W2 by Jenny
W2 by Jenny
W2 by Jenny
2
• lagerstatten
=
mother
lode;
excellent
fossil
preservation
at
the
site
• systema
naturae
by
carolus
Linnaeus
(King
Philip
Came
Over
For
Good
Sex)
o implies
an
order,
but
doesn’t
tell
you
how
these
species
(spp)
are
related
• hennig
–
phylogenetic
systematics
–
“cladistics”
• cladistics
–
a
method
of
classifying
animals
and
plants
according
to
the
proportion
of
measurable
characteristics
they
have
in
common
• assumptions
of
cladistics:
o if
organisms
are
related
by
descent,
the
closer
descent
=
the
more
recent
common
ancestry
o because
organisms
change
through
evolutionary
time,
they
pass
on
their
changes
to
their
offspring
o therefore,
organisms
that
are
most
closely
related
should
share
the
most
derived
characters,
acquired
by
evolution,
that
are
not
present
in
other
groups
o the
search
for
these
sets
of
traits
should
give
us
the
best
approximation
of
the
evolutionary
sequence
(a
phylogeny)
• branch
length
usually
refers
to
molecular
data
such
that
longer
branches
=
longer
time
periods
• clade
=
a
group
that
includes
MRCA
and
all
common
descendents
• parsimony
=
use
the
fewest
steps
necessary
to
construct
a
legitimate
tree
–
make
it
as
simple
as
possible
o look
for
the
simplest
possible
explanation
so
you
only
have
a
few
traits
unique
to
a
taxa
o this
is
a
hypothesis
about
evolution
• crown-‐based
definition
–
unify
your
clade
so
it
incorporates
everything
descended
from
the
MRCA
• trait-‐based
definition
–
include
every
animal
that
had
fur,
or
an
opposable
thumb
o works
for
extant
taxa,
but
not
always
for
extinct
taxa
• monophyletic
group
–
includes
the
MRCA
and
all
its
descendants
• paRaphyletic
group
–
includes
the
MRCA,
but
doesn’t
include
all
of
its
descendants
• pOlyphyletic
group
–
nO
MRCA
or
all
descendents;
2
mono-‐
or
para-‐phyletic
clades
incorrectly
grouped
together
• systematics
–
the
scientific
study
of
the
diversity
of
organisms,
which
reveals
the
evolutionary
relationships
between
organisms
• taxonomy
–
(a
subdivision
of
systematics)
–
the
theory
and
practice
of
classifying
organisms
• rejecting
the
spp
approach
–
some
ppl
suggest
trashing
all
names
and
using
a
unique
number
to
ID
everything
on
earth
–
or
perhaps
using
cytochrome
1
to
define
a
spp
• phylogeny
–
a
hypothesis
that
describes
the
history
of
descent
of
a
group
of
organisms
from
their
common
ancestor
• bifurcating
tree
–
a
lineage
is
represented
as
a
branching
tree,
in
which
each
split
or
node
represents
a
speciation
event
o branching
into
2,
not
many
o doesn’t
necessarily
happen
that
way,
but
it’s
the
most
parsimonious
explanation
• starburst
phylogenies
• phylogenetic
trees
are
constructed
by
analyzing
evolutionary
changes
in
the
traits
of
organisms
• cladogenesis;
node;
stem;
crown
group
• ancestral
traits
–
inherited
from
a
common
ancestor
(hair,
milk
for
marsupials,
monotremes
and
eutheria)
• derived
traits
–
a
trait
that
differs
from
its
ancestral
form
(placenta
for
eutheria
(non-‐marsupial/monotreme
mammals),
hair
and
milk
for
mammalia
as
a
group)
• homologous
–
any
features
(DNA
sequences,
behavioral,
anatomical)
shared
by
2+
spp
that
both
inherited
the
trait
from
a
common
ancestor
o the
similarity
is
due
to
their
shared
ancestry
o the
vertebral
column
in
vertebrates
o bones
in
bird/bat
wings
• analogous
–
performing
a
similar
function
but
having
a
different
evolutionary
origin
(wings/flight
in
pterosaurs,
bats
and
birds)
• convergent
evolution
–
when
independently
evolved
features
subjected
to
similar
selective
pressures
become
superficially
similar
o convergent
traits
are
independently
derived
• evolutionary
reversal
–
when
a
character
reverts
from
a
derived
state
back
to
an
ancestral
state
• homoplasies
–
traits
that
are
similar
for
some
reason
other
than
inheritance
from
a
common
ancestor
o loss
of
eyes
in
caecilians
=
evolutionary
reversal
and
a
homoplasy
(they’re
amphibians
that
look
like
eyeless
snakes)
• outgroup
–
a
lineage
that
is
closely
related
to
an
ingroup
(the
lineage
of
interest)
but
has
branched
off
from
the
ingroup
below
its
base
on
the
evolutionary
tree
o ancestral
traits
should
be
found
in
the
outgroup
and
the
ingroup;
derived
traits
are
found
only
in
the
ingroup
• to
reconstruct
a
phylogeny:
o 1.
select
a
group
of
organisms
to
classify
(the
ingroup)
and
an
appropriate
outgroup
o 2.
choose
the
characters
that
will
be
used
in
the
analysis
and
identify
the
possible
forms
(traits)
of
the
character
o determine
the
ancestral
and
derived
traits
o distinguish
homologous
from
homoplastic
traits
• systematists
use
physiological,
behavioral,
molecular,
and
structural
characters
of
living
and
fossil
organisms
to
reconstruct
phylogenies
• richness
=
number
of
different
taxa
(alpha,
beta
diversity,
etc)
• diversity
=
number
of
different
taxa
and
their
relative
abundances
evolutionary
thought
lecture
• homology
–
any
similarity
between
characters
that
are
due
to
their
shared
ancestry
• homoplasy
–
when
characters
are
similar,
but
not
derived
from
a
common
ancestor
• synapomorphy
–
characters
that
are
shared
by
a
group
of
organisms,
but
are
not
found
in
the
ancestors
of
that
group
• parsimony
–
adoption
of
the
simplest
assumption
in
the
formulation
of
a
theory
or
in
the
interpretation
of
data
• Lamarckian
evolution
–
spp
could
change
through
the
use
or
disuse
of
structures
during
the
individual
organism’s
lifetime
o the
environment
presents
conditions
which
produce
“needs”
in
organisms
o needs
lead
to
modification
of
organs
and
behaviors
o used
parts
increase
in
size,
disused
parts
decrease
in
size
o modification
occurs
during
the
lifespan
of
the
organism
and
are
passed
onto
the
organism’s
offspring
• uniformatarianism
–
the
same
natural
laws
and
processes
that
operate
in
the
universe
now,
have
always
operated
in
the
universe
in
the
past
and
apply
everywhere
in
the
universe
• Malthus
–
humans
reproduce
at
a
higher
rate
than
their
resources
can
sustain
them;
the
only
thing
keeping
them
in
check
is
death
and
disease
(competition)
• darwin’s
argument
for
natural
selection
o 1.
organisms
have
a
great
potential
fertility,
permitting
exponential
growth
of
popns
(Malthus)
o 2.
natural
popns
don’t
normally
increase
exponentially,
but
remain
fairly
constant
in
size
(Darwin)
o 3.
natural
resources
are
limited
(Malthus)
o 4.
a
struggle
for
existence
occurs
among
organisms
in
a
population
(competition,
Malthus)
o 5.
variation
occurs
among
organisms
within
popns
(darwin’s
pigeons,
barnacles)
o 6.
variation
is
heritable
(animal
breeding)
o 7.
varying
organisms
show
differential
survival
and
reproduction,
favoring
advantageous
traits
=
natural
selection
(Darwin)
o 8.
natural
selection,
acting
over
many
generations,
gradually
produces
new
adaptations
and
new
species
• Wallace
• the
joint
letter
–
hooker
and
lyell
• the
modern
synthesis
–
Mendel;
TH
morgan
–
genes
on
chromosomes
(the
fly
lab);
mutations
supply
the
raw
matl
for
natural
selection
to
act
upon
o JBS
Haldane,
Sewall
Wright,
and
Ronald
Fisher
o mathematics
can
explain
how
selection
and
mutation
can
affect
gene
frequencies
within
populations
o population
genetics
yields
a
genotype
expressed
in
the
phenotype
o populations
are
gene
pools
with
variation
in
genetic
frequencies
o genetic
variation
is
a
result
of
random
substitutions
of
base
pairs
in
the
genotype
by
mutation,
and
in
sexual
organisms,
the
variation
can
also
be
introduced
with
recombination
o the
variation
in
genotype
results
in
a
variation
in
the
phenotype,
which
is
then
acted
on
by
natural
selection
o natural
selection
culls
the
‘less
fit’
of
the
random
variants
o thus,
evolution
has
no
‘direction,’
except
towards
increasing
fitness,
which
in
an
extreme
form
means
that
every
feature
in
an
organism
is
honed
by
natural
selection
(panselectionism)
Readings
for
Week
Two
Note:
I
outlined
the
papers
in
the
1,2,3
form
Matt
suggested,
where
1)
is
the
question
posed
in
the
paper,
2)
is
the
methodology,
and
3)
is
the
main
conclusion.
Hippopotamus
and
whale
phylogeny,
Thewissen
et
al.
2007
1. Are
hippos
and
cetacea
(whales,
dolphins,
porpoises)
placed
correctly
on
their
mammalian
phylogeny?
2. Geisler
and
Theodor
performed
a
new
analysis
using
weighted
characters
(homoplasies
were
down-‐weighted)
to
create
what
they
thought
was
the
most
parsimonious
tree.
They
emphasize
the
importance
of
including
molecular
data
as
well.
3. The
authors
of
the
brief
commentary
(Geisler
and
Theodor)
think
hipppos
are
the
most
closely
related
extant
taxon
to
Cetacea.
The
authors
of
the
initial
paper
(Thewissen
et
al.)
responded
by
saying
that
Geisler
and
Theodor
upheld
their
main
finding,
which
was
that
raoellids
(now
extinct)
are
the
sister
group
to
cetaceans.
“Herbivorous
ecomorphology
and
specialization
patterns
in
theropod
dinosaur
evolution,”
Zanno
and
Makovicky
2011
1. How
do
we
use
morphological
factors
to
determine
if
something
was
carnivorous
or
herbivorous?
2. The
authors
identified
lots
of
characters
reliable
for
the
indication
of
herbivory
using
three
statistical
analyses
and
then
tested
these
traits
in
Coelurosauria.
3. Using
stats,
you
can
have
some
fair
confidence
about
the
feeding
behaviors
of
long-‐
extinct
animals.
Within
Coelurosauria,
there
is
evidence
of
increasing
specialization
to
herbivory
in
some
clades,
indicating
that
the
coelurosaurian
beak
was
likely
correlated
with
an
herbivorous
diet.
This
is
an
example
of
ecomorphology,
which
is
the
study
of
the
relationship
between
the
ecological
role
of
an
individual
and
its
morphological
adaptations
(structure
and
function).
Evolution
of
anatomy
and
gene
control,
Koentges
2008
1. Should
there
be
more
communication
between
the
subdisciplines
of
biology?
2. Koentges
did
a
detailed
literature
view
and
provided
a
lot
of
his
own
analysis
and
suggestions
for
potential
collaborations.
3. We
need
to
integrate
different
disciplines
(e.g.,
paleontology,
evodevo,
taxonomy,
genomics,
molecular
bio,
etc.)
to
answer
the
big
questions
in
genomic
systems
biology.
We
also
need
a
large
centralized
database
to
integrate
data
across
subdisciplines.
Studying
Function
and
Behavior
in
the
Fossil
Record,
Benton
2010
1. How
do
paleobiologists
use
form
to
study
function?
2. Benton
discusses/analyzes
the
three
main
techniques
used
to
infer
function
and
behavior
from
fossils:
empirical
evidence,
comparison
with
modern
analogs,
and
biomechanical
modeling.
He
doesn’t
really
critique
these
methods,
though.
3. Using
these
three
main
techniques,
paleobiologists
ca
make
evidence-‐based
reconstructions
and
really
infer
function
from
form.