BAHIRDARUNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE ANDENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL PRODUCTION AND TECHNOLOGY

GRADUATE PROGRAM

Review on Estrous Synchronization its Principles, Methods and Status in

Ethiopia
By

1. Tiruneh Mossie ID. No …………BDU 1301192

Submitted to: - Mussie Hailemelekot (DVM, MSC)

Feb, 2021
Bahir Dar, Ethiopia
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First of all I thank you to Dr.Mussie Hailemelekot, the instructor of the course, Advanced
Animal Physiology for giving me adequate information in how to write this review using
different published articles.

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 Table of Content

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT................................................................................................................i
Table of Content............................................................................................................................ii
LIST OF ABBRIVATION/ACRONOMY/................................................................................iii
ABSTRACT..................................................................................................................................iv
1. INTRODUCTION.....................................................................................................................1
1.1. Background......................................................................................................................1
1.2. Significance of the Review..................................................................................................2
1.2. Objectives.............................................................................................................................3
1.2.1 General objective.............................................................................................................3
1.2.2. Specific objective...........................................................................................................3
2. LITERATURE REVIEW.........................................................................................................4
2.1. Cattle Breeding Practices...................................................................................................4
2.1.1. Reproductive efficiency.................................................................................................5
2.2. Estrus Synchronization and Limiting Factors.................................................................6
2.2.1. Physiology of Estrus Cycle............................................................................................7
2.2.2. Endocrinology of Estrous Cycle.....................................................................................7
2.2.3. Purposes of estrus synchronization................................................................................8
2.2.4. Principles of synchronization.........................................................................................8
2.2.5. Estrus Synchronization Protocols...................................................................................9
2.2.6. Factors affecting estrus synchronization........................................................................9
2.2.7. Status of Estrous Synchronization in Ethiopia.............................................................10
2.2.8. Artificial Insemination Services...................................................................................11
2.2.9. Timing of insemination................................................................................................11
3. CONCLUSION........................................................................................................................13
4. RECOMMENDATION...........................................................................................................13
5. REFERENCE...........................................................................................................................14

ii
LIST OF ABBRIVATION/ACRONOMY/

AI Artificial Insemination
GnRH Gonadotrophin Releasing Hormone
FSH Follicular Stimulating Hormone
LH Luteinizing Hormone
PGF2@ Prostaglandin F2@

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 ABSTRACT

Assisted reproductive technologies particularly estrus synchronization and artificial

insemination (AI) are operated to enhance the genetic improvement of cattle. Estrus
synchronization is one of the potential tools for the reproductive improvement of livestock. It is
the manipulation of the estrus cycle or induction of estrus to bring a large percentage of groups
of females into estrus at a short and predetermined time period. Estrus synchronization of fertile
cows can be accomplished with various hormones; such as, progesterone, prostaglandin,
gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH), follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing
hormone (LH). These tools remain the most useful and widely applicable reproductive
biotechnologies available for dairy cow operations. It is obvious that the AI service in Ethiopia
has not been successful to improve reproductive performance of dairy industry. Artificial
insemination service in Ethiopia has been given little or no emphasis at the federal and regional
levels for long time though it is a widely practiced animal biotechnology all over the world. The
most important constraints associated to estrous synchronization in Ethiopia are: inadequate
resource in terms of inputs and facilities; absence of incentives and rewards to motivate
technicians; lack awareness of this technology by animal producers; shortage of feed resources,
synthetic hormones; and lack of adequate transportation facilities. In general, incorporating a
good management practice and selecting cows that have good body condition are the two most
essential requirements for successful estrous synchronization and AI. Hence, the objective of this
review is to assess the status of estrus synchronization and artificial insemination; its constraints
of estrous synchronization in Ethiopia.

Keyword: - Artificial insemination, Cattle, Dairy, Estrus Synchronization, Ethiopia.

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1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. Background

In Ethiopia, livestock production accounts for approximately 35 to 49% of the total agricultural
GDP and 16 to 17% of foreign currency earnings. From the total cattle population, 98.95% are
local breeds of cattle and the remaining are hybrid and exotic breeds. Ethiopia needs to work
hard on improving the work of productive and reproductive performance improvements of cattle
through appropriate breeding and related activities (CSA, 2016).
Ethiopia has the biggest livestock number that estimated 65.35 million cattle, 39.8 million sheep,
50.5 million goats, 9.9 million donkeys, 2.1 million horses, 0.35 million mules, 7 million camels,
48.9 million chicken and 6.9 million beehives Among the cattle population 36.53 Million are
Females and within this 12.57 million(19%) are Milking cows (CSA, 2019/2020).

But, most of these livestock populations are native breeds/ecotypes (98.59 % cattle, 99.85 %
sheep, 99.96 % goats, 94.33 chickens). Nevertheless, the productivities of these native livestock
are low due to their genetic makeup, low level of inputs, and traditional management practice
besides environmental stress (Azage Tegegne et al., 2010). In order to improve these local cattle,
selection of the most promising breeds and cross breeding of these local breeds with highly
productive exotic cattle has been a practical solution. Assisted reproductive technologies
particularly artificial insemination and estrus synchronization are operated to enhance genetic
improvement of cattle. Even though, some authors (Ashebir et al., 2016 and Azage Tegegne, 2012)
have evaluated the efficiency of assisted reproductive technologies in different production
systems of Ethiopia, well thought-out information is not lacking.

In Ethiopia, the productivity of livestock particularly milk and meat remains low due to poor
management program, poor genetic potential, inadequate animal health service, location and
breed differences and others (Tesfaye et al., 2015). Selection of the most promising breeds and
crossbreeding of local breeds with highly productive exotic cattle has been considered a practical
solution to improve the low productivity of local cattle (Mebrate and Tewodros, 2019).It is obvious
that the AI service in the country has not been successful to improve reproductive performance

1
of dairy industry. According to some previous studies, it has been that AI service is weak and
even declining due to inconsistent service in the smallholder livestock production systems of the
country in general. The problem is more aggravated by lack of recording scheme, wrong
selection procedures, and poor management of AI bulls associated with poor motivations and
skills of inseminators (Mebrate and Tewodros, 2019).

1.2. Significance of the Review

As mentioned above, Ethiopia has huge number of Livestock population; despite the huge
numbers of livestock resource and great potential for increased livestock production, productivity
and commercialization of livestock is low due to numerous constraints (Mebrate and Tewodros
2019). The major constraint for livestock production in Ethiopia is poor genetic improvement
and breed selection. Other factors are due to constraints of disease, poor management, inadequate
animal health services, and poor performance of indigenous breeds.Among livestock production
system dairy production is one of the prevalent production systems in Ethiopia (Azage Tegegne
et al., 2013). Ethiopia holds large potential for dairy development mainly due to suitable
environment. The reproductive performance of the breeding female is probably the single most
important factor influencing herd/flock productivity (Azage Tegegne et al., 2013).Therefore the
significance of this review is that; to put technical recommendations for responsible stakeholders
on the basic problems that impede the genetic improvement programs by reviewing the status of
estrous synchronization, protocols and principles of synchronization activities.

So, based on the above basic facts this paper is intended to review estrus synchronization and its
principle in dairy cattle breed.

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1.2. Objectives

1.2.1 General objective

 To Review on Estrous Synchronization and artificial insemination its Principles,

methods and Status in Ethiopia.
1.2.2. Specific objective
 To review estrus synchronization and it principle in Ethiopia
 To describe constraints of estrus synchronization and its protocol in Ethiopia
 To show artificial insemination in Ethiopia

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2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. Cattle Breeding Practices

A precise definition of the breeding objective is the first and probably most important step to be
taken. Without it, the programme could result in genetic change, but in the wrong direction.
Improving the wrong traits is equivalent or even worse than no improvement at all (Vanderwerf,
2004). The breeding objective in any livestock species is to increase profit by improving
production efficiency (Charfeddine, 2000).

In most of the countries in the tropics, both AI and natural service are practiced as methods of
breeding. Access to AI services within a country depends heavily on geographical location,
being more widely available near cities or ‘milk pockets’ and being less available in areas with
low farm density. When selection of a stud bull is possible, it’s mostly by phenotypic selection
on the performance of the bull. When pedigree is accounted for, the bull’s dam is given more
consideration than the sire. However, from the point of view of the farmer, the convenience in
the availability of the bull or AI service is usually more important than the genetic makeup of the
animal. This is a logical decision, especially in the short term, as increased calving intervals are
associated with decreased income through longer dry periods and fewer calves over a lifetime
(Bebe 2003).

Larger herds will have a higher percentage of replacement heifers purchased from ‘outside’
sources, but also sell more females. The reason for this is tied directly to size. First, larger herds
are often in phases of expansion, and thus need more females than could have been produced by
the existing herd of cows. Second, the larger farms are usually more market oriented and will
have more available cash flow. Finally, large farms may choose to specialize and direct their
attention to milking adult cows and may thus sell off young female calves to be raised by others.
In addition, pedigree and performance recording systems are essentially non-existent, so there is
usually nothing concrete beyond phenotypic appearance upon which to base the payment of a
premium for a higher quality animal. Breeding structures provide systems for gathering
information about assessment of animals in the production system and conditions that allow
selection of parents (males and females) of future progeny, and the mating of these animals in a
desired manner (vanderwerf, 2004).

4
In addition, the best young males (dairy) are often sold for beef due to lack of means to identify
best animals. Farmers often have a relatively low level of formal education and may have
variable knowledge of husbandry to help overcome the problems in managing improved genetic
material, as their indigenous knowledge was most applicable to the raising of local breeds.
Finally, when farms are far from the urban centers, formal market access, poor transportation,
and communication difficulties in many parts of the countries contribute to unprofitable dairying
by decreasing the motivation to increase productivity (Buvanendran, 1980)

2.1.1. Reproductive efficiency

Reproductive performance is a trait of outstanding importance in dairy cattle enterprises. The

size of the calf crop is all-important for herd replacement and the production of milk depends
heavily on reproductive activity. Possible genetic improvement in virtually all traits of economic
importance is closely tied to reproductive rate (Rick and Gene, 2013)

The improvement of livestock production in developed countries is due to the integrated effect of
rapid development in several fields of the sector. Increased feed production, improved animal
health, better husbandry, and the breeding of animals with the necessary genetic potential for
improved performance are the most important of this development. In developing countries,
however, parallel improvements in livestock production have generally been inadequate, and one
of the limiting factors has been the lack of genetically improved animals. The importation of
superior breeding stock is too costly to be adopted on a large scale. Problems of adaptability also
arise when high-yielding cattle are transferred from temperate tropical and sub-tropical
environments. Crossing local females with superior improved sires is another method adopted at
different period by many developing countries. With the advent of artificial insemination, the
product of cross breeding was given a new technique for implementation on large scale and at
comparatively low cost (Rick, 2010).

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2.2. Estrus Synchronization and Limiting Factors

Synchronization of the estrous cycle has the potential to shorten the calving season, increase calf
uniformity, and enhance the possibilities for utilizing AI (Lamb and cliff, 2010). Synchronization
of estrus contributes to optimizing the use of time, labor, and financial resources by shortening
the calving season, in addition to increasing the uniformity of the calf crop. The major limitation
of estrus-synchronization programs is their inability to induce a potentially fertile estrus and
ovulation in non-cycling cattle (i.e., pre-pubertal heifers and anestrous suckling cattle). Because
initial estrus-synchronization programs were not designed for successful treatment of non-
cycling cattle, their use in cow-calf operations generally has not produced results that would
encourage greater A.I use for cattle (Rick, 2010).

The major factor limiting optimum reproductive performance on many farms is failure to detect
estrus in a timely and accurate manner (Graves, 2009). Cows come into estrus at all times of the
day and remain in heat for only 12-18 hours making it difficult to observe estrus especially in hot
weather. Keeping cows in groups of three to five with two to three visual observations per day
for heat will increase the chances of detecting cycling animals. The use of synchronization and
heat-detection aids can greatly shorten the time spent observing heat but will not benefit non-
cycling cows or Anestrous Cows; a condition where the cow does not cycle due to insufficient
natural hormonal stimuli (Pennington, 2013). Conception rate to first service was significantly
higher in Insemination at detected estrus than in Ovarian Synchronization (45.1 vs. 34.5%)
(Tenhagen et al., 2000).

In the existing AI One AI technician is expected to inseminate on average about 300 cows per
year, and in practice ranges from 50 to 1000. Pregnancy rate to 1st insemination is 27% in the
existing AI system Desalegn et al. (2008), whereas using estrus synchronization results showed
that number of animals responded to Prostaglandin are 100% and pregnancy rate after first
insemination can be improved from 27 % to about 60% mainly as a result of timely availability
of well-trained AI technicians at the time of planned heat period (Azage tegegne et al., 2013).

6
2.2.1. Physiology of Estrus Cycle

The estrous cycle of the cow is generally about 21 days long, but it can range from 17 to 24 days
in duration. Each cycle consists of a long luteal phase (days 1-17) where the cycle is under the
influence of progesterone and a shorter follicular phase (days 18-21) where the cycle is under the
influence of estrogen. The cycle begins with standing heat, or estrus. This time of peak estrogen
secretion can last from 6 to 24 hours, with ovulation occurring 24 to 32 hours after the beginning
of estrus (Williams et al., 2002). Ovulation marks the beginning of the luteal phase, and is the
culmination of a process called oogenesis, in which germ cells mature under the proper
conditions. Germ cells are contained in thousands of tiny structures called follicles that contain
receptors for FSH, which in turn stimulates the growth and maturation of responsive follicles.
Most follicles develop in patterns referred to as follicular waves (Rick, 1999).

Ovarian follicular growth in cows occurs in waves. A wave of follicular growth involves the
synchronous development of a group of follicles, one of which become dominant and achieves
the greatest diameter suppressing the growth of the subordinate smaller follicles (Pierson and
Ginther, 1987).

2.2.2. Endocrinology of Estrous Cycle

Estrous cycles give females repeated opportunities to become pregnant throughout their
productive lifetime. The cycle is regulated by the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis, which
produces hormones that dictate reproductive events. The reproductive axis is composed of the
hypothalamus, pituitary, and the ovary (Rick, 1999).

The hypothalamus is a specialized portion of the central brain. Its primary function is to produce
Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH) in response to circulating estrogen, or to cease GnRH
production in response to progesterone. The anterior pituitary is located directly beneath the
hypothalamus in a small depression of the sphenoid bone. It produces the gonadotropin follicle-
stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) in response to GnRH and estrogen.
FSH and LH production is inhibited by progesterone. The third portion of the reproductive axis
consists of the ovaries, located in the pelvic cavity of the cow. Follicles are structures on the
ovarian surface that contain ova (egg) and produce estrogen. Follicles range in size and maturity

7
at different stages of the cycle, but usually only one is selected to ovulate. A corpus luteum (CL)
is a structure that forms from the previous cycle’s ovulation point. The Corpus luteum is
responsible for progesterone production. Both estrogen and progesterone are produced following
FSH and LH stimulation of the ovary. The uterus is also found in the pelvic cavity. It likewise
contributes to reproductive control, as it produces prostaglandin F2α (PGF2α) (Williams et al.,
2002).

2.2.3. Purposes of estrus synchronization

Realistic economic benefits of improved reproductive performance are not simple to estimate.
When reproductive performance improves, all changes in cash flows that result from the
improvement must be accounted for. So for a good analysis, we need at least realistic estimates
of lactation curves, feed intake, the risk of involuntary culling, and prices such as for milk, feed,
labor, semen, fertility drugs, calves, replacement heifers and cull cows (Albert de Vries et
al,.2012).

The objective of a synchronization program is to breed a high percentage of the females in a

given group of heifers or cows in a short period of time, using either artificial insemination (A.I.)
or natural service (bulls) (Noseir, 2003). Through effective implementation we accomplish the
following: Concentration of the breeding season, Concentration of the calving season (focuses
the workload), More uniform calf crop, typically improves returns (increases value of calf crop)
and Facilitates the use of AI. by concentrating estrus detection requirements (Stephen and
Blezinger, 2000).

2.2.4. Principles of synchronization

Synchronization of estrus in cows is feasible by either curtailing or extending the length of estrus
cycle, which can be maintained based on two principles; one is using of in-situ luteolytic agent
(prostaglandin) that induces luteolysis of corpus luteum (CL) and exogenous administration of
such agents mimics premature luteolysis and hence results in to shortening of left over diestrus
phase of estrus cycle; and the second principles is lengthening of diestrus phase through
maintenance of Corpus luteum in terms of progesterone production which determines the length

8
of diestrus phase. Hence, with the administration of progesterone hormone, the diestrus phase
can be extended (Lamb and Cliff, 2010).

2.2.5. Estrus Synchronization Protocols

Different estrous synchronization protocols are available globally. Some commonly used
estrous/ovulation synchronization protocols in dairy cattle includes use of PGF2α (one shot
method and two-shot method), Ovsynch, Cosynch, ,Presynch, GnRH. Advantages of GnRH
use in Ovulation Synchronization allow for synchronized follicular growth and ovulation, not
just the synchronization of estrus, induces ovulation and estrous cycles in non-cycling cows.
These systems allow producers to artificially inseminate cows with little or no heat detection;
eliminating the risk of injury for cattle that are mounting or displaying other estrus behavior
(Mebrate and Tewodros, 2019).

2.2.6. Factors affecting estrus synchronization

High priority needs to be placed on transferring these current reproductive management tools and
technology to producers, veterinarians and industry personnel to ensure they are adopted at the
producer level and to provide the necessary technical support to achieve optimum results.
Because current management, breed, economic, location, and marketing options are producer
specific, it is essential to ensure that transfer of this technology is not presented in blanket
recommendations (Cliff, 2010).
Cattle must be cycling, prevention and treatment of diseases, control of parasites is important.
Time and labor available for product administration, heat detection and breeding especially with
A.I, if natural service is to be used bull to cow ratio has to be considered. Recent studies suggest
that one bull can service 25 synchronized females. The bull(s) need to be 2 years or older,
experienced and in good condition (Stephenand Blezinger, 2000). For a synchronization program
to work the way it should, several issues must be considered, some of them are listed below
(Cliff, 2010).
Cow factor: Cattle must be in good body condition or on a gaining plane of nutrition. This
involves adequate levels of dry matter in general but specifically protein, energy minerals and
vitamins. Any of the synchronization protocols are recommended for mature cows with a body
condition score of 5 or greater; that is 50 days or more since calving at the time of AI. Young,

9
thin, and late calving cows are all less likely to have resumed their estrous cycles at the
beginning of the breeding season (Stephenand Blezinger 2000). Cattle must be cycling,
prevention and treatment of diseases, control of parasites is important (Alemayehu and Getu
2015).
Cost factor: If labor is available or can be hired, protocols using heat detection are generally
lower cost than fixed timed AI. Treatments, semen and number of handlings will contribute to
cash costs of synchronization. Estimated savings from fewer bulls needed for natural service and
increased returns from age and weight of AI sired calves should be considered (Tegegn and
Zelalem 2017).
Capacity building: Multi-disciplinary stakeholders composed of animal production experts,
breeders, feeds and nutrition experts, veterinarians, and AI technicians are needed for the success
of the technology. Moreover, to improve effectiveness of the technology, skilled and experienced
technicians as well as capacity building of farmers in heat detection and husbandry practices are
major concerns (Tegegn and Zelalem, 2017).
Other factors: Time and labor available for product administration, heat detection and breeding
especially with A.I, if natural service is to be used bull to cow ratio has to be considered. Recent
studies suggest that one bull can service 25 synchronized females. The bull(s) need to be 2 years
or older, experienced and in good condition (Stephen and Blezinger, 2000). Length of the
protocol, number of times handled, and the ability to successfully deliver treatments is other
factors that must be considered when choosing a synchronization protocol. Management system,
feed resource flexibility, and facilities will play a role in which protocol works best in each
particular environment. Success of any protocol is dependent on the proper administration and
timing of treatments (Alemayehu and Getu, 2015).

2.2.7. Status of Estrous Synchronization in Ethiopia

The history of estrous cycle synchronization and the use of artificial insemination in cattle are a
testament to how discoveries in basic science can be applies to advance the techniques used for
livestock breeding and management. Synchronization of estrus involves controlling the estrous
cycle of the females, so that they can be breed at approximately the same time (Mebrate and
Tewodros, 2019).

10
Synchronization of the estrous cycle has the potential to shorten the calving season, increase calf
uniformity and enhance the possibilities for utilizing AI. The objective of a synchronization
program is to breed a high percentage of the females in a given group of heifers or cows in a
short period, using either AI or natural service (bulls). The use of PGF2α for estrus control has
been considered more applicable to tropical herds, possibly owning to problems with estrus
detraction and irregularity of the estrus cycle (Mebrate and Tewodros. 2019).

2.2.8. Artificial Insemination Services

Provision of AI services requires active participation and cooperation between, the Stakeholders
in dairy production. This includes farmers, inseminators, AI centers and Organizations involved
in milk recording, milk collection and dairy product marketing. Governments need to be
proactive in supporting and organizing the administration and infrastructure for AI. Genetic
improvement depends on the accurate measurement of milk production in identified cows and
the utilization of this data for bull selection. Getting cows in calf requires good semen, good heat
detection and good insemination technique. An adequate infrastructure needs to be in place and
maintained. Telephone services or transport systems for messages from the farmer must be
reliable. Inseminators should have reliable and fast means of transport. Motor vehicles or light
motor bikes are recommended. Contingency plans are needed to continue to provide services
when vehicles require repairs or when the inseminator is on holiday or is sick. In each country,
the policies and practices for delivery of improved genetics and related services to farmers
should be formulated in relation to the distribution of cattle population, types of production
systems, environmental conditions, availability of resources for livestock production, and the
social and economic situation of farmers and people (Rick, 2010).

2.2.9. Timing of insemination

Correct timing of insemination is as important as correct placement of semen. Field experience

has shown that the best results are obtained when the insemination is performed at or near the
end of oestrus. The beginning and end of oestrus are very difficult to determine. The simplest
practical method of timing inseminations is to use the a.m. - p.m. rule. (Gaurang et al., 2017).

11
Time of Insemination

12
3. CONCLUSION
Estrous synchronization can be a useful tool in the reproductive management of a cow herd.
However, if proper levels of nutrition, body condition and health are not maintained, the program
is likely to fail. For synchronization program to work the way it should, several issues such as
cow factor, cost factor, capacity building and other factors must be considered.
Estrus synchronization is receiving renewed attention in dairy cows gradually. Estrus
Synchronization technology not only maximizes animals’ productivity, but also increased safety
for animals and farmers and reduces the risks of spreading sexually transmitted diseases. In-spite
of the efforts made to introduce large-scale Estrus Synchronization technology services, growth
in its use has generally not been very strong and conception rate is very low. Therefore, the
desired effect in terms of animal improvement has not been achieved. Poor body condition cows,
provide non cycling cows, improper semen handling starting from production until insemination,
poor management, time missing for insemination (cows were inseminated at fixed time 48-72
hours) and lack of follow up were the main identified problems in Ethiopia.

4. RECOMMENDATION

Based on the conclusion the following points are put as recommendations.

 Governments have to design clear implementation strategy for the breeding policy
through alleviating the most important causes of low performance.
 For future breeding activity, better extension service and training must be given for the
farmers to enhance estrus synchronization for improvement and adoption of the
technology in collaboration with concerning stakeholders.
 Economic incentives should be provided to farmers to breed improved animals for the
successful introduction or extension of AI in developing countries.
 The problem of scarcity and the costy price of protocols should be alleviated.
 Well trained and manpower; especially artificial insemination technicians should be
fulfilled.

13
5. REFERENCE

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reproductive performance in dairy cattle. University of Florida, Institute of Food and
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Alemayehu K. and Getu A. 2015.The Status of Estrus Synchronization and Conception Rate in
Ethiopian Cattle Breed.International Journal of Agriculture and Veterinary Sciences.1:
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Ashebir G, Birhanu A, Gugsa T. 2012. Status of Artificial Insemination in Tigray Regional State,
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Azage Tegegn, Awet Estifanos, Asrat Tera and Dirk Hoekstra, 2013.Technological options and
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