Séries de Bravis

APPENDIX 1.
BASIC CRYSTALLOGRAPHY
Al.l Introduction external symmetry of the structure. The trans-
lational symmetry leads to the concept of a lattice
In order to perform electron microscope studies it (an array of atoms at points in space with identical
is necessary to understand the basic principles of surroundings). Arising from considerations of this
crystallography set out below. type we arrive at fourteen distinct Bravais lattices,
It is the regular arrangement of atoms in space figure Al.l. These fall into the seven fundamental
which constitutes the distinguishing feature of the crystal classes listed in table Al.l. Most metals are
crystalline state. These regular arrays, called either cubic, hexagonal or tetragonal in structure,
crystal structures, which are characterised in see table Al.3. However, many non-metallic
various different ways, give rise to the internal and materials have more complex structures.
stmple body- centred face -centred

cubtc (P) cubic (I) cubic(F)
stmple body-centred stmple body- centred

tetragana I tetragonal orthorhombic orthorhombiC
(P) (I) (P) (I)
base -centred face-centred rhombohedral hexagonal

orthorhombic orthorhombic (R) (P)
(C) (F)
stmple bose-centred tnCllniC

monocltnic (P) monoclimc(C) (P)
Figure Al.l The fourteen Bravais lattices

80 Practical Electron Microscopy
Table Al.1 Crystallographic formulae for interplanar spacings,
Crystal system Interplanar spacing of the (hkl) plane
cubic a=b=c
a.={J=y=90°
tetragonal a=bioc
a.={J=y=90°
orthorhombic a # b# c
a.={J=y=90°
hexagonal a=bioc
a. = {J = 90°; y = 120°
1
d2 = 3a2
4(h2
+ hk + k2 ) + C212
l
rhombohedral a =b=c + cos a.){(h2 + k 2 + 12) -

1 (1 (1 - tan 2 !aXhk + kl + lh)}
a. = {J = y < 120° # 90° d2 = Q2 1 + cos a. - 2 cos 2 a.
monoclinic aiobioc
a.=y=90°#{J
triclinic
:2 = ~2 (s 11 h2 + s22kl + s3312 + 2s 12hk + 2s 23 kl + 2s33 lh)
where
V 2 = a 2b 2c2(1 - cos 2 a. - cos 2 {J - cos 2 y + 2 cos a. cos {J cos y)
and
s 11 = b2 c2 sin 2 a.
s22 = a2c2 sin2 {J
s 33 = a2 b2 sin 2 y
s 12 = abc2(cos a. cos {J - cosy)
s 23 = a2bc(cos {J cos y - cos a.)
s 31 = ab 2c(cos y cos a. - cos {J)
Al.l Indexing Planes in the plane are afh, bfk and cfl. A negative intercept
results in a negative component ofthe Miller index
Planes in any one of the fourteen Bravais lattices written as h.
caD. be indexed in the same way. Axes are chosen Formulae for the angles between different (hkl)
defining a unit cell x, y and z at angles a, fJ and y planes in the fourteen Bravais lattices are given in
with the unit translation distances a, b and c table Al.l.
(figure Al.2(a)).
A plane is defined in terms of its intercepts on
these axes. For example, in figure A1.2(b) the Al.3 Indexing Lattice Diredions
plane cuts the axes at a/h, bjk and cfl where
h, k and l are the Miller indices of the plane. For any Bravais lattice, such as that shown in
Thus, in figure A1.2(c), the plane cuts the axes figure A1.3, the direction OA has the indices [121],
at unit translation distances in x
the and y axes that is the path from 0 to A involves moving 1 unit
and two translation distances in the z axis. The translation parallel to x, 2 parallel to y and 1
index of the plane is then OX/OX, OY/OY and parallel to z. The other directions [Oll] and [ITO]
OZ/OW, that is llf which is rationalised to 221, are self-evident. The symbol I means one trans-
the hkl indices for the plane, that is the intercepts lation in the negative direction. The general symbol
Electron Diffraction in the Electron Microscope 81
angles, and angles between directions for the seven crystal systems [After Andrews et al. (1971)]
cos p = {(u~ + v~ + w~)(u~ + v~ + w~)) 112
cost/>= [{ I 2 a2 }{1 2
12 c 2 12}] 112
? (hi + ktl +? II ? (h2 + k2) + ? 12
convert to corresponding hexagonal indices (see appendix 2) and use the above two formulae
a2u 1u 2 + b2 v 1 v2 + c 2w 1 w 2 + ac(w 1 u 2 + u 1 w 2)cosp

cosp= {(a u2 + b22 v 1 + c22 w 1 + 2acu 1 w 1 cos
p)
2 1
x (a 2 u~ + b 2 v~ + c 2 w~ + 2acu 2 w2 cos P)} 112
L
cos p = -=---=--
IUtVtWt IU2V2W2
where F = h 1 h2 b 2c2 sin 2 a + k 1 k 2 a 2 c2 sin 2 p + l1 12a2b2 sin 2 y where L = a 2 u 1 u 2 + + c2 w 1 w 2

b2 v 1 v2
+ abc 2(cos a cos P - cos y)(k 1 h2 + h1 k 2) + bc(v 1 w2 + w1 v2 )cosa
+ ab 2c(cos y cos a -cos P)(h 112 + 11 h 2 ) + ac(w 1 u2 + u 1 w 2)cosP
+ a 2bc(cos P cosy - cos a)(k 1 12 + 11 k2 ) + ab(u 1 v2 + v 1 u2 ) cosy
and and
Ahkl = {h 2b 2c2 sin 2 a + k 2a 2c2 sin 2 p + 12a2b 2 sin 2 y I uvw = ( a2u2 + b2v2 + c2w2
+ 2hkabc 2(cos a cos p - cosy) + 2bcvw cos a
+ 2hlab 2c(cos y cos a - cos p) + 2cawu cos p
+ 2kla 2bc(cos p cosy - cos a)} 1 ' 2 + 2abuv cos y) 1 ' 2
for a direction is [uvw] where r = OA, figure A1.5 Zones and the Zone Law
Al.3, = ua + vb + we.
Consequently, r is a vector with components Any two lattice planes intersect in a line which can
u, v and w along the axes. be defined by the directional indices [ uvw]. This
Formulae for the angles between different [ uvw] is the axis for a prism of planes with this common
directions in the fourteen Bravais lattices are given direction. The planes are known as the zone of
in table Al.l. planes and the long axis is the zone axis, z, given
the symbol [UVW]. The zone indices for any pair
of planes, that is (h'k'l') and (hkl) can be obtained
A1.4 Plane Normals
in the following way:
In the cubic crystal system only the direction
h k h k
normal to the plane (hkl) has indices [hkl], for
X X X
example [111] is the (111) plane normal. In all
h' k' l' h' k' l'
other crystal systems this is not true and table A1.2
gives the formulae for determining the indices of that is U = kl' - k'l, V = lh' - l'h, W = hk' - h'k.
the directions [ uvw] normal to the plane (hkl) and This is the cross product between plane indices or
vice versa. the directions of the plane normal.
z
Figure A1.3 Crystal directions, OA is [121]
If it is necessary to find out if a plane (hkl) lies

in a zone [UVW] then the condition is
X (a)
hU + kV + IW = 0
and this is called the Weiss zone law. This is
z
essentially the condition that the normal to the
plane (hkl) is perpendicular to [UVW] direction.
Notation is as follows:
(111) means single set of parallel planes
{111} means equivalent planes of the type,
that is (111), (ll1), etc.
[111] means a single zone axis or direction
( 111) means directions of equivalent type
A1.6 Stereograpbic Projection
Although other methods of projection of the three-

dimensional crystal into two dimensions exist, the
stereographic projection is the most common way
of describing crystals. This is because the projection
X preserves angular truth. The advantage of working
(b)
with the stereographic projection lies in the ease
and rapidity of performing those crystallographic
z analyses necessary in the electron microscope.
Imagine a crystal at the centre of a sphere, see
figure A1.4, with plane normals drawn from the
centre of the sphere to its surface. In figure Al.5,
one of these plane normals P is shown projected
into the equatorial plane about the south pole of
the sphere. Normally only those planes above the
equator are projected. For planes underneath, the
north pole is used as the projection point, indicated
by open circles in the projection. The stereographic
projection of the cubic crystal in figure A1.4 with
[001] parallel to the south-north direction SN and
[010] parallel to OD, is shown in figure A1.6,
.each point being indexed as the normal to a
particular plane.
Standard projections for cubic crystal structures
are shown in figure Al.12 with different planes
X
(c) in the centre of the stereogram.
It is necessary to be able to measure the angles
Figure A1.2 (a) The axes x, y, z defining the unit
cell (dashed lines). (b) A general plane intersecting between planes using the stereographic projection.
the axes. (c) A (221) plane The normals to any two crystal planes, for example
Table A1.2 Formulae defining the indices of the direction [uvw] perpendicular to plane (hkl) for the seven crystal systems [After
Andrews et a/. (1971)]
Crystal system Equations for finding [ uvw] given (hkl) Equations for finding (hkl) given [ uvw]
u w h k
cubic
h=k=l u w
u w (c) 2 h k
tetragonal
h- k -~ (a) 2 u - = w(cfa) 2
h k I
orthorhombic ~ a2 = !!_ b2 = ~ c2
h k I ua 2
u v 2w (c) 2 ,, k
hexagonal
2k + h - h + 2k - 3T (a) 2 2u - v = 2v - u = 2w(cfa) 2
u h k
rhombohedral
h sin 2 tx + (k + 1Xcos2 tx - cos tx) k sin 2 tx + (I + hXcos 2 tx - cos tx) u + (v + w) cos tx v + (w + u) cos tx w + (u + v) cos tx
w
I sin 2 tx + (h + kXcos 2 tx - cos tx)
u v w h k
monoclinic
hb 2 c 2 - lab 2 c cos (J kc 2 a 2 sin 2 (J la2 b2 - hab2 c cos (J ua 2 + wca cos (J = vb 2 = uca cos (J + wc 2
u w h k
triclinic
hs 11 + ks 12 + ls 13 hs 12 + ks 22 + ls 23 hs 13 + ks 23 + ls 33 ua 2 + vab cos y + wca cos (J uab cos y + vb 2 + wbc cos tx
(s 11 = b 2 c 2 sin 2 tx, etc; s 12 = s21 = abc2 (cos tx cos (J -cosy), etc.)
uca cos.(J + vbc cos tx + wc 2
001
ooT
Figure A1.4 A crystal with cubic crystal structure situated at the centre of a sphere
N Too
--- projection on
equatonal
plane
---- ----- ---
100
5 Figure Al.6 The stereo graphic projection for a cube

crystal with [001] parallel to the south north
Figure Al.S The projection of a plane normal OP direction in the sphere of figure Al.4. [010] is
into the equatorial plane about the south pole S parallel to east-west
001
"'\ \
\
\
\
\
\
\
I
I
I
I
I
I
oTo
-- --- -- -- .....
010
ooT
Figure Al.7 A cubic crystal at the centre of a sphere showing that the stereographic projection of (100), (111), (011),(Ill),
(IOO) and (100), (101), (001) lie on great circles, the latter being a diameter
c 0
Figure A1.8 A Wulff net divided into two degree divisions
(111) and (011), figure Al.7, define a plane that same great circle, figure Al.9(b). The angle can
passes through the centre of the sphere and then be read as shown.
intersects its surface in a great circle, that is one The diameter CD on the Wulff net, figure Al.8,
whose diameter is that of the sphere. The angle is a great circle and angles may be measured along
between (111) and (011) is proportional to the it.
length of the arc of the great circle defined by their
normals. Figure Al.7 shows that this great circle A1.7 Useful Manipulations with the Stereographic
projects as an arc on a diameter.* Consequently, Projection and Wulff Net
it is possible to measure the arc angle between (111)
In all of the following manipulations the Wulff net
and (011) in terms of the distance along this arc
is used with its centre at the centre of the projection.
between the plane normal projections. The device
for doing this is a Wulff net, shown in figure Al.8. (1) To measure angles between any two planes
This consists of two sets of arcs. The first is an or directions. This has been covered at the end of
array of great circles on the same diameter AB. the previous section.
The second is a series of arcs centred on A and B (2) To find the pole of a great circle. This is the
such that their separation along any great circle projection of the axis of the zone of planes whose
corresponds to the same angle.t Thus to use the normals lie on the great circle. The Wulff net is
Wulff net to measure an angle between the projected aligned to superimpose on the great circle and the
plane normals P 1 and P 2 , figure Al.9(a), the net is pole is constructed 90° along CD froru the inter-
rotated about its centre until P 1 and P 2 lie on the section of the great circle with CD, figure Al.lO(a).
*Note that the great circle (100), (101), (001), figure A1.7, projects onto a diameter.
t Clearly the Wulff net corresponds to the projection of lines of latitude and longitude on the earth into the plane of the Greenwich
meridian using the point 90° west on the equator as the projecting point.
(a) (b)
Figure A1.9 The measurement of the angle c/J between poles P 1 and P 2 in the stereographic projection, using the Wulff net
pole of --t--'to..e'l~
great circle
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure Al.lO The use of the Wulff net (a) to find the pole of a great circle, (b) to construct a small circle about a pole P,
(c) to rotate poles P and Q about a direction R on the edge of the stereogram, and (d) to rotate pole P about an axis R that
does not lie on the edge of the stereogram
plane normal N specific plane, normal N, see figure Al.ll(a). In
(a)
three dimensions this involves rotating the direction
OD down into the plane required, about an axis
OR lying in the projection plane and perpendicular
D to OD, see figure Al.ll(a). This is performed
on the stereogram by drawing great circles corre-
sponding to the plane normal N, and OD. These
will intersect at R, a direction perpendicular to N
o'
and OD, see figure A1.11(b). Consideration of
figure A1.11(a) will show that N, OD and OD' are
all perpendicular to R. Thus D' always lies at the
intersection of great circles with poles Rand OD.
The same result can be obtained by moving R to
rotation axis
the centre then following the procedure outlined
in (6).
(b)
A1.8 Useful Crystallographic Formulae for
Various Crystal Structures
In interpreting electron diffraction patterns it is
particularly useful to have available tables of
interplanar spacings and angles between planes for
the crystal structure of interest. These may be
generated by computation from the formulae in
table Al.l. Useful values of interplanar spacings
and angles are listed in appendix 6 for the cubic
Figure Al.ll The projection of a particular crystal
direction OD into a given plane (a) in real space,
and hexagonal crystal structures. The definitions
(b) on the stereographic projection of a, b, c, ex, p, y in table A1.1 are given for each
crystal structure, illustrated in figure Al.l. Table
(3) To find the great circle corresponding to a
A1.2 contains formulae for obtaining the indices
pole. This is the reverse of manipulation (2).
of directions normal to planes and vice versa.
(4) To construct a small circle about a pole. This
Finally, table Al.3 lists crystal structures and
corresponds to the projections of all plane normals
lattice parameters of the elements which are
at a given angle to the pole. Rotate the Wulff net
crystalline at room temperature.
so that either AB or CD cuts the pole. Measure
the necessary angle from the pole Pin figure A1.1 O(b) Appendix 1 : Recommended Reading
in both directions along either AB or CD to give
Further information on crystallography and the
the points X and Y. Bisect the line XY and draw
use of the stereographic projection can be found
the circle with XY as a diameter. Note that the
in a number of books, including the following.
geometric centre of this circle is not P.
(5) To rotate poles about an axis in the plane of Gay, P. (1972). The Crystalline State, An Intro-
projection, see figure A1.10(c). To rotate poles P duction, Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh.
and Q through 60°, in figure Al.lO(c) about a Johari, 0., and Thomas, G. (1969). The stereo-
pole R lying in the perimeter of the stereogram, set graphic projection and its applications. Tech-
the A of the stereogram at R and measure along niques of Metals Research (ed. R. F. Bunshah),
the arc shown the necessary amount to the positions Interscience, New York.
P' and Q'. Note that Q' now must be regarded as Kelly, A., and Groves, G. W. (1970). Crystallog-
projected from the north pole, see section A1.6, raphy and Crystal Defects, Longmans, London.
and is shown as an open circle, that is 'underneath' Phillips, F. C. (1963). An Introduction to Crystal-
the stereogram. lography, Longmans, London.
(6) To rotate a pole through an angle () about Smaill, J. S. (1972). Metallurgical Stereographic
an axis R not on the perimeter of the stereogram. Projections, Hilger, London.
This procedure is shown in figure A1.10(d). Here
R lies as shown and the net is rotated until CD Appendix 1 : References
cuts R. Rand Pare rotated by 4J about AB as in (5)
until R lies in the centre at R' and P moves toP'. Andrews, K. W., Dyson, D. J., and Keown, S. R.
Then P' is rotated to P" by the required amount (0) (1971). Interpretation of Electron Diffraction
about R'; then R' is rotated back to R about AB Patterns, Hilger, London.
and P" moves to pm. Barrett, C. S., and Hassalski, T. B. (1968). Structure
(7) To project a given direction 00 into a of Metal and Alloys, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Too
• 711 711•
• 511 511e
• 301 • 531
• 311 e311
• '321
•201
e2i1 e211
• 573 • 513 e'331
• 533 • 312 • '312 • 533
•
e221 • 221
• fOI
553 TTl
212
• •
5'35
e313 e '313
• -· •535 •
212
ill .553 231.
•'351
121• •353
e2i3 •213 353 • • f21
•315 •'315 •'335
ei31 •To2 • Ti2 • '355 e T31
•T22
• 151 i32• e TT3 • T03 Tl3e • T32 • i51
i33e 123 • •T23 e T33
•171 eTTs Tl7eeTI 5 ef53
i35e •T35
031• •021 Oil. oi2e .001 °~3 e012 .Oil eo21 • 031
• IT7 •117 el35

•lf5 ell5 •153
e1?1 e133
eiT3 • 103 113. •123 el32
el51
•122 - el12 •122
•131 355• - 112. el02 e131
335• • • •335 .355
el2l _ e121
• 353 213 • 3T5 315 •213 353•
. I i i 2T2 101 .Ill
53~. • 3f3 • 313 • • •535
• 351 • 231 212 •231 •351
• 553
• 221
• 533 • 3f2 •533
• 5T3 e331
• 2TI e211
• 201 • 321 • 551
e301 • 531
• 5fl • 511
e7fl • 711
100
Figure Al.12 Standard stereographic projections for cubic structures: (a) (001); (b) (110); (c) (111); (d) (112)
Table A1.3 The lattice parameters and crystal structures of the elements crystalline at room temperature [After Barrett and Hassalskt
(1968)]
Temp. CC) Structure Lattice constants c(A)

Element: form
a (A) b(A) (II or {J)
(transformation temp. 0 C)
aluminum (AI) 25 f.c.c. 4.0496

25 rhomb. 4.5067 57°6'27"
antimony (Sb)
26 rhomb. 4.307 (hex. axes) 11.273
z = 0.2335
4 °K rhomb. 4.3007 z = 0.2336 11.222
arsenic (As) rhomb. 4.131 II = 54°10'
barium (Ba) R.T. b.c.c. 5.019
beryllium, II (Be) 20 c.p.h. 2.2856 3.5832
P? > 1250 1250 b.c.c. 2.55
bismuth (Bi) 25 rhomb. 4.546 11.862
(hex. axes) z = 0.2339
78 °K rhomb. 4.535 z = 0.2341 11.814
4°K rhomb. z = 0.2340 11.862
21 c.p.h. 2.9788 5.6167
cadmium (Cd)
calcium, II (Ca) 18 f.c.c. 5.582
y 464 to m.p. -500 b.c.c. 4.477
carbon, diamond 20 cubic 3.5670
hex. 2.4612 6.707
graphite, IX 20
Table Al.3 (continued)
Element: form Temp. ("C) Structure Lattice constants c(A)

(transformation temp. oq a(A) b(A) («or{/)
carbon (contd.)
graphite, p rhomb. 2.4612 10.061
caesium (Cs) -10 b.c.c. 6.14
chromium (Cr) 20 b.c.c. 2.8846
cobalt, IX (Co) 18 c.p.h. 2.506 4.069
p stable -450 to m.p. 18 f.c.c. 3.544
copper (Cu) 20 f.c.c. 3.6147
0 f.c.c. 3.6029
gallium(Ga) 20 orthorhomb. 4.5258 4.5198 7.6602
germanium (Ge) 25 cubic 5.6576
gold(Au) 25 f.c.c. 4.0788
hafnium O£ (Hf) 24 c.p.h. 3.1946 5.0511
indium(In) R.T. tetrag. 4.5979 (f.c. cell) 4.9467
R.T. tetrag. 3.2512 (b.c. cell) 4.9467
iodine (I) 26 orthorhomb. 4.79 7.25 9.78
iridium (lr) 26 f.c.c. 3.8389
iron,« (Fe) 20 b.c.c. 2.8664
1' 911 to 1392 916 f.c.c. 3.6468
(j 1392 to m.p. 1394 b.c.c. 2.9322
lead(Pb) 25 f.c.c. 4.9502
magnesium (Mg) 25 c.p.h. 3.2094 5.2105
manganese, O£ (Mn) 25 cubic 8.9139
p 742 to 1095 25 cubic 6.315
1' 1095 to 1133 1095 f.c.c. 3.862
(j 1133 to m.p. 1134 b.c.c. 3.081
moly6deniun (Mo) 20 b.c.c. 3.1468
nickel (Ni) 18 f.c.c. 3.5236
niobium (Nb) 20 b.c.c. 3.3007
(columbium)
palladium (Pd) 22 f.c.c. 3.8907
platinum (Pt) 20 f.c.c. 3.9239
plutonium, O£ (Pu) 21 monoclin. 6.1835 4.8244 10.973
P 122 to 206 p= 101.81°
190 monoclin. 9.284 10.463 7.859
1' 206 to 319
p= 92.13°
235 orthorhomb. 3.159 5.768 10.162
(j 3!9 to 451 320 f.c.c. 4.637
6' 451 to 485 477 tetrag. 3.339 4.446
e476 tom.p. 490 b.c.c. 3.636
APPEND IX 2.
CRYSTA LLOGR APHIC TECHN IQUES
FOR THE INTERP RETAT ION OF
TRANSM ISSION ELECTR ON
MICRO GRAPH S OF MATERIALS
WITH HEXAG ONAL CRYSTAL
STRUCT URE
A2.1 Introduction However, the labelling of directions is less
The geometrical interpretation of transmission obvious. Again, as in the cartesian representation
eiectron micrographs of hexagonal close-packed of a direction in figure Al.3, the direction is
metals is more complicated than the equivalent represented as a line joining the origin of the
interpretation of cubic metals for three reasons. coordinate system to a point in space, and the
Firstly, prominent zone axes are not in general direction indices [ uvtw] are the indices of the end
normal to prominent planes, so a simple diffraction point of the line. However, u, v and t now represent
pattern commonly corresponds to a non-rational successive displacements parallel to a 1 , a2 and a 3
foil plane; secondly, there is no simple relationship and are chosen so that equality (A2.1) is satisfied.
between the plane (hkil) and the direction [hkil]; This produces a representation which is now
and, thirdly, the Miller-Bravais system of indexing non-cartesian as figure A2.2 demonstrates, and the
directions in this crystal structure is not easy to t index is no longer a dummy. To obtain the
visualise. The analysis of transmission electron equivalent components of the direction in the
micrographs obtained from hexagonal materials three-index system related to the non-coplanar
is based on a number of equations representing axes a 1 , a2 and c, where now the indices can be
some important geometrical relationships between regarded as components of a vector in a skew
planes, directions, etc. These equations are first three-space, we now set the unit vector along the
derived and then applied to particular problems. axes as a, a and c, where a and c are the lattice
spacings for the appropriate metal and cfa is the
A2.2 Crystallographic Relationships for the axial ratio. The magnitude of direction OR in the
Hexagonal Lattice basal plane (figure A2.2) can be found by taking
As is well known, in the Miller-Bravais notation the square root of the scalar product of the vector
the hexagonal system is described by four axes,
three of which are coplanar. The three coplanar c
axes, labelled a 1 , a 2 and a 3 , lie in the basal plane
of the lattice and are 120° apart. The fourth axis is ell
normal to this plane, and the right-hand rule
applies for labelling the direction of the axes. The
Miller-Bravais indices of a plane (hkil) are then
the ratios of the reciprocals of the intercepts of the
plane on the four axes (figure A2.l).lfthe intercepts
on the axes a 1 , a2 , a 3 are respectively afh, afk and
- afi it follows from elementary geometry that Dz
i = -(h + k) (A2.1)
One of the three coplanar axes is therefore
strictly unnecessary, and in fact is included only
to demonstrate the symmetry of the crystal
system. In some cases (hkil) indexing is written as
(hk·l) where i = •. Figure A2.1 The Miller-Bravais notation for planes
c formula for distance. The cosine of the angle
between X and Y is given by
Dd + Ee + !(De + Ed) + !Gg(cfa) 2
p cos¢> = {D 2 + E 2 + DE + (G 2 /3Xc/af} 112
', [hkil]
x {d 2 + e 2 + de + (g 2 /3Xcfaf} 112
(A2.3)
where X = [DEFG] andY= [defg].
0 k k-i A2.2.2 Indices [defg] of the Normal to the

Plane (hkil)
The direction [d, e, f, g] perpendicular to plane
(h, k, i, l) can be found by forming the scalar
h-i product of the vector representing d, e, f, g with
two vectors in (h, k, i, l) (figure A2.4).
Direction [ d, e,J, g] intersects (h, k, i, l) at a point
Figure A2.2 The Miller-Bravais notation for
directions which is some multiple n times ad, ae, af and cg.
Since the intercepts of the plane with the axes are
specifying OR with itself and is given by known, vectors AX, BX and ex can be found, for
example
OR = {3a 2 (u 2 + v2 + uv)} 1 ' 2
AX= (2nda + nea- ajh)a 1
where a is the interatomic spacing in the basal + (2nea + nda)a 2 + ngc c
plane. A distance OP (figure A2.2) that has a
component out of the basal plane has a magnitude The direction d, e, f, g will have components such
that
OP = {3a 2 (u 2 + v2 + uv) + c2 w2 } 1' 2 (A2.2)
OX = (2nda + nea)a 1 + (2nea + nda)a 2 + ngc c
A2.2.1 Angles between Two Directions, if> Forming the scalar product of AX and OX and
The angle between two crystallographic directions setting it equal to zero, since the two vectors are
is found by means of the cosine law perpendicular to each other, gives
Z2 = X 2 + Y2 - 2XYcos¢>
OX. AX = 4(nda) + 4(nea) + lj(ndaXnea)
where X, Y and Z are magnitudes of vectors and if> 3 (nda)a

- - - - + (ngc) 2 = 0
is the angle between X and Y, as seen in figure A2.3. 2 h
Directions X and Y are known and Z can be Analogous equations can be formed for BX and ex.
found.* The magnitudes can be determined by the
Figure A2.3 Angles between directions Figure A2.4 Indices of a plane normal
• From equation (A2.1).

One of the indices, d, e, f, g, may be arbitrarily to use a standard basal projection with the
chosen. This is usually done in such a way as to direction and plane indices coincident at the centre
make the indices the smallest integer values. The and the rim. In effect such a stereogram is a chart
index d will be set equal to h. for transforming from one index system to another
The normalto the plane (h, k, i, l) will have indices and, viewed in this light, is quite general. The
(A2.4) concept of the double stereogram can be applied
[defg]=h,k,i,!(afc) 2l to any crysta1 system. A genera1 pomt · m · sueh a
stereogram may be regarded as a plane (properly,
A2.2.3 Directions [ wxyz] Lying in a Plane (hkil) the projection of the pole of the plane) or as a
direction and indexed accordingly. It follows
This expression is easily calculated by taking the
therefore that the projection of a plane and the
scalar product of [ wxyz] with the plane normal and
direction normal to it coincide, as usual, but they
setting equal to zero.
have different indices.
The condition becomes
To determine Burgers' vectors, slip planes, and
uh + vk + ti + wl = 0 (A2.5) the geometry of dislocation interactions, it is
necessary to perform a small number of simple
This expression can also be used to calculate the
operations using the double stereogram. In general
planes containing a given direction. While it seems
geometrical operations are performed in the foil
that relations (A2.4) and (A2.5) appear to require
plane, which is determined from a diffraction
knowledge of each other, this is not in fact so.
pattern as described below.
Three directions lying in a plane can immediately
be constructed from the knowledge of the intercepts
made by the plane on the axes. A2.3.1 Indexing Diffraction Patterns
A2.2.4 Angle 4J between Two Planes As pointed out in section 2.2.2.1, each spot in the
diffraction pattern corresponds to a set of planes,
The angle between two planes is the same as the almost parallel to the electron beam. The spots
angle between their normals, so combining (A2.3) are indexed (hkil) using the procedure in section
and (A2.4) the cosine of the angle 4J between two 2.7 .2, but substituting relation (A2.6) for (2.22).
planes (hkil) and (defg) is given by Vector addition may be used to simplify indexing
cos
.+.
'+' -
hd + ke + !(he + kd) + "ilg(afc) 2 of the complete pattern, once the initial indexing
+ k2 + hk + il2(a/c)2}1/2
~=----=------,----==----;;-;;:-----;c:"",..----'--
- {hz of two spots has been accomplished. The zone
x {d 2 + e 2 + de + ig 2 (a/c) 2 } 1 ' 2 axis luvtwl of the pattern may be obtained from the
relations
(A2.6)
u = l2(2kl + hl) - l1(2k2 + h2)
This is identical with the expression (calculated
by using different techniques) given in standard v = l1(2h2 + kl) - l2(2hl + kl)
(A2.7)
crystallographic texts. The angle between a di- w = 3(hlk2 - h2kl)
rection and a plane can similarly be calculated by
using (A2.3) and (A2.4). t = -(u + v)
where the indexed spot (h 2 k 2i2l2) is positioned
A2.2.5 Direction of the Intersection of Two Planes anticlockwise relative to(h 1k1 i 1 / 1). As an alternative
This is easily calculated by applying (A2.5) to both to relations (A2.7), relation (2.23a) may be used
planes: the direction [ wxyz] which satisfies (A2.5) with the Miller (hkil) indices to give notional values
for both planes is plainly the direction of their line for u', v', w' which may be converted to the correct
of intersection. u, v, t, w by the relations
A2.3 Stereographic Manipulations in the u = i(2u' - v')

Hexagonal Lattice v = i(2v' - u')
(A2.8)
A number of geometrical calculations such as = -i(v' +
t u')
those outlined above can be performed on a w = w'
double stereogram on which are represented both
the poles of planes and crystallographic directions. All spots in the pattern must satisfy relation (A2.5).
Of course, it is necessary to orient the plane and Having determined the beam direction B, it may
direction projections relative to one another, and be required to determine the foil plane (if zero
in the hexagonal system since [0001] is normal to specimen tilt). Unlike the cubic case, the plane
(0001) and [hkiO] is normal to (hkiO), it is easiest normal to B does not have the same indices as B.
B
1120
0
0
0 •
0 0
• 0 3121
0
•
0
T2l1 • 0 0
• 0 3123 0
• •
•o 0 e [2Til]
0 0
• [2il2] .o
0 0 0
0
• • • • [2Ti3]
0001 1104 1102 1101 2201

0 eo • 0
• oe oe 0 • 0 1100
• 0 • • 02313
• •
0 0 .0(1213)
2311
• o.
0 (1212) 0
•
0 0
•
01211
•
0 0
0
0
•
0 0
0
•
0 0
0 0
Ti20
A
Figure A2.5 A double stereogram for axial ratio: c/a = 1.62; 0 planes; e directions. For all hkiO, and 0001, directions
and planes superimpose. These are shown as open circles for clarity
The indices of the plane normal to B are given by (1, I, 0, 1.679). The use of the double stereogram
will be demonstrated in section A2.3.4 by using
h=u
this foil plane as an example.
k = v
(A2.9) A2.3.2 Planes Containing a Given Direction
l = i(cfa) 2 w
and A contrast experiment performed on a single
i = -(h + k)
dislocation gives a Burgers vector, but no slip
The zone of reflecting planes may be represented plane. It is frequently instructive to know which
on the stereogram by a great circle passing through planes contain this direction. For example, dis-
the poles corresponding to the planes giving rise locations having a Burgers vector parallel to the
to the reflections. A typical example is shown as prism face diagonals have occasionally been
the great circle AB in figure A2.5. The zone axis reported: these directions have indices (1123).
is then the direction which lies in all the planes, For the particular case of directions [2IT3], the
the pole of the great circle. In this case, the zone expression (A2.5) indicates that planes (hkil)
axis is [ 1I 01], and the foil plane is the plane normal contain this direction, where
to this. As can be seen, this foil plane has non-
rational indices: it is fairly close to (4407); using h+l=O (A2.10)
relation (A2.9) the indices may be' shown to be Since [2IT3] lies in all those planes whose poles
are normal to it, the locus of these planes is the {(c 2 + a 2 ) 1 ' 2 /3} [2II3] and {(c 2 + a 2 ) 1 ' 2 /3} [1213],
great circle drawn with [2Il3] as a pole. This is as may be determined by drawing the great circle
shown as CD in figure A2.5, and it can be seen with (Il01) as a pole. Geometrically, the projection
that in fact the indices of the planes satisfy relation of a direction into the foil plane is the trace of a
(A2.10). As an extexsion of this, the directiox of the plane normal to the foil plane containing the
intersection of two planes is the pole of the great required direction: thus, the projection of [2II3]
circle drawn through the two planes. in (4407) is the trace of (TOll). The direction of this
trace is the pole of the great circle passing through
(Il01) and (4407), shown as X in figure A2.5. The
A2.3.3 Contrast Experiments
angle between the direction and its projection
It is well known, see section 3.4.7, that the Burgers (which gives its apparent length in the foil plane)
vector b of dislocations can be determined by is the complement of the angle between the
tilting the foil to produce images under two-beam directions and the normal to the foil plane, in this
conditions with various values of g • b, where g is case [1T01]. For [2IT3] this angle is 90 - 24 = 66°.
the operative reflection vector, see section 2.4. If The direction in (Il01) normal to [2II3] is the
isotropic elasticity can be applied, when g • b = 0 pole of the great circle drawn through these two
contrast disappears. However, if the material is points, labelled Y in figure A2.5. This may be
elastically anisotropic, contrast will not disappear projected into the foil plane in exactly the same
and, as described in section 3, image matching way. It is thus easy to prepare a map of projected
techniques must be used to determine the Burgers edge and screw directions and projected lengths
vector of dislocations. Nevertheless it is often useful for the possible slip systems, which may then be
to estimate quickly from a stereogram under compared with the dislocation images. In general,
which reflecting conditions g • b = 0 to assess this is rather easier than attempting to determine
what tilting and contrast experiments are worth- the direction of the dislocation line directly,
while on a particular specimen. Geometrically, although this can be done by exactly the same
g • b = 0 is equivalent to the statement that the method.
direction of the Burgers vector must lie in the plane
responsible for the operating reflection. Consider
A2.4 Crystallographic Data for the Hexagonal
the case of a foil giving the diffraction pattern
Lattice
represented by the great circle AB (figure A2.5).
Plainly, the (TOll) plane contains the [2IT3] To plot a double stereogram for a hexagonal
direction, and thus any dislocations having a material it is· necessary to know both the angles
Burgers vector parallel to this will go out of between planes and the angles between directions
contrast when the foil is tilted so that this reflection for the given cfa ratio. These values have been
is the only one operating. Similarly, the (I 102) plane tabulated (Rarey et al., 1966) and computer
contains the [ll20] direction, and dislocations for programmes are available which produce values
which b = (a/3) [1120] will be out of contrast for (Johari and Thomas, 1970) and plot stereograms
this operating reflection. Conversely, if a set of (Metzbower, 1969). Formulae for crystallographic
dislocations are observed to go out of contrast for a relationships have also been given by Otte and
particular reflection, the Burgers vector must lie Crocker (1965, 1966).
parallel to a direction lying on the great circle
drawn with the reflecting plane as a pole.
Appendix 2: References
A2.3.4 Dislocation Geometry-Projection of
Johari, 0., and Thomas, G. (1970). The stereo-
Directions
graphic projection and its applications. Tech-
In some cases, even if contrast experiments cannot niques in Metals Research (ed. R. F. Bunsah),
be performed, some indication of the Burgers vol. 2C, Wiley, New York.
vector can be obtained from the geometry of the Metzbower, E. A. (1969). Trans. A.l.M.E., 245,
dislocation arrangement. In many instances, dis- 435.
locations tend to be either edge or screw and thus Otte, H. M., and Crocker, A. G. (1965). Phys. Stat.
lie normal to or parallel to the Burgers vector in Sol., 9, 441.
the slip plane. Consider, for example, slip on - - (1966). Phys. Stat. Sol., 16, K25.
the (Il01) pyramidal plane. This plane contains Rarey, C. R., Stringer, J., and Edington, J. W.
three possible Burgers' vectors, (a/3) [ll20], (1966). Trans. A.I.M.E., 236,811.
APPENDIX 4.
STANDARD SPOT PATTERNS
This appendix includes diagrams of standard spot using the tables of Rarey, Stringer and Edington
diffraction patterns for both cubic and hexagonal (1966). In figures A4.1-A4.4, the indexing pro-
crystal structures. In the cubic cases each pattern cedure outlined in section 2. 7.2.1 has been followed.
for a given zone axis (z, defined in appendix 1) The positions of superlattice reflections are also
has the same, six-, four-, three- or two-fold shown in figures A4.1 and A4.2. The intensities of
symmetry but the reflections that occur obey the the spots will depend upon their structure factor as
rules outlined in table 2.1. The patterns for the described in section 2.3.1. The reflections that occur
hexagonal crystal structure are indexed using in cubic crystal structures are shown in tables
the Miller-Bravais system outlined in appendix 2, A4.1 and A4.2.
assuming exact close packing, that is an axial
ratio (c/a) of 1.633. The positions of the spots will Appendix 4: Reference
change when the c/a changes. It is recommended
that standard patterns be constructed for the cja Rarey, C. R., Stringer, J., and Edington, J. W.
value corresponding to the actual material studied (1966). Trans. A.I.M.E., 236, 811.
\0
0'1
54.74°
. 60" 65.91°
" .. •
• • • • • 202
• • •
200 220 0
• 2oo •
• 242 221 200 242
• 35·2: 220
-~
• • T? 222 211
-• T •
• 'Ho
r
X A
24 09° ~~I T / 41.81°
020 040
o4oo3oo2oo1~
• x e-x
X X X X X
-e
.\f
• T~2 X
022 011
X
Ill
e t:i!~-
X
~
-
e
022 ..-;X
022 oT
*A.-eo22
A
T~2
.---x
042
X
X~AB-----e
021
X X :4
042
140 130 1~110 1100 • 122 111 1100 Ill 133
e X e e e X e ·- iiOI ' . e 1~*1 1 ~
240 23o 220 210 200 220 •
240 222 211 200 220 242 221 200 242
X X X X X • 202
34o 33o 320 3io 300 • •
31T
l[
311
e X e X e
440 430 420 410 400 420 • 440• • • 400 • 442
t:1
• • ·-
'*=-q-=1.414 s=z=[oou ..4.=.£.=1155
B v3 . B=r=rOI~
l.' ~ B=r=[T1Q A: ..;24 =2.450 fl..= ..; 20 =2.236 B=z=[012] ;:s
i
(a) (b) (c) (d) c '114 c '114
~
39.23°
71.5JD 72.45°
"'~ 33.56°
31.48 420 402
• • • • 440 X
• • ; -422
-
331e
220 • •
' •
J
131 'TTo e 232 221 ~~~ x f 2oo __
X X X 3~~~~· A
• A*A! 131~A----131 141 x __
A /~- 242
042 C" x e--x X 110
X
e-~·, e a--. 031X
:f. 021 B A--. 042 044 033 022 Oil 022 • •
062 031
131 XIOO A-.131
132 Ill "' 13T 231X 1200
~~~x B'-...
e X .. X X X
58·52° 222 201 220 .223 212/201 \0 331e X 300 e331 242 /211 .220
.
e X e
3T2 311
• e4oo
402• 424 402 420 •
442 422 •
•
.fi..=..;s =1633 .iL.i.!l.=l.915 B=z=[T12] ~ =V20 =l581 B=z=rT22] ~-
8 - "v411 =165 r, l
· 8 8=z= LOI3J ~=V24 =1.732 B=z=G13]
c '113 . c '113 8 .ta · ~ 8 .ts
(e) (f) (g) (h)
Figure A4.1 Single-crystal spot transmission electron diffraction patterns for the f.c.c. crystal structure (u 2 + v2 + w2 < 22). The zone axis z, defined in appendix 1, is the beam direction B
defined in section 2.7.2, as indicated. The crosses in one quadrant of the diagram indicate the positions of the spots for the ordered f.c.c. (Ll 2 ) unit cell. The complete pattern may be generated
by repeating these spots in the remainder of the pattern and indexing using the addition of vectors, see section 2.7.2.1
60.98° 76.37° ,_ 64.12°
74.50° 75.04°
42o •
• • 331 \ • • •
'-a A 282
__. • __ ~ x T2oo ---------282
~ f2oo
232X 242 •
X
C
XT6!! ~x-~132 A__.---- 264 T21 182X T4;X~ t:'!l
_ X 082 e • _X 8 • e 082 ~
.~ ~X 8 - 041 (")
- ~4 032
XIG4 l32x X 100 A 182 X -------X l4l X I00 A ----------
ITI •
153 282--- 241 X 1200 -----. 282 ~
;:s
~X 1200 ----.264 • X
X300
•
242 382 X 341 X X 300 l::::l
X 364 332 X X 210\
301 33T e4oo e482
e464 432X e4oo e464 ~
511 420 ~
....
A.v2o_ 8 vl9 - 5'
;:s
A _ v56 8 _ v52 _ ~ = ~~8 = 4.123 B=Z= [014]
• B=z= [123]
(iJC-\14=3.24 2 y-~-3.606 B=z= [023] ( i l c- ., 3 -2.582 y= ;;3 =2.517 ( k) 1 = ~~ 2 =4.243
s·
620 602
76.3JO 50.48° 40.46° ~
21.2r t:'!l
440 • ~
• / 4 2- 4
• 31T 331
3Ti
T 313 77.08°
\ r
A A 55.46°
330 . - • ~
;:s
220 __ A ~4
064 • ~8 A/ ~
t=;·
--X- • ~
032X _ A -
044 033 022 OTI
""'\ c--. 022
• •
044 ' 022 OTI
033 022
~'~EJ-0
122 041..- .....
•
064
.~/ _ ~~ 'XIIO ie ~(1;)
/xx - ... fi X X X X X
220 :><; X e 3526o !
335 \
32 3T3 302 311 323
244 /2T2 X 262
! X 131 221 3TI 220330
•
- X 331 353
352! 401 • ;T,
302 •
442
424 X
532.
622
511
•
624
r \'
602 620
•
642
•
604 c- l A =~=1.173 B=z=IT14] A= vl9, 1L .'L!l = 1.173 B=z= [233] A v4o [ ~
8 =-;;a= 2.236 B=z= 133
A,-.1 36=2121 B=z= 223J 8 ¥8 c ¥8 1. 541 c ¥8
8 -.18 . (a)
(m) ( n)
(I)
Figure A4.1 (continued)
1,0
-....1
10
00
• 200 • 45" 211 2oo 211 • • •

200
.. ~ I • •
8 A
-IIO T T10 • • \A T -- T --
•
A e e e 1 2 1 : : > t .....-121
AOIT • - A
_x ~x 8 •
:,;_ 'A 1 021X
•
022 A
e12T
X _ XIOO "e_
~Off'~-=
130~
~ 120 X • IIO
! ITO •
130 122
• •
--t::.101 110 1~1 1 121
2i0 220 210 200 • •
222 211 211
•
222 112 • 221· 200
- X e 9 X e_
330 • • • • 321 300 321
310
400 • l[
i= ~~ =1.414 B=z= [oo1] A= ..i2... =1.732 fl.. " 4 =1.414 B=z= [DIU B=z= U1U i= ~~=1.225 B=z=(012)
(a l (bl c v2 c v2 (c l (d) t'!l
51.67" ;:s
·,312 .A22.21"
~ I;s:
231
f /222_- . I
xT3I '-. f / _A,.I32
A/ ~-
r. A,.
_l__j_
•o42 • O~c..Oli •
022
0~8-
-- 03T
.121 e-..110
., A
• " 201/ \210
X X
-
2; 1 200
"'- -
f 211 •220
, ,I 1 \221 33 X 231
el 300 • 301
•
e402 -
4T3 402 411 •
420 43T 431 400 •
43T
..
f=~~=2.646 f=~ 1i=2.450 B=z=[T12] 1·~~0 =3.162 !=~~ =3.00 B=z=U22] .!4.. vl4 =I 871 11. = vlo =1.581 B=z.= ro13] A= -'6 =1.732 B=z=U13]
c :V4 · c .t4 L s v2
(e l (f) (g) (h)
Figure A4.2 Single-crystal spot transmission electron diffraction patterns for the b.c.c. crystal structure (u 2 + v2 + w2 ~ 22). The zone axis z, defined in appendix 1, is the beam direction B,
defined in section 2.7.2, as indicated. The crosses in one quadrant ofthe diagram indicate the positions of the spots for the ordered b.c.c. (B2 ) unit cell. The complete pattern may be generated by
repeating these spots in the remainder of the pattern and indexing using the addition of vectors, see section 2. 7.2.1
75.04° ~3.09°
e4oo 74.5oo • - -
-- 301 / 3 3 4 / ' 13.63°
420
e 332 X 300 e X
--
r __ 222
"<~424
,zoo _ _ -• 331 __ _1$ / \
x~_:32 8 ______117~~- •22o
132 '- 132 242 121 2IO I A • 631 6221 613 • no 244
00 __. .__ / •••••
/A/,A/A
A 31.0o
~ X
A-_. 0~2 111// ~c-...._ - 142
132 ' 132 ~ /x l21 I ,\ \ I I --........._ 78.22° X ~
x2:32 e2oo 143 032 X ~
.....
e _,/122 X ~
•332 ~ •
220 ;:s
301 /66.91° 154 ~~/ / 2T2x
• 1::::1
• 400 50.24° 4~0 244 302 §
334 X
412 ~
(")
- B=zJo2:3i Ac=~=l414 .C.,:L!Q.,I.291 B=z=IT123l _!___ ~

.....
(i1 8A=~=I.871
.; 4 ~ ~ (i 1 ,; 6 · c ¥6 ~ 022
424 c;·
;:s
514 • s·
- A ¥36 8 '\1'34 [- l
(I 1 c'-;;12"'4.243 c"-;;72"4.123 B=z= 223J
. 53.96°
;;.
~
X ~
~/'''.,,. ~ e4oo 313
13.26 - e:341 - 310 :301
~
.....
x3oo • '\. 77.08°
220 A A3 352 -- T200
• 141 ~
;:s
• ">~>(-2~ • "" ___. \1 ~
A ~141 . xloo A 27 270 •
604 613 622 631
f.· ~·
X X041 A---._ •
041
I'll 200 141 ~
X241
•262 • !
e341 1: ~~6 =4.796 ! : ~~ 4 =4.690
352
• • • • • •301 310 321
X e400 B=z= [233]
401 7637"
532 •
622
A- ~-4
¥2 -
359 .!1,¥ A, ¥148 =2121 B=z=[014] .~L.i!Q.
8 ¥2 =2 . 236 B=z= 1133]
L'
c- c ¥236 =4 243 B=z=(i14] 8 .;
(m) ( n) ( k) (o)
~
.....
8
54.74° ' ~
•
.. 0 0 .., v • /0 • 0 "\41.81'
• • • 35.26°
.\
0 0 '*) ( ) '*) ~
• '( /'
. •
• ~A,O]il 0 o]3; A.-eo22
---L-
• 040 • r1 • A'e 022 e ~e-o
o:o • •
0
200 220 240
0 '*l '*l 11T '*l
200 •
133
~-
" . •
220 200
A~~
242 ~
""I
202 s:l
•
311 31T • • 0 0 ~
....
0 • 0 • •
400 442
• 400 420 440 • [
(a)
*
~='if=1.414 B=z=[ooO
(b)
f= .,..~ =1.155 B=z= [01 0
(c)
•
B=z= [TI 0
(d
~<~4 =2.450 ~=~~0 =2.236 B=z=[012]
r
~
~
~
....
""I
0
~o.~:~r-
;:s
26.57" \ I
~ /422 33.560 ~
'*l 7 0 71.57° ~~ ~·
.. 45.00° 0 • ""I
v:.~ 0
• • \ 1 A A • • A ~
""
'*) ~
~,., . AA2 '-.::
'*)042
• 't' '")
(*) A~ >t<:=:: "'~ •
ITI ' . 13T '*l 131 1*)....
220 '*l '\.,o •
'*) 200
•
311
• •
33T
• '*l • 0 0 •
424 402 420 442
402
(e l
_
o/3 -1.633
c8 -_ .;a
•
1= ~~ =1.915 B=z=[T12]
(f )
-1= ~~ =1.581 B=z=[T22]
(g)
1= ~~ =1.658 B=z= [013]
(h)
A, v24=1 732
8 o/8 . B=z=~13]
l
Figure A4.3 Single-crystal spot transmission electron diffraction patterns for diamond structures (u 2 + v2 + w2 ~ 22): 0 additional weaker spots; • spots that could arise from double diffraction.
The zone axis z, defined in appendix 1, is the beam direction B, defined in section 2.7.2, as indicated [After Andrews et al. (1971)]
22.57"
60.98° 74.50°
76.37" 64.12°
82.39°
• •
• 0 0
(*I •
~:==:o· A 064 ~
------...... ~---=~:---:
200 264 ~A 082
;:s
~ ~
0 • 0 200 --------.
282 0
400 464
0 4~0 0 ~
I:>
~=~=3242 .fl...,v' 52 =3.606 B=z=[023] A , v'20 , 2 582 ~
c v'4 . c v'4 c v'3 . fl...'
c ~=2 v'3 .
517 B=z= [T23] A., ...a£ "' 68 <o14] 482 ....
(i I (j I C .;4 =4· 243 1l...,
C v'4 '4.123 B=r= c
( k) 15'
;:s
(*) (*) (~*- (*) s·
50.48° 40.460 ~
<'1:>
. 27.27" • 77.08° ~
<*I 55.46°
• \
• \ 1 ~
• A A
! 49.54° ~
// 'A 1 A/ ;:s
A tor
•
151 ~
r:;·
0
~A--- l:"· 2 • .......J._
• • ~
064 53.96°/ (*I 131 ~ ~0
31 I • ~
2'f4 I I <*I 311 331 •
353
• •
511
.J /K
424 <*I (*) (*) (*) (*) (*)
0
•
624 602 620 642•
604
A' v'3 6 ' 2.121 B= Z' [223] ~ ,.~.!.L1.173 B=z=[l14] A, ~=1.541 .fl__,..'L!.!_,II73 B=r=[233] A.., v'40 , 2.236 B=r=~33]
(I
8 v'8 8 v'8
I (ml (n) c .;8 c v'8 (o) 8 v'8
......
0
......
......
0
N
30°
0112 0002 0112
• 1100 OliO
0~11 0111 ; / 32.21°

3 30°
•
!><_,-•
0001 8
=~8 '") to \ A'
• •
OliO
~A--
0000 OliO
:t62' ~{"': 2TTO 0000
c---e
2110
••
1010
\(_A_0000 1010
X
• •
oTIT oool
•
OITT
•
•
TT2o
•
OliO
•
I TOO
•
2TT0
• •
0112
•
0002
•
0112
• •
2H2 0002
• 2112
•
~=1.09 ~=1.139 8= z = [2TI0] B=z= [o1To]
•
1210
~=1.587 ~=1.876 l...
e=z= [oooa
(a) fOil plane (2Tf0) (b) foil plane (OliO) (c) foil plane (0001)
[
t!l
1102 0112
J
is::
63.97i 2TT]\. 63.97° • 1101
0111 1101 70.25°/ 2112 ~·
H21
• • 4
8 8 49.48° ~
8
\8v_A
I __ \ v__AI __ "~\ {"0 A/
•
1010 IOIO
•
1010 0000 1010
•
I OTT
LA-
0000
' TOll
•
2111
•
1101
•
OITT
•
1121 • • •
• • 0112 1101 2TIO
H22 0112
•
1102
•
2H2
•
1212
%=1.139 B=z=[l213] ~=1.480 B=z=[2423] *=1.299 B=z=[OIII]
(d) (e) (f)
Figure A4.4 Single-crystal spot transmission electron diffraction patterns for the c.p.h. crystal structure. The zone axis, z, defined in appendix 1, is the beam direction B, defined in section 2.7.2.
The crosses indicate the positions of reflections forbidden by the structure factor but occurring in the pattern by double diffraction
•
1231
•
2020 3~11~ •
2020
X X
1123 2113 2021
0221 1010 2201
• •
1010
rc 8
/ •
0113
•
1103
33.
/
{roi~ of
0000
X ~;
2110 0000 2110
~A-x1211
0000
1211
\:"' • r-----8---.
1~ 24'
1103 0113
•
2201
•
iOIO
•
0221
i
1010 • • • t!'l
2021 Oil I 2201
X X ~
f')
2113 1123 ...
• • • • ~
;:s
321i 2020 1231 2020 74.88°
t::::l
~
l:l
f')
1=1.816 1!..:2
c .073 B=z=~2i6] L1520
A . ~=1.820 B=z =[0112] ...s·
~ =1.917 8=z=[2TU ;:s
(g) (h) (i)
...s·
;:-
~
t!'l
~
f')
......
Q
• I ;:s
1321 79.64TOI4
• ~
• ~·
io) 0111
35.54°/ t / 35.54° • "'
1212 1103
~8 ~
~
• c-- OOOKC__.
li02 0000 1102
•
li03 A 8~
X
i 1212
IOi3
• •
OliT T2fl OITI
•
1014
A1.1r
i=l.299 .§' =1683
A . B=z= [5143]
(j)
~=1.797 ~ =1.684 B=z= [7253]
( k)
......
Figure A4.4 (continued) 0
w
Table A4.1 Occurrence of reflections for the cubic crystal structures
Line no. hkl N112 = Line no. hkl N112 =

N= indices (h2 + p + [2)112 f.c.c. diamond N= indices (h 2 + k 2 + 12) 112 b.c.c. f.c.c. diamond
h2+k2+[2 h2+k2+[2
1 100 1.00 33 522,441 5.745

2 110 1.414 X 34 530,433 5.831 X
3 111 1.732 X X 35 531 5.916 X X
4 200 2.00 X X X 36 600,442 6.00 X X X
5 210 2.236 37 610 6.083
6 211 2.450 X 38 611, 532 6.164 X
7 39
8 220 2.828 X X X 40 620 6.325 X X X
9 300,221 3.00 41 621,540,443 6.403
10 310 3.162 X 42 541 6.481 X
11 311 3.317 X X 43 533 6.557 X X
12 222 3.464 X X 44 622 6.633 X X X
13 320 3.606 45 630,542 6.708
14 321 3.742 X 46 631 6.782 X
15 47
16 400 4.00 X X X 48 444 6.928 X X
17 410,322 4.123 49 700, 632 7.00
18 411, 330 4.243 X 50 710, 550, 543 7.071 X
19 331 4.359 X X 51 711, 551 7.141 X X
20 420 4.472 X X X 52 640 7.211 X X
21 421 4.583 53 720,641 7.280
22 332 4.690 X 54 721, 633, 552 7.349 X
23 55
24 422 4.899 X X X 56 642 7.483 X X X
25 500,430 5.00 57 722,544 7.550
26 510,431 5.099 X 58 730 7.616 X
27 511, 333 5.196 X X 59 731,553 7.681 X X
28 60
29 520,432 5.385 61 650,643 7.810
30 521 5.477 X 62 732,651 7.874 X
31 63
32 440 5.657 X X X 64 800 8.00 X X X
Table A4.2 Occurrence of reflections for the c.p.h. crystal

structure
Common allowed reflections Common forbidden reflections

(sometimes these occur by
double diffraction, depending
upon B)
lOIO 3211 2023 0001

1210 2201 2423 0003
2020 2112 10I4 1211
12J0 Oli2 2114 1213
30JO 0002 lOis J033
1340 1122 I2I6 1215
5I40 2IJ2
Olil 10I3
APPENDIX 5.
KIKUCHI MAPS
As described in section 2.7.3.3, a Kikuchi map useful in a number of instances, sections 2.8.1 ,
consists of the distribution of Kikuchi lines within 2.10.1 , 2.11.2, 2.14.2. Typical maps for f.c.c., b.c.c.
the unit stereographic triangle. It is extremely and c.p.h. crystal structures are shown in
Figure AS.l An indexed Kikuchi map for the f.c.c . crystal structure; 100 kV. The indices in square brackets a re those of
the beam direction B for the particular Kikuchi line pattern. T he unbracketed indices are those for the Kikuchi line pair
[Courtesy of A. Samuelson]
figures A5.1 to A5.3. These may be made by tilting successive overlapping SADPs by tilting about
the specimen to sample B, for example [001], specific reflections as outlined in section 2.10.1 so
[111], [011], etc., then obtaining photographs of that the complete stereographic triangle is covered.
Figure A5.2 An indexed Kikuchi map for the b.c.c. crystal structure; 100 kV. Indexing code is the sameas in figure A5.1
[Courtesy of G. Sawyer]
liZ IO l
trl
~
~
;s
0
~
~
...s·
;s
s·
~
trl
~
~
;s
~
;::;·
i
uiOOJ
c3302 1 (iOII)
( 2201J
Figure A5.3 An indexed Kikuchi map for the c.p.h. crystal structure; 100 kV. Indexing code is the same as in figure A5.l [Courtesy of D . Porter]
-8
The pictures may then be fitted together over an map is slightly distorted, that is it does not fit the
enlarged unit triangle of the stereogram such that unit triangle directly. Nevertheless the position of
the Kikuchi lines join. If the map is fitted directly a particular Kikuchi pattern may be determined to
to the unit triangle, it will be found that matching "' 1o by locating it on the map and measuring
of the Kikuchi lines will not be perfect because a distances from three important zone axes, for
constant camera length is used whereas the scale example [110], [112] and [111]. A map should
of the stereographic projection varies from point be constructed by each research worker because
to point. Furthermore the Kikuchi lines are not it creates familiarity with the specimen tilting
straight, see section 2.6.3. However, the maximum procedures.
error which occurs is "'±2°. For maximum In figures A5.1 to A5.3 prominent zone axes [ ]
accuracy, it is advised that Kikuchi maps be are indexed together with important Kikuchi line
constructed so that the Kikuchi lines join and the pairs ( ).
APPENDIX 6.
INTERPLA NAR ANGLES AND
SPACINGS OF SELECTED
MATERIALS
Tables A6.1-A6.6 list interplanar spacings and Appendix 6: Reference
angles for various materials. Further information
Andrews, K. W., Dyson, D. J., and Keown, S. R.
may be obtained in Andrews et al. (1971). For
(1971). Interpretation of Electron Diffraction
interplanar angles, the specific combinations of
Patterns, Hilger-Watts, London.
indices for the two planes may be obtained with
Ba_rrett, C. S. (1971). Structure of Metals, McGraw-
the equation for cos cp, table Al.1, for the cubic
Hill, New York.
crystal structure.
Table A6.1 Angles between crystallographic planes (and between crystallographic directions) in
crystals of the cubic system [After Barrett (1971)]
{HKL} {hkl} Values of angles between HKL and hkl planes (or directions)
100 100 o· 90°

110 45° 90°
111 54°44'
210 26°34' 63°26' 90°
211 35°16' 65°54'
221 4g011' 70°32'
310 1g026' 71°34' 900
311 25°14' 72°27'
320 33°41' 56°19' 90"
321 36°42' 57°41' 74°30'
110 110 o· 60° 900
111 35°16' 90°
210 1g026' 50°46' 71°34'
211 30° 54°44' 73°13' 90°
221 W2g' 45° 76°22' 90°
310 26°34' 47°52' 63°26' 77°5'
311 31°29' 64°46' 90°
320 11°19' 53°5g' 66°54' 7g 041'
321 19°6' 40°54' 55°2g' 67°48' 79°6'
111 111 o· 70°32'
210 39°14' 75°2'
211 19°2g' 61°52' 90°
221 15°4g' 54°44' 78°54'
310 43°6' 6g 035'
311 29°30' 5g 031' 79°59'
320 36°49' goo47'
321 22°12' 51°53' 72°1' 900
210 210 o· 36°52' 53og• 66°25' 7go2g' 90°
211 24°6' 43°5' 56°47' 79°29' 90°
221 26°34' 41°49' 53°24' 63°26' 72°39' 900
310 gog• 31°57' 45° 64°54' 73°34' 81°52'
311 19°17' 47°36' 66°8' g2°15'
320 707' 29°45' 41°55' 60°15' 68°9' 75°38' g2°53'
321 17°1' 33°13' 53°1g' 61°26' 68°59' 83°8' 900
211 211 o· 33°33' 48°11' 600 70°32' 80°24'
221 17°43' 35°16' 47°7' 65°54' 74°12' 82°12'
310 25°21' 49°48' 58.55' 75°2' 82°35'
311 10°1' 42°24' 60°30' 75°45' 90°
320 25°4' 37°37' 55°33' 63°5' 83°30'
321 10°54' 29°12' 40°12' 49°6' 56°56'
70°54' 77°24' g3°44' 900
221 221 o· 27°16' 3g057' 63°37' 83°37' 900
310 32°31' 42°27' 58°12' 65°4' 83°57'
311 25°14' 45°17' 59°50' 72°27' 84°14'
320 22°24' 42°18' 49°40' 68°18' 79°21' 84°42'
321 11°29' 27°1' 36°42' 57°41' 63°33' 74°30'
79°44' 84°53'
Table A6.1 (continued)
{HKL} {hkl} Values of angles between HKL and hkl planes (or directions)
310 310 oo 25°51' 36°52' 53°8' 72°33' 84°16' 90°

311 17°33' 40°17' 55°6' 67°35' 79°1' 90°
320 15°15' 37°52' 52°8' 58°15' 74°45' 79°54'
321 21 °37' 32°19' 40°29' 47°28' 53°44' 59°32'
65° 85°9' 90°
311 311 oo 35°6' 50°29' 62°58' 84°47'
320 23°6' 41°11' 54°10' 65°17' 75°28' 85°12'
321 14°46' 36°19' 49°52' 61°5' 71°12' 80°44
320 320 oo 22°37' 46°11' 62°31' 67°23' 72°5' 90°
321 15°30' 2n1' 35°23' 48°9' 53°37' 58°45' 68°15'
72°45' 77°9' 85°45' 90°
321 321 oo 21 °47' 31° 38°13' 44°25' 50° 60°
64°37' 69°4' 73°24' 81°47' 85°54'
Table A6.2 Interplanar spacings of selected materials with f.c.c. crystal structure
yFe Cu Pt AI Au Ag Pb Ni Co (/3)
Lattice
parameter a0 (A) 3.5852 3.6150 3.9231 4.0496 4.0780 4.0862 4.9505 3.5238 3.5520
hkl d spacing d spacing d spacing d spacing d spacing d spacing d spacing d spacing d spacing
(A) (A) (A) (A) (A) (A) (A) (A) (A)
Ill 2.070 2.087 2.265 2.338 2.355 2.359 2.858 2.0345 2.0508
002 1.793 1.808 1.962 2.025 2.039 2.044 2.475 1.7619 1.7760
022 1.268 1.278 1.387 1.432 1.442 1.445 1.750 1.2460 1.2560
113 1.081 1.090 1.183 1.221 1.230 1.231 1.493 1.0623 1.0708
222 1.035 1.044 1.133 1.169 1.177 1.180 1.429 1.0172 1.0254
004 0.896 0.904 0.981 1.012 1.020 1.022 1.238 0.8810 0.8880
133 0.823 0.829 0.900 0.929 0.936 0.938 1.136 0.8084 0.8149
024 0.802 0.808 0.877 0.906 0.912 0.914 1.107 0.7880 0.7943
224 0.732 0.738 0.801 0.827 0.832 0.834 1.011 0.7193 0.7250
333} 0.690 0.696 0.755 0.779 0.785 0.786 0.953 0.6782 0.6836
115
044 0.634 0.639 0.694 0.716 0.721 0.722 0.875 0.6229 0.6279
135 0.606 0.610 0.663 0.685 0.689 0.691 0.837 0.5956 0.6004
006} 0.598 0.603 0.654 0.675 0.680 0.681 0.825 0.5873 0.5920
244
026 0.567 0.572 0.620 0.640 0.645 0.646 0.783 0.5571 0.5616
335 0.547 0.551 0.598 0.618 0.622 0.623 0.755 0.5374 0.5417
226 0.541 0.545 0.591 0.611 0.615 0.616 0.746 0.5313 0.5355
444 0.518 0.522 0.566 0.585 0.589 0.590 0.715 0.5086 0.5127
Table A6.3 Interplanar spacings of selected materials with b.c.c. crystal structure
aFe Cr Mo w Nb Ta v
Lattice
parameter a0 (A) 2.8661 2.8850 3.1463 3.1652 3.3007 3.3058 3.0390
hkl d spacing d spacing d spacing d spacing d spacing d spacing d spacing

(A) (A) (A) (A) (A) (A) (A)
011 2.027 2.040 2.225 2.238 2.334 2.338 2.149

002 1.433 1.443 1.573 1.583 1.650 1.653 1.5195
112 1.170 1.178 1.285 1.292 1.348 1.350 1.2409
022 1.013 1.020 1.113 1.119 1.167 1.169 1.0746
013 0.906 0.912 0.995 1.001 1.044 1.045 0.9611
222 0.828 0.833 0.908 0.914 0.953 0.954 0.8773
123 0.766 0.771 0.841 0.846 0.882 0.884 0.8121
004 0.717 0.721 0.787 0.791 0.825 0.826 0.7598
114} 0.676 0.680 0.742 0.746 0.778 0.779 0.7162
033
024 0.641 0.645 0.704 0.708 0.738 0.739 0.6796
233 0.611 0.615 0.671 0.675 0.704 0.705 0.6480
224 0.585 0.589 0.642 0.646 0.674 0.675 0.6203
015} 0.562 0.566 0.617 0.621 0.647 0.648 0.5960
134
Table A6.4 Interplanar spacings of selected materials with Table A6.6 Interplanar spacings of graphite,
diamond cubic crystal structure a = 2.461 A, c = 6.708 A
Si Ge hkil d spacing
Lattice parameter (A.) 5.4282 5.6580 (A)
(hkl) d spacing d spacing 0002 3.354

(A) (A) 1010 2.131
lOll 2.031
111 3.1340 3.2667 1012 1.799
220 1.9194 2.0007 0004 1.677
311 1.6365 1.7058 1013 1.543
400 1.3571 1.4145 1120 1.231
331 1.2453 1.2980 1122 1.155
422 1.1080 1.1549 0006 1.118
511 1.0447 1.0889
440 0.9596 1.0002
531 0.9175 0.9564
620 0.8582 0.8945
533 0.8278 0.8629
444 0.7835 0.8167
711 0.7601 0.7923
Table A6.5 Interplanar spacings of selected materials with close-packed hexagonal crystal structure
Be Zn Ti Mg Zr Gd Co Cd Re
Lattice a0 (A) 2.285 2.664 2.950 3.209 3.231 3.636 2.507 2.979 2.761
parameters c0 (A) 3.584 4.046 4.683 5.210 5.147 5.782 4.069 5.617 4.458
co/ao 1.568 2.856 1.587 1.593 1.593 1.590
hkil d spacing d spacing d spacing d spacing d spacing d spacing d spacing d spacing d spacing
(A) (A) (A) (A) (A.) (A.) (A) (A.) (A.)
0001 3.584 4.947 4.683 5.210 5.148 5.783 4.068 5.617 4.458
OliO 1.979 2.308 2.555 2.779 2.798 3.149 2.170 2.580 2.390
0002 1.792 2.473 2.342 2.605 2.574 2.891 2.035 2.808 2.229
Olil 1.733 2.092 2.243 2.452 2.439 2.765 1.915 2.344 2.107
Oli2 1.329 1.687 1.726 1.901 1.894 2.130 1.484 1.900 1.630
0003 1.195 1.649 1.561 1.737 1.716 1.928 1.356 1.872 1.486
1120 1.143 1.332 1.475 1.605 1.616 1.818 1.253 1.489 1.380
1121 1.089 1.287 1.407 1.534 1.541 1.734 1.198 1.440 1.318
0113 1.023 1.342 1.332 1.473 1.463 1.644 1.150 1.515 1.262
0220 0.990 1.154 1.278 1.390 1.399 1.574 1.085 1.290 1.195
1122 0.964 1.173 1.248 1.366 1.368 1.539 1.067 1.316 1.173
0221 0.954 1.124 1.233 1.343 1.350 1.519 1.048 1.257 1.154
0004 0.896 1.237 1.171 1.303 1.287 1.446 1.017 1.404 1.114
0222 0.866 1.046 1.122 1.226 1.229 1.383 0.957 1.172 1.053
1123 0.826 1.036 1.072 1.179 1.176 1.323 0.920 1.166 1.011
Oli4 0.816 1.090 1.064 1.180 1.169 1.314 0.921 1.233 i.OIO
0223 0.762 0.945 0.989 1.085 1.084 1.219 0.847 1.062 0.931
123"0 0.748 0.872 0.966 1.051 1.058 1.190 0.820 0.975 0.903
123"1 0.732 0.859 0.946 1.030 1.036 1.166 0.804 0.961 0.885
0005 0.717 0.989 0.937 1.042 1.030 1.157 0.814 1.123 0.891
1124 0.705 0.906 0.917 1.011 1.007 1.132 0.780 1.022 0.867
123"2 0.690 0.823 0.893 0.974 0.978 1.101 0.761 0.921 0.837
Oli5 0.674 0.909 0.879 0.976 0.966 1.086 0.761 1.030 0.835
0224 0.664 0.844 0.863 0.950 0.947 1.065 0.742 1.950 0.815
033"0 0.660 0.769 0.852 0.927 0.933 1.050 0.723 0.859 0.797
033"1 0.649 0.760 0.838 0.912 0.918 1.033 0.712 0.850 0.784
123"3 0.634 0.771 0.821 0.899 0.900 1.013 0.701 0.865 0.772
0332 0.619 0.735 0.800 0.873 0.877 0.987 0.682 0.822 0.750
1125 0.607 0.794 0.791 0.874 0.868 0.976 0.682 0.897 0.749
0006 0.597 0.825 0.781 0.868 0.858 0.964 0.678 0.936 0.743
APPENDIX 7.
ELECTRON WAVELENGTH
Table A7 .I Electron wavelength A for common accelerating
voltages ,;200 kV (calculated using equation (2.1))
Accelerating A(A) A-1 (A -1)

voltage (k V)
10 0.122 8.194
20 0.0859 11.64
30 0.0698 14.33
40 0.0602 16.62
50 0.0536 18.67
60 0.0487 20.55
70 0.0448 22.30
80 0.0418 23.95
90 0.0392 25.52
100 0.0370 27.02
200 0.0251 39.87
APPENDIX 8. ATOMIC
SCATTERING AMPLITUD ES
This appendix contains tables of atomic scattering factors, section 2.3.1, and extinction distances,
amplitudes for electrons f 6 (in A) as a function of section 3.2.3.1.
(sin ())fA.. For definitions of f 6 , see section 2.2.1. Appendix 8: Reference
This parameter is used to calculate structure Ibers, J. A. (1957). Acta Cryst., 10, 86.
Table A8.1 Atomic scattering amplitudes for electrons fo in A: self-consistent field calculations
ElementZ (sin O)j). (A - 1 )
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00 1.10 1.20
H 1 0.529 0.508 0.453 0.382 0.311 0.249 0.199 0.160 0.131 0.089 0.064 0.048 0.037 0.029 0.024 0.020 0.017
He 2 (0.445) 0.431 0.403 0.363 0.328 0.288 0.250 0.216 0.188 0.142 0.109 0.086 0.068 0.055 0.016 O.Q38 0.032
Li 3 3.31 2.78 1.88 1.17 0.75 0.53 0.40 0.31 0.26 0.19 0.14 0.11 0.09 0.08 0.06 0.05 0.05
Be 4 3.09 2.82 2.23 1.63 1.16 0.83 0.61 0.47 0.37 0.25 0.19 0.15 0.12 0.10 0.08 O.Q7 0.06
B 5 2.82 2.62 2.24 1.78 1.37 1.04 0.80 0.62 0.50 0.33 0.24 0.18 0.14 0.12 0.10 0.08 0.07
c 6 2.45 2.26 2.09 1.74 1.43 1.15 0.92 0.74 0.60 0.41 0.30 0.22 0.18 0.14 0.12 0.10 0.08
N 7 2.20 2.10 1.91 1.68 1.44 1.20 1.00 0.83 0.69 0.48 0.35 0.27 0.21 0.17 0.14 0.11 0.10
0 8 2.01 1.95 1.80 1.62 1.42 1.22 1.04 0.88 0.75 0.54 0.40 0.31 0.24 0.19 0.16 0.13 0.11
F 9 (1.84) (1.77) 1.69 (1.53) 1.38 (1.20) 1.05 (0.91) 0.78 0.59 0.44 0.35 0.27 0.22 0.18 0.15 (0.13)
Ne 10 (1.66) 1.59 1.53 1.43 1.30 1.17 1.04 0.92 0.80 0.62 0.48 0.38 0.30 0.24 0.20 0.17 0.14
Na 11 4.89 4.21 2.97 2.11 1.59 1.29 1.09 0.95 0.83 0.64 0.51 0.40 0.33 0.27 0.22 0.18 0.16
Mg 12 5.01 4.60 3.59 2.63 1.95 1.50 1.21 1.01 0.87 0.67 0.53 0.43 0.35 0.29 0.24 0.20 0.17
AI 13 (6.1) 5.36 4.24 3.13 2.30 1.73 1.36 1.11 0.93 0.70 0.55 0.45 0.36 0.30 0.25 0.22 (0.19)
Si 14 (6.0) 5.26 4.40 3.41 2.59 1.97 1.54 1.23 1.02 0.74 0.58 0.47 0.38 0.32 0.27 0.23 (0.20)
p 15 (5.4) 5.07 4.38 3.55 2.79 2.17 1.70 1.36 1.12 0.80 0.61 0.49 0.40 0.33 0.28 0.24 0.21
s 16 (4.7) 4.40 4.00 3.46 2.87 2.32 1.86 1.50 1.22 0.86 0.64 0.51 0.42 0.35 0.30 0.25 0.22
Cl 17 (4.6) 4.31 4.00 3.53 2.99 2.47 2.01 1.63 1.34 0.93 0.69 0.54 0.44 0.37 0.31 0.26 0.23
18 4.71 4.40 4.07 3.56 3.03 2.52 2.07 1.71 1.42 1.00 0.74 0.58 0.46 0.38 0.32 0.27 0.24
19 (9.0) (7.0) 5.43 (4.10) 3.15 (2.60) 2.14 (1.00) 1.49 1.07 0.79 0.61 0.49 0.40 0.34 0.29 (0.25)
Ca 20 10.46 8.71 6.40 4.54 3.40 2.69 2.20 1.84 1.55 1.12 0.84 0.65 0.52 0.42 0.35 0.30 0.26
Sc 21 (9.7) 8.35 6.30 4.63 3.50 2.75 2.29 1.92 1.62 1.18 0.89 0.69 0.54 0.44 0,37 0.32 (0.27)
Ti 22 (8.9) 7.95 6.20 4.63 3.55 2.84 2.34 (1.97) 1.67 1.23 0.93 0.72 0.57 0.47 0.69 0.33 0.29
v 23 (8.4) 7.60 6.08 4.60 3.57 2.88 2.39 (2.02) 1.72 1.28 0.97 0.76 0.60 0.49 0.41 0.35 0.30
Cr 24 (8.0) 7.26 5.86 4.55 3.56 2.89 2.42 2.06 1.76 1.32 1.01 0.80 0.63 0.51 0.43 0.36 (0.31)
Mn 25 (7.7) 7.00 5.72 4.48 3.55 2.91 2.44 (2.08) 1.79 1.36 1.04 0.83 0.66 0.54 0.45 0.38 0.32
Fe 26 (7.4) 6.70 5.55 4.41 3.54 2.91 2.45 (2.11) 1.82 1.39 1.08 0.86 0.69 0.56 0.47 0.39 0.34
Co 27 (7 .1) 6.41 5.41 4.34 3.51 2.91 2.46 (2.12) 1.84 1.42 1.11 0.89 0.71 0.58 0.49 0.41 0.35
Ni 28 (6.8) 6.22 5.27 4.27 3.48 2.90 2.47 (2.13) 1.86 1.46 1.14 0.92 0.74 0.61 0.50 0.43 0.36
Cu 29 (6.5) 6.00 5.14 4.19 3.44 2.88 2.46 2.12 1.87 1.47 1.16 0.95 0.77 0.63 0.52 0.45 (0.38)
Zn 30 6.2 5.84 4.98 4.11 3.39 2.86 2.45 (2.11) 1.88 1.48 1.19 0.96 0.78 0.65 0.54 0.46 0.39
Ga 31 (7.5) 6.70 5.62 4.51 3.64 3.00 2.53 2.18 1.91 1.50 1.20 0.98 0.81 0.67 0.56 0.47 0.41
Ce 32 (7.8) 6.89 5.93 4.81 3.87 3.16 2.63 2.24 1.94 1.51 1.22 0.99 0.83 0.69 0.58 0.49 0.42
As 33 (7.8) 6.99 6.05 5.01 4.07 3.32 2.74 2.31 1.99 1.54 1.23 1.01 0.85 0.71 0.59 0.50 0.43
Se 34 (7.7) 6.99 6.15 5.18 4.24 3.47 2.86 2.40 2.05 1.57 1.23 1.02 0.86 0.72 0.61 0.52 0.44
Br 35 (7.3) 6.80 6.15 5.25 4.37 3.60 2.97 2.49 2.12 1.60 1.27 1.04 0.88 0.73 0.62 0.53 0.45
Kr 36 (7.1) 6.70 6.13 5.31 4.47 3.71 3.08 2.58 2.19 1.64 1.29 1.05 0.90 0.75 0.64 0.55 0.47
Ag 47 (8.8) 8.24 7.47 6.51 5.58 4.75 4.05 3.46 2.97 2.22 1.70 1.35 1.09 0.90 0.76 0.66 0.57
w 74 (14) 11.80 7.43 5.16 3.85 2.99 2.39 1.96 1.63 1.38 1.18 1.02 0.89
Hg 80 (13.3) 12.26 10.82 9.18 7.70 6.48 5.50 4.72 4.09 3.16 2.51 2.05 1.70 1.44 1.23 1.07 0.93
Note. ( ) = interpolation or extrapolation. Values at (sin 0)/). = 0 not in brackets are calculated. Some reasons for the large differences,
particularly at low scattering angles, between data common to Tables A8.1 and A8.2 are discussed by Ibers (1957). The values are
based on the rest mass of the electron. For electrons of energy E, multiply by mfm 0 = { 1 - (v/c) 2 } - 112 •
Table A8.2 Mean atomic scattering amplitudes for electrons f (atomic number = 20-104) in A:
Thomas-Fermi-Dirac statistical model
(sin 8)/..t(A -•)

Element z 0.00 0.05t 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00 1.10 1.20 1.30 1.40 1.50
Ca 20 5.4 5.08 4.57 3.85 3.13 2.52 2.06 1.72 1.45 1.07 0.82 0.65 0.53 0.44 0.37 0.31 0.27 0.23 0.20 0.18
Sc 21 5.6 5.27 4.72 3.98 3.24 2.61 2.14 1.78 1.51 1.12 0.86 0.68 0.55 0.45 0.38 0.32 0.28 0.24 0.21 0.19
Ti 22 5.8 5.46 4.88 4.12 3.35 .2.70 2.21 1.85 1.57 1.16 0.89 0.71 0.57 0.47 0.40 0.34 0.29 0.25 0.22 0.20
v 23 5.9 5.65 5.03 4.24 3.45 2.79 2.29 1.91 1.62 1.20 0.93 0.74 0.60 0.49 0.41 0.35 0.30 0.26 0.23 0.21
Cr 24 6.1 5.84 5.17 4.37 3.56 2.88 2.36 1.98 1.68 1.25 0.96 0.76 0.62 0.51 0.43 0.37 0.32 0.27 0.24 0.21
Mn 25 6.2 5.93 5.34 4.49 3.66 2.97 2.43 2.04 1.73 1.29 0.99 0.79 0.64 0.53 0.45 0.38 0.33 0.29 0.25 0.22
Fe 26 6.4 6.13. 5.48 4.62 3.76 3.05 2.51 2.10 1.79 1.33 1.03 0.82 0.66 0.55 0.46 0.39 0.34 0.30 0.26 0.23
Co 27 6.5 6.32 5.62 4.73 3.87 3.14 2.58 2.16 1.84 1.37 1.06 0.84 0.69 0.57 0.48 0.41 0.35 0.31 0.27 0.24
Ni 28 6.7 6.41 5.74 4.85 3.97 3.22 2.65 2.23 1.89 1.41 1.09 0.87 0.71 0.59 0.49 0.42 0.36 0.32 0.28 0.25
Cu 29 6.8 6.61 5.89 4.97 4.06 3.30 2.72 2.29 1.95 1.45 1.13 0.90 0.73 0.60 0.51 0.43 0.38 0.33 0.29 0.25
Zn 30 7.0 6.70 6.03 5.08 4.16 3.38 2.79 2.35 2.09 1.49 1.16 0.92 0.75 0.62 0.52 0.45 0.39 0.34 0.30 0.26
Ga 31 7.2 6.89 6.15 5.20 4.25 3.46 2.86 2.41 2.05 1.53 1.19 0.95 0.17 0.64 0.54 0.46 0.40 0.35 0.31 0.27
Ge 32 7.3 7.09 6.29 5.32 4.35 3.54 2.93 2.46 2.10 1.57 1.22 0.97 0.79 0.66 0.56 0.47 0.41 0.36 0.31 0.28
As 33 7.5 7.18 6.41 5.43 4.44 3.62 2.99 2.52 2.15 1.61 1.25 1.00 0.82 0.68 0.57 0.49 0.42 0.37 0.32 0.29
Sc 34 7.6 7.37 6.65 5.53 4.54 3.70 3.06 2.58 2.20 1.65 1.28 1.02 0.84 0.70 0.59 0.50 0.43 0.38 0.33 0.29
Br 35 7.8 7.47 6.68 5.63 4.63 3.78 3.13 2.64 2.25 1.69 1.32 1.05 0.86 0.71 0.60 0.51 0.44 0.39 0.34 0.30
Kr 36 7.9 7.56 6.80 5.74 4.71 3.85 3.19 2.69 2.31 1.73 1.35 1.08 0.88 0.73 0.62 0.53 0.46 0.40 0.35 0.31
Rb 37 8.0 7.75 6.92 5.85 4.80 3.93 3.26 2.75 2.35 1.17 1.38 1.10 0.90 0.75 0.63 0.54 0.47 0.41 0.36 0.32
Sr 38 8.2 7.85 7.04 5.96 4.89 4.00 3.32 2.80 2.40 1.80 1.41 1.13 0.92 0.17 0.65 0.55 0.48 0.42 0.37 0.33
y 39 8.3 8.04 7.16 6.06 4.98 4.07 3.38 2.86 2.45 1.84 1.44 1.15 0.94 0.78 0.66 0.57 0.49 0.43 0.38 0.33
Zr 40 8.5 8.14 7.28 6.16 5.06 4.15 3.45 2.91 2.50 1.88 1.47 1.17 0.96 0.80 0.68 0.58 0.50 0.44 0.39 0.34
Nb 41 8.6 8.23 7.40 6.27 5.15 4.22 3.51 2.97 2.54 1.92 1.50 1.20 0.98 0.82 0.69 0.59 0.51 0.45 0.39 0.35
Mo 42 8.7 8.42 7.52 6.36 5.24 4.29 3.57 3.02 2.59 1.95 1.53 1.22 1.00 0.84 0.71 0.69 0.52 0.46 0.40 0.36
Tc 43 8.9 8.52 7.63 6.47 5.31 4.36 3.63 3.08 2.64 1.99 1.56 1.25 1.02 0.85 0.72 0.62 0.53 0.47 0.41 0.37
Ru 44 9.0 8.62 7.75 6.56 5.40 4.43 3.69 3.13 2.68 2.03 1.58 1.27 1.04 0.87 0.74 0.63 0.55 0.48 0.42 0.37
Rh 45 9.1 8.81 7.85 6.66 5.48 4.50 3.75 3.18 2.73 2.06 1.61 1.30 1.06 0.89 0.75 0.64 0.56 0.49 0.43 0.38
Pd 46 9.3 8.90 7.97 6.75 5.56 4.57 3.81 3.23 2.77 2.10 1.64 1.32 1.08 0.90 0.17 0.66 0.57 .0.50 0.44 0.39
Ag 47 9.4 9.00 8.07 6.85 5.64 4.64 3.87 3.28 2.82 2.13 1.67 1.34 1.10 0.92 0.78 0.67 0.58 0.51 0.45 0.40
Cd 48 9.5 9.19 8.19 6.95 5.72 4.71 3.93 3.34 2.86 2.17 1.71 1.37 1.12 0.94 0.79 0.68 0.59 0.52 0.46 0.40
In 49 9.6 9.29 8.31 7.03 5.80 4.78 3.99 3.39 2.91 2.20 1.73 1.39 1.14 0.95 0.81 0.69 0.60 0.53 0.46 0.41
Sn 50 9.8 9.38 8.40 7.13 5.88 4.84 4.05 3.44 2.95 2.24 1.76 1.41 1.16 0.97 0.82 0.71 0.61 0.54 0.47 0.42
Sb 51 9.9 9.48 8.50 7.22 5.95 4.91 4.10 3.49 3.00 2.27 1.79 1.44 1.18 0.99 0.84 0.72 0.62 0.55 0.48 0.43
Te 52 10.0 9.57 8.62 7.31 6.03 4.97 4.16 3.54 3.04 2.31 1.81 1.46 1.20 1.00 0.85 0.73 0.63 0.55 0.49 o;44
p 53 10.1 9.17 8.71 7.39 6.11 5.04 4.22 3.59 3.08 2.34 1.84 1.48 1.22 1.02 0.87 0.74 0.64 0.56 0.50 0.44
Xe 54 10.2 9.86 8.81 7.49 6.19 5.10 4.27 3.64 3.13 2.38 1.87 1.51 1.24 1.04 0.88 0.76 0.66 0.57 0.51 0.45
Cs 55 10.4 9.96 8.93 7.57 6.26 5.17 4.33 3.68 3.17 2.41 1.90 1.53 1.26 1.05 0.89 0.77 0.67 0.58 0.52 0.46
Ba 56 10.5 10.05 9.02 7.66 6.34 5.23 4.39 3.73 3.21 2.45 1.93 1.55 1.28 1.07 0.91 0.78 0.68 0.59 0.52 0.47
La 57 10.6 10.15 9.12 7.75 6.40 5.30 4.44 3.78 3.26 2.48 1.95 1.57 1.30 1.09 0.92 0.79 0.69 0.60 0.53 0.47
Ce 58 10.7 10.24 9.21 7.84 6.49 5.36 4.50 3.83 3.30 2.51 1.98 1.60 1.32 1.10 0.94 0.80 0.70 0.61 0.54 0.48
Pr 59 10.8 10.44 9.31 7.92 6.56 5.42 4.55 3.88 3.34 2.55 2.01 1.62 1.33 1.12 0.95 0.82 0.71 0.62 0.55 0.49
Nd 60 10.9 10.53 9.41 8.01 6.63 5.48 4.60 3.93 3.38 2.58 2.03 1.64 1.35 1.13 0.96 0.83 0.72 0.63 0.56 0.50
Pm 61 11.0 10.63 9.53 8.10 6.70 5.55 4.66 3.97 3.43 2.61 2.06 1.66 1.37 1.15 0.98 0.84 0.73 0.64 0.57 0.50
Sm 62 11.1 10.72 9.62 8.17 6.77 5.61 4.71 4.02 3.47 2.65 2.09 1.69 1.39 1.17 0.99 0.85 0.74 0.65 0.57 0.51
Eu 63 11.2 10.82 9.72 8.25 6.85 5.67 4.77 4.07 3.51 2.68 2.11 1.71 1.41 1.18 1.00 0.86 0.75 0.66 0.58 0.52
Gd 64 11.4 10.92 9.79 8.34 6.91 5.73 4.82 4.11 3.55 2.71 2.14 1.73 1.43 1.20 1.02 0.88 0.76 0.67 0.59 0.53
Tb 65 11.5 11.01 9.88 8.42 6.98 5.79 4.87 4.16 3.59 2.74 2.17 1.75 1.45 1.21 1.03 0.89 0.17 0.68 0.60 0.53
Dy 66 11.6 11.11 9.98 8.50 7.05 5.85 4.92 4.20 3.63 2.78 2.19 1.17 1.47 1.23 1.05 0.90 0.78 0.69 0.61 0.54
Ho 67 11.7 11.20 10.08 8.58 7.12 5.91 4.98 4.25 3.67 2.81 2.22 1.80 1.48 1.25 1.06 0.91 0.79 0.70 0.61 0.55
Er 68 11.8 11.30 10.17 8.66 7.19 5.97 5.03 4.30 3.71 2.84 2.25 1.82 1.50 1.26 1.07 0.92 0.80 0.70 0.62 0.56
Tm 69 11.9 11.49 10.27 8.74 7.26 6.03 5.08 4.34 3.75 2.87 2.27 1.84 1.52 1.28 1.09 0.94 0.81 0.71 0.63 0.56
Kb 70 12.0 11.59 10.36 8.82 7.33 6.09 5.13 4.39 3.79 2.91 2.30 1.86 1.54 1.29 1.10 0.95 0.82 0.72 0.64 0.57
Lu 71 12.1 11.63 10.44 8.90 7.40 6.15 5.18 4.43 3.83 2.94 2.32 1.88 1.56 1.31 1.11 0.96 0.83 0.73 0.65 0.58
Hf 72 12.2 11.78 10.53 8.98 7.46 6.20 5.23 4.48 3.87 2.97 2.35 1.90 1.58 1.32 1.13 0.97 0.84 0.74 0.66 0.58
Ta 73 12.3 11.87 10.63 9.05 7.53 6.26 5.28 4.52 3.91 3.00 2.38 1.93 1.59 1.34 1.14 0.98 0.85 0.75 0.66 0.59
w 74 12.4 11.97 10.72 9.13 7.59 6.32 5.33 4.56 3.95 3.03 2.40 1.95 1.61 1.35 1.15 0.99 0.86 0.76 0.67 0.60
Re 75 12.5 12.06 10.79 9.21 7.66 6.36 5.38 4.61 3.99 3.06 2.43 1.97 1.63 1.37 1.17 1.01 0.87 0.17 0.68 0.61
Os 76 12.6 12.16 10.89 9.29 7.72 6.43 5.43 4.65 4.03 3.09 2.45 1.99 1.65 1.38 1.18 1.02 0.89 0.78 0.69 0.61
Ir 77 12.7 12.26 10.96 9.36 7.79 6.49 5.48 4.70 4.07 3.12 2.48 2.01 1.66 1.40 1.19 1.03 0.90 0.79 0.70 0.62
Pt 78 12.8 12.35 11.06 9.44 "7.86 6.55 5.53 4.74 4.11 3.16 2.50 2.03 1.68 1.42 1.21 1.04 0.91 0.80 0.70 0.63
Au 79 12.9 12.45 11.13 9.51 7.92 6.60 5.58 4.78 4.14 3.19 2.53 2.05 1.70 1.43 1.22 1.05 0.92 0.80 0.71 0.64
Hg 80 13.0 12.54 11.23 9.58 7.98 6.66 5.63 4.83 4.18 3.22 2.55 2.07 1.72 1.45 1.23 1.06 0.93 0.81 0.72 0.64
Tl 81 13.1 12.64 11.32 9.66 8.05 6.71 5.68 4.87 4.22 3.25 2.58 2.10 1.74 1.46 1.25 1.07 0.94 0.82 0.73 0.65
Pb 82 13.2 12.69 11.39 9.74 8.11 6.17 5.72 4.91 4.26 3.28 2.60 2.12 1.75 1.48 1.26 1.09 0.95 0.83 0.74 0.66
Bi 83 13.2 12.75 11.49 9.81 8.18 6.82 5.71 4.95 4.30 3.31 2.63 2.14 1.17 1.49 1.27 1.10 0.96 0.84 0.74 0.66
Po 84 13.3 12.83 11.56 9.87 8.24 6.88 5.82 4.99 4.33 3.34 2.65 2.16 1.79 1.51 1.28 1.11 0.97 0.85 0.75 0.67
At 85 13.4 12.93 11.66 9.95 8.30 6.93 5.87 5.04 4.37 3.37 2.68 2.18 1.81 1.52 1.30 1.12 0.98 0.86 0.76 0.68
Rn 86 13.5 13.o2 11.73 10.02 8.36 6.98 5.92 5.08 4.41 3.40 2.70 2.20 1.82 1.54 1.31 1.13 0.99 0.87 0.77 0.69
Fr 87 13.6 13.12 11.80 10.10 8.42 7.04 5.96 5.12 4.44 3.43 2.73 2.22 1.84 1.55 1.32 1.14 1.00 0.88 0.78 0.69
Ra 88 13.7 13.22 11.90 10.16 8.49 7.09 6.01 5.16 4.48 3.46 2.75 2.24 1.86 1.56 1.34 1.15 1.01 0.88 0.78 0.70
Ac 89 13.8 13.31 11.97 10.24 8.55 7.14 6.06 5.20 4.52 3.49 2.78 2.27 1.87 1.58 1.35 1.16 1.02 0.89 0.79 0.71
Th 90 13.9 13.41 12.04 10.30 8.61 7.20 6.10 5.24 4.55 3.52 2.80 2.29 1.89 1.59 1.36 1.18 1.03 0.90 0.80 0.71
Pa 91 14.0 13.50 12.14 10.37 8.67 7.25 6.15 5.28 4.59 3.55 2.82 2.31 1.91 1.61 1!37 1.19 1.04 0.91 0.81 0.72
u 92 14.1 13.60 12.21 10.45 8.73 7.31 6.19 5.32 4.63 3.58 2.85 2.33 1.93 1.62 1.39 1.20 1.04 0.92 0.82 0.73
Np 93 14.2 13.69 12.28 10.51 8.79 7.35 6.24 5.37 4.66 3.61 2.87 2.35 1.94 1.64 1.40 1.21 1.05 0.93 0.82 0.73
Pu 94 14.3 13.77 12.38 10.59 8.85 7.41 6.28 5.41 4.70 3.63 2.90 2.37 1.96 1.65 1.41 1.22 1.06 0.94 0.83 0.74
Am 95 14.4 13.83 12.45 10.65 8.91 7.46 6.33 5.45 4.74 3.66 2.92 2.39 1.98 1.67 1.43 1.23 1.07 0.95 0.84 0.75
Cm 96 14.4 13.90 12.52 10.71 8.97 7.51 6.38 5.49 4.17 3.69 2.91 2.41 1.99 1.68 1.44 1.24 1.08 0.95 0.85 0.76
Bk 97 14.5 13.98 12.59 10.79 9.03 7.56 6.42 5.53 4.81 3.72 2.97 2.43 2.01 1.70 1.45 1.25 1.09 0.96 0.85 0.76
Cf 98 14.6 14.08 12.69 10.85 9.09 7.61 6.47 5.57 4.84 3.75 2.99 2.45 2.03 1.71 1.46 1.26 1.10 0.97 0.86 0.17
Es 99 14.7 14.17 12.76 10.92 9.14 7.67 6.51 5.61 4.88 3.78 3.01 2.47 2.04 1.73 1.48 1.28 1.11 0.98 0.87 0.78
Fm 100 14.8 14.27 12.83 10.99 9.20 7.72 6.56 5.65 4.91 3.81 3.04 2.49 2.06 1.74 1.49 1.29 1.12 0.99 0.88 0.79
Md 101 14.9 14.37 12.90 11.05 9.26 7.77 6.69 5.69 4.95 3.84 3.06 2.51 2.08 1.75 1.50 1.30 1.13 1.00 0.88 0.79
No 102 15.0 14.46 12.96 11.12 9.33 7.82 6.64 5.73 4.98 3.87 3.09 2.53 2.10 1.17 1.51 1.31 1.14 1.01 0.89 0.80
103 15.1 14.56 13.05 11.18 9.37 7.86 6.69 5.76 5.02 3.89 3.11 2.54 2.11 1.78 1.53 1.32 1.15 1.01 0.90 0.80
104 15.2 14.66 13.12 11.25 9.43 7.91 6.73 5.80 5.05 3.92 3.13 2.56 2.13 1.80 1.54 1.33 1.16 1.02 0.94 0.81
For electrons of energy E, multiply by m/m0 = {1 - (v/c)2 } 112 •
APPENDIX 9.
SUPERIMPOSED STEREOGRAMS
FOR VARIOUS COMMON
ORIENTATION RELATIONSHIPS
This appendix contains superimposed stereograms Their positions may be found by constructing the
(figures A9 .1-A9 .6) for two phases with well-defined great circle with pole, B, see appendix 1. This
orientation relationships. These stereograms are contains all reflecting planes, that is those whose
particularly useful in interpreting diffraction pat- normals are perpendicular to B, see figure 2.20(e)
terns containing reflections from both precipitate and section 2.7.2. An example is shown in figure
and matrix. A9.7 for the Nishyama-Wassermann relationship.
For any given Bin one phase the SADP should B is [IlO] in the b.c.c. phase and [Ill] in the f.c.c.
contain both its own and second-phase spots. phase. The great circle AB with this pole is shown in
310
3il
e3ol •
i ~3~1
201 210
201 311
331
0 ..
•221
o221
ei10
•2i3 e23i
ol!J
ii2e e213 ill e231 eT2T
olf.j ei02 oi21
•i20
i31o ei3i o@.]
• ii3 T3o'i i22
OT33
Oil Oi2 Oi3 001 013 012 011 021 031 010 03i 02i Oli
oio 031 021 QIJ_ 021 031 010
ol33 113 0133

113• 0 ill 122 103 o el31
eli3 122~103 122~ 130 el3i
@.jo 1i2o ell2 102 121e o!.!.?. OQ.!
0121 •102 e120 jg!O
1i2e • 213 Ill e231 e12i
o!I!_ O!l!
•2i3 2i20 • 212 IOI221e 0212 e23i
e101 312 e110

o3i2 211 0
201 311
2014b3il
e30I e310
• hkl b.c.c.
100 o hkl f.c.c.
Figure A9.1 Stereographic projection representing the Bain relationship between body- and face-centered cubic materials
[After Andrews et al. (1971)]
(100) b.c.c. II (100) f.c.c.
(Oli) b.c.c. II (010) f.c.c.
(011) b.c.c. II (001) f.c.c.
figure A9 .2 and the superimposed diffraction thus enabling the orientation relationship to be
patterns in figure A9. 7. All spots lie in this great confirmed, see section 2.11.
circle, distance from the centre spot oc 1fdhk1, and
with the correct angular relationships.
It is frequently convenient to prepare standard Appendix 9: Reference
patterns showing these orientation relationships,
for simple B in the matrix, for example (001), Andrews, K. W., Dyson, D. J., and Keown, S. R.
(111), (110), (112), so that these B may be (1971). Interpretation of Electron Diffraction
obtained in a given area by tilting the specimen, Patterns, Hilger, London.
3io ioo ioo
3io
0 0301
•311 301•
2ioo o20I
•
2il
~ •201
e311
211
gJj
OiOI
• 0212
2i2
•
o221
iOI
• 0 •221
212 e212
il! To2 0 •i11
ofl2
i2oo• 122 102
i3oo
• ii2
0
Oi03 1130. f21
• f31
eo21
eO II
Oi2 Oi3 001 013 012
131
o3i oio
012 • e011
• li3e
021• e031
.
13oo li2e o ill 103e 0103
l2 1•ol3i O!Q
o@ •
102 122•0102
0120
- !l.!. o[R
Iii .131
e2f2
9 1~1 •
221 •
212
121
0212
211
e201 •
0201
•301 e311
3iOo 0~
• hkl b.c.c.
o hkl f. c. c.
Figure A9.2 Stereographic projection representing the Nishyama-Wassermann orientation relationship between body-
and face-centred cubic materials [After Andrews et al. (1971)]
(001) b.c.c. II (Oil) f.c.c.
(IlO) b.c.c. II (Ill) f.c.c.
(110) b.c.c. II (211) f.c.c.
Too
310• -
2310 O!£Q
e3T2 e20I 210e
3130 0212 l!J_o •311 o T30
T21 o
0[31 • 221
211• e321
eTOI eTIO
03lo oo2T
0112 0010
• 213
0113 • T2l
To2e •120
•TT3 0012 •112 1~2 ol30
eT30
OI3T . - - 0132 el32
131 -
T:2
103•
0
013
113 • l23e o ~ l£l • T31 0120 0~ 122 0
123 0 !.££ 132 0 231
o TT3 0231
0010 !.!l
113 o 0 llf 021
- Oil
OTI OT2e •oT3 DOle 0•13 •012 Oil@ 2 210 • 0 e031 e010 e03T eo2T
- 331 ° !.!Q o 22T
o!.!l
2130 0 212 132 0321
102 0 ell3 •123 • 122 o!JJ el31 o 321
- •103 • 112 °312 el21 0210 • 130 ei3T
ell3 o!l2
0 311 o_g_]J_
el02 O!.Q! Ill - 0310 el20
•213 • •231- o31T
o!lf. 2010
•2T3 -3010 •221
0 3i2 o 100 eiiO

e312 e211 • 321
!.llo e2T2 30To 0 •221
o!ll ogl[ o;ill 20T
e311
o3TO e 210
• 201 o321
0221 •301 0210 e310
• hkl b.c.c.
ITO 100 o hkl f.c.c.
Figure A9.3 Stereographic projection representing the Kurdjumov-Sachs orientation relationship between body- and
face-centred cubic materials [Mter Andrews et al. (1971)]
(011) b.c.c. II (111) f.c.c.
(111) b.c.c. II (lOT) f.c.c.
C21I) b.c.c. II (I2I) f.c.c.
Too
02] 301
0
03] o3)1
0 133
•
•311 112 TIO
321 201 1220 0
• 0
•211
132!! 211
0
•321
312
• •312
• 302
322 •
2130 • 331
•
0
•221 •322 olli o12T o_ - •221
130
313
332• 0 010 212 • 332
323.
2l2 •313 •TOI
212 • •
~ 0313 •231
2310 22[ 323
TTl !]_Q
•223 0 o2T3 •203
- 0331
•213 223
21]0. 0 312
°
Til •232
o!Q!
-
1310 •121 230o

•233 ol02 32]0 -;112 • 233 .121
•131 ~0 --
T21o •122 • 122
T32• 0 021 o2ol • 132
1320
•T33
0
•r33 03]2
0132 2210
0321 30]
]22 ]33 QU 133 122 Ill m 311 100 3TT W ITT
eoeoe o• @ oe 00 @ 0 • eo • • 0• •o • - . 010
031 021 032 OTI 023 Ol2 Ol3 001 013 012 023 011 032 021 031
0@ 212 0.2.!£
._-
0 f23
0 0301
133 oiJ.?.
fl2
•
0012
123
• ill 0213
0313 0201 el33
0 •103 •113 -• 123 2Io ol32

113 0311 122•- 0320
• o33T
013o el22 a !QI_o
ell2 131
•102 °~ 112 321 •233 •
• 232 Ill 223
•
103 0102 203 o3T3
o 0 2T3 • ~ •213 -223
2T1 • o
232•
0 323 02[3 212
OOio • 101•
0 331 231• 0 230
•332
oill_ o!l£ • 322 •221 230
o3f2 •312 2310 •331
•302
•211 •211
0 0T3 123i •321
ItO 0122 0 121
201 110
•311 •311
0
0
OT2
133
o hki ferrite
• hki cementite
Figure A9 .4 Stereographic projection representing the Bagaryatskii orientation relationship between cementite and
a-iron [After Andrews eta/. (1971)]
(100) cementite II (Oil) a-iron
(010) cementite II (lii) a-iron
(001) cementite II (211) a-iron
3iT
310e 210e TIO

•3Tf 0 201 120
~0 0~
• Too
o221 e331 o221

311 •321
• 32T 3To• IQ!o •313o o212 •221 • 231
2Toe oil! • 301 - •211 oll_l_

• 131
• 331 •201 e'\12 121e
• 311 O!.?J
olf_i
•Ho l22o • 132
122•
-- •331 _ oT33
1330 -~~~ 212 • • 313 • 112 133e e021
•Tz3
• 120 •231 • iT I e213 elo2
131 001 •113
ol2 013 Ti2 eO II
13oe
oo21 Olio
•121
0 0 • ®215 •lo3 o
• 113 Q!Q_
o 012 Q!_I_O 0021
131
122• • 012
131• • 123 013. el32
T32• el33 el33
eOOI
1330 1330el23 •122
o@ • eoT3
0131 031e
122
0 e021
Olle oT2 °
103 113e o!£?_
oill_ 103• o!.!_g_ •112
l.Q£0
o@ el13 o!.?J
133• 123. •102 e111
• 213
el:32 • 122 e1T2 0111
131• 2T2o o313 2T3e
o!.Q!
0 om 313.
e212
el:30
121• ill 0221
e101
212• e313
Of.!l 312. 211
fQ!_O
312 • 0~ !.!Q
• 211
o hkL cementite
311
• hkl ferrite
100
Figure A9.5 Stereographic projection representing the Pitsch orientation relationship between cementite and a-iron.
[After Andrews et al. (1971).]
(001) cementite II (2I5) a-iron
TiOvc
Too
oTo oo1 010

llOvc~------------------------------~~----------------------------~TIOvc
OOivc
100
IlOve
Figure A9 .6 Stereographic projection representing
the Baker-Nutting orientation relationship between
vanadium carbide and ot-iron
(001) VC // (001) ot-iron
(110) VC // (010) ot-iron
(110) VC // (100) ot-iron
•
222
022
•
il2
() 0
•
002
220
•
220
•
112
•
no
0
202
• 0
202
•
222
•
110 Tf2
•
002
0
•0
220 022 • hkt b.c.c.
112
• 0 hkL f. c. c.
Figure A9.7Superimposed spot diffraction patterns

= B for the
in which [Ill] f.c.c. // [IlO] b.c.c.
Nishyama-Wassermann orientation relationship de-
picted in figure A9 .2
APPENDIX 14.
ILLUSTRATION OF THE INHERENT
AMBIGUITY IN THE INTER-
PRETATION OF SELECTED AREA
ELECTRON DIFFRACTION
PATTERNS OF CEMENTITE
The assignment of indices to reflections on a Table A14.1
selected area electron diffraction pattern is based Reflection Angle from (010). f1(J (deg) Spacing on .1R(mm)
on the correlation of interplanar spacing and plateR.(mm)
interangular measurements. Owing to the large (301]. [102]. [301). [102). [301). [102).
unit cell of the orthorhombic cementite structure a 010 010 0 0 0 5.01 5.07 0
b T33 :Z31 40.12 38.35 1.77 19.90 19.40 0.50
it is often very difficult to assign the correct indices c T23 :Z21 51.65 49.88 1.77 16.35 15.72 0.63
to reflections in the diffraction pattern since the d Il3 :Zll 68.42 67.15 1.27 13.8 13.08 0.72
differences in interplanar spacings of higher-order e T03 :Z01 90.0 90.0 0 12.85 12.02 0.83
reflections are very small. It is usually possible

to index reflecting zones of low order correctly spacing on the plate (R) between the centre spot
but even in such cases some difficulty may be and the appropriate reflection. The interplanar
encountered. spacing (d) is determined from the relation d = ).LjR
In order to illustrate this difficulty the [301Jc * (where A.L is the camera constant). The spacing on
and [102]c zones will be considered. These two the plate is considered in this example in order to
zones are drawn out in figure Al4.1 on the scale illustrate the experimental inaccuracy. AR is the
of a typical photographic plate. difference in spacing between corresponding re-
In table Al4.1 the expected values of angles from flections in the two zones. For example, the differ-
(OlO)c and the distance from the centre spot for ence in spacing on the plate between a (T33)c
each reflection are shown for both the [301Jc and reflection belonging to the [301Jc zone and a
[102Jc zones. f:t.() is the angular difference between (231)c reflection belonging to the [102Jc zone is
corresponding reflections. For example, the angular O.Smm.
difference between (I33)c and a31)c is 1.77°. The From the tabulated values of table A14.1, it is
column, spacing on plate, refers to the actual clear that the maximum angular difference between
. .. . .. .. .. corresponding reflections is less than 2°, which is

very difficult to determine on a diffraction pattern.
··rrrt--
The maximum difference in distance from the centre
spot is 0.83 mm. Bearing in mind that the typical
c d c b diameter of a cementite reflection is 0.5 mm, it is
clear that it is very difficult to distinguish between
"O,, these two zones. A distinction can only be made
if the camera constant is known to a high degree
·-·-0-·-·-·
[301lc-t. .I .I . . . 0
of accuracy, which is not normally the case. The
[301Jc zone is, however, 45° away from [102Jc and
·-·-· ... a method has to be found to enable an unambiguous

indexing of reflections. Three different approaches
can be taken.
.• .• .• .• .• .•
Figure A14.1 Diagram of [301]. and [102]. re-
(i) The camera constant can be determined in the
case of pearlite diffraction patterns by calculation
flecting cementite zones. The possible indices that from a known ferrite reflection in the pattern.
can be assigned to a, b, etc., are given in table A14.1 (ii) The foil can be tilted in the microscope so that
"Note. [uvw]. refers to the zone axis as a crystal direction in cementite and (hkl). refers to reciprocal lattice vectors: hu + kv + /w = 0.
the Kikuchi centre was in the centre of the pattern. measurement of the distance of a reflection from
(The actual Kikuchi centre could normally not be the centre spot.
seen in pearlite diffraction patterns but a tilting (iii) A second diffraction pattern can be taken
condition was found such that reflections were from the same area at a different tilting condition.
symmetrical about the centre and of even intensity.) When this new zone was identified and the angle
The presence of higher-order reflections belonging of tilt known, one of the previous possibilities
to the same zone greatly facilitated in the accurate could be ruled out.

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APPENDIX 1.

stmple body- centred face -centred

stmple body-centred stmple body- centred

base -centred face-centred rhombohedral hexagonal

stmple bose-centred tnCllniC

Figure Al.l The fourteen Bravais lattices

Crystal system Interplanar spacing of the (hkl) plane

rhombohedral a =b=c + cos a.){(h2 + k 2 + 12) -

cos p = {(u~ + v~ + w~)(u~ + v~ + w~)) 112

a2u 1u 2 + b2 v 1 v2 + c 2w 1 w 2 + ac(w 1 u 2 + u 1 w 2)cosp

x (a 2 u~ + b 2 v~ + c 2 w~ + 2acu 2 w2 cos P)} 112

where F = h 1 h2 b 2c2 sin 2 a + k 1 k 2 a 2 c2 sin 2 p + l1 12a2b2 sin 2 y where L = a 2 u 1 u 2 + + c2 w 1 w 2

Figure A1.3 Crystal directions, OA is [121]

If it is necessary to find out if a plane (hkl) lies

A1.6 Stereograpbic Projection

Although other methods of projection of the three-

---- ----- ---

5 Figure Al.6 The stereo graphic projection for a cube

Figure A1.8 A Wulff net divided into two degree divisions

• IT7 •117 el35

Temp. CC) Structure Lattice constants c(A)

aluminum (AI) 25 f.c.c. 4.0496

Element: form Temp. ("C) Structure Lattice constants c(A)

0 k k-i A2.2.2 Indices [defg] of the Normal to the

where X, Y and Z are magnitudes of vectors and if> 3 (nda)a

• From equation (A2.1).

A2.3 Stereographic Manipulations in the u = i(2u' - v')

0001 1104 1102 1101 2201

Figure A4.1 (continued)

• 200 • 45" 211 2oo 211 • • •

- B=zJo2:3i Ac=~=l414 .C.,:L!Q.,I.291 B=z=IT123l _!___ ~

Figure A4.2 (continued)

Figure A4.3 (continued)

0~11 0111 ; / 32.21°

%=1.139 B=z=[l213] ~=1.480 B=z=[2423] *=1.299 B=z=[OIII]

(d) (e) (f)

Line no. hkl N112 = Line no. hkl N112 =

1 100 1.00 33 522,441 5.745

Table A4.2 Occurrence of reflections for the c.p.h. crystal

Common allowed reflections Common forbidden reflections

lOIO 3211 2023 0001

100 100 o· 90°

310 310 oo 25°51' 36°52' 53°8' 72°33' 84°16' 90°

hkl d spacing d spacing d spacing d spacing d spacing d spacing d spacing

011 2.027 2.040 2.225 2.238 2.334 2.338 2.149

(hkl) d spacing d spacing 0002 3.354

Accelerating A(A) A-1 (A -1)

(sin 8)/..t(A -•)

oio 031 021 QIJ_ 021 031 010

ol33 113 0133

e101 312 e110

3io ioo ioo

0 3i2 o 100 eiiO

0221 •301 0210 e310

1310 •121 230o

0 •103 •113 -• 123 2Io ol32

310e 210e TIO

o221 e331 o221

2Toe oil! • 301 - •211 oll_l_

oTo oo1 010