in the database is to ensure that if there is
a reference to certain object, that object must exist.
7. Improved security : Database security means protecting the data contained in the database from
unauthorised users. The DBA ensures that proper access procedures are followed, including proper
authentical schemes for access to the DBMS and additional checks before permitting access to sensitive
data. The level of security could be different for various types of data and operations.
8. Data access is efficient : The database system utilizes different sophisticated techniques to access the
stored data very efficiently.
9. Conflicting requirements can be balanced : The DBA resolves the conflicting requirements of various
users and applications by knowing the overall requirements of the organization. The DBA can structure
the system to provide an overall service that is best for the organization.
10. Improved backup and recovery facility : Through its backup and recovery subsystem, the database
system provides the facilities for recovering from hardware or software failures. The recovery subsystem
of the database system ensures that the database is restored to the state it was in before the program
started executing, in case of system crash.
11. Minimal program maintenance : In a traditional file system, the application programs with the
description of data and the logic for accessing the data are built individually. Thus, changes to the data
formats or access methods results in the need to modify the application programs. Therefore, high
maintenance effort are required. These are reduced to minimal in database systems due to independence
of data and application programs.
12. Data quality is high : The quality of data in database systems are very high as compared to traditional
file systems. This is possible due to the presence of tools and processes in the database system.
13. Good data accessibility and responsiveness : The database systems provide query languages or report
writers that allow the users to ask ad hoc queries to obtain the needed information immediately, without
the requirement to write application programs (as in case of file system), that access the information
from the database. This is possible due to integration in database systems.
14. Concurrency control : The database systems are designed to manage simultaneous (concurrent) access
of the database by many users. They also prevents any loss of information or loss of integrity due to
these concurrent accesses.
15. Economical to scale : In database systems, the operational data of an organization is stored in a central
database. The application programs that work on this data can be
built with very less cost as compared to traditional file system. This reduces overall costs of
operation and management of the database that leads to an economical scaling.
16. Increased programmer productivity : The database system provides many standard functions that the
programmer would generally have to write in file system. The availability of these functions allow the
programmers to concentrate on the specific functionality required by the users without worrying about
the implementation details. This increases the overall productivity of the programmer and also reduces
the development time and cost.

1.3.4 Disadvantages of Database Systems

In contrast to many advantages of the database systems, there are some disadvantages as well. The
disadvantages of a database system are as follows :
1. Complexity increases : The data structure may become more complex because of the centralised database
supporting many applications in an organization. This may lead to difficulties in its management and may
require professionals for management.
2. Requirement of more disk space : The wide functionality and more complexity increase the size of
DBMS. Thus, it requires much more space to store and run than the traditional file system.
3. Additional cost of hardware : The cost of database system’s installation is much more. It depends on
environment and functionality, size of the hardware and maintenance costs of hardware.
4. Cost of conversion : The cost of conversion from old file-system to new database system is very high. In
some cases the cost of conversion is so high that the cost of DBMS and extra hardware becomes
insignificant. It also includes the cost of training manpower and hiring the specialized manpower to
convert and run the system.
5. Need of additional and specialized manpower : Any organization having database systems, need to be
hire and train its manpower on regular basis to design and implement databases and to provide database
administration services.
6. Need for backup and recovery : For a database system to be accurate and available all times, a procedure
is required to be developed and used for providing backup copies to all its users when damage occurs.
7. Organizational conflict : A centralised and shared database system requires a consensus on data
definitions and ownership as well as responsibilities for accurate data maintenance.
8. More installational and management cost : The big and complete database systems are more costly.
They require trained manpower to operate the system and has additional annual maintenance and support
costs.

1.4 dBms users

The users of a database system can be classified into various categories depending upon their interaction and
degree of expertise of the DBMS.
1.4.1 end users or Naive users
The end users or naive users use the database system through a menu-oriented application program, where
the type and range of response is always displayed on the screen. The user need not be aware of the presence
of the database system and is instructed through each step. A user of an ATM falls in this category.

1.4.2 Online users

These type of users communicate with the database directly through an online terminal or indirectly through
an application program and user interface. They know about the existence of the database system and may
have some knowledge about the limited interaction they are permitted.

1.4.3 Application Programmers

These are the professional programmers or software developers who develop the application programs or user
interfaces for the naive and online users. These programmers must have the knowledge of programming
languages such as Assembly, C, C++, Java, or SQL, etc., since the application programs are written in these
languages.
1.4.4 Database Administrator
Database Administrator (DBA) is a person who have complete control over database of any enterprise. DBA
is responsible for overall performance of database. He is free to take decisions for database and provides
technical support. He is concerned with the Back-End of any project. Some of the main responsibilities of
DBA are as follows :
1. Deciding the conceptual schema or contents of database : DBA decides the data fields, tables, queries,
data types, attributes, relations, entities or you can say that he is responsible for overall logical design of
database.
2. Deciding the internal schema of structure of physical storage : DBA decides how the data is actually
stored at physical storage, how data is represented at physical storage.
3. Deciding users : DBA gives permission to users to use database. Without having proper permission, no
one can access data from database.
4. Deciding user view : DBA decides different views for different users.
5. Granting of authorities : DBA decides which user can use which portion of database. DBA gives
authorities or rights to data access. User can use only that data on which access right is granted to him.
6. Deciding constraints : DBA decides various constraints over database for maintaining consistency and
validity in database.
7. Security : Security is the major concern in database. DBA takes various steps to make data more secure
against various disasters and unauthorized access of data.
8. Monitoring the performance : DBA is responsible for overall performance of database. DBA regularly
monitors the database to maintain its performance and try to improve it.
9. Backup : DBA takes regular backup of database, so that it can be used during system failure. Backup is
also used for checking data for consistency.
10. Removal of dump and maintain free space : DBA is responsible for removing unnecessary data from
storage and maintain enough free space for daily operations. He can also increase storage capacity when
necessary.
11. Checks : DBA also decides various security and validation checks over database to ensure consistency.
12. Liaisioning with users : Another task of the DBA is to liaisioning with users and ensure the availability
of the data they require and write the necessary external schemas.

1.5 dataBase or dBms languages

The DBMS provides different languages and interfaces for each category of users to express database queries
and updations. When the design of the database is complete and the DBMS is chosen to implement it, the
first thing to be done is to specify the conceptual and internal schemas for the database and the corresponding
mappings. The following five languages are available to specify different schemas.
1. Data Definition Language (DDL) 2. Storage Definition Language (SDL)
3. View Definition Language (VDL) 4. Data Manipulation Language (DML)
5. Fourth-Generation Language (4-GL)
1.5.1 Data Definition Language (DDL)
It is used to specify a database conceptual schema using set of definitions. It supports the definition or
declaration of database objects. Many techniques are available for writing DDL. One widely used technique
is writing DDL into a text file. More about DDL in chapter 7.

1.5.2 Storage Definition Language (SDL)

It is used to specify the internal schema in the database. The storage structure and access methods used by
the database system is specified by the specified set of SDL statements. The implementation details of the
database schemas are implemented by the specified SDL statements and are usually hidden from the users.

1.5.3 View Definition Language (VDL)

It is used to specify user’s views and their mappings to the conceptual schema. But generally, DDL is used
to specify both conceptual and external schemas in many DBMS’s. There are two views of data the logical
view—that is perceived by the programmer and physical view—data stored on storage devices.

1.5.4 Data Manipulation Language (DML)

It provides a set of operations to support the basic data manipulation operations on the data held in the
database. It is used to query, update or retrieve data stored in a database. The part of DML that provide data
retrieval is called query language.
The DML is of the two types :
(i) Procedural DML : It allows the user to tell the system what data is needed and how to retrieve it.
(ii) Non-procedural DML : It allows the user to state what data are needed, rather than how it is to be
retrieved. More about DML in chapter 7.

1.5.5 Fourth-generation Language (4-gL)

It is a compact, efficient and non-procedural programming language used to improve the efficiency and
productivity of the DBMS. In this, the user defines what is to be done and not how it is to be done. The 4-GL
has the following components in it. These are :
(a) Query languages (b) Report
(c) Spread sheets (d) Database languages
(e) Application generators
(f) High level languages to generate application program.
System Query Language (SQL) is an example of 4-GL. More about SQL in Chapter 7.

1.6 schemas, suBschema and Instances

The plans of the database and data stored in the database are most important for an organization, since
database is designed to provide information to the organization. The data stored in the database changes
regularly but the plans remain static for longer periods of time.
1.6.1 Schema
A schema is plan of the database that give the names of the entities and attributes and the relationship among
them. A schema includes the definition of the database name, the record type and the components that make
up the records. Alternatively, it is defined as a frame-work into which the values of the data items are fitted.
The values fitted into the frame-work changes regularly but the format of schema remains the same e.g.,
consider the database consisting of three files ITEM, CUSTOMER and SALES. The data structure diagram
for this schema is shown in Figure 1.5. The schema is shown in database language. Generally, a schema can
be partitioned into two categories, i.e., (i) Logical schema and (ii) Physical schema.
(i) The logical schema is concerned with exploiting the data structures offered by the DBMS so that the
schema becomes understandable to the computer. It is important as programs use it to construct
applications.
(ii) The physical schema is concerned with the manner in which the conceptual database get represented in
the computer as a stored database. It is hidden behind the logical schema and can usually be modified
without affecting the application programs.
The DBMS’s provide DDL and DSDL to specify both the logical and physical schema.
Schema name is ITEM_SALES_REC

type ITEM = record

ITEM_ID: string;
ITEM_DESC:
string;Attributes/data items
ITEM_COST: integer;
end
type CUSTOMER = record
CUSTOMER_ID = integer;
CUSTOMER_NAME = string;
CUSTOMER_ADD = string;
CUSTOMER_CITY = string;
CUSTOMER_BAL = integer;
end
type SALES = RECORD
CUSTOMER_ID = integer;
ITEM_ID = string;
ITEM_QTY = integer;
ITEM_PRICE = integer;
end

FIgure 1.5. Data structure diagram for the item sales record.

1.6.2 Subschema
A subschema is a subset of the schema having the same properties that a schema has. It identifies a subset of
areas, sets, records, and data names defined in the database schema available to user sessions. The subschema
allows the user to view only that part of the database that is of interest to him. The subschema defines the
portion of the database as seen by the application programs and the application programs can have different
view of data stored in the database.
 The different application programs can change their respective subschema without affecting other’s
subschema or view.
The Subschema Definition Language (SDL) is used to specify a subschema in the DBMS.

1.6.3 Instances
The data in the database at a particular moment of time is called an instance or a database state. In a given
instance, each schema construct has its own current set of instances. Many instances or database states can
be constructed to correspond to a particular database schema. Everytime we update (i.e., insert, delete or
modify) the value of a data item in a record, one state of the database changes into another state. The Figure
1.6 shows an instance of the ITEM relation in a database schema.
ITeM
ITeM-ID ITeM_DeSC ITeM_COST

1111A Nutt 3

1112A Bolt 5

1113A Belt 100

1144B Screw 2

FIgure 1.6. An instance/database state of the ITEM relation.

1.7 three leVel archItecture of dataBase systems (dBms)

The architecture is a framework for describing database concepts and specifying the structure of database
system. The three level architecture was suggested by ANSI/SPARC. Here database is divided into three
levels external level, conceptual level and internal level as shown in Figure 1.7.
 Viewsand External External External External
mappings view1 view2 viewN level
are
maintained
byDBA

Externalconceptual External/conceptual External/conceptual

mapping1 mapping2 mappingN

Conceptual Conceptualview Database

level Management
System

Conceptual/Internal
mapping

Internal Internalview(Physical
level storageofdata)

FIgure 1.7. Three level architecture of DBMS.

1.7.1 Levels or Views

The three levels or views are discussed below:
(i) Internal Level : Internal level describes the actual physical storage of data or the way in which the data
is actually stored in memory. This level is not relational because data is stored according to various coding
schemes instead of tabular form (in tables). This is the low level representation of entire database. The internal
view is described by means of an internal schema.
The internal level is concerned with the following aspects:
– Storage space allocation
– Access paths
– Data compression and encryption techniques – Record placement etc.
The internal level provides coverage to the data structures and file organizations used to store data on storage
devices.
(ii) Conceptual Level : The conceptual level is also known as logical level which describes the overall
logical structure of whole database for a community of users. This level is relational because data visible at
this level will be relational tables and operators will be relational operators. This level represents entire
contents of the database in an abstract form in comparison with physical level. Here conceptual schema is
defined which hides the actual physical storage and concentrate on relational model of database.
(iii) External Level : The external level is concerned with individual users. This level describes the
actual view of data seen by individual users. The external schema is defined by the DBA for every user. The
remaining part of database is hidden from that user. This means user can only access data of its own interest.
In other words, user can access only that part of database for which he is authorized by DBA. This level is
also relational or very close to it.
1.7.2 Different Mappings in Three Level Architecture of DBMS
The process of transforming requests and results between the three levels are called mappings. The database
management system is responsible for this mapping between internal, external and conceptual schemas.
There are two types of mappings:
1. Conceptual/Internal mapping.
2. The External/Conceptual mapping.
1. The Conceptual/Internal Mapping : This mapping defines the correspondence or operations
between the conceptual view and the physical view. It specifies how the data is retrieved from physical
storage and shown at conceptual level and vice-versa. It specifies how conceptual records and fields are
represented at the internal level. It also allows any differences in entity names, attribute names and their
orders, data types etc., to be resolved.
2. The External/Conceptual Mapping : This mapping defines the correspondence between the
conceptual view and the physical view. It specifies how the data is retrieved from conceptual level and shown
at external level because at external level some part of database is hidden from a particular user and even
names of data fields are changed etc.
There could be one mapping between conceptual and internal level and several mappings between external
and conceptual level. The physical data independence is achieved through conceptual/internal mapping
while the logical data independence is achieved through external/ conceptual mapping. The information
about the mapping requests among various schema levels are included in the system catalog of DBMS. When
schema is changed at some level, the schema at the next higher level remains unchanged, only the mapping
between the two levels is changed.
1.7.3 Advantages of Three-level Architecture
The motive behind the three-level architecture is to isolate each user’s view of the database from the way the
database is physically stored or represented. The advantages of the threelevel architecture are as follows :
1. Each user is able to access the same data but have a different customized view of the data as per the
requirement.
2. The changes to physical storage organization does not affect the internal structure of the database. e.g.,
moving the database to a new storage device.
3. To use the database, the user is no need to concern about the physical data storage details.
4. The conceptual structure of the database can be changed by the DBA without affecting any user.
5. The database storage structure can be changed by the DBA without affecting the user’s view.

1.7.4 Data Independence

It is defined as the characteristics of a database system to change the schema at one level without having to
change the schema at the next higher level. It can also be defined as the immunity of the application programs
to change in the physical representation and access techniques of the database. The above definition says that
the application programs do not depend on any particular physical representation or access technique of the
database. The DBMS achieved the data independence by the use of three-level architecture. The data
independence is of TWO types:
1. Physical Data Independence : It indicates that the physical storage structures or devices used for
storing the data could be changed without changing the conceptual view or any of the external views. Only
the mapping between the conceptual and internal level is changed. Thus, in physical data independence, the
conceptual schema insulates the users from changes in the physical storage of the data.
2. Logical Data Independence : It indicates that the conceptual schema can be changed without
changing the existing external schemas. Only the mapping between the external and conceptual level is
changed and absorbed all the changes of the conceptual schema. DBMS that supports logical data
independence, changes to the conceptual schema is possible without making any change in the existing
external schemas or rewriting the application programs. Logical data independence also insulates application
programs from operations like combining of two records into one or splitting an existing record into more
than one records.

1.8 data models

A data model is a collection of concepts that can be used to describe the structure of the database including
data types, relationships and the constraints that apply on the data.
A data model helps in understanding the meaning of the data and ensures that, we understand.
– The data requirements of each user.
– The use of data across various applications.
– The nature of data independent of its physical representations.
A data model supports communication between the users and database designers. The major use of data
model is to understand the meaning of the data and to facilitate communication about the user requirements.

Characteristics of Data Models

A data model must posses the following characteristics so that the best possible data representation can be
obtained.
(i) Diagrammatic representation of the data model.
(ii) Simplicity in designing i.e., Data and their relationships can be expressed and distinguished easily.
(iii) Application independent, so that different applications can share it.
(iv) Data representation must be without duplication.
(v) Bottom-up approach must be followed.
(vi) Consistency and structure validation must be maintained.

1.8.1 Types of Data Models

The various data models can be divided into three categories, such as (i) Record
Based Data Models.
(ii) Object Based Data Models.
(iii) Physical Data Models.
(i) Record Based Data Models : These models represent data by using the record structures. These models
lie between the object based data models and the physical data models. These data models can be further
categorised into three types:
(a) Hierarchical Data Model
(b) Network Data Model (c) Relational Data Model.
(ii) Object Based Data Models : These models are used in describing the data at the logical and user view
levels. These models allow the users to implicity specify the constraints in the data. These data models
can be further categorised into four types:
(a) Entity Relationship Model (ER-Model)
(b) Object Oriented Model
(c) Semantic Data Model
(d) Functional Data Model.
The models are discussed in the coming sections.
(iii) Physical Data Models : These models provide the concepts that describes the details of how the data
is stored in the computer along with their record structures, access paths and ordering. Only specialized
or professional users can use these models.
These data models can be divided into two types:
(a) Unifying Model.
(b) Frame Memory Model.
1.8.1.1 Record based Data Models
Record based data models represent data by using the record structures. These are used to describe data at
the conceptual view level. These are named because the database is structured in a fixed format records of
several types. The use of fixed length records simplify the physical level implementation of the database.
These models lie between the object based data models and the physical data models. These models provide
the concepts that may be understood by the end users. These data models do not implement the full detail of
the data storage on a computer system. Thus, these models are used to specify overall logical structure of the
database and to provide high level description of implementation. These are generally used in traditional
DBMS’s and are also known as ‘Representational Data Models’. The various categories of record based data
models are as follows:
(i) Hierarchical Data Model
(ii) Network Data Model
(iii) Relational Data Model.
(i) Hierarchical Data Model : Hierarchical Data Model is one of the oldest database models. The
hierarchical model became popular with the introduction of IBM’s Information Management System (IMS).
The hierarchical data model organizes records in a tree structure i.e., hierarchy of parent and child records
relationships. This model employs two main concepts : Record and Parent Child Relationship. A record is a
collection of field values that provide information of an entity.
A Parent Child Relationship type is a 1 : N relationship between two record types. The record type of one
side is called the parent record type and the one on the N side is called the child record type. In terms of tree
data structure, a record type corresponds to node of a tree and relationship type corresponds to edge of the
tree.
The model requires that each child record can be linked to only one parent and child can only be reached
through its parent.
 WORLD

Continent ASIA EUROPE AUSTRALIA Etc.

Country INDIA CHINA PAKISTAN Etc.

(GrandParent )

State PUNJAB HARYANA RAJASTHAN Etc.

(Parent)

District ROHTAK SIRSA HISSAR Etc.

(Child)

FIgure 1.8. Hierarchical Model.

In the Figure 1.8, the ‘WORLD’ acts as a root of the tree structure which has many children’s like Asia,
Europe, Australia etc. These children can act as a parent for different countries such as ASIA continents acts
as a parent for countries like India, China, Pakistan etc. Similarly these children can act as a parent for
different states such as INDIA country acts as a parent for states Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan etc. Further the
same follows.
Consider child ‘ROHTAk’ which has a parent ‘HARyANA’ which further has a parent ‘INDIA’ and so on.
Now ‘India’ will acts a grandparent for the child ‘ROHTAk’.
The major advantages of Hierarchical Model are that it is simple, efficient, maintains data integrity and is
the first model that provides the concept of data security. The major disadvantages of Hierarchical model are
that it is complex to implement, Lacking of structural independence, operational anomalies and data
management problem.
(ii) Network Data Model : As a result of limitations in the hierarchical model, designers developed the
Network Model. The ability of this model to handle many to many (N : N) relations between its records is
the main distinguishing feature from the hierarchical model. Thus, this model permits a child record to have
more than one parent. In this model, directed graphs are used instead of tree structure in which a node can
have more than one parent. This model was basically designed to handle non-hierarchical relationships.
The relationships between specific records of 1 : 1 (one to one), 1 : N (one to many) or N : N (many to many)
are explicitly defined in database definition of this model. The Network Model was standardized as the
CODASyL DBTG (Conference of Data System Languages, Database Task Group) model.
There are two basic data structures in this model—Records and Sets. The record contains the detailed
information regarding the data which are classified into record types. A set type represents relationship
between record types and this model use linked lists to represent these relationships. Each set type definition
consists of three basic elements : a name for set type an owner record type (like parent) and a member record
type (like child).
To represent many to many relationship in this model, the relationship is decomposed into two one to many
(1 : N) relationships by introducing an additional record type called an Intersection Record or Connection
Record.
The major advantages of Network Model are that it is conceptually simple, Handles more relationship types,
promotes database integrity, data access flexibility and conformance to the standards.
The major disadvantages of Network Model are that it is complex and lack of structural independence.
 (iii) Relational data Model : The Relational Model was first introduced by Dr. Edgar Frank, an Oxford-
trained Mathematician, while working in IBM Research Centre in 1970’s.
The Relational Model is considered one of the most popular developments in the database technology
because it can be used for representing most of the real world objects and the relationships between them.
The main significance of the model is the absolute separation of the logical view and the physical view of
the data. The physical view in relational model is implementation dependent and not further defined.
The logical view of data in relational model is set oriented. A relational set is an unordered group of items.
The field in the items are the columns. The column in a table have names.
The rows are unordered and unnamed. A database consists of one or more tables plus a catalogue describing
the database.
The relational model consists of three components:
1. A structural component—A set of tables (also called relations) and set of domains that defines the way
data can be represented.
2. A set of rules for maintaining the integrity of the database.
3. A manipulative component consisting of a set of high-level operations which act upon and produce whole
tables.
In the relational model the data is represented in the form of tables which is used interchangeably with the
word Relation. Each table consists of rows also knowns as tuples (A tuple represents a collection of
information about an item, e.g., student record) and column also known as attributes. (An attribute represents
the characteristics of an item, e.g., Student’s Name and Phone No.). There are relationships existing between
different tables. This model doesn’t require any information that specifies how the data should be stored
physically.
The major advantages of Relational Model are that it is structurally independent, improved conceptual
simplicity adhoc query capability and powerful DBMS. The major disadvantages of relational model are
substantial hardware and software overhead and facilitates poor design and implementation.
1.8.1.2 Object Based Data Models
Object Based Data Models are also known as conceptual models used for defining concepts including entries,
attributes and relationships between them. These models are used in describing data at the logical and user
view levels. These models allow the constraints to be specified on the data explicitly by the users.
An entity is a distinct object which has existence in real world. It will be implemented as a table in a database.
An attribute is the property of an entity, in other words, attribute is a single atomic unit of information that
describes something about its entity. It will be implemented as a column or field in the database.
The associations or links between the various entities is known as relationships.
There are 4 types of object based data models. These are:
(a) Entity-relationship (E-R) Model
(b) Object-Oriented Model
(c) Semantic Data Model
(d) Functional Data Model
These are discussed as follows:
(a) Entity-Relationship (E-R) Model : The E-R model is a high level conceptual data model developed by
Chen in 1976 to facilitate database design. The E-R model is the generalization of earlier available
commercial model like the hierarchical and network model. It also allows the representation of the various
constraints as well as their relationships.
The relationship between entity sets is represented by a name. E-R relationship is of 1 : 1, 1 : N or N : N type
which tells the mapping from one entity set to another.
E-R model is shown diagrammatically using entity-relationship (E-R) diagrams which represents the
elements of the conceptual model that show the meanings and relationships between those elements
independent of any particular DBMS. The various features of E-R model are:
(i) E-R Model can be easily converted into relations (tables).
(ii) E-R Model is used for purpose of good database design by database developer.
(iii) It is helpful as a problem decomposition tool as it shows entities and the relationship between those
entities.
(iv) It is an iterative process.
(v) It is very simple and easy to understand by various types of users.
The major advantages of E-R model are that it is conceptually simple, have vishal representation, an effective
communication tool and can be integrated with the relational data model.
The major disadvantages of E-R model are that there are limited constraint representation, limited
relationship representation, no data manipulation language and loss of information content.
(b) Object-Oriented Data Model : Object-oriented data model is a logical data model that captures the
semantics of objects supported in an object-oriented programming. It is based on collection of objects,
attributes and relationships which together form the static properties. It also consists of the integrity rules
over objects and dynamic properties such as operations or rules defining new database states.
An object is a collection of data and methods. When different objects of same type are grouped together they
form a class. This model is used basically for multimedia applications as well as data with complex
relationships. The object model is represented graphically with object diagrams containing object classes.
Classes are arranged into hierarchies sharing common structure and behaviour and are associated with other
classes.

Advantages of Object-Oriented Data Models

The various advantages of object-oriented data model are as follows:
(i) Capability to handle various data types : The object-oriented databases has the capability to store
various types of data such as text, video pictures, voices etc.
(ii) Improved data access : Object oriented data models represent relationships explicitly. This improves
the data access.
(iii) Improved productivity : Object-oriented data models provide various features such as inheritance,
polymorphism and dynamic binding that allow the users to compose objects. These features increase
the productivity of the database developer.
(iv) Integrated application development system : Object-oriented data model is capable of combining
object-oriented programming with database technology which provides an integrated application
development system.

Disadvantages of Object-Oriented Data Models

The various disadvantages of object-oriented data models are as follows:
(i) Not suitable for all applications : Object-oriented data models are used where there is a need to
manage complex relationships among data objects. They are generally
suited for applications such as e-commerce, engineering and science etc. and not for all applications.
(ii) No precise definition : It is difficult to define what constitutes an object-oriented DBMS since the
name has been applicable to wide variety of products.
(iii) Difficult to maintain : The definition of object is required to be changed periodically and migration of
existing databases to confirm to the new object definition. It creates problems when changing object
definitions and migrating databases.
(c) Semantic Data Models : These models are used to express greater interdependencies among entities
of interest. These interdependencies enable the models to represent the semantic of the data in the database.
This class of data models are influenced by the work done by artificial intelligence researchers. Semantic
data models are developed to organize and represent knowledge but not data. This type of data models are
able to express greater interdependencies among entities of interest. Mainframe database are increasingly
adopting semantic data models. Also, its growth usage is seen in PC’s. In coming times database management
systems will be partially or fully intelligent.
(d) Functional Data Model : The functional data model describes those aspects of a system concerned
with transformation of values-functions, mappings, constraints and functional dependencies. The functional
data model describes the computations within a system. It shows how output value in computation are derived
from input values without regard for the order in which the values are computed. It also includes constraints
among values. It consists of multiple data flow diagrams. Data flow diagrams show the dependencies between
values and computation of output values from input values and functions, without regard for when the
functions are executed. Traditional computing concepts such as expression trees are examples of functional
models.

1.8.2 Comparison of Various Data Models

The most commonly used data models are compared on the basis of various properties. The comparison table
is given below.
Property Hierarchical Network relational e-r Diagram Object-oriented
1. Data element Files, records Files, Tables/tuples Objects, entity Objects
organization records sets
2. Identity Record based Record Value based Value based Record based
based
3. Data Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Independence
4. Relationship Logical Intersecting Identifiers of rows Relational Logical
Organization proximity in a Networks in one table are extenders containment
linearised embedded as that support
tree. attribute values in specialized
another table. applications.

5. Access Procedural Procedural Non-procedural Nonprocedural Procedural

Language
6. Structural No No Yes Yes Yes
Independence
1.8.3 Which Data Models to use?
So far we have discussed a large number of data models. Data models are essential as they provide access
techniques and data structure for defining a DBMS. In other words, a data model describe the logical
Organization of data along with operations that manipulate the data.
We have large number of data models, the one which is best for the Organization depends upon the following
factors:
• Is the database too small or too big.
• What are the costs involved.
• The volume of daily transactions that will be done.
• The estimated number of queries that will be made from the database by the organization to enquire
about the data.
• The data requirements of the organization using it.
From the available record based data models, the relational data model is most commonly used model by
most of the organizations because of the following reasons:
1. It increases the productivity of application programmers in designing the database. Whenever changes are
made to the database there is no need of changing the application programs because of separation of
logical level from conceptual level.
2. It is useful for representing most of the real world objects and relationships between them.
3. It provides very powerful search, selection and maintenance of data.
4. It hides the physical level details from the end users so end users are not bothered by physical storage.
5. It provides data integrity and security so that data is not accessed by unauthorized users and data is always
accurate.
6. It provides adhoc query capability.
Some of the common DBMS using Relational model are MS-Access, Informix, Ingres, Oracle etc.
The hierarchical data model is used in those organizations which use databases consisting of large number
of one to many relationships. Because of the restriction to one to many relationships, complexity of tree
structure diagrams, lack of declarative querying facilities the hierarchical model lost its importance.
The network data model is used in those organizations which use databases consisting of large number of
many to many relationships, but due to its complex nature it is also not preferred.
Most of the DBMS use object oriented data modelling techniques which are used by large number of
organizations. For example—Latest versions of oracle are object relational hybrids because they support both
relational and Object Oriented features.

1.9 types of database systems

The database systems can be classified into three categories i.e.,

(i) According to the number of users
(ii) According to the type of use
(iii) According to database site locations
The various types of database systems are as follows:

1.9.1 According to the Number of users

According to the number of users, the database systems can be further subdivided into two categories, namely:
 (a) Single-user database systems
(b) Multiuser database systems.
(a) Single-user database systems : In a single user database system, the database reside on a PC–on
the hard disk. All the applications run on the same PC and directly access the database. In single user database
systems, the application is the DBMS. A single user accesses the applications and the business rules are
enforced in the applications running on PC. A single user database system is shown in Figure 1.9. The
example is DBASE files on a PC.
Microcomputer or Workstation
User Interface
DBMS
Operating System
Database Files (Storage)
Communications
FIgure 1.9. Single user database system.
(b) Multiuser database systems : In a multiuser database system, many PC’s are connected through a
Local Area Network (LAN) and a file server stores a copy of the database files. Each PC on the LAN is given
a volume name on the file server. Applications run on each PC that is connected to the LAN and access the
same set of files on the file server. The application is the DBMS and each user runs a copy of the same
application and accesses the same files. The applications must handle the concurrency control and the
business rules are enforced in the application. The example is MS-Access or Oracle files on a file server. A
multiuser database system is shown in Figure 1.10.
LAN Server

Operating System
Database Files (Storage)
Communications

LocalAreaNetwork
(LAN)

PC PC

User Interface User Interface

DBMS DBMS
Operating System Operating System
Communications Communications

FIgure 1.10. Multiuser database system.

Advantages of Multiuser Database System

There are many advantages of multiuser database system. Some of them are as follows:
(i) Ability to share data among various users.
(ii) Cost of storage is now divided among various users.
(iii) Low cost since most components are now commodity items.

Disadvantages of Multiuser Database System

The major disadvantage of the multiuser database system is that it has a limited data sharing ability i.e., only
a few users can share the data at most.
1.9.2 According to the Type of use
According to the type of use, the database systems can be further subdivided into three categories, namely:
(a) Production or Transactional Database Systems
(b) Decision Support Database Systems (c) Data
Warehouses.
(a) Production or Transactional Database Systems : The production database systems are used for
management of supply chain and for tracking production of items in factories, inventories of items in
warehouses/stores and orders for items. The transactional database systems are used for purchases on credit
cards and generation of monthly statements. They are also used in Banks for customer information, accounts,
loans and banking transactions.
(b) Decision Support Database Systems : Decision support database systems are interactive,
computer-based systems that aid users in judgement and choice activities. They provide data storage and
retrieval but enhance the traditional information access and retrieval functions with support for model
building and model based reasoning. They support framing, modelling and problem solving. Typical
application areas of DSS’s are management and planning in business, health care, military and any area in
which management will encounter complex decision situations. DSS’s are generally used for strategic and
tactical decisions faced by upper level management i.e., decisions with a reasonably low frequency and high
potential consequences.
A database system serves as a databank for the DSS. It stores large quantities of data that are relevant to the
class of problems for which the DSS has been designed and provides logical data structures with which the
users interact. The database system is capable of informing the user the types of data that are available and
how to gain access to them.
(c) Data Warehouses : A data warehouse is a relational database management system (RDMS) designed
specifically to meet the transaction processing systems. It can be loosely defined as any centralised data
repository which can be queried for business benefit.

1.9.3 According to Database Site Locations

According to database site locations, database systems can be further subdivided into four categories namely:
(a) Centralized database systems
(b) Parallel database systems (c) Distributed database systems
(d) Client/Server database systems.
(a) Centralized database systems : The centralised database system consists of a single processor together
with its associated data storage devices and other peripherals. Database files resides on a personal computer
(small enterprise) or on a mainframe computer (large enterprise). The applications are run on the same PC or
mainframe computer. Multiple users access the applications through simple terminals that have no processing
power of their own. The user interface is text-mode screens and the business rules are enforced in the
applications running on the mainframe or PC. The example of centralized database system is DB2 database
and Cobol application programs running on IBM 390. The centralized database system is shown in Figure
1.11.
 Terminal Terminal
—Display —Display
—Keyboard —Keyboard
PCorMainframe(Host)

—UserInterface
—DBMS
—OperatingSystem
—DatabaseFiles(Storage)
—OperatingSystem

Terminal Terminal

—Display —Display
—Keyboard —Keyboard

FIgure 1.11. Centralized database system.

Advantages of Centralized Database System

There are many advantages of centralized database system some of them are as follows:
(i) The control over applications and security is excellent.
(ii) The incremental cost per user is very low.
(iii) The centralized systems are highly reliable due to proven mainframe technology.
(iv) Many functions such as query, backup, update etc., are easier to accomplish.

Disadvantages of Centralized Database System

The various disadvantages of centralized database system are as follows:
(i) The users are not able to effectively manipulate data outside of standard applications.
(ii) The system is not able to effectively serve advance user interfaces.
(iii) The failure of central computer blocks every user from using the system until the system comes back.
(iv) The communication costs from the terminal to the central computer is a matter of concern.
(b) Parallel database systems : A parallel database system can be defined as a database system implemented
on a tightly coupled multiprocessor or on a loosely coupled multiprocessor. Parallel database systems link
multiple smaller machines to achieve the same throughput as a single larger machine, often with greater
scalability and reliability than single processor database system. Parallel database systems are used in the
applications that have to query extremely large databases or have to process an extremely large number of
transactions per second. There are three main architectures for parallel database system. These are
(i) Shared memory architecture
(ii) Shared disk architecture
(iii) Shared nothing architecture.
More about these types is discussed in Chapter 12.

Advantages of Parallel Database Systems

There are many advantages of parallel database systems. Some of these are as follows:
(i) These are very useful in the applications where large databases have to be queried or where extremely
large number of transactions per second has to be processed.
(ii) The response time is very high.
(iii) The throughput is also very high.
(iv) The input/output speeds and processing is very high.
(v) They have greater scalability and reliability than single processor system.

Disadvantages of Parallel Database Systems

The various disadvantages of parallel database systems are as follows:
(i) Due to start-up cost and start-up time, the overall speed up is adversely affected.
(ii) Due to processes executed in parallel, sharing the resources, a slow down may result offer each new
process as it competes with existing processes for the resources.
(c) Distributed database systems : A distributed database system is a database system, in which, the data
is spread across a variety of different databases. These are managed by a variety of DBMS’s that are running
on various types of machines having different operating systems. These machines are widely spread and are
connected through the communication networks. Each machine can have is own data and applications, and
can access data stored on other machines. Thus, each machine acts as a server as well as client.
Thus, distributed database system is a combination of logically interrelated databases distributed over a
computer network and the distributed database management system (DDBMS). A distributed database system
can be homogeneous or heterogeneous. A distributed database system is shown in Figure 1.12.
Client/Server Client/Server

Database Database

Network

Client/Server Client/Server

Database Database

FIgure 1.12. Distributed database system.

Advantages of Distributed Database Systems

The various advantages of distributed database systems are as follows:
1. Improved sharing ability
2. Local autonomy
3. Availability
4. Reliability
5. Improved performance
6. Easier expansion
7. Reduced communications overhead and better response time
8. More economical
9. Direct user interaction
10. No a single point failure
11. Processor independence.

Disadvantages of Distributed Database Systems

The various disadvantages of distributed database systems are as follows:
1. Architectural complexity
2. Lack of standards
3. Lack of professional support
4. Data integrity problems
5. Problem of security
6. High cost
7. Complex database design.
(d) Client/Server Database System : With the development of technology, hardware cost become cheaper
and cheaper and more personal computers are used. There was a change and enterprises started use of client-
server technology instead of centralized system. In clientserver technology, there is a server which acts as a
whole data base management system and some clients or personal computers which are connected with server
through a network interface. The complete architecture is shown in Figure 1.13.

Components of Client-Server Architecture

There are three major components of client server architecture:
1. Server
2. Client
3. Network interface

Client Client
Network
Server

Client Client

FIgure 1.13. Client server database system.

1. Server : Server is DBMS itself. It consists of DBMS and supports all basic DBMS functions. Server
components of DBMS are installed at server. It acts as monitor of all of its clients. It distributes work-load to
other computers. Clients must obey their servers.
Functions of Server : The server performs various functions, which are as follows.
1. It supports all basic DBMS functions.
2. Monitor all his clients.
3. Distribute work-load over clients.
4. Solve problems which are not solved by clients.
5. Maintain security and privacy.
6. Avoiding unauthorized access of data.
2. Clients : Client machine is a personal computer or workstation which provide services to both server
and users. It must obey his server. Client components of DBMS are installed at client site. Clients are taking
instructions from server and help them by taking their load. When any user want to execute a query on client,
the client first take data from server then execute the query on his own hardware and returns the result to the
server. As a result, server is free to do more complex applications.
3. Network Interface : Clients are connected to server by network interface. It is useful in connecting
the server interface with user interface so that server can run his applications over his clients.
In the client server architecture, there are more than one server. Sometimes, a server is used as
Database Server, other as Application Server, other as Backup Server etc.
Advantages of Client-Server Database System
1. It increase the overall performance of DBMS.
2. Load can be distributed among clients.
3. It provides better user interface.
4. It is used to develop highly complex applications.
5. Clients with different operating systems can be connected with each other.
6. Single copy of DBMS is shared.
7. It reduces cost.
Disadvantages of Client-Server Database System
1. Network is error prone.
2. It is a kind of centralized system. If server is crashed or failed, there is loss of data.