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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 GENERAL

Sugar Cane Bagasse Ash (SCBA) is a fine mineral residue

produced during the combustion of sugarcane bagasse in sugar industries.
Sugarcane bagasse ash is obtainable from the boiler or the cogeneration unit
of sugar industry. This ash is normally collected in the filter bag, wet scrubber
or electrostatic precipitator. The discrepancy of ash resulting from the boiler
and cogeneration unit depends on the method of burning and temperature
prevailing in the units. The temperature plays a most significant role in
determining the pozzolanic nature and mineral constituents of ash.

1.2 SUGARCANE BAGASSE ASH-AN INDIAN SCENARIO

The sugar industry is one among the well established industries in

India which is a boon to farmers. As per the statistics of the Indian Sugar Mill
Association, around 538 sugarcane factories are in operation in the country
presently. In this century, most of the sugar industries in India have been
developed as self-sustained ones by various means. It is one among the
industries that generate electricity and export the excess to the government
through the power grid.

Sugarcane is a chief kharif crop in India and is cultivated on a large

scale in the country. In the world, India has secured the second position in
sugarcane production. On an average, sugarcane production in India is about
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300 -350 million tons in the last five years. Bagasse, a fibrous residue from
the sugarcane has a very high gross calorific value of around 2250 kcal/kg in
wet state and hence it finds a high potential usage in power production.
Earlier, boilers were used to utilize the bagasse for generating steam which in
turn is utilized in the form of fuel. These boilers operated at a temperature of
around 200 oC - 600oC.But, it resulted in incomplete combustion of bagasse
and yields a low fuel value. As a consequence, in the 1980s the sugarcane
bagasse cogeneration unit was started to meet the power demand in India. In
the modern era, as the demand for fossil fuels increases this cogeneration unit
is a promising alternative for power production. As a result almost all major
sugar industries have cogeneration unit for power generation from bagasse.
The Indian Ministry of New and Renewable Energy estimated about 7000
MW of surplus power production from the cogeneration units of sugar mills
in the fore coming years. This unit operated at very high temperature and
pressure resulting in sugarcane bagasse ash as a residue.

The sugarcane bagasse possesses approximately 50% cellulose,

25% hemi cellulose and 25% lignin. Every ton of sugarcane with 50%
moisture content approximately makes 26% bagasse and 0.62% ash. So, about
10 million tons of SCBA is unexploited every year and results as waste.
Moreover this ash is very hard in degradation and possesses very less
nutrients (Srinivasan 2010).

The possible usage of the ash as fertilizer is recommended.

Practically farmers are reluctant to use this SCBA as fertilizer in field. In
addition it was found that the activated sugarcane bagasse ash could not be
resulted from the cogeneration unit for cement manufacture (Moises Frias et
al. 2011).As a result it finds its way in open dumping. Consequently, this ash
finds a very little usage. Hence the sugarcane bagasse ash produced from this
power generation unit has several disposal problems.
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The characteristic of this ash varies depending upon the chemical

content, calcining conditions, source and nature of the raw material and
several other factors (Biruk Hailu 2011). Though the research on sugarcane
bagasse ash as a cement replacement material has been initiated in India, it
would take years to utilise the large quantity of Bagasse Ash (BA) as a value-
added product.

Silica Fume (SF)

The waste resulting from the bag house filter in silicon and ferro-
silicon metal production is known as silica fume. Due to its ultra-fine nature,
filler effect, and high amorphous silica content, it acts as good pozzolan.
ASTM C 1240 (1999) states that silica fume used in concrete enhances
strength, durability, abrasion, and corrosion resistance in addition to reduction
in permeability. With aforesaid wide benefits and good pozzolanic behavior it
is used in concrete as a pozzolan. Further it is also used as an admixture in
concrete.

Quarry Dust (QD) as a Fine Aggregate

Quarry dust is a fine residue obtained from quarrying or crushing of

a wide variety of rocks. The property of quarry dust depends on the nature of
the parental rock, moisture content and the method of crushing. According to
a statistical data of the Central Pollution Control Board, an average of 20
million tonnes of quarry dust is produced in India annually and Gujarat
contributes to the maximum production.

1.3 USE OF INDUSTRIAL BY-PRODUCTS IN CONCRETE

Due to the versatility of concrete several waste materials find their

way in the replacement of cement and aggregate in the production of concrete.
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Moreover the successful utilization of fly ash as a pozzolanic material in

concrete and its increased commercial as well as technical feasibility directed
several researchers to utilize other waste and ashes in concrete. These resulted
in the utilization of rice husk ash, silica fume, granite fines, quarry dust, rock
dust, siliceous stone powder, slag, egg shell powder, sludge, sugar cane
bagasse ash and other such materials in concrete.

On the other hand due to increased demand and a high cost of

cement, alternative to cement has been found to minimize its usage. Further,
Ernst Worrell et al. (2001) reported that every ton of the cement production
leads to more or less an equal ton of CO2 emission and almost 5% of
worldwide anthropogenic CO2 emission is due to the cement industry.

The utilization of bagasse ash in concrete effectively serves to

conserve the natural resources and lowers the cement consumption. To
alleviate the rising cost of materials especially cement for the production of
concrete and hollow concrete blocks, maximized waste utilization is required
through utilizing sugarcane bagasse ash. Hence the substitution of waste or
ashes in concrete for the replacement of cement or aggregate would lead to
increased in carbon credits.

1.4 HOLLOW CONCRETE BLOCKS

With the increase in the construction of high-rise apartments,

multiplex complex and other infrastructure projects there is an urgent need of
rapid and economical construction with strong, durable and earthquake resistant
structures. These paved the way to innovative construction materials and
techniques. One such is the replacement of conventional brick construction by
means of solid and hollow concrete block construction. These concrete blocks
are also known as Concrete Masonry Unit (CMU).Hollowness in the block
favours weight reduction as well as better insulation.
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Palmer designed and patented the first hollow concrete block in the
year 1900. These blocks were hand cast with 20.3 cm x25.4 cm x 76.2 cm
size and intense weight. At present, highly automated concrete block machine
which could produce even 2000 hollow concrete blocks within one hour are
available.

Hollow concrete blocks are made of cement, sand or quarry dust,

stone chips and sufficient quantity of water. Hollow concrete block is
available in various standard sizes such as 400 mm x 200 mm x 200 mm, 400
mm x 200 mm x 150 mm, 400 mm x 200 mm x100 mm and 400 mm x 150
mm x 150 mm. These hollow concrete blocks can be used for all types of
masonry structures such as exterior walls, interior walls, load and non-load
bearing walls, panel walls, columns, retaining walls and compound walls.
These walls can be filled completely or partially or un grouted. Even
reinforcements could be used inside the hollow concrete blocks masonry
structures in vertical as well as in horizontal direction to increase the strength
and structural performance.

Simple and easier production throughout the year, better strength

than the conventional bricks, reduced efflorescence and labour cost,
consistent quality, easier as well as faster means of construction, easy
concealing and several added technical, economical, and other benefits results
in the increased use of hollow concrete blocks in construction sector
nowadays.

However, in India lack of proper design, technical guidance, quality

control, and many other parameters reduce the use of hollow concrete block
in a wider way.
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1.4.1 Mixture Proportioning of Hollow Concrete Block

Industrial by-products can replace the cement or aggregate in

hollow concrete block mixtures based upon the requirements. Mixture
proportioning of hollow concrete block can be done by trial and error basis
until suitable properties are attained. Moreover, the characteristics of the
materials should be determined to evaluate their suitability in the hollow
concrete block production. Also, Indian Standard has laid down guidelines to
design hollow concrete block mix.

1.4.2 Manufacture of Hollow Concrete Block

Automatic or semi-automatic hollow concrete block machines can

be used to manufacture hollow concrete block. Based upon the extent of the
project, the concrete may be mixed either manually or in a concrete mixer. A
uniform mix leads to the better production of hollow concrete blocks. In the
block machine, the mixed concrete is either forced downward into molds
through the conveyors in an automated machine or it is placed manually in the
molds as in semi-automatic machine. The molds have an outer mold box with
several liners. The liners are essential to determine the outer shape and the
inner shape of the block. A maximum of about 10 blocks may be made at a
time.

Then the concrete in the packed mold is compacted by another

upper mold head forcing down from the top over the mold cavities with
intense weight. However, air or mechanical vibration or hydraulic pressure
can be used to further assist compaction. Finally, the compacted blocks are
pushed out from the machine.

The basic practice of compacting in the hollow concrete block

production machine completely fills the air pockets devoid of any free
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movement of water during the hollow concrete block manufacture. However

excessive compaction and inappropriate water cement ratio would result in
water pockets or watered layers thereby affecting the quality of the final
product.

1.4.3 Properties of Hollow Concrete Block

Dimensions: The nominal dimensions of the individual hollow concrete

block units are necessary to produce modular co-ordination in length and
height of the wall. Actual dimensions by length and depth will be 10% less
than the nominal dimensions as the thickness of the mortar joint is considered
in the calculation of the nominal dimensions.

Block density: The block with a minimum average density of 1500 kg/m3 is
categorized as Grade A while the block with a minimum average density of
1100-1500 kg/m3 is Grade B. The density decreases in a blended hollow
concrete block.

Water absorption: It is an important parameter which reveals the porosity of

blocks and thereby the deterioration and durability of the blocks. Average
water absorption for the hollow concrete block should not be more than 10%
by mass.

Compressive strength: The average minimum compressive strength of

hollow concrete blocks measured in accordance with IS: 2185 (2005) shall
not be less than 3.5 N/mm2 and the minimum compressive strength of
individual hollow concrete blocks shall not be less than 2.8 N/mm2 at any
case.

Drying shrinkage: Improper mixture proportion, inadequate mixing period,

high w/c ratio, high temperature, improper curing, and loss of moisture would
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result in shrinkage of the hollow concrete block which in turn leads to

cracking. To avoid shrinkage, block should be dried for at least 4 weeks. The
average drying shrinkage of hollow concrete blocks should not be more than
0.06%.

Moisture movement: The change in moisture content influences the stability

of hollow concrete blocks as well as increases the shrinkage in them. In
immersed water, the moisture movement of the dried blocks should not be
more than 0.09%.

Durability: Strength and durability go hand in hand. The durability of the

structure is essential for a long-term performance and sustainable construction
(Mehta 1999). With the relevant use of materials and proper proportioning
adequate durability can be attained.

Insulation properties: Hollow concrete blocks with perforations increases

the thermal insulation properties. However, the material property of blended
concrete and thickness of hollow concrete block wall can have a strong
influence in the sound transmission and thermal insulation properties.

Fire resistance: As the conventional hollow concrete block is

noncombustible it possesses excellent fire resistance. However, it is very
important to study the behavior of blended hollow concrete blocks under fire
test.

1.4.4 Quality Control Standards

About six standard methods have been introduced by the American

Society for Testing and Materials for testing the hollow concrete blocks and
masonry structures. These methods are described as below
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1. ASTM C90 – 09 (2009) specifies the standard for load-

bearing concrete masonry units.

2. ASTM C129 (2011) provides guidelines for non-load bearing

concrete masonry units.

3. ASTM C140 -11a (2011) presents the standard methodology

for testing the concrete masonry units.

4. ASTM C1314 –11a (2011) presents the standard methodology

for testing the compressive strength of masonry prisms.

5. ASTM C1716 / C1716M – 14 (2014) provides requirements

for compression testing apparatus used for testing concrete
masonry units and prisms.

6. ASTM C1717 - 12 (2012) presents the standard methodology

for testing the strength of masonry wall panels.

1.5 NEED FOR PRESENT STUDY

Ever since the pozzolanic activity of Sugarcane Bagasse Ash

(SCBA) was revealed, several types of researches have been done to find its
extensive usage in the construction field and solve its disposal problem. To
use this SCBA as an active pozzolanic material in concrete most types of
research indicate the necessity of controlled incineration temperature in
bagasse burning, controlled burning time and proper processing techniques of
ashes to be followed, which are yet to be fully implicit and used. As sugar
industry is self-sustained in cogeneration unit for power production from
bagasse, such controlled burning and temperature is least possible in the
production of SCBA where energy production is the major concern in
cogeneration unit. Further use of this SCBA as fertilizer is least welcomed by
the farmers. Therefore a huge amount of SCBA poses serious problems in the
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form of land use, health hazards, and environmental degradation .Hence

urgent care has to be taken to safeguard the environment, wildlife, and human
life. Further, it finds no commercial feasibility like fly ash and its usage is
very less. Therefore a more hostile strategy has to be developed and executed
to utilize the bagasse ash.

On the other hand, India is promptly growing up in the production

and use of hollow concrete block in masonry wall construction with due
advantage in its easiest localized production, enhanced strength, speedy
construction, reduced embedded energy and several others compared to that
of brick masonry. However the improper control of water cement ratio, poor
workmanship, inadequate technical supervision, minimized strength,
inadequate curing, inappropriate quality and durability checking and so on
makes the process less effective. Long-term performance of such structures
has become essential for sustaining the building technology.

Hence an attempt has been made in the present work to utilize

unground, unprocessed bagasse ash obtained at a very high temperature of
1500oC from the cogeneration unit of the sugar industry in concrete with
Silica Fume (SF) as admixture and thereby to produce the hollow concrete
block.

1.6 OBJECTIVES OF THE PRESENT STUDY

An attempt has been made in the present work to utilize unground,

unprocessed bagasse ash obtained at a very high temperature of 1500oC along
with quarry dust and silica fume in concrete and thereby to produce hollow
concrete block and to assess the feasibility of unprocessed bagasse ash as a
binder in the hollow concrete block.
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The following are the set objectives in the present investigation

1. To find a satisfactory real-time solution for safe disposal of

SCBA obtained around 1500oC by burning of sugarcane
bagasse in the co-generation process of the sugar industry.

2. To investigate the characteristics of the combination of

unground, unprocessed SCBA, silica fume and quarry dust
and to evaluate the strength properties of SCBA concrete with
and without silica fume as an admixture.

3. To study the durability of SCBA silica fume concrete under

different environments.

4. To study the mineralogical and morphological studies thereby

to understand the strength development of SCBA silica fume
concrete mixture.

5. To study the properties of SCBA silica fume hollow concrete

block, such as compressive strength, water absorption, and
density.

6. To evaluate and compare the load performance of SCBA silica

fume concrete hollow concrete block prisms and columns.

7. The experimental results obtained are to be validated by

numerical method.

8. To conduct a cost analysis for SCBA silica fume based hollow

concrete block.
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1.7 ORGANISATION OF THE CHAPTERS

The present investigation on the properties of unprocessed

sugarcane bagasse ash silica fume with quarry waste and its use in the
production of hollow concrete block is organized as follows

Chapter1 gives a brief introduction on sugarcane bagasse ash,

usage of various waste ashes, mixture proportioning, manufacture, properties
and quality control standards of the hollow concrete block.

Chapter2 provides a detailed review of literature on pozzolanic

nature, reactivity, and properties of bagasse ash, properties of quarry dust in
concrete, the reactivity of silica fume, morphology analysis of concrete, use of
waste ash in hollow concrete block production and load analysis of masonry
structures.

Chapter 3 deals with the materials and methodology adopted in the

present investigation. It includes methodology implemented to study the
characteristics of materials used, strength and durability of SCBA silica fume
concrete, SCBA silica fume hollow concrete block and hollow concrete block
masonry structures.

Chapter 4 provides the results and an exhaustive discussion related to

strength, durability characteristics and microstructure of SCBA silica fume
concrete. Also, the characteristics of SCBA silica fume hollow concrete block such
as density, water absorption, compressive strength and load analysis on masonry
structures are presented. Further the results related to analytical modeling of
masonry structures using ANSYS are also presented in this chapter.

Chapter 5 presents the conclusion of this experimental

investigation along with the suggestions for further investigation.