Combined Science Notes-1

O LEVEL
COMBINED
SCIE
NOTES
COMPILED BY; M MLILO
Notes compiled by M. MLILO “TO GOD BE THE GLORY” Page 1

Plant Nutrition
Photosynthesis
 It is the process by which green plants manufacture their own food

 They trap sunlight using chlorophyll and convert it to glucose using water &
oxygen
 Oxygen is released as a by product
Equation
Chlorophyll
Carbon dioxide + water Carbohydrates + Oxygen
Sunlight
Raw materials of Photosynthesis

1. Carbon dioxide
2. Water
Products of Photosynthesis
1. Carbohydrates
2. Oxygen
Conditions necessary
1. Chlorophyll
2. Sunlight
Sources of raw materials for photosynthesis
Water – it is sucked from the soil by the roots (osmosis) & transported up the stem to
the leaf where it is used
Carbon dioxide– it moves into the leaf from the air by the process of diffusion through
the stomata (tinny holes under the leaf)
The Process :- How photosynthesis occurs
 Carbon dioxide and water enter into leaf cells

 Chloroplasts in the chlorophyll traps sunlight energy.
 The light energy is s used to split water into hydrogen and oxygen.
 The oxygen escapes from the leaf to the atmosphere as a by product.
 The hydrogen reacts with carbon dioxide to form carbohydrates.

Structure of the leaf
1. Cuticle - It is a thin waxy layer at the top of leaf which results in evaporation
2. Upper epidermis - It is a layer of cells which protects the leaf
3. Palisade mesophyll layer - These cells contain most of the chloroplasts & carries
out the most of the photosynthesis
4. Spongy mesophyll layer - It is a layer of cells with spaces in between them which
allows diffusion of carbon dioxide & water. The layer carries out photosynthesis
&stores nutrients
5. Vascular bundle - It contains xylem vessels which carry water and phloem
vessels which carry nutrients to plant cells for respiration and to seeds and
other storage organs.
6. Lower epidermis - It is similar to upper epidermis but it contains small holes
called stomata. These holes control the movement of carbon dioxide into the

leaf and oxygen out of leaf. Special cells called guards cells controls the opening
and closing of the stoma allowing the gaseous exchange.
Factors needed for photosynthesis
1. Carbon dioxide
2. Water
3. Sunlight
4. Chlorophyll
Factors affecting the rate of photosynthesis
There are 4 factors affecting the rate of photosynthesis,
1. Amount of carbon dioxide – increased carbon dioxide increases rate of glucose

production which speeds up photosynthesis
2. Light intensity- light energy is trapped by chlorophyll to split water molecules &
therefore increasing light energy will speed up the rate of photosynthesis
3. Temperature – temperature affect rates of chemical reactions. Low temp makes
enzymes inactive & slows down photosynthesis while very high temp will kill the
enzymes stopping photosynthesis
4. Amount of water available – adequate amounts of water are needed & any
shortage will slow down photosynthesis
Adaptations of leaves to photosynthesis
1. Most leaves are broad to maximise the area which absorbs sunlight.
2. The leaves are thin to allow the penetration of sunlight and easy diffusion of
carbon dioxide.
3. The palisade cells contain many chloroplasts closely packed at the upper surface
of the leaf so that they absorb sunlight more efficiently
4. Spongy cells have spaces between them & the lower epidermis has holes which
allow easy gaseous exchange. (gaseous exchange refers to the entry of carbon
dioxide from the leaf and the exit of oxygen from the leaf)
5. The leaves have an extensive network of veins to supply water to the leaf
Importance of photosynthesis
1. It produces carbohydrates which are food for animals. The plants themselves
also manufacture their own food. This is why plants are called Producers when
looking at food chains and food webs.

2. Photosynthesis produces oxygen which is used y plants and animals during
respiration.
3. Plants use carbon dioxide during photosynthesis which helps to reduce global
warming.
4. Photosynthesis converts light energy into chemical energy. This chemical energy
can be used for many processes in our everyday life e.g. we burn firewood to get
heat
What happens to the products of photosynthesis.
What happens to oxygen produced
1. Most of the oxygen diffuses into the air were it is used by animals in
respiration.
2. Some of the oxygen is used by plants during respiration.
What happens to the carbohydrates.
1. Some of the carbohydrates produced are used by the plant during respiration
2. The balance is stored by the plant in seeds, fruits, bulbs or tubers.
Experiments
Experiment 1: Testing a leaf for starch
Materials.
A green leaf from a potted plant which was kept in the dark 3 days, a green leaf of a
potted plant which was in the sunlight, a test tube, a beaker, a burner, a stand, water,
methylated spirit, iodine solution, a dropper, & a white tile.

Process diagram.
N.B: the ethylated spirit is heated in a water bath because it is highly inflammable
(can easily catch fire easily)
Method
1. Boil the leaf in water to destroy the enzymes in the leaf, so as to prevent any
chemical reactions
2. Boil the leaf in alcohol to remove chlorophyll so that results are easy to see
3. Dip the leaf in hot water to soften it as boiling it in alcohol makes brittle
4. Place the leaf on a white tile & use a dropper to put the iodine solution on the
leaf, iodine solution is used to test for starch & changes colour from brown to
blue-black if starch is present
Observation
1. For the leaf that was kept in the dark for 3 days the iodine solution did not
change colour, this means there was no starch. Putting a plant in the dark is
called de-starching because darkness stops all photosynthesis & all the starch
that had been manufactured is used up
2. For the plant that was in the sunlight the iodine changed colour from brown to
blue black meaning starch was present in the leaf. In science we say the test
was positive

Experiment 2: to test if carbon dioxide is necessary for photosynthesis
Materials
1. 2 similar potted plants

2. 10cm3 of soda lime
3. 10cm3 of sodium hydroxide solution
4. 2 bell jars
5. Starch testing kit
Method
1. 2 similar potted plants are kept in the dark for 3-4 days in order to de-starch
them. The starch from their leaves is used up when plant respires in the dark &
is not replaced as no photosynthesis can take place without light
2. Before the experiment ensure that the plants are completely de-starched by
testing for starch
3. Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram below. Place soda lime and sodium
hydroxide as shown by the diagram as these remove co2 from the air
4. Expose both plants to sunlight for 6 hrs & then test a leaf for starch from each
plant

Diagram
Observations & Conclusions
1. When tested for starch the leaf from jar B turned blue – black to show the
presence of starch this is because photosynthesis was taking place as all
necessary conditions were present, jar B is the control of the experiment
2. When tested for starch, the leaf from jar A remained brown to prove absence
of starch. No photosynthesis was taking place as the soda lime prevented carbon
dioxide from the air entering & sodium hydroxide absorbed any carbon dioxide
inside the jar. Without carbon dioxide photosynthesis cannot take place
N.B. The stopper on the bell jar is sealed with Vaseline to prevent entrance of
carbon dioxide
Experiment 2: testing if light is necessary for photosynthesis
Materials
1. Potted plant
2. Aluminium foil
3. Cello tape
4. Scissors
5. Starch testing kit

Method
1. De- starch the potted plant before the experiment

2. Take a small piece of foil and cut a simple shade in the middle & cover the leaf
with the foil ensuring that the cut shade is on top of the leaf
3. Leave the potted plant for 6 hrs
4. Make a sketch of the leaf, taking note of the areas which are completely
covered
5. Remove a leaf from the plant& test it for starch ( use the covered leaf)
Diagram
Observations & Conclusions
1. The areas which were exposed to sunlight turned blue-black during the starch
test to prove that photosynthesis was taking place
2. The portion which was covered did not have any starch & iodine remained brown
this proved that sunlight is necessary for photosynthesis

Experiment 4: testing if chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis
Materials
1. A variegated leaf and a starch testing kit
Method
1. Make a sketch of the leaf taking note of those areas without chlorophyll
2. Test the leaf for starch
Diagram
Results & Conclusions
1. The portions which had chlorophyll had a positive result when tested for starch
(iodine turn blue- black)
2. Those portions which were not green had a negative result when tested for
starch. This proves that chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis to take
place
N.B. If you do not make a sketch first it will not be possible to remember which
parts were green & which parts were white since the whole leaf will be white when
boiled in alcohol during the starch test

Experiment 5: To prove that oxygen is produced during photosynthesis
Materials
1. A water weed
2. Beaker
3. Funnel
4. Test hole
5. Glowing splint
Method
1. Pour water into a glass beaker

2. Place the water weed in the water & invert a short stemmed funnel over it
making sure that the stem of the funnel is completely submerged into the water
3. Fill the test tube with water & and invert it over the stem of the funnel in the
water
4. Place the apparatus in the sunlight for 3 hrs observing what happens
Diagram
Observations
1. Gas bubbles were seen coming from the weed and collecting in the test tube
2. The collected gas increased with time pushing the water in the test tube
3. When the test tube was removed without turning it, a glowing splint was put
inside, the splint re-ignited
Conclusions
 Because the splint ignited, it proves that the gas that was collected was oxygen

N.B: This experiment can be adapted & used to observe the effect of different light
intensity levels on photosynthesis.
The apparatus as set up will be put closer or further away from a light source & count
the number of gas bubbles produced in each case. More bubbles will be produced if it is
put closer to a light source while less bubbles are produced the further the light
source will be.
Another variation will be to use bulbs of different power.
In this case the greater the power (the light intensity) the more the number of
bubbles produced per minute

Mineral Nutrition in plants
 Apart from the products of photosynthesis plants also need mineral elements
from the soil
 These elements are found dissolved in water in the soil
 In natural ecosystems they are usually adequately available but agricultural soils
sometimes have a deficiency and will need to be added
 Nitrogen, phosphorous & potassium are the 3 major elements required by plants
for healthy growth
 Some elements like iron, calcium, magnesium & zinc are required but in very small
amounts and are called trace elements
Nitrogen (N)
 Nitrogen is essential for plant growth & reproduction

 It is needed by plants for building up proteins
 A plant with adequate nitrogen has good leaf growth & looks healthy and green
Nitrogen deficiency symptoms
1. Stunted or poor growth

2. The yellowing of leaves
3. Poor quality seeds
How to correct nitrogen deficiency
Shortage of nitrogen in the soil can be corrected by:
 Addition of manure or compost

 Addition of fertilisers in the form of nitrates and compounds
 Crop rotation
Phosphorous (P)
 It is important for root development & seed germination

 It is also used in all plant activities that require energy
Symptoms of deficiency
 The leaves become purple

 Poor root development
 Tall thin plants

Correction of deficiency in the soil
 Phosphorous is supplied in the form of soluble phosphate in the fertilisers e.g.

ammonium phosphate
Potassium (K)
 It is important for flowering and fruit formation

 It is also necessary for the neutralisation of organic acids in plants & helps
during the uptake of mineral salts from the soil (active uptake)
Deficiency symptoms
1. Yellowish or brown leaf margins

2. Poor flowering & fruiting
3. Premature death of plant
Correction of deficiency
 Addition of fertilisers e.g. compound D
Experiment 1: to test the effects of nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium on

plants
Materials
1. Bean seedlings
2. 5 test tubes
3. Mineral solutions
4. Aluminium foil or black paint cotton wool
Method
1. Take 5 test tubes or small bottles & label them A to E and fill them all with
water cultures as follows:
 Test tube A- put the complete culture solution containing nitrogen, phosphorous,
& potassium
 Test tube B – put distilled water
 Test tube C- put culture solution with phosphorous & potassium
 Test tube D- put culture solution with nitrogen & phosphorous
 Test tube E-put culture solution with nitrogen & potassium
2. All the test tubes should be covered with aluminium foil or painted black. This is
done to prevent sunlight from entering the solution and so avoid the growth of
algae which may affect mineral content

3. In each test tube place 5 bean seedlings which are more or less identical which
are surrounded by cotton wool to support them
Diagram
Observations and conclusion
1. Plant A is the control, it has the necessary elements for plant growth
2. Plant B has a poor plant growth as there are no nutrients in the water
3. C has got a yellow margined leaves
4. D has brown leaf margins & premature death of plant
5. Plant E there is no root development and seed germination therefore the leaves
become purple and also the plant become thin and tall

Plant pests and diseases
 A pest is an insect or any organism that damages plants or grains
 Common agricultural pests include mammals (rodents, mammals) birds & insects
 The most serious of pests are the insects which damage both crops & livestock
Examples of plant pests and the damage they cause
1. Tissue eating pests- these have biting jaws & use these to eat plant parts,
symptoms include chewed leaves and holes in the plant for example cutworms,
locusts, grasshoppers, cricket, caterpillars e.t.c.Their mouths parts are called
mandibles
2. Sap sucking pests – mouth parts stuck into the leaves to suck out sap. The leaves
become distorted, shrunken and discoloured. They destroy the plant by removing
essential sap from the plant, examples aphids and red spider mite. They mouth
parts are called stylets
Examples of plant diseases
1. Bacteria wilt – this is a disease caused by bacteria, plants will start wilting even
though water is abundantly available. This is caused by the accumulation of
bacteria in xylem vessels breaking the movement of water. They may appear as
nodules on plant roots.
2. Fungal rust- this is caused by microscopic fungi leaving in the stems and leaves
of plants. Rust red spots appear on leaves hence the name fungal rust
3. Powdery mildew – also caused by microscopic fungi and leaves are coated with a
light powder
Why control pests and diseases
1. Plants pests and diseases reduce the yields of crops, this is because they reduce
the surface area available for photosynthesis or slow down plant growth.
2. In extreme cases plant pests can completely destroy crops threatening food
security and causing losses to farmers.
3.
Methods of pest control
There are 3 main methods which are used to control pests:
1. Cultural control
2. Biological control
3. Chemical control

Cultural control
 Involves the use of good farming practises which make more difficult for a pest
to establish itself, example include
1. Early planting-plants grow strong before the numbers of pests have
multiplied
2. Weed control-removes hiding places for pests and reduces their population
3. Crop rotation- same crops are easily attached by certain pests which may
remain dormant in the soil after the harvest. If the next crop is of the same
family the dormant pest will be able to attach it, however if the different
family is planted the dormant will not be able to attack the new plant
4. Clean planting environment-cuttings and seeds used for planting should be
used free of pests before being used. The fields should be fumigated and
last season crop remains should be removed since there may be keeping pests
5. Healthy farming- organic manure and fertilisers make crops grow strong so
that they can resist the attack of pests and diseases
6. Burning or burying- farmers may burn or bury maize stocks after harvest.
This kills of maize stock bores which would otherwise lie dormant during the
dry season. The disadvantage of this method is that it also destroys insects
that are not pests & therefore disturbs the balance of nature
Examples of cultural control in cotton
One of the main types of pests to attack cotton is the bore worm, which is able to
survive from one season to the next as the pupa stage leaving in the soil. Rotating the
cotton crop with maize which is not a food source for bore worm is recommended as
the pupa will die from lack of food when a maize crop is planted.
The pest will either find a new cotton field or it will die. Another cultural control
method for cotton is the closed season after harvesting. Nothing is sawn on the cotton
field for at least 2 months. This makes the soil insects suffer from lack of food and
die leaving the soil pest free for the next crop.
It is important to remove all remaining green plants after harvest to make sure that
the pest larvae do not survive. Most farmers burn the stocks. In Zimbabwe it is illegal
to have unclear field after the close of the cotton and tobacco season.
Biological control
This involves the introduction of parasites & predators which are the natural enemies
of the pests that need to be destroyed e.g. a particular plant called the African
marigold has been known to reduce nematodes population in the soil. Another biological

method can be to pick off the large insects from plants and then kill them; the major
disadvantage of bio control is that the new organisms may start to attack crops that
have been previously resistant to attack.
Chemical control
It can be used to prevent pests. A pesticide is applied to the pest to stop the pest
from attacking them, if a pest attack has just began pesticides can be applied to kill
the pest at various stages of their life cycle. Pesticides can be supplied as solution or
dust sprays to the plant part or organ affected by the pest or disease
Precautions for the use of chemicals
1. Keep chemicals in secure cardboards away from children & away from food &
medicines
2. Read & follow instructions on labels when using a chemical
3. Wear protective clothing such as gloves, face, musk e.t.c
4. Avoid smoking or eating while using chemicals
5. Chemicals should be stored only in their original containers & all empty
containers & all empty containers should be disposed off quickly & safely
Effects of pesticides on pests
1. Stomach poisoning pesticide- these kill pests that eat sprayed crops
2. Systematic pesticides- these are absorbed by the crops & if any pest eat or
suck sap juices from the plant, it is killed.
3. Contact poison pesticides- kills any pest which comes into contact with the
chemical

Advantages & Disadvantages of pest control methods
Cultural control
Advantages
1. It is not expensive
2. It is poison free to the user & the environment
Disadvantages
1. Some of the methods involve hard work e.g. uprooting individual cotton plants
2. Burning – destroys even harmless insects
Biological control
Advantage
1. It is cheap
Disadvantage
1. A new pest maybe attracted by the predator introduced
Chemical control
Advantage
1. It is a chemical which is effective because it kills all pest on the plant
Disadvantage
1. It is an expensive method
2. Introduces poisonous to the environment & is dangerous to the user
3. Kills harmless insects

Animal nutrition
Digestion
Digestion is the breakdown of large molecules of food which cannot be used by
the body into small ones, so that they can be absorbed through the wall of the
alimentary canal.
Types of Digestion
There are two types of digestion;
1. Physical digestion and,
2. Chemical digestion
Physical digestion
Also called mechanical digestion, it breaks down large pieces of food to small
ones mechanically. It is done by the teeth, the muscles in the wall of the
alimentary canal and bile salts.
Chemical Digestion
Involves the use of enzymes which chemically change food from one form to
another.
The Alimentary Canal/The digestive system of a human

Functions of Parts
Mouth – food is taken into the digestive system through the mouth. This is
called ingestion. In the mouth the food is broken down into smaller pieces by
the teeth. This is a form of physical digestion. The process of chewing also
mixes the food with Saliva which has the following functions;
Functions of saliva
1. It lubricates the food which makes the movement of food in the gullet
easy.
2. Saliva contains an enzyme called Salivary Amylase which converts starch
to maltose.
3. It also provides and alkaline environment which is required for the
operation of the enzyme amylase.
The Oesophagus/Gullet
It is a tube which links the mouth to the stomach. Food is moved down this tube
by the process called peristalsis. During the process of peristalsis, muscles
above the food contract and those below the food relax, pushing the food down
the gullet.
The stomach
Food in the stomach is mixed with Gastric juices produced from the walls of the
stomach by a process called churning. The juices have the following purposes;
1. Lubricates the food to make movement easy down the digestive system.
2. Contains hydrochloric acid which kills bacteria ingested with food and
creates the optimum pH for the operation of enzymes.
3. Contains two enzymes, rennin and pepsin. Rennin coagulates milk while
pepsin changes protein to peptides and peptones.
The Duodenum

This is the first section of the small intestines. Pancreatic juice from the
pancreas and bile from the gall bladder are added to the food.
Functions of bile
1. Bile emulsifies (breaks down into smaller particles) fats making their
digestion easy.
2. It also creates the proper pH for the operation of enzymes
Functions of Pancreatic Juice

1. Contains the following enzymes
a. Lipase – this breaks down fats to fatty acids and glycerol
b. Pancreatic Amylase – it breaks down starch to maltose.
c. Trypsin – it breaks down proteins to peptides and peptones.
The Ileum
This is the second section of the small intestines. The ileum has two major
functions, digestion and absorption.
1. Digestion – juices are added to the food which contain the following
enzymes;
a. Lipase – to digest fats to fatty acids and glycerol
b. Maltase – maltose to glucose
c. Peptidases – peptones and peptides to amino acids
d. Sucrase – sucrose to glucose
e. Lactase – Lactose to glucose
2. Absorption – the ileum is very long and contains small finger like
structures called villi which are rich in blood vessels. Both the length and
the villi are designed to increase the surface area available for the
absorption of food substances like glucose and amino acids into the blood
stream.
The Colon
Absorption of water, mineral salts and vitamins into the blood stream takes
place in the colon. It is also called the large intestines.
The Rectum
Holds undigested remains(faeces) of food before egestion.
The Anus – The purpose of the anus is egestion. This is the passing out of waste
food substances from the body.

Other Organs supporting the digestive system.
The liver
The liver is important for the following reasons;
1. The liver produces bile and it is stored in the gall bladder.
2. It regulates levels of sugar in the blood by converting excess glucose to
glycogen and later converting the glycogen back to glucose when sugar
level fall.
3. The liver also breaks down excess proteins into urea and uric acid to
excreted out of the body as urine.
The Pancreas
Pancreatic juice flows into the duodenum. It contains enzymes that digest
starch, proteins and lipids, and also contains sodium hydrogen-carbonate to
partly neutralise the acidity of food coming from the stomach.
Absorption is the movement of digested food molecules through the wall of the
intestine into the blood by the process of diffusion.

Significance of Villii
Villi are finger like projections that increase the surface area for absorption. If a
section of small intestine was turned inside out, its surface would be kike a
carpet. Inside each villus are:
- Blood capillaries: absorb amino acids and glucose.
- Lacteals: absorb fatty acids and glycerol.

Food molecules are absorbed: - mainly by diffusion or by active transport.
Active uptake makes use of energy.
Role of the hepatic portal vein
The hepatic portal vein transports absorbed food from the small intestine to
the liver. After a meal, the blood in this vein contains very high concentrations
of glucose and amino acids, as well as vitamins and minerals. The liver reduces
levels backs to normal levels required by the body.
The absorbed nutrients are carried to the liver in the hepatic portal vein. Some
are used in the liver, some are stored, and some are sent on in the blood to be
delivered to cells all over the body.
Assimilation
This is the use of the absorbed food substances in the body by body cells.
Glucose is used during the process of respiration; Protein is used for growth and
repair of wounds and mineral salts for protection against diseases.
The use of the end products of Digestion

Glucose
1. Excess glucose is converted by the liver and is stored.
2. Excess also converted into fats and are stored around organs and under
the skin.
3. Glucose is used to release energy during the process of respiration.
Glucose + Oxygen Carbon dioxide +

Water + Energy
Insulin
Glucose Glycogen
Adrenalin
Amino Acids
1. Used for the formation (synthesis) of protein e.g. making new cells,
enzymes, hormones and repair of worn out tissues.
2. Excess amino acids are broken down into urea and uric acid by the liver
and excreted out of the body as urine.

Fatty acids and glycerol
1. Are burnt to provide energy to the body especially when glucose is in
short supply.
2. Some are made into cell membranes
3. Excess are converted to fats which insulates the body providing warmth,
and protect organs such as the heart and the intestines.
The Digestive System of a Ruminant

Ruminants eat food that consists mostly of a carbohydrate called cellulose
which can not be digested in the digestive system of non ruminants.
To be able to digest cellulose, ruminants have four stomach chambers as
compared to just one in non ruminants. The four chambers are;
1. Rumen
2. Reticulum
3. Omasum
4. Abomasum
Diagram
The Rumen (the first chamber)

Temporarily stores food as it is being fermented into sugars by a process called
fermrntation. The stomach has bacteria which ferment cellulose changing it to
sugars. Fermented food is then passed to the next stomach.

The reticulum (the second chamber)
The reticulum has holes which roll the food into balls of cud while the animal is
resting. These balls are brought back to the mouth (regurgitated) where the
food is chewed again and swallowed for the second time. Swallowed food moves
to the third stomach.
Abomasum (the fourth stomach)

This is the true stomach and gastric juice is added to the food. All other
processes are the same as with non ruminants.
The digestive system of a rabbit

A rabbit is a non ruminant which eats cellulose as part of its diet. The digestive
system looks almost the same as that of a human except that a rabbit has a
caecum between the small intestines and the large intestines. The caecum
contains bacteria which ferments cellulose to sugars as occurs in the rumen of
ruminants.
Diagram

Growth and Development in Animals
Growth
A permanent increase in size (height, mass etc) acquired by an organsm during
the course of its development
Development
A change in the complexity of the structure and efficiency of an organism
during its life. e.g development of breasts, growing of a beard e.t.c.
Special dietary needs

 Animals need balanced diet for growth and production and therefore
should be given the right kind of food in the right quantities.

Young Animals
 Need extra proteins for growth
 Need extra iron for the formation of red blood cells.
 Calcium and phosphorous are required for the formation of bones and
teeth.
 Vitamins required to fight against diseases.
Pregnant Animals
 A lot of proteins for the building of new tissues of the growing embryo
 Calcium and phosphorous for bone and teeth development.
 Vitamins for healthy living.
Animals for meat productions

 A lot of proteins when the animal is young and growing and a low level of
protein at maturity.
 Increasing level of carbohydrates and fats for energy.
The food conversion efficiency/ rate

 A ratio of the mass gained by an animal in one month to the mass of the
food fed to that animal in the one month. i.e mass gained over mass eaten.
 An animal with a high food conversion efficiency is more profitable to the
farmer because it requires lesser food to produce 1kg of body mass.

Growth curves
 The graph shows how mass changes through time i.e. it shows the rate of
growth of an animal.
 It also shows the best time for slaughter.
 The graph is S shaped.
Diagram
A – B : slow growth rate

B – C : rapid growth rate
C – D : growth rate slowing down but economical
D – E : slow growth rate and uneconomical
Beyond E : no growth at all. At times mass may start coming down with age.
Appropriate time of slaughter.

Week P, which is in line with point D is most appropriate time of slaughter.
Beyond this point mass gain is no longer economical as weight gain is very slow
though the animal is now eating a lot of food.

Summary
The Digestion Process (through the alimentary canal)
1. Mouth
 Chewing and action of salivary amylase (both chemical and mechanical digestion)
2. Oesophagus
 Food passes down by peristalsis
3. Stomach
 Curdling of milk proteins
 Digestion of proteins by pepsin
4. Small intestine
a. Digestion
 action of bile
 action of pancreatic enzymes
 action of intestinal enzymes
b. Absorption of digested products
5. Colon
 absorption of water and mineral salts
6. Rectum
 storage of faeces
7. Anus
 ejection or defecation
Peristalsis
 It is the rhythmic wave-like contractions of the walls of the gut.
 It is caused by the alternate contractions of the circular and longitudinal muscles (smooth
muscles) in the walls.
 It helps to push food along the gut.
Digestive juices

Digestive juice Source Contents
saliva salivary glands salivary amylase and mucin
gastric juice gastric glands in stomach rennin, pepsin, hydrochloric acid
pancreatic juice pancreas pancreatic amylase, trypsin, lipase
intestinal glands in small enterokinase, maltase, lactase,

intestinal juice
intestine sucrase, erepsin, lipase
Digestion of starch, proteins and fats
Starch -------------------------------------------> Maltose --------------------------------------> Glucose

(amylase in saliva & pancreatic juice) (maltase in intestinal juice)
Proteins -------------------------------------> Peptond -------------------------------------> amino acids

(pepsin in gastric juice) (erepsin in intestinal juice)
(trypsin in pancreatic juice)
Fats ------------------------------------------------------> fatty acids and glycerol

(lipase in pancreatic and intestinal juice)
Adaptations of the small intestine for absorption of food substances
 large surface area
 richly supplied with blood capillaries and lymphatic capillaries to carry away absorbed food
substances - this continual removal maintains diffusion gradient for absorption
 vili have thin walls (epithelium only one-cell thick)
 long to provide sufficient time for absorption

Animals, parasites & diseases
 A parasite is an organism which lives on another organism getting its food from
this organism.
Examples
 Ticks
 Liver flukes
 Tapeworms
Diseases
 An unhealthy condition where the body will not be functioning very well because
of the existence of some micro or macro organisms in the body of the animal.
Examples
 foot and mouth

 anthrax
 rabies
 nagana
 Newcastle
 Cocsidiosisses
Foot and mouth
 Is caused by a virus which attacks the mucus membrane of the mouth, and it
usually affects cattle, sheep, goats, pigs
Symptoms
 Blisters on hooves and in mouth

 Profuse and continuous salivation in the mouth
 The animal limp
 High temperature
 Dullness
 Loss in milk
 Loss of appetite
Control
 No treatment since it is a viral disease

 Is a notifiable disease
 Animals must be killed to prevent the spreading of the disease
 Dead animals should be burnt and buried deeply
 Quarantine the affected animal (isolate)
 Regular vaccination every 6 months

Anthrax
 Caused by bacteria (bacillus anthracis)

 It affects cattle, sheep, goats, man
Symptoms
 Blood stained faeces

 Dead animal shows dark watery blood from mouth, anus, nose (any opening)
 Sudden death within 24 hrs
 Loss of appetite
 Dullness
 High temperature
Control
 Use of antibiotics (drugs)

 Vaccination of animals yearly
 Is a notifiable disease
 Guarantee isolation of affected animals
 Dead animals should be burnt and buried deeply 3m
Ticks
 They are external parasites that attach themselves to skin and suck blood
 They spread diseases as they move from one animal to the next.
Control
 Regular dipping once a week in summer and once in two weeks in winter
Tapeworms
 Internal parasites found in the gut

Symptoms
 Segments of tapeworms in faeces

 Slow growth
Control
 Use of drugs
 Good sanitation to prevent infection
 Inspection of carcasses to stop consumption
Liver fluke
 Are small flat worms which infect the liver

Symptoms
 Animals is irritable
Control
 Dosing with a chemical which kills the worms

 Rotational grazing reduces infection by flukes
 Keeping infected animals separate from infected beasts
 Good management

GASEOUS EXCHANGE
 is the physical process to get oxygen into the lungs and waste gases as carbon
dioxide out of the blood
THE HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
 It starts from the mouth and nose down through the trachea/windpipe to
the bronchus and is further passed to the bronchioles to air sacs/ alveoli.
Diagram

The Alveoli
The role of the alveoli
 these are the air sacs through which gaseous exchange takes place in the
lungs.
 They are numerous and their large surface area is good for intake of
oxygenated air and expulsion of deoxygenated air.
 The lining of the alveoli is semi permeable(allowing air only to pass
through).
 Capillaries surrounding the alveolus contain less oxygen than present in
the air sac, thus oxygen diffuse through into the capillaries.
 Carbon dioxide is more in the capillaries than in the air sacs, thus diffuse
through into the air sacs.
Functions of parts of the respiratory system.
1. VOICE BOX
-Is held open by the trachea to allow passage of air
2. TRACHEA
- Is a cartilage structure
- Lining has cilia which are in constant motion and traps dust and dirt
- It also helps in moisturising air

3. BRONCHUS AND BRONCHIOLES
- Channels air to and from the alveoli
- Containing mucus and cilia to trap dust an micro organisms
4. ALVEOLI
- These are small thin walled semi permeable air sacs
- They are numerous and provide a large surface area for gaseous
exchange; this ensures that sufficient oxygen is obtained.
5. Ribs
- Protect lungs
- Are raised during inhalation and lowered to reduce volume and expel
waste gases during exhalation
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN INHALED AND EXHALED AIR
SUBSTANCE INHALED AIR EXHALED AIR

OXYGEN 20% 16%
CARBON DIOXIDE 0.03% 4%
WATER Usually dry Usually moist(high)
TEMPERATURE Lower than exhaled air Higher than inhaled
NITROGEN 79% 79%
GERMS Has Usually does not have
DUST PARTICLES Has Does not have
1 EXPERIMENT
COMPARING INHALED AND EXHALED AIR
MATERIAL
-Beakers, small pipes, limewater

METHOD
-BLOW IN AND OUT THROUGH THE PIPE
RESULTS
-The limewater in ‘A’ turn milky white and in ‘B’ remains the same.
CONCLUISION
-carbon dioxide is present in ‘A’, thus inhaled air has carbon dioxide
RESPIRATION
-The process whereby glucose is broken down to release energy in the presence
of oxygen.
-Occurs inside the cells of living organisms, during the process, carbon dioxide
and water are released.
WORD EQUETION
GLUCOSE+OXYGEN CARBONDIOXIDE+WATER+HEAT ENERGY
-the process is known as aerobic respiration
-the energy produced is used for moving and other activities
-oxygen is used up and carbon dioxide released.
2. EXPERIMENT

-WHICH GAS IS RELEASED DURING RESPIRATION
MATERIALS
-small animal e.g. rat, frog; limewater; three test tubes; potassium hydroxide;
glass/rubber tubing
METHOD
-Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram
-the apparatus compare the amount of carbon dioxide in inhaled and exhaled air
DIAGRAM
RESULTS
-limewater in ‘B’ turned milky white and that in ‘A’ remained clear
CONCLUISION
-limewater in ‘B’ turned milky white because the carbon dioxide concentration is
high.

COMPARING RESPIRATION AND PHOTOSYNTHESIS
RESPIRATION PHOTOSYTHESIS
Catabolic-carbohydrates are broken Anabolic- carbohydrates are
down. manufactured
Oxygen is taken in Oxygen is taken in
Carbon dioxide is given off Carbon dioxide is taken in
Energy is released Energy is absorbed and stored
3 EXPERIMENT
TO SHOW THAT HEAT IS PRODUCED DURING RESPIRATION
MATERIAL
-two thermo flasks; germinating seeds; cotton wool; thermometers
METHOD
1. Divide the germinating seeds into two equal sets

2. Boil one set and disinfect it
3. Place the two sets of seeds and thermometers into the thermo flasks
4. Record temperature at the beginning and after 30 minutes
RESULTS
- The temperature in ‘A’ will be higher than ‘B’ because dead seeds do not
germinate
CONCLUISION
- Germinating seeds produce heat through respiration.

Transport in plants
Introduction
Plants have a circulatory system just like animals, but they do have a sophisticated
transport system for carrying water and mineral salts to different parts of the plant,
Plants require water and mineral salts from the soil and carbon dioxide from the air to
make food. The food is made in the leaves of green plants. Other parts of the plant like
the stem and the roots require food and oxygen to release energy required for carrying
out life processes.
Structure of the root and stem to prove that plants take in water
Root Structure
Epidermis-an outer layer of cells often with long extensions called root hairs. It
provides protection
Cortex-it is region between the epidermis and the vascular cylinder. It stores food for
the plant in the form of cellulose and it supports the plant.
Endodermis-it is a layer of tightly packed cells containing a waterproof just outside

vascular cylinder. This prevents the movement of water between the cells.

Pericycle-it is a cylindrical layer of cells inside endodermis. Origin of cork and
secondary (side) roots
Vascular tissue- it is the arrangement of vascular tissue as a central cylinder in roots.

This is shown as the large circular area in the middle of the root structure. This
contains xylem and phloem cells, which are continuous with the stem vascular bundles
Xylem cells- these are living (outer) vascular system carrying water and minerals
throughout the plant
Phloem cells- these are living (inner) vascular system carrying dissolved sugars and
organic compounds throughout the plant
Stem Structure
The plant stem performs the following essential functions:
 Supports the plant and leaves
 Carries water and food in vascular bundles
 Photosynthesis occurs in new green stems
The structure of the stem allows it to perform these functions efficiently. The
diagram below show the internal stem structure of a typical dicotyledonous plant
Pith- it is the large central area for storage of food and support. It may be absent in
older plants (they’re hollow)
Cambium-it is found as a circle around inner stem and outer surface. Forms woody
secondary tissue for support

Cortex- it is composed of various packed cells to give young plants strength and
flexibility. It is a storage area between the cambium and epidermis
Epidermis-thin layer of skin cells. It provides protection and it may be absent replaced
by bark
Xylem-water conduction up
Phloem-sap (organic molecules) conduction usually down to the roots
Diffusion and Osmosis
Diffusion
It is correctly defined as the movement of particles from a region of higher
concentration (many particles in a small area) to a region of lower concentration (few
particles in a small area) through a diffusion gradient.
When the particles are released in the surroundings, they move randomly until there is
an even distribution of particles throughout. It is mostly seen in liquids and gases, this
is because solid particles are held together very closely and cannot move very far.
Diffusion not only occurs in everyday life within the environment, it also occurs within
the bodies of living organisms’ e.g.
 The oxygen and nutrients from a mother is transported across the placenta via
diffusion to the foetus during pregnancy
 Carbon dioxide needed for photosynthesis is diffused from the atmosphere into
the plants through pores called the stomata
The rate at which diffusion occurs depends on the concentration gradient. The
concentration gradient is the gradual difference in concentration between two regions.
The greater the difference in the concentration, the steeper the concentration
gradient and the faster diffusion will occur.

Diagram showing diffusion
Osmosis
It is correctly defined as the movement of particles from a region of higher

concentration (abundant) to a region of lower concentration (less abundant) through a
partially permeable membrane. It is often regarded as a form of diffusion in which only
water molecules move. Osmosis occurs until both areas have the same concentration of
particles (equilibrium is met)

Turgidity
Plasmolysis
Transpiration

It is the loss of water from parts of the plant above the ground due to evaporation. It
helps to cool down plants. Transpiration takes place primarily through the stomata
(pore on the underside of the leaf). The rate of transpiration is affected by many
factors such as:
 Light intensity
 Temperature humidity
 Wind
 Water supply
The rate of photosynthesis is measured using an instrument called a potometer
A Potometer
Importance of transpiration
Transpiration is not simply a hazard to plant life; it is the engine that pulls the water up
from the roots to:
1. Supply photosynthesis (1%-2% of the total)

2. Bring minerals from the roots to the leaf
3. Cool the leaf
Factors affecting transpiration
Light intensity

Plants transpire more rapidly in the light than in the dark. This is largely because light
stimulates the opening of the stomata. An increase in light intensity results in the
increase of rate of transpiration due to an increase in stomata opening. This is a
problem for some plants as they may lose water during the day and wilt
Temperature
Plants transpire faster at higher temperatures; this is because the rate of evaporation
increases with temperature. At 30 degrees a leaf may transpire three times as fast as
it does at 20 degrees. Temperature also reduces air humidity, so transpiration
incerases
Humidity
Humidity means a higher water potential (concentration) in the air, so the lower a water
concentration gradient between the leaf and the air, so less evaporation.

Humidity can be defined as the relative amount of water in the atmosphere. If the air
is dry then the diffusion gradient would be greater from the plant to the atmosphere.
There would be an increase in the diffusion of water vapour out of the stomata and into
the atmosphere. If the air is humid (containing a lot of water) then the opposite would
be true, and very little water would diffuse out of the atmosphere
Wind
Very little wind means water vapour on the leaf is not swept away and this result in an
increase in humidity; there by resulting in lower rate of transpiration. When there is a
breeze humid air is carried away and an increase in transpiration is experienced
Water supply
If the plant has very little water available, it will close its stomata. This will of course
cause a decrease in the rate of transpiration. If absorption of water by the roots fails
to keep up with the rate of transpiration, loss of turgor occurs and the stomata close;
this reduces transpiration and as well as photosynthesis. If the loss of turgor extends
to the rest of the leaf and stem, the plant will wilt

The circulatory system
Functions of the circulatory System
Transport systems are required to transport goods and people from where they are
produced and live to where they are required. Animals also have a transport system to
transport substances from where they are produced to where they are wanted or
excreted. The following are some of the functions of a human transport system.
 To transport food nutrients from the digestive system to all cells

 To transport oxygen from the lungs to the cells.
 To remove wastes such as urea and uric acid from the liver to the kidneys
 To remove carbon dioxide from the cells to the lungs.
 To carry hormones around the body
 Distribution of heat around the body for temperature control
Components of the circulatory system.

The Circulatory system is made up of three major components;
1. The blood
2. Blood vessels, and
3. The heart.
The Blood
The blood is made up of two major components
1. Blood Plasma, and
2. Blood Cells (red blood cells, white blood cells and blood platelets)
Activity: Allowing blood to stand

If blood is allowed to stand without clotting, it separates out into 4
components: plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets.
The plasma and red blood cells play an important role in the transportation of substances,
around the body. White blood cells and platelets are part of the body's immune system.

Blood Plasma
Is the liquid part of blood which carries all the other components of the blood around the
body. 55% of the blood is plasma. This straw-coloured liquid contains water with many
important dissolved substances which must be carried around the body. Most
materials are carried by the blood plasma either in solution or
suspension, except for oxygen which is carried by the red blood cells.
Plasma transports:
 blood cells (red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets)
 soluble nutrients e.g. glucose and amino acids (products of digestion) from the
small intestine to the organs
 amino acids (plasma acts as a pool for amino acids for these cannot be stored in the
body)
 Plasma proteins that are important in blood clotting (e.g. fibrinogen).
 Carbon dioxide (waste gas produced by respiration in cells) from the organs to
lungs
 Other wastes of digestion (e.g. urea) from the liver to the kidneys.
 Antibodies and antitoxins produced by white blood cells
 Hormones
 Heat from the liver and muscles to all parts of the body.
1. Red blood cells
 They are made in the bone marrow of some bones, including ribs, vertebrae and some
limb bones.
 Transport Oxygen from lungs to all respiring tissues.
 Contain haemoglobin, a red iron-containing pigment which can carry Oxygen. In the
lungs, Haemoglobin combines with Oxygen to form oxy-haemoglobin. In other organs,
oxy-haemoglobin splits up into Haemoglobin and Oxygen.
 Red blood cells have no nucleus.
 Have a special biconcave disc shape which increases the surface area and makes the
diffusion of oxygen into & out of the cell easier.

 Old red blood cells are broken down in the liver, spleen and bone marrow. Some of
the iron from the Haemoglobin is stored, and used for making new Haemoglobin, some of
it is turned into bile which is used during digestion.
2. White blood cells
 These are made in the bone marrow and in the lymph nodes.
 They have a nucleus, and shape of nucleus depends on type as shown in the diagram
above.
 Can move around and squeeze out through the walls of blood capillaries into all parts of
the body to fight off infection.
 There are two main different kinds of white blood cells and all have the function
of fighting pathogens (disease-causing bacteria and viruses) and to clear up any dead body
cells in your body:
a. Phagocytes
 Have a lobed nuclei and granular cytoplasm.
 Can move out of capillaries to the site of an infection.
 Remove any microorganisms that invade the body and might cause
infection, engulf (ingest) and kill them by digesting them.
b. Lymphocytes
 produce antibodies to fight bacteria and foreign materials.
 Have large nuclei
 Responsible for immunity
3. Platelets.

Platelets are responsible for blood clotting. When an injury occurs, fibrinogen in the
blood interacts with platelets to form insoluble fibrin. This forms a net over the wound
and the net traps blood cells plugging the wound and stopping the bleeding.
Necessity for blood clotting
 Prevent excessive blood loss from the body when there is a damage of the blood
vessel.
 Maintain the blood pressure.
 Prevent the entry of microorganism and foreign particles into the body.
 Promote wound healing.
Summary of the Composition of the blood.

Blood Vessels.
These are the tubes through which blood flows around the body. There are 3 main kinds
of blood vessels – arteries, veins and capillaries. Blood leaves the heart through arteries.
These break up into smaller arterioles which divide again and again, and eventually form
very tiny vessels called capillaries. The capillaries gradually join up with one another to
form large vessels called veins. Veins carry blood towards the heart.
Plan of the main blood vessels in the human body
The comparison of blood vessels structure and functions

The transfer of materials between capillaries and tissue fluid
As blood enters capillaries from arterioles (small arteries), it slows down. This
allows substances in the plasma, as well as Oxygen from red blood cells,
to diffuse through the capillary wall into the surrounding tissues (the capillary wall is
thin and permeable).
Liquid in the plasma also passes out. This forms tissue fluid, bathing the cells. Waste
products from the cells, e.g. Carbon dioxide, diffuse back through the capillary walls into
the plasma. Some of the tissue fluid also passes back.
Diffusion is responsible for the transfer of materials between capillaries and tissue fluid.

Structure and function of the heart

The function of the heart is to pump blood around the body. It has two distinct sides, the
right side and the left side. The right side pumps blood to the lungs and the left side
pumps blood to the rest of the body.
The heart consists of four chambers, four on either side. The top two chambers are called
atria (Atrium for a single chamber) and the two bottom chambers are called ventricles.
The atria and ventricles are separated by valves as shown on the diagram below. These
valves prevent the backflow of blood to the atria as the heart contracts.
Blood circulation
1. Blood in the right ventricle (RV) is pumped to the lungs

2. Blood from the lungs flows back into the left atrium (LA)(through the pulmonary
vein) and then is pumped into the left ventricle (LV).
3. Blood in the LV is pumped to the rest of the body (except for the lungs) through
the aorta.
4. Blood returns to the heart where it enters the right atrium (RA) through the Vena
cava.
5. The right atrium pumps blood to the right ventricle.
Muscular contraction
The heart is made of a special type of muscle called cardiac muscle which contracts and
relaxes regularly, throughout life. The heart’s muscle is constantly active, so it needs its
own blood supply, through the coronary artery, to provide it with oxygen and glucose.
Working of the valves

1. Valves in the heart prevent blood from being pushed backwards up into the atria
when the heart ‘beats’.
2. Semi lunar valves at the bottom of the aorta and pulmonary artery prevent the
back flow of blood into the ventricles when the muscles of the heart relax.
3. Valves found in the veins prevent the backflow of blood to the body as pressure in
the veins is now very low and blood is moved by the action of muscles.
The double circulation
Beginning at the lungs, blood flows into the left-hand side of the heart, and then out to
the rest of the body. It is brought back to the right-side of the heart, before going back to
the lungs again. This is called a double circulation system, because the blood travels
through the heart twice in one complete journey around the body:
 one circuit links the heart and lungs (low pressure circulation)
 the other circuit links the heart with the rest of the body (high pressure
circulation).
The importance of a double circulation
Oxygenated blood is kept separate from deoxygenated blood. The septum in the heart
ensures this complete separation. Oxygenated blood flows through the left side of the
heart while deoxygenated blood flows through the right.
The blood pressure in the body circulation is kept higher than that in the pulmonary
circulation. The left ventricle, with a thicker wall, pumps blood under higher pressure to
the body and delivers oxygenated blood effectively to all parts of the body. The right

ventricle has a thinner wall and pumps blood to the lungs under lower pressure, thereby
avoiding any lung damage.
The right side of the heart collects deoxygenated blood from the body and pumps it to
the lungs. The left side collects oxygenated blood from the lungs and pumps it to
the body.
Major Blood Vessels of the Circulatory System

Aorta - Carries blood from the heart to the rest of the body and the blood is oxygenated.
Pulmonary Artery - Carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs.
Pulmonary vein - Carries oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart
Vena Cava - carries deoxygenated blood from the body to the heart.
Hepatic artery - Carries oxygenated blood to the liver.
Hepatic Vein - Carries deoxygenated blood from the liver to the vena cava.
Renal Artery - Carries oxygenated blood to the kidneys.
Renal Vein - Caries deoxygenated blood from the kidneys.
NB: All arteries carry oxygenated blood except the Pulmonary Artery which has de
oxygenated blood. All veins carry de oxygenated blood except the Pulmonary Vein which
carries Oxygenated Blood.

Reproduction in Plants
Reproduction is a characteristic of all living organisms. It is the process by
which organisms make more of their kind. There are two types of reproduction,
1. Asexual reproduction and
2. Sexual reproduction.
Sexual Reproduction
Sexual reproduction is the process involving the fusion of male sex cells and
female sex cells to produce a new offspring.
The structure of a flower

1 Stigma  Receives pollen grains during the process of
pollination
 Produces a sticky substance to ensure pollen
grains get stuck
2 Style  Supports the stigma
 Provides pathway for pollen tube to the
ovules
3 Ovary  Produces ovules
 Later develops into fruit after fertilisation
4 Ovule  Are the female sex cells
 Develops into a seed after the process of
fertilisation
5 Petals  Attract insects for pollination by their bright
colour and nice scent
 Their shape promotes pollination as they
direct insects towards the nectaries
6 Sepals  Protects the flower bud
7 Anther  Produces pollen grains
8 Pollen grains  These are the male sex cells
In a plant, the organs which are responsible for sexual reproduction are the
flowers. The diagram below shows a typical flower.
Structure of a flower - Diagram

Sex cells are called gametes. The male gametes are produced by the anthers
and are inside the pollen grains. The female gametes are produced by the ovary
and are inside the ovules. Some flowers can produce both male and female
gametes. They are called hermaphrodite.
Pollination:
Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anthers of a flower to the
stigma of a flower.

Methods of Pollination
There are two methods of pollination,
1. insect pollination and

2. wind pollination.
Some flowers pollinate by insects while others pollinate by wind and wind and
insects can also be called the agents of pollination.
Insect pollination
Insect pollinating flowers have special attractive features like brightly colored
petals, attractive scents and sugary nectar. These features’ aim is to attract
insects like bees to come and collect their nectar. While an insect is collecting
the nectar, its body will touch the anthers. The pollen grains of insect
pollinating flowers have hooks and spikes all over them in order to stick to the
bodies of the insect that touch it. When this happens, the pollen grain sticks to
the body of the insect. When the insect moves on to another flower to collect
its nectar, the pollen grain falls off the insect onto the stigma of the flower,
thus insect pollination took place.
Wind Pollination
Wind pollinating flowers however look very different from insect pollinating
ones. This is because they do not need attractive features such as bright colors
and scents and nectar to attract insects. Instead, their petals are green or
brown with their anthers and stigmas hanging outside the flower to be exposed
to the wind. When wind is strong enough, it will blow the pollen grains off the
anther and carry it along. At some point the wind will get weaker and the pollen
grain will land, if it lands on the stigma of a flower of the same species then the
pollination was successful. The surface of pollen grains of wind pollinated plants
is smooth because it does not need spikes to catch on insects.
Comparing wind pollinated and insect pollinated flowers

Insect pollinated Flowers Wind Pollinated Flowers
Petals Petals are bright and Dull coloured, usually green or

produce a nice scent to brown and produce no scent as
attract insects there is no need to attract insects
Size of pollen Produce large sticky pollen Produce small smooth pollen grains
grains grains which are light enough to be
carried by the wind
Quantity of Relatively small number of Produces a large quantity of pollen
pollen grains pollen grains as chances of grains to increase the chances of
produced pollination are high pollination
Position of Inside the flower Are hanging outside the flower

stigma and
anthers
Nectaries They have nectarines No need for nectaries
which produce nectar to
attract insects
Types of Pollination
There are two type of pollination
1. Self Pollination and
2. Cross Pollination:
Self pollination - The transfer of a pollen grain from the anther to the stigma
of the same flower or the stigma of a flower of the same plant.
Advantages of self pollination
1. Good characteristics can be maintained in the offspring because there is

no variation.
2. Chances of success for self pollination are much greater especially were
plant population is small.
Cross Pollination - The transfer of a pollen grain from the anthers of one plant
to the stigma of a flower on another plant of the same species.
Self pollination is considered sexual reproduction because it involves the fusion

of two gametes together even though they might come from the same flower or
plant.

Why cross pollination is considered desirable
1. It causes variation in plants which allows plants to adapt to changing
environments. This prevents the extinction of plant species.
2. It allows the breeding of better varieties by combining plants with desired
characteristics.
How are plants adapted to promote cross pollination

1. Unisex plants – some plants have female plants and male plants and no plant can
pollinate itself e.g. paw paw plant
2. Stigmas and anthers of plants in certain plants mature at different times. The
stigma matures earlier than the anthers and can only receive pollen from
another plant.
3. Anthers which are lower than stigmas. This ensures that insects touch the
stigma on their way in with pollen from another plant. On their way out, they
crawl out using the petals carrying pollen from this flower to another plant.
4. Self sterilisation – some plants produce chemicals on the stigma which do not
allow pollen from the same plant to develop.
Disadvantages of Cross pollination

Refer to advantages of self pollination.
Fertilization
 This is the fusion of the male and female sex cells to produce a zygote. It
occurs after a pollen grain has landed on the stigma of a flower of the
same species.
 The stigma produces chemicals that cause the pollen grain to develop a
pollen tube.
 The pollen tube then grows down the style until it reaches the ovule in
the ovary.
 The nucleus of a pollen grain moves down the tube until it gets inside the
ovule where it fuses with the nucleus the ovule.
 The fusion produces a zygote which develops first into an embryo and
latter the whole ovule develops into a seed.

Diagram
Results of fertilization
1. The fused nuclei develop into a zygote further develops into an embryo
(made up of the plumule and the radical). This develops into a new plant
during germination.
2. The ovule becomes the seed.
3. The ovary develops into a fruit.
Seeds and Fruits:

During the early stages of fertilization, some parts of the flower become
useless, they die and fall off. These parts include the sepals, the petals and the
stamens.
The fertilized ovule becomes a seed. Inside the seed is the zygote which
develops into an embryo plant. An embryo plant has a shoot called plumule and a
root called a radicle. The plant makes food for the seed and brings it to the
seed where it is stored in a structure called cotyledon inside the seed. The
outside layer of the ovule becomes thicker and harder and is now called the
testa. In the seed there is a hole called the micropyle, this is the hole through
which the male gamete entered the ovule. When the seed is fully grown, it
becomes dormant. That means it loses its water and metabolic reactions inside
it stop. These reactions are reactivated when the seed is planted in favourable
conditions including water and air; this is when the seed grows into a new plant.
This enables the seed to survive hostile conditions until it is put in somewhere
where it can grow into a plant.
The ovary of a flower contains many ovules. The ones that are fertilized turn
into seeds and the ovary its self turns into a fruit in which the seeds are. The
function of the fruit is to protect the seeds and to disperse them from the
parent plant to colonize new area.
SEED DISPERSAL
 This is the scattering of seeds away from the parent plant and is
important for two reasons,
o It helps the plant to spread to new areas.
o It prevents the overcrowding of plants around the parent plant
where competition for water, mineral salts and sunlight will prevent
healthy growth.
Methods of seed dispersal
1. Wind dispersal occurs in plant with seeds which have wing like structures
which allow the wind to carry them to new areas.
2. Some plants have small horns or thorns which enable them to stick to
animal skins and are carried to new areas.

3. Some plants produce fruits which are sweet and edible. Animals eat them
and drop the seeds in their dung some distance away from the parent
plant.
4. Some fruit split with great force throwing the seeds some distance away
from the parent plant
Seed Germination
Germination is the process by which a seed develops into a new plant. A seed remains
dormant until it is put in suitable conditions to start growing. These conditions
are:
 Water(moisture)
 Air (oxygen)
 Suitable temperature(Warmth)
If the seed is put in an area of these conditions it will start germinating.

Germinating includes the following steps:
1. The water activates enzymes stored in the seed,

2. Enzymes start to digest the starch stored in the seed into sugars,
3. Suitable temperature is required for the optimum operation of these
enzymes and oxygen is required for respiration.
4. The sugars produced are taken to the embryo and are used as an energy
source for growth,
5. The radicle (root) grows first, fixing the seedling into the soil where it
can absorb more water,
6. The seed is now called a seedling,
7. Then the shoot grows vertically,
8. Once the shoot grows the first green leaf the seedling becomes fully
independent (before that it was depending on food stored inside the
seed)
9. The plant is now able to photosynthesise and make its own food.
Types of Seeds
There are two types of seeds;
1. Dicotyledonous seeds and

2. Monocotyledonous seeds
Structure of a dicotyledonous seed

Diagram
Structure of the monocotyledonous seeds
Diagram
Functions of Parts on a seed
1.
Radicle - develops into the root system.
2.
Plumule - develops to form the shoot, stem and leaves
3.
Cotyledon - a store of food which is used during germination.
4.
Endosperm -stores food which is used during germination.
5.
Testa/Coat - protects the seed.
6.
Micropyle - allows water and oxygen to enter the seed for germination
to occur and also allows carbon dioxide produced during respiration to
leave the seed.
7. Hilum - shows the place where the seed was attached to the ovary.
Differences between a maize seed and a bean seed.
Bean Seed Maize Seed

1. Has two cotyledons Has one cotyledon

2. Does not have an endosperm Has an endosperm
3. Has a micropyle Does not have a micropyle
Experiment
Aim: To investigate the conditions necessary for germination.
Materials
Maize/bean seeds, 4 transparent containers, cotton wool, filter paper, pyrogallic

acid and water.
Method
1. Take four batches of ten seeds per batch.

2. Set them up in four different conditions as shown in the diagram above;
A. Water + oxygen + low temperature (put in fridge or in ice blocks)
B. Oxygen + suitable temperature + no water
C. Water + suitable temperature + no oxygen
D. Water + suitable temperature + oxygen (this is the control)
3. Leave the apparatus for seven days and observe what happens.
4. Record the results and calculate percentage germination.
Observations
A. All seeds in A did not germinate because there was no suitable

temperature.
B. All seeds in B did not germinate because dry seeds do not have enough
moisture to germinate.
C. All seeds in C did not germinate because the pyrogallic acid removed all
the oxygen from the air. Seeds cannot germinate without oxygen.

D. Some seeds in D germinated because this set up had all the conditions
necessary for germination to occur. (oxygen, moisture and suitable
temperature)
NB: a seed has germinated when a young root or radicle appears through the
tough testa. The shoot will appear later.
Calculating percentage germination
% Germination = No of seeds which germinated X 100

No of seeds planted
In setup D above: ten seeds where planted and eight seeds germinated. The %
germination is calculated as follows;
% Germination = 8 X 100
10
= 80 %
Vegetative reproduction / Asexual reproduction
 Occurs when a piece of the parent plant is taken and used to grow a new plant.
 No sex cells are used during this type of reproduction.
 Plants which use this type develop modified parts such as roots, stems and
leaves which can develop into new plants.
Two types of vegetative reproduction
a) Natural vegetative reproduction:- new plants develop naturally from the parts of
the parent plant.
b) Artificial vegetative reproduction:- new plants develop only with the
intervention of humans from parts of parent plant.
Natural reproduction
1. Stem Tubers e.g. potatoes

o These are swollen parts at the end of an underground stem and they
store food during photosynthesis.
o They have buds (eyes) which can develop into new plants

Diagram
2. Root tubers e.g. sweet potatoes

 These are swollen parts of roots which store food during
photosynthesis. They also have buds from which will develop new
plants if the right conditions exist.
3. Rhizome e.g. strawberry plants, couch grass

 Is an underground stem that grows horizontally underground and have
nodes from which new stems will develop towards the surface to
produce new plants.

Diagram
Artificial vegetative reproduction
i. Cuttings e.g. sweet potatoes, sugar cane, cassava

 Small parts of the plant are used to produce other plants. These
portions of the parent plant are put into the ground in wet soil and
will eventually grow into a new plant.

Diagram of a cutting
ii. Layering
 a branch or shoot is pegged underground while still attached to the
parent plant.
 Roots will develop on the buried part and it is cut off from the parent
plant.
Advantages of vegetative reproduction
1. New plants have the good features of the parent plant as there is no variation.
2. There is a higher chance of survival for the new plant as it has a larger store of
food.
3. Plants mature much more quickly as there is no time wasted during germination.
4. No need to find a mating partner and therefore it is quicker. The methods do
not need pollination, fertilisation, and seed dispersal.
5. Asexual reproduction is beneficial in an unchanging environment where the
parent organism is well adapted to survive
Disadvantages of vegetative reproduction
1. No genetic variation and therefore no improvement to meet changes in the

environment or diseases. This can lead to extinction of species.
2. Overcrowding leads to competition for nutrients, water, and light. This affects
the growth of plants.
3. Pests and disease spread quickly because of overcrowding.
4. Not possible to obtain large number of plants in a short time compared with
seeds

Inheritance
Inheritance is the process by which characteristics are passed on from one generation
to another in living organisms. Genes contain the information that is passed from a
parent to an offspring.
Variation
These are differences between members of one kind of organisms. The way in which
individual organisms are similar or different to each other is determined by
 The genetic information they contain. (genotype)

 The effect of environment in which they live
The interaction between the genotype and the environment results in the phenotype.
Phenotype refers to the physical appearance of an organism i.e. a set of characteristics
which make up the organism
Factors affecting variation
i. Genetic makeup (heritable)

ii. Environment (non-heritable)
Types of variation
a. Discontinuous variation
Occurs where there are clear cut differences between organisms with no
intermediates. Is not usually affected by the environment and there is a limited
number of alternatives. e.g. sex, blood groups, ability to roll the tongue, eye colour,
albinism, left or right handed, coat colour in animals etc
Diagram of discontinuous variation
b. Continuous variation
 Occurs where differences between organisms show a gradual change. It is due
to interactions between the environment and the genotype and is most likely to
be influenced by the environment. e.g. height in humans, weight, mass, seeds in a
pod, shoe size

Selection
 to select is to pick up / out the most suitable
Types of selection
a. Natural selection
b. Artificial selection
Natural selection
 Is the mechanism for change

 Is a mechanism for which organisms which are better adapted to the
environment tend to have increase the chance of survival i.e. is a means of
checking population of organisms
 It is the effect of the environment on the survival of organisms
 Organisms must change as the environment changes
 In such circumstances, any organism that becomes better adapted through a
change in its inherited characteristics has a selective advantage
 Nature as it were, selects the individuals which are sufficiently and allows them
to survive, rejects those that are poorly adapted (weeding out)
 E.g. change in body structure, resistance to diseases
Artificial selection
 Development of improved types of domesticated organisms useful to human by

selective breeding
 Main purpose is to provide useful varieties
 To produce improved stock
 Organisms showing variation which are desirable are selectively breed with each
other
 E.g. milk and meat yields
 Resistance to diseases
 Drought tolerant
 Large size / early maturity
Selection methods
i. Cull
ii. Castration
iii. Choosing breed mate
Breeding

 Selection for desired characteristics
 (i.e.) production of offspring by sexual means
Types of breeding
a. Cross breeding / out breeding

b. Inbreeding / line breeding
Cross breeding
 Mating of unrelated animals

 Aim to introduce new genes into the herd and obtain the best from both sides
Pros of cross breeding
 Desirable characteristics are produced

 Offspring so produced are hybrids
 Hybrids vigour improves survival (less mortality)
Cons of cross breeding
 Some hybrids are not fertile
Application of cross breeding
 Milk production
 Meat production
 Early maturity
 Resistance to diseases
 Drought tolerance
 Increased productivity
Inbreeding
 Practised in between closely related animals each with desirable characteristics

 A pure breeding line is established
Pros of inbreeding
 Animals are more uniform in nature
Cons of inbreeding
 Less productive
 Increased mortality
 Undesirable characteristics or defects persist and become more prevalent

Ecosystems
 It is a self contained system of interdependent organisms and their physical
environment.
Components of an Ecosystem
a) Biotic (biological components)

 living organisms like plants and animals
b) Abiotic(physical factor)non living
 Air ,water ,soil ,rocks ,and mineral salts
Definition of Terms
1. Habitat
 A place where organisms live e.g. wood, land, forest, a pond, a plantation.
2. Niche
 The role in which an organism plays in the habitat.
3. Species diversity
 A variety of organism occupying different niches
 A high species diversity makes for a stable ecosystem in that there will
always be some organisms that are able to survive natural disasters.
4. Scat analysis
 Is getting information about organisms in an area by looking at
their droppings.
 A closer look at droppings can give you information such as diet of
the animals that is whether it’s a carnivore, herbivore or an
omnivore.
5. Biomass
 Is the total living mass of organisms in an area
6. Litter mass
 Is the dead organic matter found on the surface of the soil
7. Basal cover
 Is the portion of ground covered by plants basis on the soil
surface

Soil as an ecosystem
What is soil
 A complex mixture of small particles of rock and humus

 The first layer of the earth’s surface on which plants can grow i.e.
the loose layers of materials which covers the earth’s crust
supplying anchorage and nutrients to plants
Physical components of soil
 Water
 Air
 Rock particles
 Mineral salts
Biological components of soil
 Humus
 Plant roots
 Micro- organisms e.g. bacteria& fungi
 Macro- organisms e.g. earthworms, ants, termites, insects, larvae,
and nematodes
Formation of soil
 The formation of soil is a dynamic process

 It is an outcome of –
 The disintegration ,through chemical action of the parent
rock material
 The formation and incorporation of humus
 The movement of minerals dissolved in the water
percolating through it
Weathering agents
1) Temperature
The expansion and contraction of a rock due to heating during the day
and cooling during the night causing exfoliation
2) Wind
Abrasive action of sand blown by the acts on exposing the rock surface
and wears them away
3) Water in river

It moves stones causing them to rub &knock against each other; finally
they chip off or break up
4) Rain water
Rain drops constantly heating down on rock weather them away slowly
Carbon dioxide dissolved into rain water forms a weak carbonic acid
5) Plants
Roots grow into cracks in the rock: as the roots grow the cracks get
bigger eventually the rock splits
6) Animals
Some animals by burrow help to break up rocks
Formation of the soil constituents
I. Inorganic particles
Formed from rocks which have weathered & broken down
II. Mineral salts
As dissolved out salts either from the surrounding rock or from humus in the
soil
III. Water
Is spread around inorganic particles as a thin film which adhere by capillary
action
IV. Air
Occurs in spaces between the soil particles
V. Humus
Originates mainly from decaying plant and animal remains
VI. Micro & macro-organisms
The most important to plant life are the bacteria which cause decay but also
includes ants, earthworms etc
Types of soil
 Sand
 Clay
 Loam
Sand soil
 a soil which is made up of large or coarse particles
 particles size range from 2 to 0,02 mm in diameter
 poor water retaining capacity
 has good drainage
 has good aeration

Clay soil
 soil is made up of very fine particles less than 0,002mm in diameter
 good water retaining capacity
 poor drainage
 poor aeration
Loam soil
 is a mixture of clay and sand

 good water retaining capacity
 good aeration
 good drainage
 not too difficult to work on
Experiments
Experiment 1
Aim: to find the air content of soils (sand, clay, and loam)
Tools: sand, clay, and loam soil, measuring cylinder
Method
1. Pour 50cm3 of water into 50cm3 of sand in a measuring cylinder
2. Stir& allow the mixture to settle

Diagram
Observation
 what is the new volume of the mixture of sand and water

 what is the percentage of air in the soil
Results
 When sand soil & water were mixed together the volume of the mixture was less
than the separate volume of the sand plus the volume of the water
N.B. Expected total volume = (50+50) cm3=100cm3of sand &water
Actual volume of mixture=72cm3
Explanation
 The water sinks into the soil and fill up the air spaces
 This reduces the volume of mixture
Volume of air displacement by water = (100-72) cm3
=28cm3
 Percentage air content that was in the soil
=volume of air ×100 / volume of soil
=28/50×100
=56%

Experiment 2
Aim: to find the water content of the soil
Tools: loam, sand, clay soils, evaporating dish, boiling tin, balance, burner, stand
Method
1. Measure 50g of moist loam soil. Weigh an evaporating dish and then place the
50g soil in it.
2. Heat the soil in the evaporating dish with steam as shown below. This ensures
that water from the soil evaporates, but the soil’s humus content is not burnt.
3. Heat the soil until the mass becomes constant. Turn off the burner &allow the
soil to cool.
Results
 Mass of evaporating dish =20g

 Mass of moist loam soil =50g
 Mass of evaporating dish& moist loam soil =70g
 Mass of evaporating dish& dry loam soil =60g
 Mass of water that evaporated =10g
Percentage of water content of loam soil =10/50×100
=20%

Experiment 3
Aim: To find the humus content of loam soil
Tools: evaporating dish, loam soil, wire gauze, burner
Method
1. The dry soil from experiment 2 can now be directly heated on a tin lid until the
soil reaches a constant mass. To achieve this you will have to keep heating it and
weighing it until it’s mass remain constant. heat it for 30 min in the first
instance and then for 10 min intervals, measuring the mass each time until it’s
constant. The humus will be burnt.
2. Extinguish the burner and leave the soil to cool then weigh it again.
Diagram
Results
 Mass of dish and moist loam soil (from ex2) =70g

 Mass of dish and dry soil before heating on a wire gauze =60g
 Mass of dish =20g
 Mass of dish & soil after heating on a wire gauze =56g
Mass of humus = mass of wet soil – mass of dry soil
=70g – 60g
=10g
Percentage of humus content = mass of humus/mass of moist soil ×100
=10/70×100
=14, 28%

Experiment 4
Aim: Drainage and holding capacity of soil
Tools: 2 measuring cylinders, 2 funnels, 2 filter papers, 100g sand soil, 100g loam soil, a
stop watch, water
Method
1. Put 100g of sand in a funnel lined with filter paper & place it over a measuring
cylinder.
2. Put 50cm3 of water onto the soil.
3. Allow the water to drain into the measuring cylinder in that 1 min.
4. Remove the funnel and read the volume of water that has been collected in the
cylinder in that 1 min.
5. Carry out the same procedure of water as in sand soil.
6.
Observations
 Sand soil drains water faster than loam soil because it has large sized particles
The biological components experiments
Experiment 1
Aim: Are there micro-organisms in the soil
Tools: Garden soil, muslin cloth, string, 2 flasks, stoppers, lime water

Method
1. Collect 2 samples of moist garden soil.

2. Heat on strongly in a dish over a flame. Allow it to cool and wrap in a muslin cloth
&tie it with a string to suspend it in flask containing lime water as shown below.
3. Take the fresh moist garden soil & warp it in muslin cloth & suspend it in flask B
containing lime water as shown.
4. Leave the apparatus for a day. After this period gently shake the flasks.
Diagram
Observation
1. What colour changes occur in the flasks

2. Lime water changes in the presents of carbon dioxide. What do you think caused
the results in flask A and flask B
Experiment 2
Aim: Experimenting organisms from the soil
Tools: soil, funnel, beaker, light source & methylated spirit
Method
1. Place some soil in a funnel which contains wire gauze. Suspend the funnel over a
beaker containing methylated spirit as shown below. Place a light source above
the funnel (you should use an electric light bulb)
2. Leave apparatus for about 36 hrs

Diagram
Observation
1. Look at what has collected in the methylated spirit after the 36 hrs. (use hand
lens )
2. What caused the organism to fall into the beaker
Results
1. The light caused the organisms to fall in the beaker & methylated spirit is a
preservative ( avoids organisms to decay )
Biological components
Roles they play in the soil
1. Bacteria
 causes decaying of plants and animals and makes the soil fertile
2. Nematodes
 Digest plant sticks, stems, and grass externally
 Helps in the formation of humus (saprophytic )
3. Earthworms

 Aerate the soil by making tunnels in it and improve drainage
 Increase humus content by pulling leaves and grass into the soil
 Increases the depth of topsoil by mixing topsoil and sub-soil
 Help in recycling nutrients
4. Fungi
 Assist the decay of dead organisms hence the formation of humus
5. Termites
 Make moulds which are fertile than topsoil, by mixing subsoil with organic
matter
 Break down dead plant materials
 Reduces soil aridity by secreting alkaline substances in the soil
6. Ants
 Help in the formation of humus by carrying leaves and dead insects into the soil
Natural ecosystems
E.g. Savannah woodland, Equatorial rainforests, pond, river, dam, lake
Food chain
 Trophic level / feeding levels

 Flow of energy into the ecosystem
Eg mahogany tree → caterpillar → song bird → hawk
A. Producers
 Are green plants
 They make their own food through photosynthesis
B. Consumers
i. Herbivores –animals which feed directly from plants e.g. giraffe, goat,
cattle, sheep, hare
ii. Carnivores –animals that feed indirectly from plants / feeds on meat e.g. lion,
hyena, cheetah, leopard, snake, vulture
iii. Omnivore – feed on both meat and plants e.g. man, baboon
Example of a food chain
1. Grass-grass hoper-bird-man
2. Maize-hen-man-lion
N.B

 The arrow points to the eater
 Every food chain includes producers
 All producers are green plants
 Energy is lost at each feeding level
 The energy is originated from the sun
Food web
 shows the interrelationship between animals

&plants in an ecosystem
 energy is transferred from one organisms to another
 energy is lost as heat in the form
i. respiration
ii. movement
iii. excretion
iv. wastes
Pyramid of numbers/biomas

Carbon cycle
 carbon dioxide is a source of carbon in the ecosystem

 most carbon is removed from air during photosynthesis and build food
compounds
 animals gain carbon by eating plants
 carbon is also released into atmosphere by micro-organisms, plants, and animals
during respiration
 carbon dioxide acts as an insulator to keep the earth warm
 the emission of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere must be reduced by burning
fewer fossil fuels e.g. coal, oil, gas
 should use alternative sources of energy e.g. solar, water, and even wind power
 avoid deforestation to enable enough carbon dioxide to be absorbed from the
atmosphere
 carbon dioxide is used by trees in photosynthesis (making their own food ) and
plays an important role

Diagram

Nitrogen cycle
 nitrogen cannot be absorbed directly from atmosphere by plants and animals

 nitrogen is carried out mainly by groups of bacteria in soil mostly by leguminous
plants e.g. beans
 plants like leguminous can grow in soils that are low in nitrogen
 energy from lightning combines some gaseous nitrogen into nitrates
 adding of nitrogen fertilisers to soil is part of the cycle
 nitrates are absorbed by plant roots and used to build up plant proteins
 animals take nitrogen by eating plants protein or other animals that feed on
plants
Diagram

Artificial ecosystems
 humans have cleared vast pieces of lands for agriculture and settlement thus
creating artificial ecosystems
 an artificial ecosystem is one that has not been left to control itself
 in artificial ecosystem humans control species which are present and remove and
introduce new species
 e.g. garden, a game ranch, a national park, orchards
 strict control measures are taken to prevent / control pests and diseases
 nutrients are often added to the soil in the form of artificial fertiliser like
ammonium nitrates and ammonium sulphates
 If the number of animals increases to a land that cannot support such huge
numbers, the numbers can be reduced by culling or selling. The number of
animals on an area can support its carrying capacity
 In an artificial ecosystem the numbers of species is limited
 However limiting the numbers of species in an area can cause problems. If
diversity of plants and animals help to keep a balance of nature
 An area where only limited varieties are kept is prone to pests. A whole crop can
be wiped by pest
 Use of chemicals for pest control affects the equilibrium in an ecosystem
 Another disadvantage of an artificial ecosystem is that production of food is
often for humans
 There is little or no recycling of nutrients back into the soil
Management of an ecosystem
 Where people are using plants and animals they need to look after the
ecosystem. This is called management
 Only if an ecosystem is in a state of equilibrium will it be productive
 Humans can have good and bad effects on an ecosystem and a well planted
management programme is assorted
 The earth is our ecosystem and its management determines our survival
Effects on ground cover
 Surface runoff is reduced because more water penetrates the soil and is
retained
 Erosion : ground cover reduces erosion resulting in top soil being preserved
 Evaporation : this is reduced by ground cover which provides mulching
Effects of human activities on ecosystems

 Human activities which disturb the ecosystem can be classified onto industrial,
agricultural, and social
 These activities result in soil erosion, desertification, reduced –bio-diversity
and pollution. Pollution can also result in acid rain and global warming or green
house effect
Acid rain
 It is a result of release of sulphur dioxide into the atmosphere from industrial

and social activities
 Sulphur dioxide dissolves in water(rain) to form a weak acid which kills plants on
land and in water
 Acid rain has resulted in destruction of large areas of forests in some countries
Eutrophication
 Sewage and fertiliser are deposited in water bodies

 This causes excessive growth of water plants
 The balance for nature is disturbed
 Water animals end up dying e.g. fish in lake chivero
Characteristics of Zimbabwean savannah soils
 High temperature –soils heat up easily

 Rapid de-nitrification –nitrates easily decompose releasing nitrogen back into
the atmosphere
 Few earthworms –indicator of few micro organisms
 Low fertility –soils have low nutrient content
Problems of farming in marginal lands
 Low fertility
 Unreliable rainfall patterns –no clearly established rainfall patterns
 Low rainfall –rainfall per season is very low. There for there is need for good
soil managements
Carrying capacity
 It is the maximum number of organisms on an area can support without

deterioration
 The limiting factor are oxygen, food, water, space, and shelter
Effects of exceeding the carrying capacity

 It results in overstocking which in turn causes overgrazing and deterioration of
veld
Ways of controlling population within carrying capacity
 Culling –killing of animals to maintain carrying capacity

 Destocking –reducing numbers to sustainable
 Paddocking-keeping animals in paddocks and rotating them accordingly

Matter
Definition of Matter
Matter is anything that occupies space and has a mass. They are all substances
that have mass and take up space because they have volume. All those things
around you are made of matter, so are you, as are the Earth and stars in the
sky.
States of Matter
Matter exists in three physical states as all things in the universe exist as solid,
liquid or gas. These are the three states of matter.
Temperature is very important in deciding whether a substance exists as a solid,
liquid or a gas. Think about the normal temperatures of where you live. The
temperature of the air may freeze water in winter but very rarely reaches 50
degrees Celsius in summer. This range of temperature means that the solids,
liquids and gases in the world will not normally change from one state to
another. When a solid, liquid or a gas is exposed to very high or very low
temperatures, it can change to another state. Raising the temperature of a solid
to its melting point will turn it into a liquid. Iron, for example, is normally a solid
but deep in the Earth’s crust it is so hot the iron is a molten liquid.
Lowering the temperature of a gas to its liquefaction point will turn it into a
liquid. Oxygen, for example, is normally a gas, but scientists can lower its
temperature to -183 degrees Celsius so that it can be turned into a liquid.
The Kinetic Theory of matter
This theory states that matter is made up of small particles which are in a
constant state of motion. The energy that causes the particles to move is
kinetic energy.
 In solids, the particles are vibrating around their fixed positions and have
a small amount of kinetic energy.
 In liquids, the particles contain more kinetic energy and are therefore
further apart. The particles are free to move but are not independent of
each other.
 In gases, the particles have maximum kinetic energy and move about more
freely.

Change of state
 If temperature is increased or reduced, matter changes its state. This is

because a temperature change will affect the amount of kinetic energy.
 If a solid is heated, the energy will make the particles vibrate faster
until the forces that hold them together are weakened and the particles
move apart. At this point, the solid has become a liquid.
 If a gas cools, the particles lose energy and come closer together.
Eventually strong forces develop between them and the gas turns into a
liquid.
 All changes in state involve an increase in kinetic energy or a decrease in
kinetic energy caused by changes in temperature.
Summery of changes in state
The changes in state are summarized in the diagram below;

Heating and cooling substances
Different substances behave differently when subjected to temperature

changes. Most substances move through the three states. If a solid is heated, it
melts into a liquid which will eventually evaporate into a gas if heating continues.
However, some substances will change direct from solid to gas if heated and
from gas to solid if cooled. E.g. iodine crystals and camphor
Summery Properties of matter

Solid Liquid Gases
Arrangement of Very closely Closely packed Far apart
Particles packed
Force of Strong force of Weak force of No attraction
attraction attraction attraction
between particles
Movement of Vibrate and Relatively free to Free to move
particles rotate about move but not independently
fixed positions independent
Rate of diffusion Very slow Slow diffusion Rapid diffusion
diffusion
Amount of kinetic Very little kinetic More kinetic High kinetic
energy energy energy energy
compressibility Not compressible Not compressible Compressible
Shape Have definite No shape, take No shape, take
shape/rigid the shape of the the shape of the
container container and fill
the container
Volume Have definite Have definite No volume, fills up
volume volume any container
Experiment
Aim: - To investigate the behavior of temperature over time when heating and
cooling substances.
Materials: - 20g of ice blocks, 20g of naphthalene, 10g iodine crystals, thermometer,
water bath, a beaker, a burner, 3 test tubes, a stand, a watch.

Method
A : ICE BLOCKS
Heating
1. Place ice cubes in a test tube and record their temperature using a
thermometer
2. Heat the ice blocks until they melt and finally boil recording the
temperature every 30 seconds.
Cooling
1. Remove the burner and turn it off

2. Allow the water to cool to about 40⁰ C recording the temperature
changes after every 30 seconds
3. Place the test tube of water at 40⁰ C into iced water, a cooler box with
ice or in a refrigerator.
4. Cool it until it turns into ice recording temperature every 30 seconds.
Observations
Temperature Table
Time 0 30 60 90 120 150 180
Seconds
Temp ⁰C 0 0 20 80 95 100 100
- Heating
Temp ⁰C 100 95 60 35 10 0 0
- Cooling

Heating and Cooling Curves
Heating Curve Cooling Curve
Explanations
 When ice was melting, the temperature remained constant at 0⁰C for
sometime even though the ice blocks were being heated. The heat
supplied during melting was being used to give the solid particles enough
energy to overcome the forces holding them together, so the
temperature of the ice could not increase. This energy is called latent
heat.
 During boiling, the temperature of the water remained constant at about
100⁰C. The heat applied was being used to overcome forces holding the
liquid particles together.
 During cooling, the temperature remained constant for some time as the
liquid was turning into ice.
NB: - on heating and cooling curves, those sections with constant temperature
show a change of state from one form to another. On the heating curve diagram
above, A represents melting and C represents evaporation. At B, the water is in
the form of a liquid.

Elements Compounds and Mixtures
The Structure of Atoms
Definition
An atom is the smallest particle of an element which takes place in a chemical

reaction.
Structure
An atom is made up of a very small dense nucleus which contains protons and
neutrons. The protons are positively charged while the neutrons have no charge.
The masses of a proton and a neutron are almost the same and these form the
bulk of the mass of an atom.
Electrons circle around the nucleus and define the volume of an atom. Electrons
have negative charges. The number of protons and electrons in a neutral atom
are the same, so an atom is electrically neutral. The mass of an electron is very
small. The number of protons in an atom is called the atomic number or the
proton number and is the same as the number of electrons. The sum of protons
and neutrons in an atom is called the mass number or nucleon number or atomic

mass. It is possible for an atom to have different numbers of protons and
neutrons. In this case, the atomic number is different from the atomic mass.
Physical and chemical changes
Physical changes: - these are changes in the physical properties (size, shape,
density) or state of matter without a change in composition. No new substances
are formed during physical changes. As water changes from liquid to ice, its
appearance changes but its chemical composition remains the same. If we heat
platinum wire in a burner flame, the wire will become red hot. It returns to its
original; silvery metallic form after cooling. The platinum undergoes a physical
change while under the flame but its composition remains the same under both
conditions.
Chemical changes: - these are changes to the chemical composition of a product

and a new substance is formed with entirely different composition from the
original material. If a clean copper wire is heated in a burner flame, a change in
appearance is noted when it cools. The copper no longer has its characteristic
color, but now appears black. The black material is copper ii oxide.
Examples of physical processes and chemical processes

Physical Chemical Processes
Processes
1 evaporation 1 Burning
2 Filtration 2 electrolysis
3 Magnetism 3 Photosynthesis
4 Distillation 4 Respiration

5 Dissolving 5 rusting
6 Sieving,
winnowing
7 mixing
Elements
An elemnt is a substance made up of the same kind of atoms. Examples include
magnesium, sulphur, carbon, zinc, iron and copper. All known substances on earth
are formed from a chemical alphabet of 106 known elements.
Compounds
A compound is a substance formed from two or more elements which are
chemically joined together. Examples include water, carbon dioxide, sugar,
magnesium oxide etc.
Molecule
A molecule is the smallest unit of a compound formed by the bonding of two or

more atoms. It can not be subdivided further without destroying the compound.
Mixtures
A mixture is a physical combination of two or more substances which do not
loose their physical properties. E.g. air, soil, sulphur and iron, etc
Differences between compounds and mixtures
Compound Mixture
1 A new substance is formed 1 No new substance is formed
2 Properties of compound different 2 Individual substances retain their
from properties of its properties
constituents
3 Heat is either taken in or given 3 No heat
out
4 Substance can only be separated 4 Substance can be separated by
by chemical means physical means
If we mix iron filings and sulphur powder, the iron in the mixture is uncombined
with the sulphur and will be attracted to a magnet. But if the mixture is heated,
the iron and the sulphur chemically combine to form iron sulphide which is not
attracted by a magnet. Iron sulphide is a compound which can only be separated
by chemical means.

Heat
Iron + sulphur Iron sulphide
Metals and Non Metals

Properties of metals and non Metals
Metals Non Metals

1 Solid at room temperature except Can be solid, liquid or gas
for mercury which is a liquid.
2 They have a luster or gloss which
means they shine when polished
3 Metals are good conductors of They are insulators except carbon
electricity
4 They are also good conductors of They are poor conductors of heat i.e.
heat they are good insulators of heat
5 Most metals are malleable (can be Not malleable and not ductile
hammered into sheets) and they are
ductile (they can be drawn into wire)
6 Metals have high melting points and Have low melting points
high densities
7 Metals have a high tensile strength Have low tensile strength
Examples
Metals Non Metals
1 Potassium Carbon
2 Calcium Phosphorous
3 Sodium Oxygen
4 Iron Nitrogen
5 Zinc Water
6 Copper Sulphur
7 Gold Iodine

The reactivity of metals
Reactions of metals with oxygen
Most metals burn in air to form basic alkaline oxides i.e.
Metal + Oxygen Metal oxide
Examples;
Magnesium + oxygen magnesium oxide
Calcium + oxygen calcium oxide, and
Iron + oxygen iron oxide
When these oxides are dissolved in water they form bases, which are alkaline solutions
which turn red litmus paper to blue and have a pH above 7. Magnesium oxide becomes
magnesium hydroxide when dissolved in water. Calcium oxide becomes calcium
hydroxide solution.
Magnesium oxide + water magnesium hydroxide
Reaction of metals with water

Metals react with water to form an oxide and the process releases hydrogen gas. i.e.
Metal + Water Metal oxide + Hydrogen
Examples;
Iron + Water Iron oxide + Hydrogen
Zinc + Water Zinc oxide + Hydrogen
Calcium + Water Calcium oxide + Hydrogen
Magnesium + Water Magnesium oxide + Hydrogen
Water is made up of Hydrogen and oxygen (H₂O). The oxygen in water will react with
the metal to form the metal oxide releasing the hydrogen as gas. Where the metal is
more reactive as in the case of potassium, sodium and magnesium, the oxide readily
dissolves in the water to form a hydroxide as below;
Potassium + Water Potassium hydroxide.

Important: - some metals do not react with water at all and this will be discussed
below.
Reactions of metals with acids.

Metals react with acids to form a salt and release hydrogen gas.
Metal + Acid Salt + Hydrogen
The name of the salt formed depends on the type of acid used. Sulphuric acid produces
sulphates and hydrochloric acid produces chlorides. Examples are given below;
Iron + Sulphuric acid Iron sulphate + hydrogen

Iron + Hydrochloric acid Iron ii chloride + hydrogen
The Reactivity Series
It is the arrangement of metals in order of their reactivity from the most reactive to
the least reactive. For the purposes of our syllugbus, the metals are arranged
according to their reactivity with air(oxygen), water and acids.
Metal Reaction with Reaction with Reaction with

Oxygen water or steam acid
Most Potassium Form oxides React with cold Violent
reactive Sodium even without water reaction
Calcium heating
Magnesium Burn to form React with React with
Aluminum oxide steam dilute acid
Zinc
Iron Reacts slowly Slow reaction Reacts with
with steam dilute acid
Lead Slow reaction at Slow reaction No reaction

the surface with steam at
the surface
Copper Slow reaction at No reaction No reaction
Least the surface
reactive
Aluminum is a more reactive metal than iron and zinc, yet in experiments it may be
reluctant to react. This is because it has a jacket of aluminum oxide which is
impenetrable to water and air and so protects the metal. The reactions of potassium

and sodium with acids are very violent and extreme care is needed when carrying out
experiments preferably out doors.
Examples of chemical reactions
Displacement Reactions
This is a reaction in which an element replaces another during a chemical reaction. If
iron filings are put in copper ii sulphate solution which is blue in colour, the iron will
replace copper in the copper sulphate solution. i.e.
Iron + Copper ii sulphate solution Copper + Iron

Sulphate solution.
The iron replaces copper in the copper sulphate solution and the blue copper sulphate
turns green in colour. Brown copper is formed. If an iron nail is used, the nail becomes
coated with copper while the blue copper sulphate turns green.
If zinc is added to magnesium sulphate, nothing happens as magnesium is more reactive
and can not be replaced by a less reactive metal.
Examples of displacement reactions
Zinc + copper (ii) sulphate Solution Copper + Zinc
sulphate
Lead + copper (ii) sulphate Solution Copper + lead
sulphate
Magnesium + copper (ii) oxide Copper + magnesium oxide
Oxidation
It is a chemical reaction in which a substance gains oxygen or looses hydrogen. When
magnesium react with oxygen in air or in water to form magnesium oxide, we say it has
been oxidized. The oxidizing agent is the source of the oxygen which is the air or the
water. Most chemical reactions between metals and air where oxides are formed are
oxidation processes
Examples
1. Addition of oxygen to magnesium to form an oxide
Magnesium + oxygen magnesium oxide
2. Removal of hydrogen
Hydrogen sulphide + chlorine sulphur + hydrogen
chloride
Hydrogen has been removed from hydrogen sulphide so we say it has been oxidized.

Reduction
It is a chemical reaction in which a substance looses oxygen or gains hydrogen. The
reducing agent is the substance which is being used to snatch away the oxygen or to
provide the hydrogen.
Examples of reducing agents
1. A metal higher in the reactivity series
Iron oxide + Magnesium magnesium oxide +
Iron.
In this case, magnesium is more reactive than iron because it is higher up in the
reactivity series. It will therefore snatch away oxygen from iron oxide as it
readily reacts with oxygen than does iron.
2. Carbon
Iron oxide + Carbon carbon dioxide +
Iron.
In this case carbon has a greater affinity for oxygen than iron and will readily
snatch away the oxygen in iron oxide leaving iron.
3. Hydrogen
If hydrogen is added to a substance we also call that reduction
Hydrogen sulphide + chlorine sulphur + hydrogen
chloride
The hydrogen has been added to chlorine so we say the chlorine has been
reduced.
NB: reactions in which both reduction and oxidation occur at the same time are
called Redox reactions. Examples are in italics and bolded above.
Acids, Bases and Salts

Acids
Acids are solution of non metallic oxides. When oxides of non metals dislove in water,
they form acids. Other acids occur naturally in plants and animals. Examples include
tartaric acid in grapes, citric acid in lemons and acetic acid in vivegar.
Making acids
Simply dissolving oxides of non metals in water,
Examples;
1. Carbon dioxide a gas dissolves in water to form carbonic acid
2. Sulphur dioxide a gas dissolves in water to form sulphorous acid

3. Sulphur trioxide a white solid dissolves in water to form sulphuric acid
4. Nitrogen dioxide a brown gas, dissolves in water to form nitric acid
Bases
Bases can be made in one of two ways
1. by dissolving oxides of metals in water e.g. magnesium oxide dissolved in water
to give magnesium hydroxide which is a base, or
2. by adding water to reactive metals e.g. when you put sodium in water it reacts to
form sodium hydroxide. Another metal which can be used is potassium.
Properties of Acids and Bases

Acids Bases
1 Has a sour taste(never taste it) Has a bitter taste and slippery feel
between fingers
2 Turns blue litmus paper red Turns red litmus paper blue
3 They are corrosive Some bases are caustic
4 Reacts with base to form salt and Reacts with acid to form salt and water
water
5 Turn universal indicator yellow, orange They turn universal indicator green, blue,
or red purple
6 They react with metals to produce salt
and hydrogen
7
Neutralisation and the formation of salts

Neutralisation is a chemical reaction between an acid and a base. An acid and a base will
neutralize each other. In this chemical reaction the hydrogen in an acid is replaced with
a metal to form a salt and water.
Formation of Salts
Salts can be formed in one of the following ways;
1. Acid + Base Salt + Water
Examples;
Hydrochloric acid + sodium hydroxide sodium chloride + water
Magnesium Hydroxide + Sulphuric Acid Magnesium sulphate + water
2. Acid + Carbonate Salt + water + carbon dioxide
Hydrochloric acid + calcium Carbonate calcium chloride + water +
carbon Dioxide
Sulphuric acid + Magnesium carbonate magnesium sulphate + water
+carbon dioxide

3. Acid + Metal salt + hydrogen
Iron + Sulphuric acid Iron sulphate + hydrogen
Iron + Hydrochloric acid Iron ii chloride +hydrogen
Speed of Chemical Reactions

Every chemical reaction has a rate or speed at which it occurs. There are various
conditions which affect the rate of chemical reactions.
Factors affecting the rate of chemical reactions

Factor Effect
1 Temperature(liquids, An increase in temperature increases the rate of chemical
solids and gases) reaction since particles gain more kinetic energy thus
increasing the chance of bonding.
2 Surface area The smaller or finer the particles of the reactants, the
(solids) greater the surface area exposed to a chemical reaction.
This speeds up the rate of the reaction. 10kgs of small twigs
burns faster than 10kgs of big logs for this reason.
3 Concentration A greater concentration increases the number of particles
(liquids) available for a chemical reaction which increases the chances
of bonding. This increases the rate of a chemical reaction.
50% dilute sulphuric acid will corrode things faster than 5%
dilute acid for this reason.
4 Pressure (gases) Increasing the pressure in a gas brings the particles close
together and therefore increases the chance of bonding.
This speeds up the rate of a chemical reaction.
5 Catalyst (Liquids, A catalyst speeds up a chemical reaction by providing a
solids and gases) conducive environment which promotes the bonding of the
reactants. The catalyst itself is not affected during the
chemical reaction.
Reversible reactions
A reversible reaction is a chemical reaction that goes in either direction. E.g.
Sulphur dioxide + Oxygen Sulphur trioxide
The above equation demonstrates that sulphur trioxide is formed when sulphur dioxide
is reacted with oxygen. However, the sulphur trioxide immediately breaks down back to
sulphur dioxide and oxygen especially in the absence of a catalyst and other optimum
conditions like temperature and pressure.

The production of Iron and Steel
Occurrence of Iron
Iron occurs as iron oxide, a combination of iron and oxygen. The iron oxide is commonly
known as iron ore and is a common rock from the rusty brown soil is derived.
In Zimbabwe iron ore in mined at Redcliff in Kwekwe and extra ore is railed in from
Buchwa mine in Mberengwa. The area also has deposits of limestone which are used
during the extraction process of iron.
The Zimbabwe Iron and Steel Company (ZISCO) is located near these iron ore deposits
and is well served with a rail system which brings in coal from Hwange and an electrical
grid system which brings electricity from Kariba and Hwange.
Raw materials needed in the extraction of iron from ore

1. Iron ore – an oxide of iron and oxygen known as iron (iii) oxide to be broken or
reduced to get iron.
2. Coke – This will act as the reducing agent as well as being the fuel in the blast
furnace.
3. Limestone – it acts as a flux which reacts with impurities making it possible to
separate them from the iron
4. Hot air containing oxygen is blasted into the furnace which initiates and
supports the burning process.
The blast furnace

Iron is extracted from its ore by smelting in a blast furnace. It is a tall structure
which operates as an oven. Hot air is blown through the furnace to produce very high
temperatures. The furnace is then filled with iron ore, coke and limestone. The coke is
ignited and increases the temperatures in the furnace which smelts the iron ore and
limestone.

Diagram of blast furnace
Chemical reactions in the blast furnace

1. Coke is ignited by the hot air being blast into the furnace. This occurs near the
bottom of the furnace near the hot air tuyers.
Carbon + Oxygen Carbon dioxide + Heat
2. Carbon dioxide is reduced by coke
Carbon + carbon dioxide Carbon monoxide
3. Some iron ore is reduced by the carbon in coke. This is called direct reduction.
This occurs in the middle of the furnace.
Iron (iii) oxide + Carbon (coke) Iron + Carbon Monoxide
4. The bulk of iron ore is reduced by carbon monoxide produced in 2 and 3 above.
This is called indirect reduction. This occurs higher up in the furnace.
Iron (iii) oxide + Carbon monoxide Iron + Carbon dioxide
5. Limestone, also known as calcium carbonate is heated in the blast furnace and
breaks down into calcium oxide
Calcium carbonate Calcium Oxide + carbon Dioxide
6. Calcium oxide reacts with the impurities in the blast furnace which are known as
silicone dioxide to form slag.
Calcium oxide + silica/silicone Dioxide Calcium Silicate
(slag)
NB: the molten iron produced flows down to the bottom of the furnace
where it is tapped out. The slag is lighter in weight and therefore it floats
on top of the iron and is tapped out through a separate outlet.

Products from the blast furnace
1. Pig iron: - this is the main product from the blast furnace. The iron is tough and
brittle because it has high carbon content, about 4% by mass. The metal also
expands upon solidification and is therefore used for cast iron objects such as
drain pipes, septic tank lids, engine blocks and coal and wood stoves. The iron is
not malleable and ductile so can not be used for many other purposes.
2. Slag: -this is a by product and is used for road surfacing and may also be used
as a cheap fertilizer.
NB: Production from the blast furnace is a continuous process. Coke limestone and
iron ore are being added all the time and molten iron is run off continuously. The
furnace is only stopped for maintenance work which may be once in five years.
The production of Steel

To make iron from the blast furnace usable for the bulk of commercial purposes, the
amount of carbon has to be reduced. This is achieved by taking molten pig iron to
another furnace known as the Oxygen Lance Furnace. In this furnace, oxygen is blown
into the molten iron and impurities such as carbon, phosphorous and sulphur burn into
gaseous oxides which easily escape. A purer iron called Mild steel or wrought iron is
produced which contains only 1% carbon. Mild steel is strong, malleable ductile and can
be welded and is therefore used for many commercial purposes. Mild steel is also mixed
with other metals to form alloys.
 No fuel is added to the oxygen lance furnace because the process the chemical
reaction caused by blowing oxygen into molten steel is exothermic. This means
the reaction produces its own heat and there is no need for a fuel.
 The oxygen lance process is a batch process. This means a batch of products
are manufactured at a time before adding more raw materials.

Diagram of Oxygen lance furnace
Summery of Iron products

Metal Properties Uses
Pig Iron  Cheaper than steel  Steel manufacture
 Easy to mould  Kitchen stoves, drain
 Expands on pipes, engine blocks, etc
solidification
 Hard but brittle
Mild Steel  Malleable  Railway lines
 Ductile  Beams and girders of all
 Can be welded kinds and sizes
 Strong under both  Blots and tool
tension and compression
Stainless  Resist heat and acids  Cutlery
Steel  Resists rusting  Sink units
The Extraction of Copper

In Zimbabwe, copper is mined in the Chinhoyi area at Mhangura, Sheckleton and
Alaska Mines. It is also mined at Nyati mine near the midlands. The ore exist as
a compound of copper and sulphur known as copper sulphide or chalcopyrite. A
good ore may contain only 5% copper but it is worth mining because of the
usefulness of copper.

The extraction of copper from its ore
The process has the following six steps;
1. Crushing – the ore is crushed to a fine powder.
2. Concentration by floatation – the powdered ore is added to a large tank of oily
water and then air is blown into the mixture. This results in the formation of froth
to which ore sticks while impurities sink to the bottom.
3. Roasting – the ore is dried and heated strongly in air. The impurities such as sulphur,
arsenic and antimony are oxidized and escape as gases.
4. Smelting – the product of roasting is smelted with limestone in a reverbatory
furnace. Limestone decomposes to calcium oxide, which react with impurities to form
slag. The slag layer of impurities is tapped off. The product of smelting is known as
Matte Copper, a compound of copper and sulphur.
Smelting Furnace ( reverbatory furnace)
5. Converting – the matte copper is transferred in molten state to a converter. Hot air
is blown into the molten copper oxidizing the impurities which will escape as gases.
Other impurities like iron react with silica in the walls of the furnace and are
oxidized to a slag which is tapped out. The result of Converting is called blister
copper because many blisters form on its surface as gases escape.

Converting Furnace
6. Electrolytic refining of copper – the blister copper is molded into bars which are
taken to the electrolytic cell. The blister copper is the anode (+ve) while the cathode
(-ve) is a thin sheet of pure copper. The electrolyte is aqueous copper (ii) sulphate
which is acidified to improve electrical conductivity and to dissolve impurities. When
the current is switched on, the blister anode will loose electrons to the circuit.
Positively charged Copper ions will be released into the electrolyte and the blister
anode slowly dissolves. Dissolution continues and this means the blister copper sheet
will decrease in weight. Impurities in blister copper fall to the bottom of the tank.
The positively charged copper ions which have entered the electrolyte are attracted
to the negative cathode. They gain back their electrons through the electrical
circuit and become copper atoms. The copper is deposited on the cathode which
gradually increases in mass. The copper collecting at the cathode is pure as the
impurities have fallen to the bottom of the tank

Diagram electrolytic cell
The properties and uses of Copper

1. Copper is a good conductor of electricity so it is used to make wirings and contacts
for the electrical industry.
2. It is a good conductor of heat so it is used in the manufacture of hot water pipes,
solar water heaters, car radiators etc
3. Copper shines when polished and is used in the manufacture of ornaments and
jewellery
4. Copper does not rust and it is used in the construction industry and to make coins.
5. It alloys well with other metals and it is used to make bronze and brass.
Alloys of Copper
Alloy Properties Uses
Brass (Copper + Zinc)  Resists corrosion  Water taps, screws
 Is shiny  Ornaments
 Resonant  Musical instruments
 soft  Bullet catridges
Bronze (Copper + Tin)  Hard and Durable  Machinery bearings

 Resists corrosion  Bronzing of statues
 resonant  Making springs, bells,
coins and medals
Coating processes
Coating means covering a metal with another substance.

Reasons for coating
1. To protect metals from corrssion/rusting because most metals rust when they
come into contact with air and water.
2. Metals are also coated to give them a decorative finish.
Coating methods
1. Painting – involves applying a thin coat of paint which will not allow both air and
water from coming onto contact with the metal. Painting also gives a decorative
finish.
2. Oiling – used on movable parts where painting would not last. Oiling keeps water
and air away from the metal as well as acting as a lubricant. E.g. bicycle chains,
engine pistons etc
3. Galvanizing – the coating of iron and steel with zinc. The iron is dipped into
molten zinc and the dried. The zinc layer provides a sacrificial layer because
zinc is more reactive than the iron. Oxygen will react with the zinc instead of
reacting with the iron. The zinc oxide produced forms a protective layer on the
iron protecting it from rusting.
4. Alloying – involves mixing iron with corrosive resistant metals producing an alloy
which does not rust. Iron is mixed with chrome and nickel to produce stainless
steel which is corrosive resistant even if it is scratched or broken
5. Electroplating – is a method of coating iron or steel by another metal which is
corrosion resistant using electricity.
Examples of metals used in electroplating
Metal Uses
Chrome  Decorative finish in motor vehicles
Copper  Protecting parts of steel before hardening
 As a base for other coating processes
 Cheap jewellery
Gold  Decorative finish for jewellery
 High quality electrical contacts
Nickel  Decorative finish for jewellery
 High quality electrical contacts
Silver  Decorative finish
 A tough base for chrome plating
Tin 1. Used in tin cans for food storage
Zinc 2. Cheap coating to prevent corrosion on steel products

The procedure copper plating
1. The metal to be coated is cleaned by placing it in a bath of concentrated
hydrochloric acid. This removes any corroded metal which may continue to
corrode while under the new coating.
2. An electrolytic cell is constructed as below
o Electrolyte -------- copper sulphate solution /copper
chloride/copper cyanide. The electrolyte is acidified and contains copper
ions which are positively charge.
o Electrodes
 Anode ----- pure copper
 Cathode ----- the item to be coated
3. When the circuit is switched on, the copper anode looses electron to the circuit
releasing positively charged copper ions to the electrolyte. In this process, the
anode dissolves.
4. The copper ions are attracted to the negative cathode where they gain back
their electrons from the circuit. They form copper atoms and form a thin layer
of copper metal firmly attached to the item to be plated.
Diagram electrolytic cell
Procedure for nickel plating

The procedure and explanation is the same as for copper plating except that the anode
is nickel and the electrolyte is acidified nickel sulphate solution. The temperature must
be maintained around 70⁰C and pH around 4 for best results.
The procedure for Chrome plating.

Chrome plating gives a hard surface to steel and can not easily corrode. It is used for
the bright trims of cars and household appliances. It follows the following stages;

1. The metal to be coated is cleaned by placing it in a bath of concentrated
hydrochloric acid.
2. The piece is either copper plated or silver plated to provide a base for the
chrome plating. Copper chloride provides a strong coating and levels off any
small scratches that may be on the surface.
3. A coating of chromium is applied as follows. The electrolyte used is chromic acid
and it has positively charged chrome ions. The anode used is lead because lead
does not dissolve in the acid. The cathode is the item to be coated. More
chromic acid must be added during the process as the anode does not provide
chrome ions as with copper plating. The ions are provided by the acid.
During coating, the positively charged chrome ions in chromic acid are attracted to the
negative cathode where they gain electrons and become chrome atoms. They firmly
attach themselves on the cathode producing a thin strong shiny finish.
Industrial Gases
Obtaining oxygen, nitrogen and carbon dioxide from the air

Air is a mixture of gases and these gases can be separated by fractional distillation of
air. It is possible to separate the gases because when liquefied, they have different
boiling points.

Stages involved
1. The air is cleaned to remove dust and smoke by passing it through filters.
2. The air is cooled to -78⁰C. At 0⁰C water vapour solidified and at -56⁰C, carbon
dioxide solidified. These two are removed as they freeze as they would later
block the equipment if not removed.
3. The remaining gases are compressed to about 150 atmospheres and cooled. The
pressure is released rapidly causing temperatures to drop further. This process
is continued until the temperature reaches -200⁰C. At this temperature, oxygen
and nitrogen are liquid except the rare gases (neon and helium)
4. The liquefied air is piped to the fractionating tower where temperatures are
allowed to increase. At -196⁰C, nitrogen evaporates and is collected from the top
of the tower. Oxygen has a booing point of -183⁰C and remains as liquid in the
tower and is piped from below.
Products from fractional distillation of air

1. Carbon dioxide
2. Oxygen and
3. Nitrogen
Obtaining oxygen and hydrogen from the electrolysis of water
When a current is passed through a solution (electrolyte), chemical reactions occur at
the electrodes which break down the electrolyte. The electrolyte contains ions
(charged atoms) which carry current through the electrolyte.
Stages involved
1. An electrolytic cell is constructed as in the diagram below. The electrolyte is
acidified water. The acid is added to improve the electrical conductivity of the
water. This creates ions two kinds of ions in the water, hydroxyl ions (OH⁻)
which are negatively charged and hydrogen ions (H⁺) which are positively
charged. The electrodes are made of carbon or platinum because these do not
react with the acid.
2. When the current is switched on, negatively charged hydroxyl ions are
attracted to the positive anode where they loose electrons. They produce
oxygen atoms which bubble out as oxygen gas. Oxygen gas is therefore collected
at the anode.
3. Positively charged hydrogen ions are attracted to the negative cathode where
they gain electrons. They become hydrogen molecules and bubble out as
hydrogen gas. Hydrogen is therefore collected at the cathode.

Diagram electrolysis of water
Uses of industrial gases

Oxygen
1. Used in steel making in the oxygen lance process
2. Used for medical purposes
3. Used for cutting and welding purposes
Nitrogen
1. Used in the manufacture of ammonia
2. Used as a refrigerant e.g. to freeze vegetables
3. Used for medical purposes e.g. burning of growths on the skin
4. Used to preserve sperm for artificial insemination.
Carbon dioxide
1. Used for refrigeration as dry ice
2. Used in fire extinguishers
3. Used in fizzy drinks
Hydrogen
1. Bubbled through fat in the manufacture of margarine
2. Used in the manufacture of ammonia
The production of Sulphuric acid
Sulphuric acid is an oily colorless liquid and when it is added to water it forms a very
strong acid. It is made using what is called the contact process at Zimphos near
Harare.
Sources of raw materials

1. Oxygen from the air and
2. Iron sulphide alternatively known as iron pyrites, an ore of iron mined in
Zimbabwe.
Optimum conditions in the production of Sulphuric acid

1. High temperatures of around 450⁰C

2. Passing the gasses through several beds of vanadium (v) oxide, a catalyst.
Stages in the productions of sulphuric acid: the Contact Process
Stage 1: production of sulphur dioxide
Sulphur dioxide can be produced by burning sulphur in air. In Zimbabwe it is more
convenient and cheaper to produce it by burning an ore of iron known as iron pyrites. It
is a compound of iron and sulphur. (Iron sulphide)
Iron Pyrites + Oxygen sulphur dioxide + iron oxide
Stage 2: Production of sulphur trioxide
Sulphur dioxide is mixed with oxygen and pumped into a reaction chamber. In this
chamber temperatures are controlled around 450⁰C and vanadium (v) oxide is added as
a catalyst. Under these conditions sulphur dioxide is oxidized to sulphur trioxide in a
reversible reaction. This is the contact process.
450⁰C
Sulphur dioxide + oxygen Sulphur trioxide
Vanadium (v) oxide
Stage 3: Absorption process:- Production of Oleum
The sulphur trioxide is cooled and then absorbed into concentrated sulphuric acid in an
absorption tower to produce Oleum (fuming sulphuric acid).
Sulphur Trioxide + Sulphuric Acid Oleum
Sulphur trioxide could be dissolved in water to produce sulphuric acid but the heat of
the chemical reaction would produce a mist of sulphuric acid which would be difficult to
condense and dangerous to health.
Stage 4: Dilution process:- production of sulphuric Acid
When sulphuric acid is needed, oleum is added to water. The strength of the acid
depends on the amount of oleum added.
Oleum + Water Sulphuric acid

Diagram: process of producing sulphuric acid
Industrial uses of sulphuric acid

1. Used in the manufacture of fertilizers, mainly super phosphate
2. Used in the manufacture of aluminum sulphate, a flocculent used in the
purification of water.
3. It is used in the extraction of metals
4. For cleaning metals before electroplating
5. In the manufacture of textiles
6. As an electrolyte in car batteries
7. In paper making
8. In the manufacture of detergents
9. It is also used as a drying agent
10. It is used in the manufacture of plastics
11. It is used in the manufacture of dyes, soaps, explosives and in refining oil.
The Production of Ammonia

Ammonia is a colorless gas which can be recognized by its choking smell. It dissolves
easily in water to give an alkaline solution. Ammonia is the only alkaline gas (base) and
reacts with acids to salts which are useful in industry. In Zimbabwe Ammonia is
produced by Sable Chemical Industries in Kwekwe.

Sources of inputs
Ammonia is produced by reacting hydrogen and nitrogen
 Hydrogen is produced from the electrolysis of water from the Sebakwe River in
Kwekwe.
 Nitrogen is produced from the fractional distillation of air.
Stages in the production of Ammonia: The Haber Process

Stage 1: The Mixing chamber: - hydrogen and Nitrogen are mixed in the ration 1:3 in
the mixing chamber.
Stage 2: The Reaction Chamber: - the gases are passed to the reaction chamber
where they are compressed to a pressure of about 200 atmospheres. The temperature
in the reaction chamber is about 450⁰C and there are iron filings acting as a catalyst.
Under these conditions the nitrogen and hydrogen combine in a reversible reaction to
form ammonia. Only about 20% of the mixture of gases is converted into ammonia.
450⁰C & 200 atms
Nitrogen + Hydrogen Ammonia + Heat
Iron Catalyst
Stage 3: The Cooler: - the ammonia produced is removed from the mixture by
condensation in the cooler. The unconverted gases are mixed with more hydrogen and
nitrogen and recirculated through the reaction chamber.
Diagram: production of ammonia

Optimum conditions for the production of Ammonia
1. High pressure of between 200 to 300 atmospheres
2. Temperatures ranging from 450 to 500⁰C as ammonia will start breaking down
back to hydrogen and nitrogen at very high temperatures.
3. A catalyst of iron
Uses of ammonia
1. Fertilizers e.g. Ammonium Nitrate
2. In the production of Nitric acid
3. Used for water purification
4. Used in the manufacture of drugs, explosives, man made fibers and dyes
5. Used as a refrigerant
Production of Nitric Acid

When pure, Nitric Acid is a colorless oily liquid but when allowed to stand, some of the
nitric acid decomposes giving the acid a yellow brown color. It is a very strong acid, a
powerful oxidizing agent and reacts with nearly all metals and with other organic
compounds such as skin and wood.
Sources of raw materials

1. Ammonia from the Haber process
2. Oxygen from the fractional distillation of air or from the electrolysis of water
Stages in the production of Nitric acid: The Oxidation Process

Stage 1: Production of Nitrogen dioxide
Ammonia is oxidized into nitrogen dioxide in the presence of a platinum/rhodium
catalyst at 900⁰C.
Platinum/rhodium
Ammonia + Oxygen Nitrogen dioxide + Water + Heat
900⁰C
This reaction is exorthemic, so the nitrogen dioxide is cooled to about 150⁰C before
being passed to the next stage.

Stage 2: Production of Nitric Acid
The nitrogen dioxide is further oxidized into Nitric acid.
Nitrogen dioxide + oxygen + water Nitric Acid (dilute)
Stage 3: Concentration of the acid

The concentration of the acid produced in stage two is about 10% because it contains a
lot of water. Concentrated Nitric acid is obtained by fractional distillation of the dilute
solution.
Diagram: production of Nitric acid
The Manufacture of Fertilizer

Ammonium nitrate is manufactured by sable chemical industries where both raw
materials are produced. In this process, ammonia gas is bubbled through 65% Nitric
acid. The ammonium nitrate in produced in solution and it is crystallized into granules.
Industrial interdependence
ZESA, ZISCO, Sable Chemicals, NRZ, Hwange e.t.c are companies which rely on each
other for their operations. For Oxygen and hydrogen to be separated electrolytically,
electrical energy is required from ZESA’s power generation at Kariba and Hwange
power station. ZISCO steel in turn requires oxygen for the lance process from Sable
chemicals as well as power from ZESA. Rail and road transport networks have a role in
the interdependence between these various companies.

SCIENCE IN ENERGY USES
Fuels
Definition
A fuel is any substance which is burnt to provide heat or light energy. Fuels store
energy as chemical energy and it is converted to heat during burning.
Chemical energy Heat energy
Types of fuels
There are three types of fuels;
1. Solid fuels such as coal coke, wood, charcoal, cow dung e.t.c
2. Liquid fuels as paraffin, petrol, diesel, methylated spirit and ethanol
3. Gas fuels such as methane, butane, ethane and hydrogen
Thermal efficiency of fuels
 It is the heat content of a fuel.

 Carbon in fuels burns to produce heat energy and so the thermal efficiency of
fuels also refers to the heat content of fuels.
 The efficiency of a fuel can be measured by the rate at which the fuel heats up
a substance to a certain temperature.
Experiment
Aim:-To compare the fuel efficiency of paraffin and methylated spirit.
Materials
Paraffin burner, methylated spirit burner, 2 beakers, water, two thermometers, a wire
gauze, and a stand.
Method
1. Arrange apparatus as shown in the diagram below
2. Adjust the wicks of the two burners so that both have the same size of flames.
To do this you will notice that the wick for the paraffin burner will need to be
smaller than that of the methylated spirit burner.
3. Record the temperature of the water in the two beakers before placing the
burners below the beakers as shown.
4. Heat the two tins for five minutes and record the temperature of the water in
the two beakers. Read the thermometers at exactly the same time and this
requires a partner.

Diagram
Results
Fuel type Initial temperature Temp after 5 Temp rise
minutes
Paraffin 21⁰C 49⁰C 28⁰C
Methylated Spirit 21⁰C 32⁰C 11⁰C
Fuel Efficiency for each fuel
Paraffin 28/5 = 5.6⁰C/min
Methylated Spirit 11/5 = 2.2⁰C/min
Observations
 The paraffin burner burnt with a yellow flame while the methylated spirit burnt
with a blue flame.
 After five minutes, water heated over aparafin burner was hotter than water
heated over a methylated spirit.
Explanation of Results
 Paraffin has a higher thermal efficiency than methylated spirit. This is because
paraffin has a higher carbon content which is evident because the flame has
more soot. The soot only means that the oxygen in the air is not adequate to
burn all the carbon in the fuel so some of the carbon escapes as unburnt carbon
(soot).

NB: as a general rule, heavier liquid fuels have higher carbon content than lighter ones
and therefore have higher energy values. When burnt they are more efficient. If fuel
A has 2 carbon molecules and fuel B has ten carbon molecules and both these fuels are
burnt in air, all two molecules in Fuel A will burn but only Four in B will burn. Six
molecules in fuel B will escape as soot but the fuel will produce more heat because four
molecules were burnt as opposed to just two.
Alternative experiment to compare the efficiency of fuel
Materials required
A paraffin burner, a methylated spirit burner, water, a scale, a thermometer, beaker,

wire gauze, stand.
Method
1. Weigh both burners before use and record the results

2. Use both burners to heat 50ml of water until the temperature of each beaker
has risen by 15⁰C.
3. Weigh the burners again to determine how much fuel has been used up.
4. Record the results
Results
Paraffin Mass Temperature

Final 125g 39⁰C
Initial 130g 24⁰C
Difference 5g 15⁰C
Methylated Spirit Mass Temperature

Final 120g 39⁰C
Initial 130g 24⁰C
Difference 10g 15⁰C
Calculation of Fuel efficiency
Paraffin 15/5 = 3⁰C/g
Methylated spirit 15/10 = 1.5⁰C/g

Explanation
Paraffin is more efficient than methylated spirit because it contains a higher carbon
content. A gram of paraffin raises the temperature of the liquid by a greater
temperature than a gram of methylated spirit.
Comparing the efficiency of solid, liquid and gaseous fuels.
 If comparing fuel of the same state, that fuel with a higher carbon content will
be more efficient.
 Coke (99%) is therefore more efficient than coal (85%) because coke is almost
pure carbon. In the same vein, charcoal is more efficient than wood because non
carbon impurities have been removed during the process of converting wood to
charcoal.
 When comparing liquids, solids and gases, other factors come into play. These
include the surface area exposed to burning as well as the amount of carbon in
the fuel.
 As a general rule, gaseous fuels are the most efficient because they burn more
thoroughly, followed by liquids and lastly solids.
Combustion
Combustion simply means the burning of a fuel to give energy.
Complete combustion
Complete combustion occurs when a fuel combines with a lot of oxygen and all the
carbon is burnt. No soot is produced since the fuel has been completely burnt and
carbon dioxide is given out.
Carbon + Oxygen carbon dioxide + heat
Methane + Oxygen carbon dioxide + water + heat
Water is produced in hydrocarbon fuels which are made of hydrogen and carbon. During
burning the hydrogen will combine with oxygen to produce water while the carbon burns
to produce carbon dioxide and heat.
Incomplete combustion
This occurs when the amount of carbon in a fuel exceeds the amount of oxygen
available. Under these circumstances, not all carbon is burnt and it is given off as soot.
The partial combination of carbon and oxygen produces carbon monoxide. Carbon
monoxide is a poisonous gas which can kill if excessively inhaled. Incomplete combustion
causes a lot of air pollution because of the soot and carbon monoxide.

Paraffin + (little) Oxygen carbon monoxide + carbon (soot) + water
(vapour) + heat
When hydrocarbons are burnt, there should be plenty of oxygen to prevent incomplete
combustion.
Examples of Fuels
Coal
Coal is a black solid fossil fuel and in Zimbabwe it is mined in Hwange. It was formed
from decayed remains of pre historic forests which were exerted under pressure from
layers of rock and earth. Coal contains about 85% carbon.
Uses of Coal
1. Used as a fuel for industrial, agricultural and domestic purposes.

2. Used for thermal power generation.
3. Coal is used to make Coke, a fuel used in the blast furnace.
4. During the production of Coke, other by products are produced which have
industrial uses and include,
a. Ammonia – used as a base in the manufacture of fertilizers and is also
oxidized to make nitric acid.
b. Benzol – this is a solvent for tar products, grease, paint and vanish.
Benzol is also used as an ingredient in the manufacture of special plastics.
c. Tar – used as a fuel in coke ovens, used for road tarring and to make
creosote, a chemical which preserves wood.
d. Coal gas – coal gas is used as a fuel in coke ovens. It is also used as a
source of hydrogen for the manufacture of ammonia and margarine.
The dry/destructive distillation of coal
Is the process used to break down coal into its major constituents by heating it coal in
the absence of oxygen. The products derived from this destructive distillation of coal
are coke, ammonia, tar, Benzol and coal gas.
Experiment
Aim
The dry/destructive distillation of Coal

Materials
Powdered coal, hard glass test tubes, red litmus paper, beaker, sodium hydroxide
solution, filter paper, retort stand.
Diagram
Method
1. Set up the apparatus as shown on the diagram above. Ensure that the apparatus
is air tight.
2. Heat the coal powder in the hard test tube.
3. After strong heating what do you observe in the other two test tubes.
4. Test the contents of the second test tube as follows;
a. Dip red litmus paper into the liquid in the second test tube. What do you
observe.
b. Take what remains in the first test tube and burn it on a piece of
porcelain using a Bunsen flame. Burn a similar piece of coal and compare
the results.
Observations and conclusions
1. Two distinct liquids collected in the second test tube, one was clear and the
other one was dark. The clear liquid is ammonia liquor while the dark liquid is tar.

When the coal powder was heated, impurities escaped as gases and they where
condensed in the second test tube
2. A gas was collected in the third test tube. This method of gas collection is
called the displacement method as water is displaced when gas in collected.
3. When the clear liquid was tested using red litmus paper, the litmus paper turned
blue showing that it was alkaline. The clear liquid was ammonium liquor.
4. What remained in the first test tube is coke and it burned with a cleaner flame
than the flame from coal. It leaves less smoke on the porcelain.
The dry distillation equation can be summed up as;
heat
Coal Coke + Tar + Coal gas + ammonia + benzol
No air
The industrial distillation of Coal
 Coal is heated in a vertical oven to about 1000⁰C in the absence of oxygen.

 Gaseous substances escape through a tube at the top of the oven and are
passed to an air cooled condenser where tar is condensed and collected.
 The remaining gases a passed into a tower into which water is sprayed. The
water dissolves ammonia gas to form an alkaline solution called ammonia liquor.
 The remaining gas is passed into another tower and is bubbled through oil. The
oil absorbs the benzene by dissolving it forming benzol.
 The remaining gas is coal gas and is stored for use.
This process removes the 15% impurities from coal leaving coke which is almost 100%
carbon.

Production of Biogas
Biogas consists of about 65% methane but also has hydrogen and hydrogen sulphide.
The three gases in biogas all burn to produce heat and light energy. It is produced
from the fermentation of organic matter i.e. the decomposition of organic matter in
the absence of oxygen.
The biogas digester
A biogas digester consists of a cylindrical tank built underground which contains fresh
dung and water. The tank is closed tightly to ensure that no oxygen enters. The
presence of water is one of the important factors as chemical reactions are more
efficient in liquid or semi liquid state. The digester is built underground because the
heat generated during the decomposition of organic matter is retained and this further
speeds up the rate of chemical reactions. The bacteria that digest the cow dung are
anaerobic as they respire without using oxygen. The end product of this fermentation
is called biogas. When the manure is completely decomposed, the remaining sludge is
taken out and used as manure.
Optimum conditions in the digester
1. Absence of oxygen so that the respiration is anaerobic

2. Warm temperatures between 32⁰C and 54⁰C. If temps are too low, chemical
reactions will be slowed down but if temps are too high, the bacteria will die.
3. Water is added to ensure that the cow dung is in semi solid state as this also
speeds up chemical reactions
4. The bacteria works effectively at a pH of around 6 or 7. Addition of water also
helps to keep pH around these levels.
5. The mixture is periodically churned to allow continued decomposition.
6. Use of appropriate manure as different kinds of organic matter will produce
different quantities of biogas. In Zimbabwe the most used manure is cow dung.
7. Copper must be kept away from the digester as it stops the operation of the
bacteria.

Diagram
Advantages of Biogas
1. Once the digester has been set up, the fuel is free
2. The fuel is clean and pollution free
3. The waste can be used as manure
The production of Ethanol
Ethanol in Zimbabwe is produced from the fermentation of maize and sugarcane. This
was previously done at the Triangle Ethanol Plant in Chiredzi but is now being done in
Chisumbanje. The fermentation process occurs in 4 stages as follows;
Stage 1
Sugar cane is crushed and juice is filtered out. The juice is evaporated and sugar
crystals are separated from the remaining liquid called molasses in a process called
centrifuging. It is this molasses which is fermented to produce ethanol.
Stage 2
Molasses is mixed with water to form a mash which is pasteurized by heating it to

70⁰C. This kills any bacteria that may be in the mash.
Stage 3
The mash is then taken to a pre-fermentation tank where it is mixed with yeast.
Sulphuric acid is also added to lower the pH of the mash. Bacteria die at this pH but
the yeast survives. The temperature is maintained at 20⁰C and air is bubbled into the
tank. Under these conditions, the yeast will multiply. When the yeast population
reaches the required level the mash is taken to the main fermentation tank.

Stage 4
The mash is allowed to ferment/brew for 40hrs. There is no air in the fermentation
tank. Yeast will not multiply but it will start to respire anaerobically.
Conversion of Sugar to Ethanol
Yeast produces two enzymes, invertase and zymase. Invertase speeds up the conversion
of simple sugars to glucose. i.e. large sugar molecules are broken down into simple
glucose molecules. The zymase speeds up the conversion of glucose into ethanol and
carbon dioxide.
Invertase Zymase
Sucrose Glucose Ethanol + Carbon dioxide
The ethanol produced in this way is 10% ethanol and 90% water. It is concentrated by
fractional distillation to produce pure ethanol which burns with a very hot clean flame.
Products of the fermentation process
1. Ethanol
2. Carbon dioxide
Uses of ethanol
1. It is a fuel and is used in petrol blend. (85% petrol and 15% ethanol)
2. It is an excellent solvent for organic compounds
3. It is used in alcoholic drinks
4. It is mixed with methanol to make industrial spirit or methylated spirit.
5. It is used to produce drugs for medical purposes, cosmetics, detergents plastics
and lubricants.
Experiment
Aim
Investigating fermentation
Materials
2 test tubes, delivery tubes, bicarbonate indicator solution, litmus paper, yeast
solution, starch solution.

Diagram
Method
1. Arrange the apparatus as shown in the diagram with yeast and glucose mixture
in tube A and bicarbonate indicator in tube B.
2. After 30 minutes, note the colour changes which occur in test tube B.
3. Dip red litmus paper in the solution in test tube A.
Results and conclusions
1. Brick red bicarbonate indicator turned yellow indicating that the gas produced
is carbon dioxide. Limewater can be used in the place of bicarbonate indicator
and it changes colour from clear to milky white to indicate the presence of
carbon dioxide.
2. The red litmus paper turned blue indicating the presence of an alkaline solution
in this case, ethanol.
Experiment
Aim
To separate alcohol and water
Materials
Conical flask, fractionating column, thermometer, condenser, beaker, water pipes and
source

Diagram
Method
1. Arrange the apparatus as shown in the diagram above

2. Heat the mixture of two liquids in the conical flask while maintaining
temperature at the top of the fractionating column at 78⁰C.
3. Ensure that water is running through the condenser as shown in the diagram.
Results and conclusions
1. Condensed liquid was seen trickling down the fractionating column back into the
flask. This is because any liquid with a boiling point greater than 78⁰C will
condense and run back into the flask. In this way only ethanol reaches the top of
the fractionating column as a vapour and distils over into the condenser.
2. A liquid was seen dripping out of the condenser into the beaker. This liquid is
ethanol.
Fuel Engines
An engine is a device that converts chemical energy in fuel to kinetic energy in order to
do work. E.g. moving a car
Chemical energy(in fuel) Kinetic/Mechanical energy
How the fuel engine operates
 Petrol engines have two main sections, the cylinder section and the carburetor.
 The action of the pistons in the cylinders converts chemical energy into kinetic
energy and
 The carburetor supplies the cylinders with a petrol- air mixture to each
cylinder.
 Most vehicles have at least four cylinders in their engines.

 The advantage of multiple cylinders is that the engine will run more smoothly
and will be more powerful.
There are four strokes in a petrol engine for each cylinder.
1. The intake/inlet stroke

 The pistons move down
 The intake/ inlet valve is opened
 The petrol air mixture enters the cylinder from the carburetor
 The exhaust valve is closed
2. The compression stroke
 Both valves are closed
 The piston moves upwards to compress the petrol air mixture
3. The power stroke
 Both valve are closed
 A spark is produced by the spark plug and sets fire to the petrol air
mixture (ignition)
 The mixture explodes and forces the pistons down
 It is during this stroke when chemical energy is converted to kinetic
energy causing the car to move. The piston will rotate the crankshaft,
which in turn will rotate the wheels through the gear box.
4. The exhaust stroke
 The exhaust valve is opened
 The inlet valve is closed
 The pistons move upwards forcing the exhaust gases out of the cylinder.

Diagram
NB: Note that each of the cylinders has to go through these four strokes but the
strokes are timed differently for each cylinder so that they smoothly rotate the
crankshaft.
The inlet, compression and exhaust strokes are driven by the momentum of the engine’s
flywheel. The flywheel itself is initially energized by the starter motor and afterwards
it is driven by the power stroke.
The carburetor
The carburetor is a connection to the engine used to filter petrol and mix it with air in
the desired proportions. The petrol air mixture is then drawn into each cylinder during
the intake/inlet stroke of each cylinder.
The petrol is cleaned by passing through a fine gauze filter. This is to ensure that the
carburetor jet does not get blocked by dirt. The air filter removes any dirt from the
air that in drawn in.
The choke controls the air supply, if it is partially closed, the petrol air mixture is rich
in petrol and this makes it easy to start the vehicle.
The throttle/ accelerator controls the amount of petrol air mixture that gets to the
engine. Opening the throttle allows more mixture to the engine speeding it up.

Diagram
The diesel engine
The diesel engine operates along the same principles as a petrol engine but there is no
spark plug. The engine has four strokes as follows;
1. The intake/inlet stroke

 The piston moves down to allow only air to be drawn into the cylinder.
 The inlet valve is opened and air is drawn in.
 The exhaust valve is closed
2. The compression stroke
 Both valves are closed
 The piston moves upwards to compress the air. The compression is three
times that in a petrol engine and it makes the air hot.
3. The power stroke
 Both valve are closed
 Diesel is injected into the hot air.
 An explosion occurs which forces the pistons down
 It is during this stroke when chemical energy is converted to kinetic
energy causing the car to move. The piston will rotate the crankshaft,
which in turn will rotate the wheels through the gear box.
4. The exhaust stroke
 The exhaust valve is opened
 The inlet valve is closed
 The pistons move upwards forcing the exhaust gases out of the cylinder.

Diagram
The diesel engine uses a fuel injector instead of a carburetor and has no spark plugs.
Diesel engines are therefore called compression ignition engines as the ignition results
from the heat generated by compression. Because of the higher compression required,
diesel engines are bigger and heavier than petrol engines.
Comparing Diesel engine to petrol engine

Petrol Diesel
Has a carburetor Has a fuel injector
Uses a spark plug for ignition No spark plug, uses compression ignition
Is less heavier Heavier to withstand increased
compression
Is 40% less efficient than diesel i.e. Is about 40% more efficient, travels more
travels less kilometers per liter kilometers per liter of fuel
Uses petrol fuel Uses diesel fuel
Petrol is more expensive per litre Diesel is less expensive per liter
Causes more pollution Causes less pollution
Social and economic considerations of using fuels
The use of fuel provides useful energy but it also creates some problems. These
problems include;

1. Air pollution – motor vehicles and the burning of fuels in industry discharges
carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, sulphur oxides, nitrogen oxides and soot into
the atmosphere
a. Carbon monoxide is a poisonous gas which causes suffocation if inhaled in
large enough quantities.
b. Oxides of gases form acid rain when they dissolve in rain water. This rain
can destroy forests and corrode metals and buildings.
c. Soot causes smog
d. Large quantities of carbon dioxide are causing global warming which has
led to harmful climatic changes.
2. Deforestation – the continuous cutting down of tree for fuel has led to the
disappearance of forests. This has led to soil erosion and an increase in global
warming as trees take carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere.
3. If not safely handled, some fuels are highly inflammable and can cause loss of
life and extensive damage to property when fires break out. Fuels should be
stored in appropriate containers and proper behavior observed when handling
fuels.
Fuel conservation
Fuels should be conserved, especially fossil fuels like coal and petroleum because they
can not be replaced once used up. Renewable sources like wind, water and solar power
should be used to replace our use of non renewable sources because they are cleaner
and will not be used up.
Electrical Energy
Electrostatics
Electrostatics means static or non flowing electricity. For electricity to be static the
material which produces it has to be an insulator, otherwise if it is a conductor, the
electricity will flow away.

How static electricity is generated
Static electricity is generated when a substance either gains or looses electrons.

Remember atoms are neutral because they have the same number of proton (+ve) and
Electrons (-ve). These charges therefore cancel each other out to give a neutral atom.
When substances are rubbed against each other, one of the substances will either gain
or lose electrons. If a substance gains electrons it becomes negatively charged and
therefore has static electricity if the charge is not conducted away. If a substance
looses electrons, then it becomes positively charged and has static electricity if the
charge does not flow way. (if material is not a conductor). Please note that protons are
locked inside the nuclei of atoms and so do not move. It is the electrons which are
either lost or gained by substances.

Detecting Charges
One of the instruments used to detect charges is a gold leaf electroscope. It consists
of a brass cap and a brass plate at the bottom. A thin leaf of gold or aluminum foil is
attached to the brass plate. The brass rod is mounted in a glass case and supported by
a plug of insulating material
Charging an electroscope
Materials – perspex, polythene, fur and cotton
Method
1. Take a piece of perspex and rub it with fur

2. Bring the rubbed perspex closer to the metal cap of an electroscope and
observe what happens
3. Touch the brass cap of the electroscope with the charged perspex. Observe
what happens.
4. Rub the perspex again with fur and bring it closer to the charged electroscope.
What happens?
5. Touch the brass cap again and note what happens.
Observations and explanations
Material charge material Charge

Perspex - Fur +
Perspex + Cotton -
Polythene - Fur +
Polythene + Cotton -
1. If you bring a piece of perspex or polythene which has not been rubbed closer
to the cap of the electroscope or even touch the cap, nothing happens because

the perspex/polythene has no charge. An electroscope responds only if there is
a charge.
2. If you rub a piece of perspex with fur, it becomes negatively charged by gaining
electrons. If you bring the charged perspex closer to the cap of the gold leaf
electroscope, the leaf will rise away from the brass plate. When you move it
away, the leaf falls back into position.
3. When you touch the brass cap with the charged perspex, the charge will be
transferred from the perspex to the electroscope. The gold leaf will rise away
from the brass plate and remain hanging away from the plate even when the
perspex has been removed. This is because both the brass plate and the gold
leaf are negatively charged and like charges repel.
4. When you rub the perspex again with fur it becomes negatively charged as
before. When you bring this negatively charged perspex closer to a negatively
charged electroscope, the gold leaf will rise further. This is because the
strength of the charge is being increased which increases repulsion between the
leaf and the brass plate. When you take it away the leaf falls back to its original
position where it was hanging.
5. When you rub a piece of perspex with cotton, it becomes positively charged.
NB: Always remember that like charges repel and unlike charges attract.
Conductors and insulators
 A conductor is any substance which allows a charge to travel along it. Electrons
in a conductor can move fairly easily.
 Any insulator does not allow a charge to travel through it. Electrons do not move
easily in insulators.
Examples
Insulators Conductors
Most non metals All metals
Plastic Carbon
Rubber Water
Air (dry)

Lightning
 Lightning is a flash of brilliant light in the sky caused by the movement of an

electrical charge from a charged cloud to the earth.
 Clouds become charged by friction due to heavy convection currents especially if
it is hot and humid.
 The friction causes the lower end of the cloud to become negatively charged.
This negative charge repels electrons on the earth’s surface producing a positive
charge on the earth.
 Excess electron will be attracted from the cloud to the earth and their flow
produces a lightning flash.
 The flash is attracted to a prominent conductor on the earth’s surface.
 The thunder that is heard is the sound of air which rapidly expands because it
has been heated by the flash and comes seconds after the flash because light
travels faster than sound.
 The voltage in a single flash can be as high as 3 million volts
 Destruction from lightning is caused by both the heat generated on contact as
well as electrocution.
Lightning Conductors
These are metal spikes erected on the top of buildings and connected to the earth
using a thick wire. If lightning strikes, the charge is attracted by the spikes because
they are good conductors and is directed to the earth via the thick wire. The lightning
will therefore not damage buildings or cause loss of life.

Safety precautions against lightning
1. Avoid standing under isolated tall tress when it is raining

2. Avoid standing anywhere where you are prominent
3. Avoid touching conducting materials
4. Disconnect roof top aerials and disconnect all appliances.
Current Electricity
 An electric current is a flow of charges or electrons in a conducting circuit.

 Current is represented by the letter (I) and is measured in Amps (A).
 Current flows from the negative to the positive as electrons move freely and
protons do not move.
Voltage
 Also called potential difference, is the electrical pressure or force which pushes
the charges around the circuit.
 Voltage is measured in volts (V)
Resistance
 As electrons move around the circuit, they experience a lot of friction in the
conducting material. The frictional force is called resistance. This resistance
causes a lot of energy to be lost as heat in the circuit.
 Good conductors such as copper have very little resistance hence negligible heat
is produced.
 It is this concept of resistance which makes it possible to make various
appliances which use heat energy. E.g resistance in the filament of a light bulb
causes the wire to become white hot and therefore produce light energy. The
filament is made from a material called tungsten. This is the same principle used
in electric heaters, stoves, irons e.t.c
 Resistance is measured in ohms.
Formula for resistance
According to Ohm’s law, resistance (R) = Voltage ÷ Current i.e
R = V
I

 Given any two of resistance, current or voltage, the above formula can be used
to calculate the missing one by making it subject of the formula.
E.g V = RI or I = V÷R.
Resistance can also be calculated from the gradient of the voltage/current graph.
Connecting resistors in a circuit
Resistors can be connected in one of two ways
1. In series or,
2. In parallel
Resistors connected in series
Resistors are said to be connected in series when they are connected one after the
other and the same current flows through all of them.

For resistors connected in series, the total resistance of the circuit is calculated by
adding the resistance of the individual resistors i.e.
Circuit resistance (R) = R1 + R2 + R3 + …..
Example.
What is the total resistance of the circuit above.
Answer
3 + 2 + 1 = 6ohms
For resistors connected in series, current is the same throughout the circuit because
there is only one path but the potential difference or voltage varies across each
resistor.
Example

Question
Find the voltage at V1, V2 and V3
Answer
Step 1:- find the total resistance of the circuit for resistors in series (RC = R1 + R2 +
R3 + … i.e. 3+2+1 = 6 ohms
Step 2:-use the resistance of the circuit (total resistance) and the voltage of the
source to find the current of the circuit using the formula R = V÷I and making I the
subject of the formula i.e. I = v ÷ R
Current of circuit (same throughout) = 12 ÷ 6 = 2 Amps
Step 3:- use the current calculated in step 2 above to find the voltage across each
resistor this time using the resistance of each resistor. The formula used is R=V÷I,
this time making V the subject of the formula.
V = R x I
Therefore, V1 = 3x2
= 6 volts
V2 = 2x2
= 4volts
V3 = 1x2
= 2volts
NB: the sum of the voltages across all the resistors must equal the voltage of the
source i.e. 6+4+2 = 12V
Resistors in parallel
Resistors are connected in parallel when the circuit provides an alternative path for
current to flow around the circuit. For resistors in parallel, the total resistance of the
circuit is calculated by the formula:-
Resistance of ccircuit = R1 x R2
R1 + R2

Example
Question
What is the total resistance of the circuit above.
Answer
Rc = 3 x 2
3 + 2
= 6 ÷ 5
= 1.2 ohms
For resistors connected in parallel, the voltage is the same through out the circuit but
current varies across resistors as more current will go through the path of least
resistance.
Question
1. What is the current at A1, A2 and A3 on the circuit above.
2. What voltage is at V and V1
Solution
Step 1:- calculate the resistance of the circuit
Rc = R1xR2
R1+R2
= 3x2
3+2
= 6 ÷ 5
= 1.2 ohms

Step 2:- calculate the current of the circuit. On the circuit this is measured by an
ammeter which is on a common path of the circuit. In our example this is given by A1
I = V÷R
= 12÷1.2
= 10Amps
Therefore current at A1 which is the common path of the current on the circuit is
10amps.
Step 3:-calculate the current foe each path using the resistance of each resistor and
the voltage of the circuit which is the same throughout the circuit.
I = V÷R
Therefore A2 = 12÷3
= 4amps
A3 =12÷2
=6amps
NB: sum of current in different paths must equal the current of the circuit i.e. 6 + 4 =
10apms. The voltage at V and V1 = 12volts. It is the same as the resistors are
connected in parallel and therefore the voltage is the same throughout the circuit.
Note: resistors in series offer more resistance to current than resistors in parallel.
This means with the same source of power, bulbs in parallel will be brighter than bulbs
in series as less energy is lost as heat in parallel than in series.
Electrical power
This is the rate of using energy of the rate of doing work.
Electrical energy
Electrical energy is calculated as follows;
Energy = volts x amps x seconds.
Electrical power on the other hand is energy per second

Power = volts x amps
Power is measured in watts

Power can also be calculated if we are given current and resistance.
Power(P) = VI where V = IR
Therefore replacing V with IR in the above equation gives

P = I x I x R
= I²R
Examples on power
Question: - what is the power of an electric light operating on a 240V supply and using
a current of 0.4amps
Answer
P =VI
=240x0.4
=96watts
Question: - a light bulb draws 0.5amps from a 240V supply.

a) What is the power of the light bulb
b) How much heat does it produce in 2hrs
c) What is the resistance of the light bulb
Answers
a) P =VI
=240x0.5
=120watts
b) Energy = Volts x amps x seconds

= 240 x 0.5 x 7200
=64000 joules
=64kj
c) Resistance = V÷I
= 240÷0.5
=480 0hms
Cells
 A cell converts chemical energy into electrical energy. It consists of two
electrodes immersed in an electrolyte (a liquid which conducts electricity)
 Chemical reactions will start happening at the electrodes as one electrode will
start losing electrons while the other one gains electrons.

 A positive and negative terminal are therefore established and if a circuit of
conducting wires is connected, electrons will move from electrode with
excess(negative) to electrode with shortage (positive)
 The electrodes must be different for current to flow and this difference is
what gives the voltage or potential difference. (the force which pushes
electrons round the circuit)
Choosing electrodes
Different combinations of metals used as electrodes will produce different voltages.
This is evident because if a light bulb is connected to the circuit, different
combinations will produce different levels of brightness in the light bulb.
The electrochemical series

 This is an arrangement of metals in order of their reactivity when used to
generate electricity in cells.
1. Potassium 6. Zinc
2. Sodium 7. Iron
3. Calcium 8. lead
4. Magnesium 9. copper
5. Aluminum 10. Gold
 The further apart two metals are in the electrochemical series, the greater the
voltage they will produce. In the given series, the potassium and gold
combination will produce the greatest voltage.
 The lower metal in the reactivity series is used as the positive electrode.
Electrolytes used
 Dilute sulphuric acid is the electrolyte used in lab experiments to produce simple
cells.
 Other electrolytes used include;
o Sodium chloride
o Potassium chloride
o Sodium hydroxide
o Potassium hydroxide
o Calcium hydroxide
o Zinc sulphate
o Citric juice
o Ammonium chloride
A simple cell
Also called a wet cell it is made from dilute sulphuric acid and electrodes such as
copper and aluminum. It can also be made by sticking two electrodes of magnesium and
copper into a lemon and completing the circuit as in diagrams below.

Polarisation and depolarisation
Polarisation – it is the collection of hydrogen gas around the positive anode which
prevents current from flowing because hydrogen is an insulator. In experiments this is
evident because the light bulb goes off quickly.
Depolarisation – this is the removal of hydrogen formed in a cell by adding an oxidizing
agent to remove the hydrogen produced during polarisation. Hydrogen is oxidized to
water and the cell continues to operate.
Potassium permanganate is added to the electrolyte in simple cells to act as a
depolarizing agent.

The Dry Cell
 Works on the same principle as the simple cell. The difference is that the
electrolyte is in paste form hence the term ‘dry’.
 The simple cell and the dry cell are primary cells because they stop working
when the chemicals get used up and they cannot be recharged.
 Dry cells are convenient because they are portable i.e. they can be fixed and
carried around as required.
 Manganese (iv) oxide is included to correct polarisation.
 When the chemicals have finished reacting, they will not produce electrons and
the cell goes flat.
Photovoltaic Cells
 These are cells which convert light energy from light energy from the sum into
electrical energy.
 They are made from silicon which is a semi conducting material. The electrons in
the silicon gain energy from the sun and create a voltage which produces a
current if a circuit is provided.
 A single cell produces about 0.5V and cells are connected in series on a solar
panel to produce a higher voltage. If a higher current is required the cell are
connected in parallel.

Connecting cells
Cells can be connected in series or in parallel
Series connection
Used when the negative of one cell is connected to the positive of another. This
connection is used to produce a higher voltage. When two or more cells are connected,
it called a battery
diagram of series connection
Relationship between number of cells, voltage and current for cells in series
total voltage =algebraic sum of voltage of cells

total voltage =2V+2V+2V=6V
more voltage, more resistance and less current
Parallel connection
 used when all positives are connected together and all negatives are connected
together.
 It is preffered when a higher current is required
Diagram of parallel connection
Relationship between number of cells, voltage and current in a parallel connection
Total voltage = voltage of one cell
Total voltage=2V
Less voltage, less resistance and more current
Secondary Cells
 These are cell which can be recharged again and again by passing current
through them in a direction opposite to that in which they supply current.
 Secondary cells are storage cells and store electrical charges chemically

The Lead Acid Accumulator
 It is a secondary cell which can be recharged. The positive electrode is lead

oxide/lead dioxide (which is brown in colour) and the negative electrode is lead(
which is grey in colour).
 The electrolyte used is dilute sulphuric acid
Discharging
 When the cell is supplying current, the process is called discharging.
 During discharging, the lead and lead oxide electrodes turn to lead sulphate
which is white in colour.
 The acid becomes dilute and loses density from 1.25g/cm³ to 1.11g/cm³.
 When fully discharged, the cell is flat and should not be left uncharged for long
otherwise the lead sulphate hardens and cannot be changed back to lead and
lead oxide.
Recharging
 When recharging, electricity is passed into the cell in the reverse direction. The
lead sulphate changes as follows;
o At the anode: white lead sulphate changes to brown lead oxide
o At the cathode: white lead sulphate changes to grey lead
 The density of the acid increases from 1.1g/cm³ to 1.25g/cm³.
Care and maintenance of the lead acid accumulator

1. When recharging, ensure that the positive terminal of the battery is connected
to the positive terminal of the charger and negative terminal to negative.
2. Do not overcharge the accumulator as this reduces its life span. The plates will
swell and buckle.
3. Do not short circuit the two terminals with a wire

4. During charging, ensure that the vents are open because hydrogen is produced
from the negative terminal and oxygen from the positive. A mixture of these
two gases is very explosive.
5. Do not keep the battery uncharged for too long as the plates will become
sulphated or hardened. It will no longer be possible to recharge the battery
when the plates are hardened.
The Ampire hour (Ah)

 It is the unit of charge and measures the capacity of an accumulator.
 A barttery rated 80Ah will supply a current of either 8 Amps for 10 hours, 4
Amps for 20Hours and 1 Amp for 80 Hours.
Direct Current (DC)

Current which flows steadily without reversing its direction. This type of current is
produced from cells and batteries and a lot of energy is lost as heat during
transmission.
Alternating current (AC)

 In this case current continuously changes direction. The positive and the
negative wires are replaced by the live and neutral wires.
 This current is produced by A.C generators
 AC current is easier to transmit than DC current for two reasons,
o Less energy is lost as heat during transmission
o AC transformers can be used to step up the current produced which can
later be stepped down using step down transformers.
Generator
This is a device that converts kinetic/Mechanical energy into electrical energy.
Kinetic energy Electrical energy
Structure of a Generator
It consists of;
1. Two permanent magnets
2. A commutator(DC generator) or Slip Rings (AC Generator)
3. A coil and
4. An electrical circuit

The Generator Effect
 When a coil s rotated in between two permanent magnets, the coil will cut or
disturb the magnetic field of the magnets.
 This will cause/induce the electrons in the coil to start moving and this
movement of electrons is what we call current.
 A voltage is produced when a magnetic field is cut by a coil.
 This is achieved by either moving the magnet or the coil
 The greater the rate of cutting, the greater the voltage and when a circuit is
completed, the voltage causes a current to flow in the coil and around the
circuit.
 This effect was discovered by Michael Faraday
 The generation of electricity is based on the generator effect and all
generators make use of a coil and permanent magnets.
The AC generator
The diagram below shows a simple AC generator. As the coil rotates between the poles
of a permanent magnet, it cuts the magnetic field lines and a current is induced in the
coil.
 At an industrial level, the coil is rotated by either and engine or by turbines.
 The carbon brushes just lightly touch the slip rings and allow current to pass
thru them to the electrical circuit.
 When the coil rotates, the sides AD and BC keep changing sides after every
single rotation of the coil. This reverses the flow of current in the circuit and
therefore is called alternating current.

The DC Generator
 A DC generator operates in a similar way as an AC generator except that in the
place of slip rings, there are split rings. The split rings are also called the
commutator.
 The rings are split into two
 As the coil rotates in the magnetic field, a current is induced (produced). When
the rotation reaches a point when the current must be reversed, the brushes
reach the gaps in the commutator and the flow of current is stopped..
 As the coil continues to rotate, the commutator touches the brushes again and
current is induced in the same direction as before. Electrons therefore move in
one direction
 The commutator ensures that current flows in one direction only and therefore
a DC generator produces direct current.

The DC Motor
A motor is a device which converts electrical energy to kinetic or mechanical energy. It
operates through what is called the motor effect.
Electrical energy Kinetic/Mechanical energy
The Motor Effect
 When a current is passed through a coil, the coil will develop a magnetic field.
 If this magnetized coil is put between two permanent magnets, the interaction
of the two magnetic fields will cause the coil to rotate. This is called the motor
effect.

 The commutator ensures that the coil continues to rotate in one direction due to
the gap in the commutator.
 The gap cuts flow of current into the coil at the strategic moment when it is
about to reverse direction of rotation.
If a motor is connected to cells, the energy changes that occur are as follows;
Chemical energy Electrical energy Kinetic energy
Examples of devices which use a motor

Electrical motors drive fast devices such as CD players, loan mowers, electrical meal
grinders, water pumps etc.
Electrical safety
Safety precautions
1. Ensure that your hands are dry before touching an electrical switch, plug,
socket or electrical appliance. This is because water has salts which conduct
electricity.
2. Use electrical wires which are insulated and if the wires are damaged change
the wires.
3. Use the correct size of cables as the use of smaller cables generates heat in
cables due to increased resistance. This may damage the insulation and cause
fires.
4. Ensure that all appliances are earthed. This will carry current only when there a
leakage of electricity due to a fault. If you touch a live appliance which is not
earthed, you become the earth and you will receive a nasty electric shock.

5. The circuit must have switches so as to break the circuit when current is not
required.
6. The use of magnetic switches which trip when a more than necessary current is
drawn or when there is a short circuit.
7. Always make use of fused appliances as the fuse will break if excessive current
is drawn. This prevents overheating and damage of electrical wiring and
appliances.
The three pin plug

 It is called a three pin plug because it has three pins to which the live, neutral
and earth wires are connected.
 The live wire carries a current so it must be considered as ‘alive’. The wire is
connected to the fuse and is insulated using brown.
 The earth wire only carries current when there is a fault. It is insulated using
green and yellow.
 The neutral caries current away from the appliance and is insulated using blue
Proper connections are essential. The three pin plug is used to connect appliances which
are made of metals especially for the outer case. There is need to earth these
appliances to avoid electrical hazard as the case carries current.
The two pin Plug

 This plug consist of the live and neutral wires only and has no earth.
 The plug is used where earthing is not important especially where:
o outer cases of appliances are made of plastic or wood and there is
therefore no need to earth the appliance since it presents no danger. E.g
radios, tvs etc
o appliances have metal casings but they have a step down transformer
which reduces current within the appliance to very small levels which are
not dangerous e.g. DVD players

Solar radiation
 The sun’s heat and light energy travels to the earth by radiation in the form of
electromagnetic waves.
 No medium is needed to transmit heat and light by radiation
 Other sources of radiant heat include electric iron, fire and an electric bulb.
What happens to energy received from the sun

 some energy is reflected(to reflect is to change the direction of the energy)
while the rest is absorbed by objects on the earth’s surface.
Reflection of Radiant energy

To reflect is to change the direction of heat and light. Some of the energy is reflected
back into space by objects on the earth’s surface and those in the atmosphere. Light is
visible but heat is invisible, you can only feel it and observe the effects of heat.
Absorption and emission of heat.

An object receiving energy from the sun will absorb some of the energy and reflect the
rest. The heat absorbed will raise the temperature of the object.
If the heat source is removed, the object begins to cool as it emits or loses the heat it
had absorbed.
Experiment
Aim: To investigate the absorption and emission of heat from different surfaces
Material: two thermometers, two test tubes and water
Method
1. Take two test tubes, one painted black and another painted white. You can also
use painted tins.
2. Pour 25ml of water into each test tube.
3. Record the initial temperature of water in each test tube or tin.
4. Place the two test tubes in the hot sun.

5. Record the temperature of water in each test tube after every 5 minutes for
30 minutes.
6. Take the test tubes out of the sun and allow them to cool to room temperature,
recording the temp of the water after every 5 minutes.
7. Plot your findings on a graph
Table of results
Temperature changed with time during heating as below;
Time 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Tin A 21 22 24 27 29 30 32
Tin B 21 22 23 25 26 27 28
Observations
 The temperature of water in the painted tin increased faster during the
experiment.
 The temperature of water in the painted tin was higher after 30 minutes.
Explanation
 The black test tube absorbed heat faster than the white test tube because
black is a good absorber of heat.
Table of results during cooling

The temperature changed with time during cooling as below;
Time 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Tin A 32 27 23 21 21 21 21
Tin B 28 27 26 24 23 21 21
Observations during cooling

 The temperature of water in the black test tube dropped faster than the temp
of water in the white test tube.
 At the end of 30 minutes the temp in both was the same.
Explanation
 dark surfaces are good emitters of heat so the black test tube lost heat much
faster than the white test tube.
Conclusions
 black surfaces are good absorbers of heat.
 Black surfaces are good emitters of heat
 Light surfaces are bad absorbers of heat.
 Light surfaces are bad emitters of heat.
Everyday applications of these concepts.

 Light coloured clothes should be worn in summer when it is hot as these will not
absorb a lot of heat. In winter, dark coloured clothes should be worn so that as
much heat as possible is absorbed.
 Storage tanks for water are painted silver, white or some other lighter colour so
that the water remains cool while black pots are used on solar cookers to
increase absortion of heat.
Conclusion
1. The black painted test tube recorded a higher temperature than the white
painted test tube after 30minutes.this is because black surfaces are good
absorbers of heat while white surfaces reflect most of the heat.
2. During cooling, the black test tube also lost heat more quickly than the white
test tube. Black surfaces are good emitters of heat while white surfaces are
poor emitters.
NB: in summer, white colored clothes are preferable to dark colored ones. Dull colors
absorb more heat and will be more uncomfortable in summer. Cooking pots are colored
black to make sure that they absorb as much heat as possible during cooking.
Refrigerators are painted white to reflect heat as much as possible.
Methods of heat transfer

Heat is transferred in one of the following ways;
1. Radiation – The movement of heat in the form of heat waves. Electromagnetic
waves directly transport energy through space. E.g heat from the sun reaches
the earth through radiation. A person sitting in front of a fire or a heater feels
the heat by radiation.
2. Convection – heated particles move carrying heat as they move.e.g air in a fridge
is cooled by convection and a hot cup of tea looses heat by convection.
3. Conduction – heat moves from one particle to the next in a substance. For
example, a spoon in a cup of hot soup becomes warmer because the heat from
the soup is conducted along the spoon. Conduction is most effective in solids-but
it can happen in fluids.
 Fun fact: Have you ever noticed that metals tend to feel cold? Believe it
or not, they are not colder! They only feel colder because they conduct
heat away from your hand. You perceive the heat that is leaving your
hand as cold.
 In solids, heat is transferred by conduction, in liquids and gases by convection

and through space by radiation.
Experiment

Aim: To observe how solids transfer heat by conduction
Material: Bunsen burner, candle wax, pins (or thermometers) and retort stand
Diagram
Method
1. Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram using candle wax to attach 3 pins
A, B, and C to a metal rod.
2. Heat the end of the metal rod as shown.
Observations and conclusions

 The wax melted and the pins fell off starting with A then B and lastly C. (if
thermometers are used, temperature will be highest at A, followed by B and
lowest at C)
Explanation
 the heat travelled from the hottest point at the burner to the cooler parts
further away from the burner by conduction. The heat is moving from one
particle to the next in the metal with the particles themselves not moving.
Experiment
Aim: to observe the tranfare of heat in liquids by convection.
Materials: beaker, water, potassium permanganate crystals or small, burner and stand.
Diagram

Method
1. Fill the beaker with water to almost ¾ full
2. Drop a small crystal of potassium permanganate to the bottom edge of the
beaker.(a small leaf can be used instead of potassium permanganate)
3. Heat the water around the crystal or leaf as shown in the diagram
Observations
 As heat is applied around the crystal, purple colored streaks are seen rising
from point A to point B, then horizontally to point C and the trickles sink back
down to D from where they go back to A.
 Eventually all the water turns purple.
Explanation
 As water around A is heated, it becomes less dense and rises to the surface.
Cold water from D moves in to replace the rising warm water and convection
currents are formed as shown by the arrows.
Purpose of the potassium permanganate

 The purple streaks make the convection currents visible.
Purpose of burner
 To heat up the water so as to start the convection currents
Experiment
Aim: To observe the tranfare of heat in the air by convection.

Materials: burner/candle, cardboard box, plastic paper, torch paper
Diagram
Method
1. Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram and light up the candle.
2. Light the brown paper(torch paper) and bring it closer to the chimney A.
3. Observe what happens
Observations
 Before putting the smoldering paper over chimney A, smoke was moving
vertically into the air.(smoke rising into the air is evidence of heated particles
moving upwards carrying heat by convection)
 When the smoking paper was put over chimney A, the smoke moved into the box
through A and out of the box through B.
Explanation
 The candle under chimney B heats the air around it causing it to expand and
become less dense. The air rises and escapes through chimney B.
 Cooler, denser air moves in through chimney A to replace the warm air which has
escaped. This creates convection currents shown by the arrows in the diagram
which are made visible by the smoke.
Purpose of smoke
 The smoke makes the convection currents visible but the currents are there
even in the absence of the smoke.
Purpose of the candle
 It heats up the air creating the convection currents.
Practical uses of convection.
How ice blocks are used to cool a drink in a glass (convection in liquids)
 The ice blocks are less dense than the water and float at the top.

 They cool the liquid around them and it becomes denser and sinks to the bottom
of the glass.
 Warm liquid rises to the top because it is less dense where it is also cooled. This
process continues until the whole liquid is cold.
How a hot water jug is used to warm up a liquid.

 The heating element is placed at the bottom of the jug.
 The heating element warms up water around it and the warm water rises to the
surface because it becomes less dense.
 Cold water sinks to the bottom because it is denser and comes into contact with
the hot element and is therefore heated.
 This process continues until all the water is heated and starts boiling
Why the freezer is placed at the top in a fridge or why an air conditioner is
placed closer to the ceiling in buildings.
 Freezer or air conditioner cools air at the top and the air sink to the bottom of
the room because it becomes denser.
 Warm air rises to the top to replace the sinking cold air because it is less dense.
 The warm air is in-turn cooled and sinks to the bottom. This process continues
until all the air in the freezer or room is cold.
The solar water heater

 It consists of a glass covered panel mounted on the roof of a house and it is
designed to trap energy from the sun and use it to warm water.
 The panel contains thin, black copper pipes mounted on a thick black copper
plate.
 The pipes are thin to minimize amount of water passing through the panel so
that it warms up quickly.
 The thin pipes and plate are made of copper because copper is a good conductor
of heat.
 The plate and pipes are painted black to increase absorption of heat as black is a
good absorber of heat.
 Loss of heat by conduction to the roof surface is prevented by insulating the
panel with expanded polystyrene
 The glass prevents heat loss by convection and traps heat energy inside the
panel through the green house effect.
 The solar water heater is placed on the roof to trap as much sunlight as
possible.
 The best position for the panels on a building in the southern hemisphere is on a
north facing roof.

The solar Cooker
 A solar cooker is an easy and cheap way of harnessing the energy from the sun
for cooking.
 It uses a curved shiny surface to capture solar energy and focus it into one
position.
 The rays are focused onto a black pot or a pressure cooker.
Why is the dish shiny ?

 To reflect or change the direction of radiation energy without absorbing it..
Why is the dish curved ?
 To focus the reflected energy onto a single point, a black pot or a pressure
cooker.
Why is a black pot used ?
 To ensure that most of the heat is absorbed and used for cooking purposes.
Black surfaces are good absorbers of heat.

The Vacuum Flask (Thermos flask)
 It keeps hot liquids hot and cold liquids cold
 It is very difficult for heat to travel in or out of the flask
 Tranfare of heat by conduction and convection is minimized by making the flask
a double walled glass vessel with a vacuum between the walls.
 Radiation is reduced by silvering both walls on the inside of the vacuum.
 The slight heat loss is by conduction up the walls and out through the stopper
 If a hot liquid is stored inside, the slight heat loss by radiation from the hot
inside wall is reflected back across the vacuum by the silver on the inside of the
outside wall. If a cold liquid is stored any heat from

Beams
 A beam is a bar supported in some way and is used to carry a load.

 Beams are used to build large structures and their purpose is to support a load.
Supporting beams
There are two kinds of beams depending on how the beam is supported. Beams can be
supported in the middle, at both ends or at one end.
The Simple beam

Is a beam which is supported at both ends or in the middle. Examples include a bench,
bridges, tables, see saw etc.
The Cantilever Beam

It is a beam supported at one end. e.g. shop shelving, a diving board etc.
Loading a beam
When a beam is loaded, forces will act within the beam. These internal forces are
called stresses. Stress is the force acting internally on a material. A loaded beam will
bend as evidence of these forces.
Load
Top of beam is compressed while bottom of beam is

stretched. The central layer experiences no stresses and is
the neutral axis
Top of beam is stretched while bottom of beam is

compressed. The central layer experiences no forces and it is
called the neutral axis.

The top part of the beam s stretched while the
bottom is compressed, The central layer will be
under no stresses and this layer is called the neutral
layer or neutral axis.
The Neutral Axis

 It is the central layer in a loaded beam that does not experience any stresses or
forces.
 Since it does not experience any forces, it does not play any part in supporting
the load.
 Tension and compression forces increase with distance from the neutral layer
 The material in this region is therefore removed from beams to avoid wastage
of material and this reduces the weight of the beam as well as its cost.
Advantages of removing the neutral axis

Omitting or removing this part has the following advantages;
1. It reduces the weight of the beam making it easier to work with.
2. It reduces the weight of the beam improving the weight to mass ratio and in a
way makes it support a larger load as it is not supporting an unnecessary weight
of its own.
3. It reduces the cost of the beam as
Examples of beams where the neutral axis has been removed or omitted.
1. Power line pylons are made broadest at the base where stresses are greatest
and become smaller higher up.
2. Railway lines are in the form of an I instead of a rectangle or square.
3. Hollow steel tubes withstand bending and twisting and are used for many
commercial purposes e.g school furniture.
4. Many plant stems are hollow for the same reason. A maize plant has a soft pith
and hard hollow cylindrical stem.
5. Animal bones are hollow tubes to combine strength with lightness
Factors affecting the strength of a beam

 the cross section of the beam,
 the depth of the beam, and
 the material that was used to make the beam.
The cross section is the shape that is obtained if the beam is cut right across.

Types of Forces/Stresses which operate on loaded beams.
There are three types of stresses which operate on loaded beams. These are;
Compression forces
 These are crushing or squashing forces.
 They are produced by forces trying to compress the material.
 They are shown by two arrows facing each other.
Tensional forces
 These are stretching forces
 They are produced by forces trying to pull the material apart.
 Tensile forces are shown by arrows facing away from each other.
Shearing forces
 These are twisting forces.
 They are produced by equal and opposite forces not in line with each other.
 The forces tend to make one part of the material slide over one another.
 Shearing forces are shown by arrows facing each other but not in line.
Experiment
Aim:
To investigate stresses operating on foam rubber under different circumstances
Materials:
foam rubber/sponge, pen, ruler, brick, load (brick)
Method 1
1. Take the form rubber and draw vertical lines at equal intervals around it.
2. Put the form rubber on a flat surface and put a load on top of the form rubber
e.g. a brick
3. Observe what happens to the length of the lines drawn on the foam rubber

Observations and results
The lines become shorter and the volume of the form rubber decreases. This is
compression.
Method 2
1. Take the form rubber and pull it apart as shown on the diagram below.
2. Observe what happens to the lines

1. The length of the foam rubber increases,
2. The lines are further apart and the depth of the foam rubber decreases and
this is more marked in the middle where the lines are furthest apart.
The force that is acting on the foam rubber n this case is tension
Method 3
1. Twist the form rubber as shown on the diagram below.
2. Observe what happens to the lines drawn

The form rubber twist or shears together with the lines.
Other examples of forces operating on loaded beams.

Method
A foam rubber with lines drawn all around the sides is supported at both ends and a
load put on top as in the diagram below.

Observations
1. It is noted that the foam rubber will bend or buckle downwards.
2. Lines at the top will come closer together showing that there is compression
and,
3. lines at the bottom will move further apart showing that there is tension. The
top becomes shorter and the bottom becomes longer.
The same foam rubber above is supported at one end and a load put on top as in the
diagram below.
The beam will bend but this time the top becomes longer and lines are further apart
while the bottom becomes shorter and the lines are closer together. The top is under
tension while the bottom is under compression.
Types of Beams
A beam is described according the shape of its cross section. These different cross
sections are designed to with stand different types of forces. Before choosing a beam,
the forces operating on it must be understood so that it would not fail. The different
sections are produced by removing the neutral axis from the beam. The following are
some of the examples of beams used;
Diagram with different beams.

The strength of beams
Four things determine the strength of a beam;
1. The depth of a beam- the strength of a beam is directly proportional to the
depth of the beam. Deep beams are stronger than shallow beams but these deep
beams can twist easily.
2. The cross section of the beam- tube beams are the strongest because they are
strong in all directions and cannot shear.
3. The material used to make the beam- some materials like metals are stronger
than say wood, and
4. How the force is being applied- some beams are weak in certain directions. Most
beams are not strong under shearing forces, they twist.
The strength of material against a particular force is measured by applying a force

until it breaks. The greater the force needed to break the material, the stronger the
material to that type of force.
A material which is strong against one type of force may be weak against another.
To compare the strength of beams, they must be made from identical material of the
same mass but with different cross sections.
 Beams should be strong and light in weight. Strong beams have a high strength
to mass ratio. The removal of the neutral axis in beams increases the strength
to mass ratio of the beams.
 Of all beams, the cylindrical hollow beam is the strongest. They are strong in all
directions, light in weight and are not subject to shearing.
 All other beams are weak in a certain direction and are subject to shearing.

How beams break.
A beam breaks when it is overloaded. Breaking starts at the point where the beam is
most stretched. When breaking it starts by cracking and the cracks spread to other
parts of the beam.
Experiment
Aim:
Making beams of different cross sections
Materials:
4 sheets of A4 0.5mm hard card(cover of exercise book), a 30cm ruler, a sharp knife
or scissors, a sheet of card board to use as a cutting board, glue or sellotape and a rod.
Method
1. Take the first card and draw lines across its length at 10mm intervals. Cut along
all the lines so that you have strips of card all 10mm wide. Glue all the strips by
putting one on top of the other and leave to dry. You now have a solid square
beam of 10mm X 10mm.
2. Take the second card and draw lines at 10mm as before. Lightly drag a sharp
knife or scissors across these lines so that it becomes easy to bend the board
along these lines. Bend the card at each line so that you create a box shape.
Keep bending and fixing with glue or sellotape until the entire card is used up.
You now have a square hollow beam 10mm X 10mm.
3. Make a solid cylindrical beam by rolling a piece of card over itself. Make sure
that no hollow space is left in the middle.
4. Make a hollow cylindrical beam by rolling the card around a rod. Use glue to fix
it in place. Pull out the rod from inside the beam.
Comparing the strength of the beams made above.

Materials:
2 retort stands, ruler, 50g mass, beams of different cross sections
Method
1. Fix the beam so that it is supported at each end as in the diagram below.
2. Measure the height of the beam in the centre using a ruler.
3. Hang the 50g mass from the middle of the beam.
4. Measure the height of the beam after the weight has been hung on it
5. Calculate the depression caused by hanging the mass on each beam.
Diagram

Type of beam Initial height of Final height of Depression (mm)

beam (mm) beam (mm)
Square solid 250mm 210mm 40mm
Beam
Square hollow 250mm 220mm 30mm
Beam
Cylindrical solid 250mm 235mm 15mm
beam
Cylindrical hollow 250mm 240mm 10mm
beam
Conclusions
Cylindrical beams are the strongest because they have the smallest depressions. This is
because cylinders are not subject to shearing forces. The hollow cylindrical is the
strongest because it is not weighed down by its own weight. The neutral axis has been
removed so t has a higher strength to mass ratio.
NB: each of the beams in the above experiment contained the same material, i.e. one
complete sheet of card. This means the beams had the same mass per unit length. You
might have noticed that the depressions in cylindrical hollow and cylindrical solid were
very small.
Experiment: Comparing the strength to mass ratio of the beams above.

Materials:
identical beams as made above, a balance, a plastic bag, sand, two bricks/2 retort
stands.
Method
1. Place two brick on a flat surface support a beam between the bricks as shown on
the diagram below.

2. Secure a ruler in place as shown so that you can observe the height of the beam
3. Hang the plastic bag in the centre of the beam
4. Start pouring sand into the plastic bag until the beam has depressed by 5mm
5. Weigh the sand to find out how much was needed to bend the beam by 5mm
6. Repeat the stages above for all the other beams recording the results
7. Work out the strength to mass ratio of the beams using the formula. Strength
to mass ratio = mass of sand ÷ mass of beam
Results
Type of beam Mass of sand Mass of beam (g) Strength to mass

required to move ratio
beam thru 5mm (g)
Square solid 200g 100g 2:1
Beam
Square hollow 215g 100g 2,15:1
Beam
Cylindrical solid 240g 100g 2,4:1
beam
Cylindrical hollow 280g 100g 2,8:1
beam
Conclusion:
The more the sand required to move the beam by 5mm, the stronger the beam and the
greater the strength to mass ratio. Cylindrical hollow beams are the strongest since
they have the largest ration.
When removing the neutral axis, the goal is to improve this ratio.
Experiment
Aim:
Investigating the effect of beam depth on strength of beam.
Materials:
ruler
Method
1. Try to bend a ruler across its length. It is easy or difficult.
2. Try bending the same ruler across its edge. Is it easy or difficult?

Observations.
1. Bending it across its length is easy.
2. Bending it across its edge is more difficult
Conclusions
1. A flat wide rectangular beam with a shallow depth is weak and easily bends or
breaks.
2. A deep rectangular beam is stronger.
The strength of a beam depends on its depth.
Trusses
 A truss is a structure which is made up of several beams joined together and

are used to support large structures such as roofs and bridges.
 In trusses, the beams are always arranged in triangles. Triangles give strength
to a structure because they can resist shearing forces and they distribute
stresses evenly throughout the members of the truss.

Demonstration of how trusses support a load.
 In the diagram the load is supported from falling by the tension in wire 1.
 The horizontal beam number 2 is under compression and plays no direct part in
supporting the load but keeps the truss extended. i.e it supports the truss.
 Extra pieces, beam 3 and beam 4 can be added to the truss. Beam 4 is under
tension and beam 2 is under compression and these two hold up the truss. The
load is now supported by the tension in beam 1 and the compression in beam 3.
Making a trellis
More pieces can be added to the truss to produce a trellis as in the diagram below. A
trellis is used in long crane arms, bridges, roof structures etc.

 The diagonal parallel parts 1 and 5 are under tension and 3 and 7 under
compression and these parts support the load.
 The horizontal beams support the truss and the top ones 4 and 8 are under
tension while the bottom ones 2 and 6 are under compression.
 Together these triangles resist shear and diagonals can also be added to take
care of shear.
 The trellis is lighter and cheaper because unnecessary material has been
removed from the centre of the beam.
Stresses in a bridge truss
 XYZ is a truss supporting a bridge YMZ.

 Beam YMZ(the bridge) tends to bend downwards due to the weight of the lorry
 XM is pulled down as it is holding YMZ so that it does not bend so much.
 Loading the truss therefore stretches XM (tension) while XY and XZ are under
compression.
XY and XZ are held in place by YMZ when loaded which means it will be under tension
when the truss is loaded.
Forces in triangles are distributed equally and cancel each other out at the vertices of
the triangles in a truss.
Forces pulling outwards in YZ are in turn pulled along YZ and ZX and this presents YZ
from bending.
Stresses in roof trusses

 If a roof was directly placed on the walls of a house, it would push the walls
outwards. The tie beam AB is added to prevent this from happening.
 The weight of the roof rests on AC and BC and these are under compression.
 To prevent the roof from sagging (AC and BC bending due to the weight of the
roof) struts XY and XZ are added and are under compression.
 A king post is added to prevent the tie AB from bending downwards because of
the long span over which it crosses. This gives stability to the structure.
1. The members experiencing tension in a truss are called ties. Ties can be made
from beams, ropes or wires since all these are strong under tension.
2. Members experiencing compression are called struts. Struts can only be made
from beams since only beams are strong under compression.
3. There is no material between the strts and ties so that the strength to mass
ratio is increased.
4. When making roof trusses, the struts and ties are fixed together so that they
form a series of triangles.
Experiment
Aim:
Comparing the strength to mass ratio of a beam and a truss
Method
1. Bundle 6 drinking straws together and tie them using a rubber band to make a
beam.
2. Weigh the beam and record its mass.
3. Place two brick on the ground and balance the beam between them as shown on
the diagram below.

4. Take a small amount of soil, put it in a plastic bag and support it from the middle
of the beam as shown. Continue adding soil until it has bent by 5mm at the
centre.
5. Weigh the soil to find out how much was needed to bend the beam by 5mm
6. Now make a simple truss by bundling three straws and tying them together.
Then add one straw at each end and tie them together at the top. Take the last
straw and tie it to the top of the triangle and onto the horizontal beam as
appears in the diagram below.
7. Balance the straw on bricks and load it with soil as before. Keep adding soil until
the beam bends by 5mm
8. Weigh the soil and record the results
Results
Mass of beam/truss Mass of soil to bend Strength to mass

beam/truss by 5mm ratio
Beam 60g 45g 0.45
Truss 60g 75g 1.25
Conclusions
The strength to mass ration = mass of soil divided by mass of beam. The truss is
stronger for its mass than the beam because it has a greater strength to mass ratio.
The greater this ratio, the stronger the structure.

Advantages of trusses over beams
1. Trusses resist shearing forces unlike beams
2. Trusses are stronger than beams since ther are deeper than beams.
3. Trusses are lighter than beams and hence they have a high strength to mass
ratio.
4. Trusses use lesser materials and therefore are cheaper than solid beams.
Joining Materials
 Beams are used to make structures.
 This obviously means that beams have to be joined to make structures.
Reasons for joining materials

1. To increase length of a beam
2. To introduce a bend in a structure
3. To attach extra pieces on a structure
Properties of a good joint

1. It has to withstand high stresses
2. It allows the structure to be flexible to allow a more even distribution of load.
3. Joints must also allow for shrinkage and swelling during weather changes.
Methods of Joining materials
Pinning Methods
 Beams joined by gripping them from outside with a binding device such as a
clamp, a rope or wire, nuts and bolts, screws, nails or rivets. This is called
pinning.
 The more the number of pins used on a joint, the stronger is the joint as the
stress is shared among the pins.
 The arrange of the pins on the joint is an important factor for the strength of
the joint.
Surface contact methods

Beams are held together from inside by adhesive, soldering, brazing or welding.
Pinning Methods
Joining Wood
Nails
 A method used to join wooden beams.
 A hammer is used to force the nail into the wood. Nails must never be hammered
close to the edge of a beam as the wood will crack weakening the joint.
 The bottom of the nail can be bent over to prevent the joint from becoming
loose.

Screwing
 These are used to join pieces of wood.
 They are tapered (top wider while bottom is narrow). This makes it easier to
start driving the screw into wood.

 Screws are also threaded. The screw metal is cut into a spiral. As the screw is
forced into the wood, the spiral cuts into the wood and helps to embed the
screw into the wood. A screw driver is used to drive a screw into wood and this
has to be of the right size and type.
 For bigger screws, a small hole is made in the material and the screw enlarges
this hole.
Bolting
 a bolt is threaded along its length but it is not tapered.
 It is used to join both metals and wood.
 A hole is drilled through the materials to be joined and the bolt is passed
through. Its head is larger than the hole so it does not fall through.
 A nut is fixed on the end of the bolt to fix it in place. A washer is sometimes
used with the bolt to protect the material of the beam from being damaged.

Riveting
 they are often used to join metals.
 Rivets are made of soft metals such as iron, copper or aluminium and have a head
at one end.
 The rivet is heated and while it is hot is passed into a drilled hole in the beams.
 The other end is hammered flat and when it cools it contracts and makes a
tight fit to the beams.
Surface contact methods

Soldering
 solder is an alloy of tin and lead which melts at a low temperature of about
180°C.
 Surfaces to be soldered are cleaned by rubbing them with abrasive paper or
with steel wool.
 Solder is melted onto a joint and when it solidifies, seals the joint.
 It is common in sealing brass or copper joints in plumbing jobs as well as joining
conductors in electronics.

Brazing
 it uses an alloy of brass and zinc and is used to join metals (steel and iron).
 When heated, the brass- zinc alloy melts onto the pieces of iron or steel to be
joined. The brass melts at a lower temperature than iron or steel.
 When the brass is deposited on the joint, it is as nearly as strong as the iron.
Brazing makes a flexible joint.
Welding
 Two metals are joined together by being partially melted and then fused
together with more molten iron.
 The metals are heated and the heat causes the materials to melt and flow.
 Welding uses electricity and a welding machine.
 Plastic materials can be joined this way with the welding rod of the same type of
plastic.
Gluing
 it is done by applying glue on one face or both faces of the two pieces of wood
or plastic and then bringing the two glued sections together.
 The glue or adhesive is a liquid which eventually hardens to secure the joint. To
increase the strength of the joint, the materials to be
joined can be;
1. Mortised
2. Doweled
3. Dovetailed

 Glue will then be applied on the parts of the materials which will be fitted and
allowed to dry.
Factors affecting the strength of a joint (pinned joints)

1. Size of contact area – the larger the size of the contact area the stronger the
joint
2. Number of pins – more pins will make the joint stronger than few pins
3. Position of pins – putting pins in a single straight line will make the joint weak
under shearing forces.
Large structures
 A structure is a combination of beams fixed together so that it is self
supporting and is able to support a load.
Materials used in structures

 Materials need to be tough and strong and include;
1. Timber (wood)
2. Metals and alloys
3. Concrete – reinforced or pre stressed
4. Stones
5. Timber
Timber / Wood
 Wood has a high strength to mass ratio and it is tough and flexible. The closer
the grains of the wood are, the harder (stiffer) and stronger the wood.
 Hard woods include teak, mukwa, and mahogany and these are stronger than soft
woods which include pine, gumtree, eucalyptus and wattle.
 Planks are cut longitudinally (along the length of the tree) as this makes the
fibres stronger. If cut across the grain, it would have weak points and would
crack along the grains.
Uses of timber
Timber is used to make;
1. furniture
2. roof trusses
3. Floor boards
4. Doors etc
Advantages of wood
1. It is a renewable resource
2. It is light in weight and therefore easy to work with
3. It is easier to cut and join and is therefore more flexible
4. It is cheaper
Disadvantages

1. Wood is not fire proof
2. Wood can be attacked by termites and other insects.
3. Its strength can be affected when it absorbs moisture
Metals
 Steel has the following properties which makes it a very good construction
material;
1. Ductile – can be drawn into wire
2. Malleable – can be hammered into various shapes
3. High tensile strength
4. High compression strength
5. Compared to wood, steel has a larger strength to mass ratio
Uses of Metals
1. Make furniture
2. Pylons which hold electrical cables
3. Window frames
4. Scare folding used for construction projects
Advantages of metals
1. Strong under both tension and compression
2. Very durable especially if protected from corrosion
3. Can be moulded into various shapes and therefore becomes more flexible.
Disadvantages
1. It is expensive
2. Very heavy and difficult to cut and is therefore difficult to work with especially
where the beams are large
Concrete
 It is made by mixing cement, small stones, sand and water. The mixture is then
moulded into required shapes using suitable moulding materials. The concrete
block is allowed to set out and dry. Concrete is strong under compression but
weak under tension.
Reinforced Concrete
 Tensile strength of concrete can be improved by putting steel rods in the wet
concrete block before it dries. As the concrete hardens, it sticks to the steel
rods and this gives the concrete a combination of strength in both tension and
compression.
Pre-stressed concrete
 In pre stressed concrete, the steel rods are held under tension while the wet
concrete is poured on them. The tension is relaxed when the concrete has set

hard. The steel rods then keep the concrete under compression and this cancels
out any tension that the concrete may be subjected to when used in a structure.
Uses of concrete
1. Lintels
2. Slabs
3. Pillars
4. Bridge decks
Advantages of concrete
1. It is cheaper than metal especially when constructing large structures
2. Can be moulded into very large beams on site which makes it easier to make
large structures on site
3. Strong under compression
Disadvantages
1. Weak under tension unless when reinforced with metals
Stones
 It is a very strong material but it is inflexible and heavy. Granite, Marble and
sandstone are used during construction.
 Granite is hard, durable and attractive, Marble is hard and attractive and is
used for decorative purposes.
 Sandstone is soft and easy to work with and is fairly durable. Limestone and
dolomite are not commonly used.
 All stones are slowly weathered by acid rain.
Uses of stones
1. Making concrete
2. Decorating side walks
3. Making pavements
4. Building houses
5. Construction of bridges
6. Road construction
Construction of Bridges and Dams.
Bridge construction
 A bridge is a structure which spans a river or a gauge for traffic to pass
through.
Issues to be considered when building bridges

1. Division of the span into smaller sections
2. Minimising the amount of bending
3. Reducing the self load, the weight of the bridge itself.

4. Decreasing the forces (stresses) on the supports .
5. Minimising the costs
6. Reinforcing the materials
Materials used on modern bridges.

1. Stones and timber were used on old bridges
2. Steel and concrete used on modern bridges. Steel is expensive but a lesser
quantity is used. Concrete is cheaper but more material is needed to give a
strong structure.
Pier Bridge
 It is the most common type of bridge in Zimbabwe
 Pre-stressed concrete is used to make the deck.
 It is cheap to construct but not suitable for fast flowing rivers as the power of
the flowing water can wash away the piers of the bridge
Arch Bridge
 The function of an arch is to support a load by converting the downward force
of the load into a sideways thrust.
 The load pushes the units down and together and this thrust runs down the ring
of the arch and is transferred to the abutments.
 An arch is entirely under compression whereas the underside of the deck is
under tension. In an arch with a suspended roadway (e.g Birchneough bridge),
the deck is supported from the arch using vertical steel ropes which are under
tension.
 The thrust(forces) on the abutments is very enormous and a very reliable
foundation has to be built on solid rock

Suspension bridge
DAMS
Dam Construction
 Dams are structures built across streams so as to accumulate water for use at a
later stage. The following principles are used in dam construction.
 The dam wall is wider at the base. This is to counter the increased water
pressure which increases with depth. The wide base also increases the stability
of the dam wall by lowering its centre of gravity.

CONGRETE DAM
CONSTRUCTION;
 Concrete dam walls are arched

 The dam walls should have strong abutments
 The arch changes horizontal forces of water into lateral forces which run
through the wall
 These lateral forces are changed into compressional forces by the reaction
from the abutments
 Therefore the compressional forces acting in the arced dam wall support the
force from the dammed water
 Since concrete is strong in compression, the dam wall the dam wall will be able to
withstand the force due to the dammed water
 The thickness of the dam wall increases with depth, and this increases the
stability of the dam wall since pressure of water increases with depth
Jacking a dam wall.

 This is done by using steel rods that are well anchored onto solid ground and
kept under tension as the dam is being built. They are released when the
concrete has dried and set and lock the dam wall onto the ground to prevent
water pressure from toppling the dam wall.
 If the span is long, the dam wall is built in the form of an arch. The arch
changes the direction of the stresses by redirecting forces to the abutments.
The arch is under compression
Earth Dams
The earth (soil and gravel) is tightly compacted using so that water cannot get through.
The semi impervious section help to protect the dam wall by making it stable.
The grass and rock make the dam more resistant to the eroding action of water which
might be caused by waves.
The base is wider so as to withstand pressure which increases with depth.
Earth dams are constructed for small bodies of water with very little depth and are
usually straight.

Mechanical systems
Machines
 A machine is any device which is used to do work. It enables us to do work
easier.
Types of Machines
 There are two types of machines;
Simple machines:- ( levers e.g hammers, wheel barrows, pumps, screw drivers etc)
Complex machines :- e.g cranes, earthmovers etc. these are built from a combination of
simple machines.
Mechanical Advantage
A machine makes a big job lighter which means there is an advantage when using a
machine. This advantage is called mechanical advantage (MA)
MA is the ratio of the load lifted to the effort exerted, i.e
 The larger the Mechanical advantage, the more useful is the machine or the less
the effort required to lift the load.
 MA is a ratio and has no units of measurement.
Velocity ratio (VR)

 It is the ratio of the distance moved by the effort to the distance moved by
the load. It is calculated using one of the following formulae.
It is a measure of how useful a machine is. The smaller the VR the more useful a
machine is.

Work Done
Two kinds of work can be identified when it comes to machines. There is work done by
the machine and work done by the effort. Work is calculated using the formula below;
The two kinds of work can therefore be calculated as;
Efficiency (E)
It is a measure of how well a machine works. If a machine is perfect, it is 100%
efficient as work input (work done by effort) equals work output work done. In reality,
no machine is 100% efficient because some energy is lost due to friction and it is lost in
the form of heat. It is therefore necessary to reduce friction as much as is possible.
Reducing friction
Friction is reduced by;
1. lubrication using grease or oil
2. putting rollers
3. putting bearings
Efficiency is calculated using one of the following formulae;
Efficiency is usually expressed as a percentage.

Question
A crow bar 1.5m long is used to lift a 100kg rock out of a hole 25cmm deep. If the
crowbar pivot is 50cm from one end;
1. What is the force that must be used to just lift the rock
2. What is the MA of the crowbar
3. What is the VR of the crowbar if the effort moves 75cmm downwards
4. What is the work done (this refers to work done by machine by moving stone)
and
5. What is the efficiency of the machine.
Solutions
100kg (load) X 50cm(distance of load from pivot) = Effort X 100cm (distance of effort
from pivot)
5000 = 100E
E = 5000/100
E = 50Kg
E = 50 X 10
E = 500N

Other machines
1. An Inclined Plane
 It is a sloping plane and is a simple machine because it reduces the amount of
force required to lift a load but the load has to move through a greater
distance.
 The smaller the angle of the inclined plane, the smaller the force used to lift
the load but the further the load must move.
 In an inclined plane;
Levers
These are simple machines which move a load through a pivot. There are three types of
levers:-
1. Those with the load in the middle i.e. effort, load, pivot or pivot, load, effort.
Examples include the wheel barrow

2. Those with the effort in the middle i.e. pivot, effort, load or load, effort, pivot.
Examples include the fishing line, hammer
3. Those with the pivot in the middle i.e. effort, pivot, load or load, pivot, effort.
Examples include see saw, pliers, scissors, borehole etc
Pulley
 Are grooved wheels mounted on a block and a rope passes through the groove
and is used for changing the direction and size of an effort required. There are
three types of pulleys;

 Single fixed pulley
 It is used to change the direction of the effort

 Has a VR and MA which is equal to 1
 The effort is slightly bigger than the load because there is always some friction
to be overcome.
 It is more efficient than a single movable pulley
Single movable pulley
It has a pulley on which the load is attached and the pulley can be moved.
The rope on both sides of the pulley produces an upward force.
The VR = 2 because the rope has to move twice the distance moved by the load as the
pulley moves.

Block and tackle
 It consists of two blocks each with one or more pulleys mounted on the same
axle
 One block is fixed and the other is movable
 Each fixed pulley simply changes the direction in which effort is applied and the
movable block increases the MA of the system.
 The more the pulleys, the easier it is to lift a load.
 Moving parts of the pulley system must constantly be lubricated to reduce
friction.
Gears
 Gears are simple machines
 The gear system will consists of cog wheels mounted on an axle/shaft
Effort is applied on one gear which in turn drives the wheel carrying the load.
When the gear lever of a car is changed, the rate at which the engine turns the drive
shaft is changed
Low Gear
The effort wheel is smaller than the load gear wheel and the effort gear has to be
turned several times for the load gear to turn once
The velocity ratio will be high
This gear is used when the load is very heavy e.g. when the car is started from stand
still or when going uphill.
High gear/top gear

The wheels are the same size and it only takes one turn of the effort wheel to turn the
load wheel.
This gear is used when the load is lighter e.g. when the car is already moving and needs
to go a bit faster.
Wheel and axle

Used in wells to lift water out.
The circumference of the wheel is much greater than that of the axle and a small
effort on the wheel turns the axle several times and the axle can carry a large effort.

Pressure
Pressure In solids
Pressure is force acting on an area. The unit of pressure is N/m² or Pascals (Pa)
Pressure In liquids
Gravity pulls a liquid down into its container and the liquid exerts pressure on the
container. The following points should be noted:-
Pressure of a liquid at a certain depth acts equally in all directions. This can be shown
by punching holes in a tin at the same depth and then filling the tin with water.
Pressure in a liquid increases with depth because of the weight of the liquid above. This
can be shown by punching holes on a tin at different depths and filling with water

TO SHOW THAT PRESSURE IN LIQUIDS INCREASES WITH DEPTH
A manometer
It is an instrument used to measure pressure in fluids.

It is a U tube half filed with a liquid such as mercury or water.
When both arms are open to atmospheric pressure, the level of the liquid in both arms
are the same.
If one arm is connected to a gas supply, the levels move. The liquid in the arm
connected to the gas is forced downwards by the gas pressure.
The pressure of the gas is then balanced by atmospheric pressure plus the column of
liquid of height h.

Pumps
A pump is a device used for lifting water and gases using atmospheric pressure.
Types of pumps
Lift pump
Consists of a piston which moves up and down through a cylinder.

The pump has two leather or rubber flaps which act as valves
One is attached to the piston and the other one is on the cylinder as on the diagram
below

Strokes/stages
 Up stroke 1/stroke 1:Valve 2 is closed and pressure below this valve is reduced
to below atmospheric pressure. Atmospheric pressure pushes on the surface of
the water in the well. This opens valve 1 and water enters the cylinder section
below valve 2
 Stroke 2/Down stroke: the downward movement of the piston closes valve 1 and
the pressure of the water opens valve 2. Water transfares to the cylinder
section above valve 2
 Stroke 3/up stroke : everything that happened in stroke 1 is happening again

with one extra thing. As the piston is going up, water above valve 2 is lifted to
the sprout where it gushes out of the pump hence the name lift pump.
Drawbacks of the lift pump
It can only lift water through less than 9m

It only delivers water on the upstroke
A lift pump has to be primed before use. i.e. water has to be put in the pump first
before it can work.
A force pump
Consists of a piston moving up and down through a cylinder.
The piston has no valve but both valves are on the cylinder as shown on the diagram.
 Upstroke as the piston moves up, valve Y is closed by the backward

movement of water from the reservoir and atmospheric pressure forces water
up through valve X into the cylinder section above valveX.
 Down stroke as the piston moves down, valve X is closed by the pressure of
the water and water is forced through valve Y into the reservoir and out
through the sprout.

 Water flows continuously because of the pressure of the air trapped in the
reservoir
The Blair Pump
It gives a steady supply of water for small communities

It can lift water to a height of about 10m
Pump handle is connected to a piston which moves in a cylinder that is fixed below the
water level in a well
Valves are present, one at the bottom of the cylinder and another one on the piston.
These valves only open upwards.

 Down stroke
The valve on the piston opens due to an increase in pressure in the space between the
piston valve and the cylinder valve, which is closed. Water transfares to the space
above valve 1.
 Upstroke
The piston valve closes trapping water in the pump raising main cylinder.
Pressure inside the space between the pistion valve and the cylinder valve falls forcing
more water into the space.
Up stroke
The piston is pushed down again and the piston valve opens allowing more water into the
pump raising main. After a few strokes, each downward stroke will cause water to come
out of the handle.
 Advantages of the blair pump
It is simple to construct
It is cheap to maintain
 Disadvantages
It can only deliver water on the down stroke.
The Bicycle pum
Is made up of a piston moving within a cylinder.

The cylinder has a hole at one end and the piston has a leather washer which acts as a
valve.
When the piston is pulled out, pressure inside the cylinder is reduced and the tyre
valve closes. Atmospheric pressure forces air in around the edges of the washer into
the cylinder.
When the piston is pushed inwards, the air in the cylinder is compressed.

The leather washer gives an airtight fit against the wallof the cylinder and the air is
pushed into the tyre through the tyre valve
As air is added to the tyre, it becomes increasingly difficult to pump in more air due to
the increase in pressure in the tyres.
The siphon
It is a way of emptying a liquid from a container which has no outlet. Fo the siphon to
work;
THE SIPHON
The container must be full

The end C must be lower than A
The tube is first filled with water
When end C is opened, water flows out of the tube and this reduces pressure inside the
tube.
Atmospheric pressure on the surface of the water in the container forces more water
into the tube.
The water will continue to flow down the tube due to its weight until the container is
empty

Hydraulic systems
These make use of three properties of liquids;

Liquids can pass pressure applied to them in all directions
Liquids cannot be compressed
Liquids can flow
Motor car breaking system

Pressure on the brake pedal causes the piston in the master cylinder to compress the
brake fluid.
This pressure is passed on equally to the larger piston in the wheel cylinders.
This pressure forces the brake pads against the wheels
Force of friction stops the car
The brake pedal is the lever.
Brake fluid is used because it is non corrosive

THE BRAKING SYSTEM
Applications of hydraulic systems

Front end loaders
Motorised trench diggers
Automatic tipper trucks

Forces and Pressure
Pressure is force exerted per unit area
Pressure In solids
Think about these two situations:
 Pushing a drawing pin into a wall pointy end towards the wall.
 Pushing a drawing pin into a wall pointy end towards your thumb.
These are two similar activities with two very different results. The reason for this is the difference in
pressure. Assuming the same force is applied, each case would have a different pressure acting on the
thumb. In the first diagram the thumb pushes on a large area so the force is spread out and the pressure
is low. In the second diagram the force is concentrated on a small area so the pressure is much higher.
If a force is applied over a smaller surface area you get a larger pressure.
Pressure can be calculated using the following equation:
 Force will be in newtons, N.

 Area will be in either m2 or cm2.
If the area is in m2 then the pressure will be measured in Pascals or N/m2. If the area is in cm2 then the
pressure will be in N/cm2.
Example 1:
A lump of cheese of weight 20N stands on a table. It is a cubic lump with an area of 10cm2.
What pressure does it exert on the table?
Answer:

Nutrition
DIET
A balanced diet
o It is a meal that contains all the nutrients required by the body in their correct
proportions.
o The components of a balanced diet include proteins, carbohydrates, vitamins,
fats, mineral salts, water and roughage.
Carbohydrates
o They are energy giving foods which are broken down in the body to release
energy
o The major classes of carbohydrates are glucose, sugars, starch and cellulose
o Foods rich in carbohydrates include cereals, potatoes, sadza, rice, honey etc
Proteins
o These are body building foods which are required for growth and repair of cells
in the body.
o They are also used in the formation of specialised proteins such as hormones in
the body.
o Foods rich in proteins include fish, eggs, meat, beans, insects and milk.
Fats and oils (lipids)

o These are energy giving foods which are more difficult to break down in the
body and are used by the body to release energy if there is a shortage of
carbohydrates.
o They are used to store energy in the body.
o Foods rich in fats are margarine, butter, nuts, meat, soya beans and milk.
Vitamins
o These are protective foods which protect the body from contracting diseases.
o Vitamin A protects fro respiratory diseases, poor eye sight and blindness.
o Foods rich in vitamins include fruits and vegetables.
Mineral Salts
o These are needed in small quantities for any different metabolic functions.
o Calcium is needed for teeth and bone development.
o Phosphorous is needed for teeth and bone development and used n the formation
of DNA.
o Iron is needed for the formation of red blood cells. A shortage of iron causes a
disease called anaemia.

o Iodine is important for the normal function of the thyroid gland. Lack of iodine
causes mental and physical retardation in children and goitre in adults.
Roughage and water

o That part of food which cannot be digested and helps in the movement of food
in the digestive system.
o Water is required for all chemical reactions to occur in the body. It is also used
to dissolve mineral salts and vitamins for the to be absorbed into the blood
stream.
o Foods rich in roughage include vegetables, fruits and green mealies.
Malnutrition
o It means too much or a shortage of the necessary nutrients in a diet which
affects the body.
o It results in undernourishment or over nourishment. Over nourishment is
common in developed countries while under nourishment is common in developing
countries.
Food Deficiency Diseases.
Marasmus
o Also called Dry malnutrition and is caused by not eating enough food and the
body is being starved.
o The body is small, very thin and looks wasted.
o To cure the disease, more food should be given to the child.
Kwashiorkor
o It is caused by not eating enough proteins in the diet
Symptoms
1. A swollen abdomen, feet and face
2. Reddish hair
3. Sores on the skin and a peeling skin
4. Stunted or poor growth in children.
Effects of Kwashiorkor
1. Poor or stunted growth
2. Slowerbain development
3. Prolonged shortage of protein affects the liver
Goitre
Caused by the shortage of iodine in the diet
Symptoms and effects

1. An enlarged thyroid gland in adults and

2. Student growth in children
Sources of iodine
o Iodine is found in iodised salt, in cheese and in sea weed.
Night blindness
o Caused by the shortage of Vitamin A
o Vitamin A is required for the proper development of eye and respiratory tissues.
Symptoms
o Poor sight especially at night
o Respiratory infections due to poorly developed respiratory tissues.
Sources of Vitamin A
o Vitamins are found in vegetables and fruits.
NB: The deficiency of Vitamin C causes bleeding under the skin and slow healing to
wounds
Rickets
1. It is caused by a shortage of Vitamin D
2. Vitamin D is required for the normal development of bones.
Symptoms
o Legs bend due to soft bones which are then weighed down by the body.
Anaemia
o This disease is caused by the shortage of iron in the diet.
o Iron is used in the body in the formation of red blood cells.
Food Tests
How to prepare food before tests
 The starch test can be done on solid food
 The other food tests require a solution which is made as follows
o Crush the food and mix it with water.
o Stir well and filter to remove the solids from the food solution.
o Use the solution during food tests.
Testing for starch

o Iodine solution is used to test for starch.
o Iodine solution is brown in colour and is added to the food to be tested.

o If the food being tested contains starch, the iodine changes colour from brown
to blue black. This is a positive test.
o If the food has no starch, the iodine remains brown. This is a negative test.
Testing for glucose/reducing sugars or simple sugars

o Glucose can be tested by using either benedict’s solution or a clinistix
Testing for glucose using a clinistix

o A clinistix is a strip of paper that is pink in colour.
o It is dipped into the food solution and if glucose is present, the clinistix will
change colour from pink to purple. The purple colour shows a positive test for
glucose.
o If glucose is not present, the clinistix remains pink. This is a negative test to
glucose.
Testing for glucose using Benedict’s solution

o It is blue solution that is used to test the presence of glucose.
o A few drops of Benedict’s solution are added to the food solution and the
mixture is heated gently over a water bath.
o If the food contains glucose, the solution will change colour from blue to brick
red. Brick red shows a positive test for glucose.
o If there is no glucose in the food, the solution will remain blue in colour.
Testing for Proteins

o Proteins can be tested using either an albustix or using the Biuret test.
Test for proteins using an albustix

o An albustix is a strip of paper which is yellow in colour.
o A solution of the food to be tested is prepared and an albustix is dipped into
the food solution.
o If the food contains proteins, the albutix will change colour from yellow to
green. Green shows a positive colour for proteins.
o If the albustix remains yellow, then there is no protein in the food.
Testing for Protein using the Biuret’s Test

o A solution of the food to be tested is prepared
o A small amount of sodium hydroxide solution is added to the food followed by a
few drops of copper sulphate solution.
o If the food contains proteins, a purple colour is formed. This is the positive test
for protein.
o If the food does not contain protein, the solution remains blue. Blue shows a
negative test.
Testing for fats

o Fats can be tested using either the spot test or the emulsion test.

Using the spot test to test fats
o The food to be tested is rubbed onto a white clean paper and the paper is
allowed to dry.
o If fats are present, a translucent spot remains on the paper after drying. The
spot will allow more light to pass through it than any other part of the paper.
o If there are no fats in the food, the paper dries to its original colour.
Using the emulsion test to test for fats

o A solution of the food to be tested is prepared and an equal volume of ethanol is
added to the food solution.
o The mixture is allowed to settle and an equal volume of water is added. On
adding water, the mixture turns milky if fats are present. The milky colour
shows a positive test for fats.
o If there are no fats, then the solution remains clear.
Special Dietary Requirements
o All people need a balanced diet but different people require different balances
of food nutrients
o The nutritional balances depend on the age, sex and the amount of physical
activities done by the different people.
o People in different stages of life like childhood, adulthood, pregnancy and old
age will have different nutritional requirements
Pregnant women
o They need a balanced diet with extra proteins, iron and calcium
o The extra proteins are for building new cells for the foetus
o Iron is for building or forming red blood cells for the foetus.
o Calcium is required for the formation of bones and teeth in the baby.
Nursing Mothers
o Nursing mothers need a diet that is the same as that of pregnant mothers as
extra nutrients are required for the production of breast milk for the baby to
get a balanced diet.
Manual worker
o Requires a balanced diet with extra carbohydrates for energy during the hard
physical work.
o Extra proteins are required for body building as the body adapts to the hard
manual work.

Growing Children
o They need a balanced diet with extra protein for the building of new tissues
during growth.
Breast Feeding
o Breast milk is the best food for a baby for the following reasons;
Advantages of breast feeding
1. Breast feeding creates a close bond between the mother and the child.
2. The milk is always at the correct temperature required by the baby.
3. Breast feeding increases child spacing by mothers and is good for family
planning.
Advantages of breast milk
1. Breast milk contains balanced nutrients for the baby.

2. The milk contains antibodies which help to protect the baby against diseases.
(breast milk gives the baby natural passive immunity against diseases)
3. The mother’s milk is clean and hygienic (it is free from pathogens)
4. It is cheap and is always available.
Methods of Preserving Food
Micro organisms such as bacteria and Fungi and enzymes found in the food itself causes
food to decay. The following are some of the methods which are used to preserve food;
1. Drying – removes water from the food which stops any enzymes and micro
organisms from working as no chemical reaction can occur in the absence of
water. Used for meat, maize and some vegetables
2. Salting – a lot of salt is applied to the food and salt kills micro-organisms by
removing water from the bacteria. Water is removed by osmosis. The method is
used for meat and fish.
3. Sugaring – a lot of sugar is added to the food in the form of a syrup. The sugar
kills the bacteria by removing water from them through osmosis.
4. Smoking – food is exposed to smoke. Smoke contains harmful chemicals which
kill any micro organisms. Foods preserved include meat, seed maize, onions etc.
5. Canning – the food is paced in cans and heated to about 100°C and the cans are
sealed while hot. The heating kills all the bacteria and sealing while hot prevents
entry of new micro organisms.
6. Pickling – food is soaked in vinegar. The acetic acid in vinegar lowers the pH of
the food which stops the action of bacteria and enzymes because they can not
operate in acidic conditions.

7. Refrigeration/Freezing – the temperature of the food s lowered to below 4°C.
This slows down the action of micro organisms.
Substance use and abuse
The health of individuals is sometimes affected by abuse of certain substances.

Substances abused include the following;
a. Tobacco
o Tobacco smoke is a mixture of gases and vapours some of which are toxic
and dangerous.
o Some gases condense in the respiratory system to form tar which
increases the chances of lung cancer. Smoking is the number one cause of
lung cancer.
o The tar also sticks to hairs in the respiratory system which causes a
constant cough as the system tries to remove the tar.
o The tar and other chemicals in the smoke irritate the walls of the system
causing bronchitis.
o Tobacco smoke damages air sacs and causes accumulation of liquids in the
lungs a disease called emphysema.
o Smoking causes low birth weight for pregnant mothers
o Cigarette smoke also contains carbon monoxide which is a poisonous gas
that causes suffocation
o Nicotine in tobacco smoke is addictive and causes smokers to increase
their smoking.
Diseases caused by Smoking
a. Lung cancer – starts with a cough and chest pains. This is followed by spitting
mucus and blood. Smoking also causes cancer of the mouth, the tongue, the
larynx and the bladder.
b. Bronchitis – a bacterial disease which occurs in heavy smokers and causes a noisy
cough. Usually occurs in older people and can be treated using antibiotics.
c. Emphysema – Accumulation of fluids in the lungs due to damage of the
respiratory walls and causes short breath and wheezing when breathing. It is
associated with chronic bronchitis.
d. Stroke – smoking damages blood vessels supplying the brain with blood which
increases the chances of a stroke.
e. Heart Attack – smoking damages coronary arteries which supply the heart with
oxygen which increases the chances of a heart attack.
f. Stomach ulcers – it is also believed that smoking cases stomach ulcers.

Passive Smoking – occurs when non smokers inhale smoke produced by smokers
especially in closed areas such as cars, busses, offices etc. Long term effects of
passive smoking are just the same as for smokers.
Alcohol
o Little amounts of alcohol are believed to make people feel relaxed and jovial and
this reduces anxiety
o It also cases loss of muscle control and reduces reaction time which increases
accidents when driving or working with machines.
o Our bodies also treat alcohol as a poison which is broken down in the liver.
Excessive intake causes damage o the tissues of the liver, a disease called liver
cirrhosis
o Alcohol causes loss of self control causing immoral behaviour and antisocial
behaviour.
o Family is neglected financially, emotionally and socially.
o If addicted, withdrawal can cause irritation, anger and desperation.
Mandrax and Cannabis
o These drugs are processed from a plant called cannabis sativa which is found in
most parts of the world.
o If the plant is smoked raw, the drug is called marijuana or mbanje. If processed
into a white powder, the drug is called mandrax.
o The drug causes an exaggerated feeling of well being and a relaxed uncaring
attitude.
o These drugs case
 Alters personality permanently
 Causes memory lapses, disturbed thoughts and hallucinations
Solvents
o Some people sniff organic solvents such as ethanol or glue because they make
people feel relaxed
o These have the following harmful effects;
 Reduced self control
 Hallucinations
 Damage to the respiratory system and to the liver
The Body’s Defence Mechanisms
1. The Skin
o It is a physical barrier against all pathogens (disease causing organisms)
such as bacteria.

o If the skin gets damaged, pathogens can enter and cause an infection.
o The skin must be protected from injury and wounds must be treated
quickly.
2. Tears
o Tears have a mild antiseptic which kills pathogens in the eyes to avoid
infection.
o They also clean the eyes by washing out any dirt.
3. Wax and Hairs
o Found in the ears and are needed to trap dust and micro organisms. The
dirty wax needs to be removed occasionally.
4. Mucus and hairs

o Are found in the respiratory system to trap dust and micro organisms.
Mucus found in the genitals and rectum is acidic and helps to destroy
bacteria.
5. Stomach acids
o The stomach produces hydrochloric acid and it is needed to kill bacteria
ingested together with food.
6. Blood Clotting
o Caused by blood platelets and prevents excessive blood loss and stops
entry of pathogens into the blood stream.
7. Saliva
o It is an alkaline and reduces dental decay by neutralising acids produced
by bacteria in the mouth.
8. White blood cells
o Are of two types. Phagocytes hunt and kill bacteria while lymphocytes
produce antibodies that destroy bacteria.
Immunity
o Is the protection of the body against diseases or toxins by the action of

specific antibodies.
Antibodies
o These are chemicals produced by white blood cells and their purpose is to
destroy any invading pathogens or neutralise their toxins
Antigens
o These are pathogens or toxins which stimulate the body to start producing
antibodies to defend itself.
Types of Immunity

o Immunity can be passive or active.
o Active immunity occurs where the body is stimulated to produce antibodies.
o Passive immunity occurs when readymade antibodies are introduced into the
body. The body is not making its own antibodies.
o There are four types of immunity as follows;
1. Natural active Immunity

 A natural infection stimulates the body to produce antibodies leading to
recovery.
 This information is stored in the brain and if a similar infection occurs,
the same antibodies are produced to defend the body.
2. Artificial active Immunity
 Weakened antigens are introduced into the body through a vaccine.
 The body is stimulated to produce antibodies against these antigens.
 The information is stored in the brain and is
 used when an actual infection occurs.
3. Natural Passive Immunity
 Readymade antibodies are naturally introduced into the body. This occurs
when a foetus receives antibodies from the mother through the placenta
or when a baby receives antibodies during breast feeding.
4. Artificial Passive Immunity
 Readymade antibodies are introduced into the body by an injection. This
is used where doctors feel there is no adequate time for the body to be
stimulated to produce its own antibodies.
Immunity for babies
o Before birth and when they are breastfeeding, babies receive antibodies
naturally from their mother and therefore have natural passive immunity.
o When vaccinated against diseases, they are injected with antigens which
stimulate their bodies to produce antibodies. This is artificial active immunity.
o Eventually they may be infected with actual diseases naturally and their bodies
develop natural active immunity.
Child Immunisation and the Six Killer Diseases
Age Immunisation
At Birth BCG (Protects against TB
3 Months DPT 1 (Polio, Diptheria, Whooping Cough & Tetanus)
4 Months DPT 2 (P Polio, Diptheria, Whooping Cough & Tetanus)
9 Months Measles

5 Years BCG & DPT (TB & Polio, Diptheria, Whooping Cough & Tetanus)
 The Immunisation schedule is meant to protect children from the six killer
diseases.
 The BCG vaccination protects children against TB
 The DPT vaccination protects children against diphtheria, whooping cough and
tetanus.
Tuberculosis (TB)
 It is caused by a bacterium which is spread through the air.
Symptoms
 Chronic cough, fever, sweating, pain in the chest, loss of weight and weakness.
 TB can be cured if treated in time.
Diptheria
 Is caused by a bacteria which is spread by direct contact or through the air.
Symptoms
 A sore throat, fever and a cough with discharge and blood.
Whooping Cough
 Is caused by a bacteria which is spread by droplet infection.
Symptoms
 A characteristic whooping cough and vomiting which leads to dehydration and
death.
Tetanus
 Is caused by bacteria and usually infects wounds. The tetanus bacteria live in
the dirt around us and is mostly associated with rust.
Symptoms
 Muscle rigidity and spasms evident with failure to open your mouth, a condition
known as locked jaws.
 It is caused by a virus which affects young children and is spread through the
air.
 It is also spread through poor hygiene practices.
Measles
 It is caused by a virus and spreads through droplet infection.
 It is very dangeros especially to small children.
Symptoms
 Fever

 A runny nose and a cough
 Red and sore eyes
 After a few days a rush appears first on the forehead and neck and then
spreads.
Pathogens
 Pathogens are disease causing micro organisms.
 They include virus, bacteria, fungi and protozoa.
 Pathogens pass from one individual to the next in various ways including the
following;
Disease transmission methods
Method of Transmission Example of Disease

1 Physical Contact Chicken pox, measles
2 Droplet infection (through breath or coughing) TB, Measles, Flu, Pneumonia
and mumps
3 Vectors e.g. mosquitoes and tsetse fly Malaria and sleeping
sickness
4 Contaminated water and food Bilharzia, cholera,
desentry, typhoid etc
Diarrhoea
 It is a symptom of a disease and occurs when a person passes frequent watery
stools.
 The person becomes dehydrated especially if they are vomiting as well.
 The lost liquids need to be replaced by taking oral rehydration solution (ORS)
How to prepare an ORS Solution

 An ORS solution is made by mixing the following
o 1 litre of clean boiled water
o ½ level teaspoon of table salt
o 6 level teaspoon of sugar
Dysentery
 It is an infectious disease of the colon
Symptoms
 Diarrhoea that comes and goes alternating with constipation.
 Cramps in the belly
 A need to have frequent bowel emptying even when little or nothing comes out.
 In severe cases stools will have mucus and blood
 Person becomes very weak but there is no fever.
Treatment of dysentery

 Can be treated using antibiotics e.g. tetracycline
Prevention
 Basic hygiene before and during preparation and consumption.
 Making use of toilets
 Protecting sources of drinking water
 Eating warm food and if food is taken raw, ensure that it is thoroughly cleaned.
Typhoid
 It is an infection of the intestines caused by a bacteria. The bacteria causes
ulcers in the intestines leading to severe bleeding.
 It is spread through contaminated water.
Symptoms of Typhoid
 It starts with a fever
 Headache and sore throat and often a dry cough.
 Fever rises every day until temperature reaches 40°C
 The skin feels hot and dry
 Usually there is vomiting, diarrhoea (green stools)or constipation
 Death may result as a result of damage to the intestines because of the ulcers.
Treatment
 Seek medical help
 Lower the fever with cool wet clothes
 Give plenty of fluids such as soups, juices and ORS to avoid dehydration from
diarrhoea.
Prevention
 Basic hygiene before and during preparation and consumption of food.
 Making use of toilets
 Protecting sources of drinking water
Cholera
 Is caused by a bacteria called vibrio cholera and is spread by drinking
contaminated water or eating contaminated food. The bacteria is also easily
spread by flies.
 When the bacteria get to the intestines, they multiply and in the process
produce toxins which cause diarrhoea and vomiting.
Symptoms
 Cholera begins with severe diarrhoea and vomiting along with abdominal pains
 The patient passes watery stools with a ‘rice water’ appearance.
Treatment

 People should seek immediate medical help if they suspect they have cholera.
 ORS should be used in severe cases of diarrhoea until medical help is obtained.
 Disease can be treated using antibiotics.
Prevention
 Basic hygiene before and during preparation and consumption like washing hands.
 Making use of toilets and proper toilet habits like washing hands after use
 Protecting sources of drinking water and treating water that may not be clean.
 Isolation of infected persons as the bacteria can easily be spread by flies.
 A vaccine can be given against cholera
Malaria
 It is caused by a parasite called plasmodium which is transmitted by the female
anopheles mosquito.
 The mosquito is the vector
Life cycle of the Plasmodium parasite.
In the human body

 Parasite enters the human body while the mosquito is feeding. A mosquito first
injects saliva into the blood to stop blood clotting and in the process injects the
plasmodium parasite.

 It then goes to the liver the parasites will multiply. It is releases into the blood
stream about ten days from day of infection.
 In the blood, the parasite enter red bllod cells where they multiply. The red
blood cells rapture/burst every few days releasing the parasites and their
toxins into the blood. The toxins cause fever and shivering in the infected
person.
 The parasites in the blood seek and infect new red blood cells
 If a mosquito bites an infected person, the parasite will get into the mosquito.
In the mosquito
 The parasite gets into the mosquito during feeding and goes to the stomach
where they multiply.
 The parasite they moves to the salivary glands of the mosquito from where they
will be injected into humans as the mosquito bites another person.
Symptoms of Malaria
 Severe headache
 Loss of appetite
 Alternate feeling of fever and weakness
 Painfull joints
 The eggs, larva and pupa are found in water.
Methods of controlling Malaria

1. Prevent the breeding of mosquitoes by removing the conditionsfavourabe for
breeding. This includes;
a. Bury all empty containers to avoid accumulation of water.
b. Put oil on stagnant water to stop respiration of larva and pupa

2. Killing adult mosquitoes by spraying residual pesticides which continue working
over time
3. Preventing mosquito bites using one of the following methods;
a. Use of mosquito nets
b. Put wire mash on windows to minimise entry of mosquitoes.
c. Use mosquito repellent jelly
d. Wearing long sleeved clothes
4. Use of malaria vaccines especially before visiting malaria prone areas
5. Use anti malarial drugs to kill the plasmodium parasite e.g. chloroquine,
primaquine and fancida.
Reproduction in Humans
Sexual reproduction in humans
Testes: have many coiled tubes which produce sperm, and the cells between
tubes produce testosterone, a male hormone.
Scrotum: holds testicles outside the body and keeps them a few degrees below
body temperature which allows maximum sperm production.
Epididymis: a coiled tube which is used to store sperms that have been
produced by the testis. If sperms are not released, they are recycled inside the
body.
Sperm duct: carries sperm from
testicles to urethra.
Prostate gland and seminal
vessicles: makes seminal fluid which
activates, nourishes and lubricates
the now active sperms. The fluid
containing sperms is called semen.
Urethra: carries semen from sperm
duct to tip of penis
Penis: the male sex organ, used to transfer semen to the female. In most
mammals, it is also used to expel urine from the body.
Ovary: contains follicles which develop into the ova (eggs) and also produces
progesterone and oestrogen (female hormones).
The Funnel of Oviduct: this receives the

egg and directs it into the oviduct
Oviduct: also called fallopian tube and
carries the ovum to the uterus.
Fertilisation also occurs in the first 1/3
of the tube.

Uterus: also called the womb, it is where the foetus develops into a baby during
pregnancy.
Cervix: closes the base of the uterus but can expand to allow the baby to come
out. Vagina: also called the birth canal, receives the penis during intercourse,
and is the way out for the baby at birth. Moist tube of muscle about 8cm long, it
is very flexible and secretes slippery mucus when aroused to reduce friction.
Menstrual cycle:
 The reproductive cycle in females is called the menstrual cycle and has an
average length of 28 days (though it varies with individuals).
 The cycle is regulated by hormones which are produced by the ovaries.
Day 1~5:
The Pituitary Gland produces a hormone to stimulate the maturation of ONE
follicle in the ovary. At birth each female ovary already contains eggs which
mature one at a time during her lifetime.
Day 5~12:
 Follicle keeps maturing
 Oestrogen is produced by follicle and the ovarian tissues to prepare the
uterus lining. The uterus lining develops more blood vessels and becomes
thicker in preparation for receiving a fertilised egg.
Day 13/14/15:
Ovary: The Pituitary Gland produces a hormone which triggers the release of
the egg from follicle into the fallopian tube.
Day 15~28:
The follicle hardens and starts producing progesterone which keeps the uterus
lining thick for possible embryo implantation.
Day 28; Scenario 1: Egg is not fertilized:

If no implantation takes place, the hardened follicle degenerates, causing a fall
in the levels of progesterone. The lining of the uterus can not be maintained in
the absence of progesterone and therefore it collapses.
Menstruation is the removal of the unfertilised egg and uterus lining from the
body and last for 3 – 5 days.
At this point we go back to day 1, the process starts all over again. Day 28;

Scenario 2: Egg is fertilized:
If egg is fertilised then implantation occurs. The hardened follicle remains

intact and continues producing progesterone. This keeps the uterus lining thick
for pregnancy.
Sexual intercourse: sperms are released into the vagina and they swim through
the cervix and oviducts to the first third of the oviduct (1st third from the
ovary) where one combines with the egg.
Fertilisation: the joining together (fusion) of an ovum and a sperm (gametes) to

form a zygote.
Development of zygote:
1) One sperm penetrates the ovum.
2) The ovum membrane alters to form a barrier against sperms.
3) Head of sperm (male nucleus) approaches and then fuses with the nucleus of
the ovum.
4) Zygote divides over and over, to make a ball of cells called an embryo (6 days
after fertilisation).
5) The Zygote implants itself in the wall of the nucleus (implantation) which is
followed by conception (development into an individual)

Development of foetus
Zygote is changed through growth (increase in number of cells) and development
(organisation of cells into organs)
Umbilical cord: contains umbilical artery which carries deoxygenated blood and
waste products e.g. urea from the foetus to placenta and umbilical vein which
carries oxygenated blood and soluble food such as iron, glucose and amino acids
from placenta to foetus. It contains the blood of the foetus
Placenta: organ for exchange of soluble materials such as foods, wastes and
oxygen between mother and foetus, it is the physical attachment between the
uterus and the foetus. It has the mother’s blood in it. (*It also serves as a form
of protection for the foetus from mother’s immune system and blood pressure
difference, and it secretes hormones to maintain the uterus during pregnancy.
Amniotic sac: membrane which encloses amniotic fluid. The sac is broken at
birth.
Amniotic fluid: a fluid which protects the foetus against mechanical shock,
drying out and temperature fluctuations.
Antenatal (same as prenatal: before birth) care:

a) A change in diet:
1. more proteins → growth of foetus
2. slightly more fat → for the production of new cell membranes
3. more vitamin C and D → for proper development of blood vessel walls and
bones
4. iron → for the production of haemoglobin
5. calcium → for the growth of bones and teeth
b) Guidance on motherhood
checks on foetus and mother including: weight check, blood tests, urine tests,
vaginal examination, blood pressure checks, hormone checks, checks on foetus
size and position, heartbeat and ultrasound scanning
Labour and birth:

1) Labour
The uterine muscular wall contract and cervix tries to relax, then contractions
get more frequent. Contractions cause amniotic membrane to break and release
amniotic fluid.

2) Expulsion
Powerful Contraction pushes baby out.
3) Afterbirth
The Placenta is expulsed out. All contraction & pain are gone
Gamete: Size Mobility Numbers

Sperm smaller very mobile (uses its tale) many more (they can be
made) 300 000 000 in
one ejaculation!!!!
Egg/Ovum larger not mobile (moved by cilia and far fewer and limited
peristalsis in oviduct) number
Methods of birth control

Natural Methods
1. Abstinence: don’t have sex at all
2. Rhythm method: It involves avoiding sex during the fertile period and having it
only during the safe period (it involves keeping a record of the menstrual cycle
and a record of body temperature so as to identify the fertile period. It tracks
such characteristics as body temperature, cervical mucus and symptoms of
ovulation pain
Effectiveness
60% to 90% effective
Advantages
 It is free
 Accepted by religious and cultural groups
 Both partners participate
Disadvantages
 High failure rate
 Unreliable for women with irregular periods
 Requires training for one to learn how to identify the fertile period
 It needs motivation and discipline to record signs daily
 Imposes restrictions on sexual activities
Side effects
 Sexual frustration
3. The Withdrawal Method

 This method involves withdrawal during sexual intercourse before ejaculation
Advantages
 It is free
 Accepted by religious and cultural groups

 Both partners participate
Disadvantages
 High failure rate as partners may get carried away.
 Some sperm may already have been deposited in the vagina before withdrawal.
Chemical Methods/ Hormonal Methods

4. Contraceptive pill: there are two types – the mini-pill contains progesterone
which affects the uterus and makes implantation difficult, and the combined pill
which contains oestrogen and progesterone (synthetic progesterone) and
prevents ovulation.
Advantages
 Very effective (99,6% - 99,8%)
 Easy to use
 It is reversible
 It does not interfere with sexual activity
 Menstrual bleeding is lighter, shorter, and regular and there are fewer cramps.
Disadvantages
 Must be taken daily.
 May suppress the production of breast milk in some women
 Slightly increases the risk of a heart attack especially for women above 35
years.
 Increases chances of the formation of blood clots.
Side Effects
 Causes weight change
 Causes mood changes
 It causes breast tenderness in some women.
 It also causes spotting in the middle of the cycle.
5. Injection (Depo Provera)

It prevents release of the egg from the ovaries and causes thickening of cervical
mucus which disturbs the movement of sperms.
Advantages
 It is very effective (99,8%)
 It is convenient and private
 It does not interfere with sex
 Improves breast feeding
 It does not interfere with other medication
Disadvantages
 Requires a doctor or nurse to administer
 Causes delays in returning to fertility
 It disturbs the menstrual cycle.
 Some people are scared of injections

Side Effects
 Headaches
 Weight changes and mood swings
 Causes a bloated feeling and may interfere with sexual desire.
.
6. Spermicide: a chemical applied as a gel, cream or foam to the vagina and it kills
sperms. It is very unreliable on its own but makes barrier methods of
contracepton more effective.
Advantages
 It does not require a prescription
 Does not need medical supervision
 It is easy to use and has few side effects
 It improves the effectiveness of condoms and other mechanical methods.
Disadvantages
 It has a higher failure rate if used on its own. 60% -95% effectiveness
 It has to be used with every sex act
 It causes a mess
 Must be applied at least 3minutes and not more than 30minutes before sexual
intercourse.
Side effects
 Can cause irritation to the penis or vagina.
Mechanical Methods/Barrier Methods

7. Male and Female Condom: thin rubber covering over penis, it protects from
impregnation and STDs, used by man and women. It prevents sperms from
entering the vagina
Advantages
 No need for prescription
 Provides protection against STIs
 May be used as extra protection with other methods
Disadvantages
 Must be used with every sexual act before contact of sexual organs.
 There is a risk of bursting if used incorrectly
 Reduces sensation.

8. Diaphragm/Dutch Cap: it is a rubber cap or dome which is placed into the vagina
to cover the cervix and prevent entry of sperms into the uterus. Must be used
together with spermicide. It must stay in place 6 hours after sex and needs a
correct size.

Advantages
 The cap can be reused for upto 2 years
 No health concerns
Disadvantages
 Needs training for proper se
 Has to inserted before every sex act
 May not work effectively after 2 or three natural deliveries
 Less effective if wrong size is used.
Side Effects
 Possible discomfort due to the size of the cap
 Possible irritation from spermicide.
9. Loop (Intra uterine Device) IUD
 It is a small plastic coated copper coil placed inside the uterus and prevents the
embryo from implanting in the uterus.
 It has a string which is used to remove it.
 It can be left inside for months or even years.
 It is very effective (97% to 98%)
Surgical Methods
Vasectomy:
 sperm ducts are cut and tied so that no sperms are released.
 It is very reliable, 100% reliable
Female sterilisation:
 oviducts are cut and tied so that eggs are not fertilised.
 It is 100% reliable.
Infertility
 It is a situation where an individual is incapable of having children.
Causes of Infertility
1. Low sperm count – males may sometimes produce insufficient quantities of
sperms needed for fertilisation. At least 1 million sperms should be found in a
teaspoon of semen.
2. Poor quality sperms – these may not be able be able to swim because of
insufficient fluids or because they have no tails.
3. Physical conditions which do not allow fertilisation to take place such as
a. Cancer growths in the uterus of fallopian tube which stop implantation
b. Blockage of sperm ducts or oviducts caused by STIs.
c. Cancer of the prostate gland which changes the pH of semen such that it
kills the sperms.

Artificial insemination:
By donor: man’s sperm has a problem, making impregnation impossible, so a donor gives
his sperm.
In vitro fertilisation: an ovum is fertilised outside a woman’s body. The fertilised ovum
is implanted into the uterus.
Fertility drugs: drugs which enhance reproductive fertility. For women, fertility
medication is used to stimulate follicle development of the ovary. The side effect is
multiple pregnancies. They contain varying amount of FSH and LH.
Sexually transmissible diseases

Gonorrhoea
 a bacterial infection caused by sex.

Symptoms/signs
 pain or burning when passing urine.
 a creamy discharge from the penis or vagina.
 inflammation of the testicles
Effects:
 in men the urethra becomes infected, in woman it is the cervix. If left
untreated, the disease can travel through the reproductive tract causing
sterility and spread to the bloodstream, infecting the brains, heart valves, and
joints.
Treatment
 once diagnosed it can be treated using antibiotics.
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)

 the immune system becomes significantly weakened until an infection, from then
on it is called AIDS (acquired immune deficiency virus).
Transmission
 unprotected sex with an infected person
 contact with an infected person’s blood.
 from mother to child during pregnancy or childbirth
 or sharing syringes while injecting drugs
Prevention from spreading

physical ways –
 use condoms (or Femidom).
 don’t come in contact with other people’s blood.
 don’t share needles,
There is no cure yet, it can only be slowed down.
Population
 it is the number of people living in an area at a certain time.

 Population depends on birth rate and death rate
Birth rate
 Is the number of live babies born per one thousand people of the population in a
year.
Death rate
 It is the number of deaths in one year per thousand people.
If the birth rate is higher than the death rate, the population of an area increases
Population growth rate = birth rate minus death rate
 A higher growth rate leads to a population explosion. This is a rapid increase in

population which has negative consequence on living standards.
Infant mortality rate

 It is the number of deaths of children who are less than one year per one
thousand live births per year.
 A low infant mortality rate shows that the health services of a country are
effective.
 In developed countries both birth rate and death rate are low. This is because
birth control is widely practised and the number of children per couple is two.
Government services like schools and hospitals are adequate .
 In developing countries, the birth rate is still high while death rate is now falling
due to advances in primary health care.
Life Expectancy
 It is the average age a person expects to live in a particular area.
 Developed countries have a higher life expectancy than developing countries.
Developed countries have more older people than developing countries.
 A higher life expectancy also shows that health services are more developed in a
area.
Dependency ratio
 It is a ratio of the number of children and elderly people in an area to the
number of people of the working age groups in an area.
 Children are those under 15 years and the elderly are those over 65 years
 The young and old depend on productive adults.
Dependency ratio = number of children + elderly

Number in working age groups
Doubling time
 It is the time it will take a population to double
 Doubling time = 70
Growth rate
Age Sex pyramids/ Population pyramids

 It shows the actual population in an area broken down by sex and 5 year age
groups
 There are larger numbers of the population in the younger age groups showing a
higher birth rate.
 There are small numbers in the old age groups showing a low life expectancy.
 The dependency ratio is generally higher because of the greater proportion of
the young in the population.
Population growth and resources

 Increase in population may result in severe damage to the environment.
 Overpopulation causes poverty and excessive demands on health and social
services
 Vegetation will be removed and soil erosion will increase because
o More land will be cleared for agriculture
o More trees will be cut down for firewood and building materials
o More animals will be raised in areas which can not support many animals.
Waste Disposal
 Human activities such as farming, industry, mining and other daily home
activities generate waste which must be disposed of.
 Human waste can either be;

1. Bio degradable waste and,
2. Non bio degradable waste
 Bio degradable waste is waste which can be broken down by micro organism and
nutrients n the waste are recycled. Examples include dead plant leaves, dead
animals, food left overs etc
 Non bio degradable waste can not be broken down by micro organism. Examples
include plastic, metals and glass.
Non biodegradable waste can be disposed as follows;
1. It can be recycled and used again
2. The waste can be burnt
3. The waste can also be buried underground.
Industrial waste
 It includes chemical waste, gases and poisonous metals which pollute the
environment and air.
 The manufacture of asbestos and cement produces dust that causes diseases.
 Inhaling asbestos dust causes a disease called asbestosis and increases the
chances of lung cancer.
 Inhaling cement dust causes a disease called silicosis.
 Dust and smoke released from industries irritates the wall of the bronchi in the
lungs causing a disease called bronchitis..
 Chemical waste produced also pollutes water sources. If the waste contains
nitrates and sulphates, it will cause Eutrophication of water sources. These
nutrients will cause an increase in plant population in water bodies clogging them.
Sewage disposal
 Sewage is human excreta in the form of faeces and urine.
 Faeces and urine may carry pathogens which can be spread by vectors such as
flies.
 Sewage must therefore be disposed of safely to ensure a healthy community
 There are many methods of sewage disposal including;
o Pit Latrines
o Blair pit toilets
o Flush toilets
Pit Latrines
 A pit latrine consists of a deep hole in the groundinto which human waste is
deposited
 It should have a concrete platform for easy cleaning and a cover over the squat
hole to prevent flies getting in and out of the pit easily.
 May be used in isolated houses and villages
 Pit latrines should be at least 50m away from an under ground water supply to
avoid seepage of liquid waste into the water supply.
 The pit latrine should be built below the level of the water supply so that rain
water does not wash into the water supply.

Care of latrines
 Water should be added from time to time in the pit to facilitate decay of waste
 Surface structures should be cleaned from time to time with disinfectant to
keep flies away but the disinfectant should not get into the pit to avoid killing
the bacteria that decomposes the waste.
 When the pit is full, it should be drained to empty it or filled with sand and a
new one built.
The Blair toilet.

 It is an improvement of the pit latrine in the following ways;
1. It has a spiral structure which makes the interior dark which reduces
entry of flies into the toilet.
2. It has a vent pipe which carries odour high up in the air. Spiral design
also helps minimise odours.
3. The screen at the top of the vent pipe traps the few flies that find their
way into the pit.
The Flush toilet/the water closet

 Has a squatting pan and uses to carry the sewage waste to a place where the
waste is processed.
 The water in the pan seals the pipes to prevent odours from coming back into
the house.
 Sewage from flush toilets can be disposed of in one of the following ways;
1. Septic tanks
2. Biological filter method of sewage treatment
3. The activated sludge method of sewage treatment.
Septic Tanks

 It consists of two tanks that are built underground and the tanks are sealed.
 Sewage from the toilet is carried by water into the first tank.
 Solid waste settles at the bottom of the tank and a thick scam forms on the
surface of the liquid.
 Anaerobic bacteria digest the solid waste at the bottom of the tank.
 Liquid waste flows from the first tank into the second tank.
 The second tank is made of loosely arranged bricks and stones piled together
with air spaces in between.
 Liquid waste is broken down by anaerobic bacteria before it soaks away into the
soil.
 When the first tank is full, the waste is drained away.
Sewage works
 Sewage from large communities is treated at sewage treatment plants. Two
methods are used at these plants:
1. The biological filter method and
2. The activated sludge method
The biological filter method
 In this method sewage passes through the following stages:

1. Screens – sewage from the city passes through screens which remove
large solids as stones, spoons, cloth etc
2. Grit Chamber – it is a pool where smaller solids as soil particles settle to
the bottom and are occasionally removed.
3. Sedimentation Tanks – solid organic waste settles as sludge at the
bottom of the tank and is drained, dried and used as a fertiliser.

4. Sprinklers – liquid from the sedimentation tanks is pumped into sprinklers
which spread the effluent over a bed of porous bricks. The liquid
effluent filters through the bricks into a humus tank leaving solids on the
bricks. The solids are broken down by aerobic bacteria on the bricks. The
bacteria are eaten by ciliates and the ciliates are eaten by midge larvae.
The larvae develops into different insects which fly away hence the name
‘biological’ filter method
5. The humus tank – the filtered liquid is collected in humus tanks where
remaining solids settle and are drained away to be dried and used as
fertiliser. The clear effluent is discharged into rivers.
NB: the discharged effluent contains nitrates and phosphates which promote plant
growth in rivers creating a problem called eutrophication. This reduces the quantities
of oxygen in the rivers killing animal life.
The Activated sludge method

 This method has the following methods:
1. Screens – traps large solids which are removed
2. Paddles – rollers which break faeces into smaller particles and are driven
by machines.
3. Settling Tank –grit settles to the bottom of the tank and is removed.
4. Aeration Tanks – air is bubbled through the liquid to supply aerobic
bacteria with oxygen. This activates the bacteria, which breaks down the
organic waste.
5. Sedimentation tank – allows the settling of sludge which is removed and
is taken to a digester.
6. The digester – it is a closed tank were anaerobic bacteria further breaks
down the sludge producing methane gas in the process. Methane gas is
used as a fuel, the sludge is removed, dried and used as a fertiliser and
the liquid is recycled.
Water
 Communities need clean and safe water. The most common causes of water
pollution are:
1. Animal and plant remains
2. Chemicals from agriculture and industry
3. Sewage
 Water may contain dissolved salts and pathogens which cause diseases.
 In Zimbabwe, drinking water is obtained from springs, shallow wells, deep wells,
boreholes and sand beds.
Springs
 These are outlets of underground water usually on the foot of hills or along
river beds.
 Water from a spring is of a very high purity provided the area is not
contaminated by waste.

Shallow wells
 Contain water were the water table is close to the surface and drain water from
the top and subsoil.
 Water generally not very safe because it has moved a small distance through
the soil and the wells can be polluted by animals and people.
 The wells are usually not protected.
Deep wells
 These wells are deep and water is generally safe because it has moved a very
long distance through the soil hence it is well filtered.
 Absence of light in deep wells reduces chances of vectors polluting the water.
 Wells can be protected by building brick linings and concrete covers.
Purifying Water
 The most common impurities found in water are micro organisms, macro
organisms, suspended solids and dissolved gases and chemicals.
 All these make water unsafe to drink and must be removed to make it safe to
drink.
 The process of removing these substances is what is called water purification.
 Macro organisms and suspended materials are removed by filtering the water.
 Micro organisms are killed by boiling or chlorinating the water and,
 Dissolved substances are removed by using flocculants which change the
dissolved substances to solids so that they can be filtered.
The Water Treatment Plant

 A water treatment plant consists of a grid, settling tanks, filters, chlorination
tanks and storage tanks.
1. The Grid – removes macro organisms and large suspended materials like
twigs.
2. Settling tanks – a flocculent is added to the water and it binds tiny
suspended materials and solidifies dissolved materials forming solids.
Some of these settle to the bottom of the tank and are removed.
3. Filters – the water flows into sand filters which remove any suspended
particles in the water. The filtered water moves into chlorination tanks.
4. Chlorination tanks – chlorine is added to the water. Chlorine form an
unstable acid with the water which kills all the micro organisms making
the water safe to drink.
5. Storage tanks – the water is stored ready to be distributed to
households for drinking.

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O LEVEL

Notes compiled by M. MLILO “TO GOD BE THE GLORY” Page 1

 It is the process by which green plants manufacture their own food

Raw materials of Photosynthesis

The Process :- How photosynthesis occurs

 Carbon dioxide and water enter into leaf cells

Notes compiled by M. MLILO “TO GOD BE THE GLORY” Page 2

Notes compiled by M. MLILO “TO GOD BE THE GLORY” Page 3

Factors needed for photosynthesis

Factors affecting the rate of photosynthesis

There are 4 factors affecting the rate of photosynthesis,

1. Amount of carbon dioxide – increased carbon dioxide increases rate of glucose

Adaptations of leaves to photosynthesis

Notes compiled by M. MLILO “TO GOD BE THE GLORY” Page 4

What happens to the products of photosynthesis.

What happens to oxygen produced

What happens to the carbohydrates.

Experiment 1: Testing a leaf for starch

Notes compiled by M. MLILO “TO GOD BE THE GLORY” Page 5

Notes compiled by M. MLILO “TO GOD BE THE GLORY” Page 6

1. 2 similar potted plants

Notes compiled by M. MLILO “TO GOD BE THE GLORY” Page 7

Observations & Conclusions

Experiment 2: testing if light is necessary for photosynthesis

Notes compiled by M. MLILO “TO GOD BE THE GLORY” Page 8

1. De- starch the potted plant before the experiment

Observations & Conclusions

Notes compiled by M. MLILO “TO GOD BE THE GLORY” Page 9

1. A variegated leaf and a starch testing kit

Results & Conclusions

Notes compiled by M. MLILO “TO GOD BE THE GLORY” Page 10

1. Pour water into a glass beaker

Notes compiled by M. MLILO “TO GOD BE THE GLORY” Page 11

Another variation will be to use bulbs of different power.

Notes compiled by M. MLILO “TO GOD BE THE GLORY” Page 12

 Nitrogen is essential for plant growth & reproduction

Nitrogen deficiency symptoms

1. Stunted or poor growth

How to correct nitrogen deficiency

Shortage of nitrogen in the soil can be corrected by:

 Addition of manure or compost

 It is important for root development & seed germination

 The leaves become purple

Notes compiled by M. MLILO “TO GOD BE THE GLORY” Page 13

 Phosphorous is supplied in the form of soluble phosphate in the fertilisers e.g.

 It is important for flowering and fruit formation

1. Yellowish or brown leaf margins

 Addition of fertilisers e.g. compound D

Experiment 1: to test the effects of nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium on

Notes compiled by M. MLILO “TO GOD BE THE GLORY” Page 14

Observations and conclusion

Notes compiled by M. MLILO “TO GOD BE THE GLORY” Page 15

Examples of plant pests and the damage they cause

Examples of plant diseases

Why control pests and diseases

Methods of pest control

There are 3 main methods which are used to control pests:

Notes compiled by M. MLILO “TO GOD BE THE GLORY” Page 16

Examples of cultural control in cotton