Transport Phenomena is the subject which deals with the movement of different physical

quantities in any chemical or mechanical process and describes the basic principles and laws of
transport. It also describes the relations and similarities among different types of transport that
may occur in any system. Transport in a chemical or mechanical process can be classified into
three types: 

1. Momentum transport deals with the transport of momentum in fluids and is also known
as fluid dynamics.
2. Energy transport deals with the transport of different forms of energy in a system and is
also known as heat transfer.
3. Mass transport deals with the transport of various chemical species themselves.

Three different types of physical quantities are used in transport phenomena: scalars (e.g.
temperature, pressure and concentration), vectors (e.g. velocity, momentum and force) and
second order tensors (e.g. stress or momentum flux and velocity gradient). It is essential to have
a primary knowledge of the mathematical operations of scalar, vector and tensor quantities for
solving the problems of transport phenomena. In fact, the use of the indicial notation in cartesian
coordinates will enable us to express the long formulae encountered in transport phenomena in a
concise and compact fashion. In addition, any equation written in vector tensor form is equally
valid in any coordinate system.

In this course, we will using the following notations for scalar, vector and tensor quantities:

a,b,c scalar quantities

ns: vector quantities

2nd order tensor quantities

Cartesian coordinates and unit vectors A xyz cartesian coordinate system may also be

conventionally written as shown in Fig.1.1 below.
 Fig. 1.1 3-dimensional cartesian coordinate system with unit vector

Here,   and   are the unit vectors in x, y and z direction

respectively.

Tensor quantities 

Most of us might have already encountered scalars and vectors in the study of high-school
physics. It was pointed out that the vectors also have a direction associated with them along with
a magnitude, whereas scalars only have a magnitude but no direction. Extending this definition,
we can loosely define a 2nd order tensor as a physical quantity which has a magnitude and two
different directions associated with it. To better understand, why we might need two different
directions for specifying a particular physical quantity. Let us take the example of the stresses
which may arise in a solid body, or in a fluid. Clearly, the stresses are associated with magnitude
of forces, as well as with an area, whose direction is also need to be specified by the outward
normal to the face of the area on which a particular force acting. Hence, we will require 32, i.e., 9
components to specify a stress completely in a 3 dimensional cartesian coordinate system. In
general, an nth order tensor will be specified by 3n components (in a 3-dimensional system).
However, the number of components alone cannot determine whether a physical quantity is a
vector or a tensor. The additional requirement is that there should be some transformation rule
for obtaining the corresponding tensors when we rotate the coordinate system about the origin.
Thus, the tensor quantities can be defined by two essential conditions:..
 1. These quantities should have 3n components. According to this definition, scalar
quantities are zero order tensors and have 30= 1 component. Vector quantities are first
order tensors and have 31  = 3 components. Second order tensors have 32 = 9 components
and third order tensors have 33 = 27 components. Third and higher order tensors are not
used in transport phenomena, and are not dealt here.
2. The second necessary requirement of any tensor quantity is that it should follow some
transformation rule.

 Kronecker delta & Alternating Unit Tensor There are two quantities which are quite useful in
conveniently and concisely expressing several mathematical operations on tensors. These are the
Kronecker delta and the alternating unit tensor. Kronecker delta
 Kronecker delta or Kronecker’s delta is a function of two index variables, usually integer, which
is  1 if they are equal and 0 otherwise.

It is expressed as a symbol δij

δij=1, if i=j

δij=0, if i≠j

Thus, in three dimensions, we may also express the Kronecker delta in matrix

form   Alternating unit tensor The alternating unit tensor εijk is

useful when expressing certain results in a compact form in index notation. It may be noted that
the alternating unit tensor has three index and therefore 27 possible combinations but it is a
scalar quantity . 

 εijk=0 if any two of indices i, j, k are equal. For

example ε113,ε131,ε111,ε222=0
 εijk=+1 when the indices i, j, k are different and are in cyclic order (123), For example ε123
  εijk=-1 when the indices i, j, k are different and are in anti-cyclic order. For example  ε321

 Free indices and Dummy indices Free indices

Free indices are the indices which occur only once in each tensor term. For example, i is the free
index in following expression vij wj

In any tensorial equation, every term should have an equal number of free indices. For
example, vij wj =cj dj is not a valid tensorial expression since the number of free indices (index i)
is not equal in both terms.

Any free indices in a tensorial expression can be replaced by any other indices as long as this
symbol has not already occurred in the expression. For example, Aij Bj= CiDjEj is equivalent
to Akj Bj= CkDjEj.

The number of free indices in an equation gives the actual number of mathematical equations
that will arise from it. For example, in equation Aij Bj= CiDjEj corresponds to 31 = 3 equations
since there is only one free indices i. It may be noted that each indices can take value i=1, 2 or
3. Dummy indicesDummy indices are the indices that occur twice in a tensor term. For
example, j is the dummy index in Aij Bj.

Any dummy index implies the summation of all components of that tensor term associated with

each coordinate axis. Thus, when we write Aiδi, we actually imply  .

 
Any dummy index in a tensor term can be replaced by any other symbol as long as this symbol
has not already occurred in previous terms. For example, Aijkδjδk= Aipqδpδq.

Note: The dummy indices can be renamed in each term separately in a equations but free indices
should be renamed for all terms in a tensor equations. For example, Aij Bj= CiDjEj can be
replaced by Akp Bp= CkDjEj.

Here, i is the free index which has been replaced by k in both terms but j is a dummy index and
can be replaced either in one term or both. Summation convention in vector and tensor
analysisAccording to the summation convention rule, if k is a dummy index which repeats itself
in a term then there should be a summation sign associated with it. Therefore, we can eliminate
the implied summation sign and can write the expression in a more compact way. For example,

using the summation convention  can be simply written

as εijkεljk  . Since j and k are repeating, there is no need to write sum

ation sign over these indices 

Relation
between
alternati
ng unit
tensor
and
Kroneck
er delta
 
When
two
indices
are
common
between
the two
alternatin
g unit
tensors,
that the
following
can be
shown
easily
 

.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
........
(2.1)
 
When
one index
is
common
between
the two
alternatin
g unit
tensors,
there
product
may be
written
as
 

.............
.............
.............
.............
......
(2.2)
 
Example:
A three
by three
determin
ant may
be
written in
terms of
the εijk  as
follows
 

.............
.............
.............
........ (2.
3)
 
Represe
ntation
of a
vector
quantity
 
A
vector 
 which
has three
compone
nts   

,   an

d   ma
y be
written
as
 

 
Therefore
,
vector 
 may
be
represent
ed

as   

or   

or   
and so
on.
 
Mathem
atical
operatio
ns on
vectors
 
Addition
of two
vectors
 

.............
.............
.............
..........
(2.4)
 
In the
same
way,
subtractio
n of
vectors
may be
carried
out as
follows
 

.............
.............
.............
.........
(2.5)
 
Multiplic
ation of
two
vectors
 
Any two
vectors
may be
multiplied
in three
different
ways: (a)
dyadic
product,
(b) dot
product,
and (c)
cross
product.
 
(a)
Dyadic
Product
of two
vectors
 
The
dyadic
product is
a
mathema
tical
operation
on two
vectors,
which
changes
the order
of the
resultant
quantity
by one.
Since the
order of
the two
vectors is
one each,
the order
of the
resulting
term is
1+1=2.
Thus, the
dyadic
product
of two
vectors
gives a
second
order
tensor.
To
mathema
tically
denote
the
dyadic
product,
we
simply
write the
two
vectors
next to
each
other
without
any sign
in
between.
 
Example
:
 

.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
.............
...(2.6)
 
Here

is a
vector
quantity
and 

i
s the
gradient
operator,
also a
vector
quantity.
Hence,
the
resultant
quantity 

is a
second
order
tensor.

Note that
here we
have
collected
scalar
quantities
together
while unit
vectors
are also
collected
but
written at
the end
of the
expressio
n.
 
(b)
Scalar
product
or dot
product
of two
vectors
 
The dot
product is
a
mathema
tical
operation
on two
vectors,
which
reduces
the order
of tensor
of the
resultant
quantity
by two.
Hence,
the dot
product
of two
vectors
results a
tensor of
zero
order, i.e.
a scalar
quantity.
Mathema
tically,
the dot
product is
defined
as

where v a
nd w den
ote the
respectiv
e
magnitud
es of the
two
vectors,
and Φvw d
enotes
the angle
formed
between
the two
vectors.
 
(c)
Vector
product
or cross
product
of two
vectors
 
The cross
product is
a
mathema
tical
operation
on two
vectors,
which
reduces
the order
of tensor
of the
resultant
quantity
by one.
Hence,
cross
product
of two
vectors
results a
first order
tensor i.e
., a
vector
quantity.
Mathema
tically,
the cross
product is
defined
as

.............
..........
(2.7)
 

Figure
2.1:
Cross
product
of
 vector 
 and 

 
Here, v a
nd w den
ote the
respectiv
e
magnitud
es of the
two
vectors, 
Φvw denot
es the
angle
formed
between
the two
vectors,
and 
is a unit
vector
which is
normal to
the plane
containin
g
vectors 
 and 
.
 
Vector
operatio
ns with
unit
vectors
 
Dot
product
of two
unit
vectors
 

If  ,

,  
are the
three unit
vectors
along the
axes in a
cartesian
coordinat
e system,
then the
dot
product
of these
vectors
has 9 pos
sibilities

and

 
Hence, all
the nine
terms
may be
written in
concise
form by
using the
Kronecke
r delta.
If i and j 
are the
free
indices,
then
because 
 t
hen 

, and
if   t
hen 

   
 
Compact
ion
Operatio
ns

Wheneve
r a
Kronecke
r
delta   
is present
in an
operation
, it may
be
removed
by
replacing
either i b
y j or j by 
i in the
expressio
n. For
example, 

or  .
 
Cross
product
of two
unit
vectors
 

If  ,

, a
re the
three unit
vectors,
then the
cross
product
of these
vectors
has 9 pos
sibilities
as shown
below

 
and
 

 
and
finally
 

 
Hence, all
nine
possible
combinati
ons may
be
written in
concise
form by
using the
alternatin
g unit
tensor.
 

 
Here, i an
d j are
free
indices
(hence, 9
equations
) and k is
a dummy
index (In
each
term on
left and
right had
side
three
terms are
added
together
).
 
Proof:
 

Since,

Similarly,
all other
possible
combinati
on may
also be
shown to
follow
Equation
(2.10).
 
Example
 

, where
 

In the
above
equation, 
k is the
free
index,
whereas i 
and j are
the
dummy
indices.
If k = 1,
 

(all other
terms are
zero)
 
Similarly,
if k=2,
 
  
and
for k=3,
 

 
Hence,
 

Momentum Transport
 
Momentum transport deals with the transport of momentum
which is responsible for flow in fluids. Momentum transport
describes the science of fluid flow also called fluid dynamics.
A few basic assumptions are involved in fluid flow and these
are discussed below.
 
No slip boundary condition
 
This is the first basic assumption used in momentum
transport. It deals with the fluid flowing over a solid surface,
and states that whenever a fluid comes in contact with any
solid boundary, the adjacent layer of the fluid in contact with
the solid surface has the same velocity as the solid surface.
Hence, we assumed that there is no slip between the solid
surface and the fluid or the relative velocity is zero at the
fluid–solid interface. For example, consider a fluid flowing
inside a stationary tube of radius R as shown in Fig 7.1. Since
the wall of the tube at r=R is stationary, according to the no-
slip condition implies that the fluid velocity at r=R is also
zero.
 
 

Fig 7.1 Fluid flow in a circular tube of radius R

 
In the second example as shown in Fig. 7.2, there are two
plates which are separated by a distance h, and some fluid is
present between these plates. If the lower plate is forced to
move with a velocity V in x direction and the upper plate is
held stationary, no-slip boundary conditions may be written
as follows
 

Fig 7.2 Two parallel plates at stationary condition

 
 
 
 

 
Thus, every layer of fluid is moving at a different velocity.
This leads to shear forces which are described in the next
section.
 
Newton’s Law of Viscosity
 
Newton’s law of viscosity may be used for solving problem
for Newtonian fluids. For many fluids in chemical engineering
the assumption of Newtonian fluid is reasonably acceptable.
To understand Newtonian fluid, let us consider a hypothetical
experiment, in which there are two infinitely large plates
situated parallel to each other, separated by a distance h. A
fluid is present between these two plates and the contact
area between the fluid and the plates is A.
A constant force F1 is now applied on the lower plate while
the upper plate is held stationary. After steady state has
reached, the velocity achieved by the lower plate is
measured as V1. The force is then changed, and the new
velocity of the plate associated with this force is measured.
The experiment is then repeated to take sufficiently large
readings as shown in the following table.
 

If the F/A is plotted against V/h, we may observe that they

lie on a straight line passing through the origin.
 

Fig 7.4 Shear stress vs. shear stain

 
Thus, it may be said that F/A is proportional to v/h for a
Newtonian fluid.

 
It may be noted that it is the velocity gradient which leads to
the development of shear forces. The above equation may be
re-written as
 

 
In the limiting case, as h → 0, we have
 

where, µ is a constant of proportionality, and is called as the

viscosity of the fluid. The quantity F/A represents the shear
forces/stress. It may be represented as  , where the
subscript x indicates the direction of force and
subscript y indicates the direction of outward normal of the

surface on which this force is acting. The quantity   or

the velocity gradient is also called the shear rate. µ is a
property of the fluid and is measured the resistance offered
by the fluid to flow. Viscosity may be constant for many
Newtonian fluids and may change only with temperature.
 
 
 
Thus, the Newton’s law of viscosity, in its most basic form is
given as
 

 
Here, both ‘+’ or ‘–’ sign are valid. The positive sign is used
in many fluid mechanics books whereas the negative sign
may be found in transport phenomena books. If the positive

sign is used then   may be called the shear force while if

the negative sign is used   may be referred to as the

momentum flux which flows from a higher value to a lower
value.
 

 
The reason for having a negative sign for momentum flux in
the transport phenomena is to have similarities with Fourier's
law of heat conduction in heat transport and Ficks law of
diffusion in mass transport. For example, in heat transport,
heat flows from higher temperature to lower temperature
indicating that heat flux is positive when the temperature
gradient is negative. Thus, a minus sign is required in the

Fourier's law of heat conduction. The interpretation of   

as the momentum flux is that x directed momentum flows
from higher value to lower value in y direction.

The dimensions of viscosity are as follows:

The SI unit of viscosity is kg/m.s or Pa.s. In CGS unit

is g/cm.s and is commonly known as poise (P). where 1 P =
0.1 kg/m.s. The unit poise is also used with the prefix centi-,
which refers to one-hundredth of a poise, i.e. 1 cP = 0.01 P.
The viscosity of air at 25oC is 0.018 cP, water at 25oC is 1
cP and for many polymer melts it may range
from 1000 to 100,000 cP, thus showing a long range of
viscosity.
 
 
Laminar and turbulent flow
 
Fluid flow can broadly be categorized into two kinds: laminar
and turbulent. In laminar flow, the fluid layers do not inter-
mix, and flow separately. This is the flow encountered when
a tap is just opened and water is allowed to flow very slowly.
As the flow increases, it becomes much more irregular and
the different fluid layers start mixing with each other leading
to turbulent flow. Osborne Reynolds tried to distinguish
between the two kinds of flow using an ingenious experiment
and known as the Reynolds’s experiment. The basic idea
behind this experiment is described below.
 
Reynolds’s experiment
 
 Fig 7.5 Reynolds’s experiments
 
The experiment setup used for performing the Reynolds's
experiment is shown in Fig. 7.5. The average velocity of fluid
flow through the pipe diameter can be varied. Also, there is
an arrangement to inject a colored dye at the center of the
pipe. The profile of the dye is observed along the length of
the pipe for different velocities for different fluids. If this
experiment is performed, it may be seen that for certain
cases the dye shows a regular thread type profile, which is
seen at low fluid velocity and flow is called laminar flow.
when the fluid velocity is increased the dye starts to mixed
with the fluid and for larger velocities simply disappears. At
this point fluid flow becomes turbulent.
For the variables average velocity of fluid vz avg, pipe
diameter D, fluid density ρ, and the fluid viscosity µ,
Reynolds found a dimensionless group which could be used
to characterize the type of fluid flow in the tube. This
dimensionless quantity is known as the Reynolds number.
From the experiment, It was observed that if Re >2100, the
dye simply disappeared and the flow has changed to laminar
to turbulent flow.
 

 
Thus, for Re <2100, we have laminar flow, i.e., no mixing in
the radial direction leading to a thread like flow and for Re
>2100, we have the turbulent flow, i.e., mixing in the radial
direction between layers of fluid.
 
 
 
In laminar flow, the fluid flows as a stream line flow with no
mixing between layers. In turbulent flow, the fluid is unstable
and mixes rapidly due to fluctuations and disturbances in the
flow. The disturbance might be present due to pumps,
friction of the solid surface or any type of noise present in the
system. This makes solving fluid flow problem much more
difficult. To understand the difference in the velocity profile in
two kinds of fluid flows, we consider a fluid flowing to a
horizontal tube in z direction under steady state condition.
Then, we can intuitively see the velocity profile may be
shown below
 
For laminar flow, it is observed that fluid flows as smooth
stream line and all other components of velocity are zero.
Thus

For turbulent flow, if we observe the fluid flows at a local

point. It is observed that fluid flows in very random manner
in all directions where these local velocities may be the
function of any dimensions.
 
Thus, we see that for laminar flow there is only one
component of velocity present and it depends only on one
coordinate whereas the solution of turbulent flow may be
vary complex.
For turbulent flow, one can ask the question that if the fluid
is flowing in the z direction then why are the velocity
components in r and θ direction non-zero? The mathematical
answer for this question can be deciphered from the equation
of motion. The equation of motion is a non-linear partial
differential equation. This non-linear nature of the equation
causes instability in the system which produces flow in other
directions. The instability in the system may occur due to any
disturbances or noise present in the environment. On the
other hand, if the velocity of fluid is very low the deviation
due to disturbances may decay with time, and becomes
negligible after that. Thus the flow remains in laminar region.
Consider a practical example in which some cars are moving
on the highway in the same direction but in the different
lanes at different speeds. If suddenly, some obstacle comes
on the road, then if the car's speed is sufficiently low, it can
move on to other lane smoothly and come back to its original
lane after the obstacle is crossed. This is the regular laminar
case. On the other hand, if the car is moving at a high speed
and suddenly encounters an obstacle, then the driver may
lose control, and this car may move haphazardly and hit
other cars and after that traffic may never return to normal
traffic conditions. This is the turbulent case.
 
 
Internal and external flows
 
Depending on how the fluid and the solid boundaries contact each other, the
flow may be classified as internal flow or external flow. In internal flows, the
fluid moves between solid boundaries. As is the case when fluid flows in a
pipe or a duct. In external flows, however, the fluid is flowing over an
external solid surface, the example may be sited is the flow of fluid over a
sphere as shown in Fig. 8.1.
 

Fig 8.1 External flow around a sphere

 
Boundary layers and fully developed regions
 
Let us now consider the example of fluid flowing over a horizontal flat plate

as shown in Fig. 8.2. The velocity of the fluid is   before it encounters
the plate. As the fluid touches the plate, the velocity of the fluid layer just
adjacent to the plate surface becomes zero due to the no slip boundary
condition. This layer of fluid tries to drag the next fluid layer above it and
reduces its velocity. As the fluid proceeds along the length of the plate (in x-
direction), each layer starts to drag adjacent fluid layer but the effect of drag
reduces as we go further away from the plate in y-direction. Finally, at some
distance from the plate this drag effect disappears or becomes insignificant.
This region where the velocity is changing or where the velocity gradients
exists, is called the boundary layer region. The region beyond boundary
layer where the velocity gradients are insignificant is called the potential flow
region.
 
 Fig 8.2 External flow over a flat plate
 
As depicted in Fig. 8.2, the boundary layer keeps growing along the x-
direction, and may be referred to as the developing flow region. In internal
flows (e.g. fluid flow through a pipe), the boundary layers finally merge after
flow over a distance as shown in Fig. 8.3 below.
 

Fig 8.3 Developing flow and fully developed flow region

 
The region after the point at which the layers merge is called the fully
developed flow region and before this it is called the developing flow region.
In fact, fully developed flow is another important assumption which is taken
for finding solution for varity of fluid flow problem. In the fully developed
flow region (as shown in Figure 8.3), the velocity vz is a function
of r direction only. However, the developing flow region, velocity vz is also
changing in the z direction.
 
Main axioms of transport phenomena
 
The basic equations of transport phenomena are derived based on following
five axioms.
1. Mass is conserved, which leads to the equation of continuity.
2. Momentum is conserved, which leads to the equation of motion.
3. Moment of momentum is conserved leads to an important result that
 the 2nd order stress tensor  is symmetric.
4. Energy is conserved, which leads to equation of thermal energy.
5. Mass of component i in a multi-component system is conserved, which
leads to the convective diffusion equation.

The solution of equations, resulting from axiom 2, 4 and 5 leads to the

solution of velocity, temperature and concentration profiles. Ones these
profiles are known, all other important information needed can be
determined. We first take the axiom -1. Other axioms will be taken up one
by one letter on.
There are three types of control volumes (CV) which may be chosen for
deriving the equations based these axioms.
 Rectangular shaped control volume fixed in space

In this case, the control volume is rectangular volume element and is

fixed in space. This method is the easiest to understand but requires
more number of steps.

 Irregular shaped control volume element fixed in space

In this case, the control volume can be of any shape, but it is again
fixed in space. This method is somewhat more difficult than the
previous method as it requires little better understanding vector
analysis and surface and volume integrals.

 Material volume approach

In this case, the control volume can be of any shape but moves with
the velocity of the flowing fluid. This method is most difficult in terms
of mathematics, but requires least number of steps for deriving the
equations.
 
All three approaches when applied to above axiom, lead to the same
equations. In this web course, we follow the first approach. Other
approaches may be found elsewhere.
Axioms-1
 
Mass is conserved
Consider a fluid of density ρ flowing with velocity  as shown in Fig. 8.4.
Here, ρ and  are functions of space (x,y,z) and time (t). For conversion of
mass, the rate of mass entering and leaving from the control volume (net
rate of inflow) has to be evaluated and this should be equal to the rate of
accumulation of mass in the control volume (CV). Thus, conservation of
mass may be written in words as given below
 

Fig 8.4 Fixed rectangular volume element through which fluid is

flowing
 
The equation is then divided by the volume of the CV and converted into a
partial differential equation by taking the limit as all dimensions go to zero.
This limit effectively means that CV collapses to a point, thereby making the
equation valid at every point in the system.
 
Let m and m+Δm be the mass of the control volume at
time t and t+Δt respectively. Then, the rate of accumulation,
 

 
In order to evaluate the rate of inflow of mass into the control volume, we
need to inspect how mass enters the control volume. Since the fluid velocity
has three components vx, vy and vz, we need to identify the components
which cause the inflow or the outflow at each of the six faces of the
rectangular CV. For example, it is the component vx which forces the fluid to
flow in the x direction, and thus it makes the fluid enter or exit through the
faces having area ΔyΔz at x = x and x = x+Δx respectively. The
component vy forces the fluid in y direction, and thus it makes the fluid enter
or exit through the faces having area ΔxΔz at y = y and y = y+Δy
respectively. Similarly, the component vz forces the fluid to flow
in z direction, and thus it makes fluid enter or exit through the faces having
area ΔxΔy at z = z and z = z+Δ z respectively.
 
The rate mass entering in x direction through the surface ΔyΔz is (ρvxΔyΔz|
x), the rate of mass entering in y direction through the surface ΔxΔz is

(ρvyΔxΔz|y) and the rate of mass entering from z direction through the

surface ΔxΔy is (ρvzΔxΔy|z). In a similar manner, expressions for the rate of
mass leaving from the control volume may be written.
 
Thus, the conservation of mass leads to the following expressions

 
Dividing the Equation (8.1) by the volume ΔxΔyΔz, we obtain

 
Note that each term in Equation (8.2) has the unit of mass per unit volume
per unit time. Now, taking the limits Δx→0, Δy→0 and Δz→0, we get
 

 
and using the definition of derivative, we finally obtain
 

 
Equation (8.4) is applicable to each point of the fluid. Rearranging the terms,
we get the equation of continuity, may be written as given below.
 
 
 

 
We need not to derive the equation of continuity again and again in other
coordinate system (that is, spherical or cylindrical). The idea is to rewrite
Equation (8.5) in vector and tensor form. Once it is written in this form, the
same equation may be applied to other coordinate system as well. Thus, the
Equation (8.5) may be rewritten in vector and tensor form as shown below.
 

 
Vector and tensor analysis of cylindrical and spherical coordinate systems is
not done here, and can be looked up elsewhere. Thus, the final expressions
in cylindrical and spherical coordinates are given as below.
 
cylindrical coordinates (r, θ, z)
 

 
Spherical coordinates (r, θ, φ)
 

 
Equation of continuity in terms of substantial derivative
 
The second term in Equation (8.6) may be broken into two parts as shown
below. Partial derivative present in the Equation (8.6) can be converted into
substantial derivative using vector and tensor identities.
 
 
In the above equation, the first two terms may be combined using the
definition of substantial derivative to obtain the following equation.

 
In some cases, the fluid may be incompressible, i.e. density ρ is a constant
with time as well as space coordinates. For example, water may be assumed
as an incompressible fluid under isothermal conditions. In fact, all liquids
may be assumed as incompressible fluids under isothermal conditions. For
this special case, the equation of continuity may be further simplified as
shown below
 

The above equation for an incompressible fluid does not mean that the
system is under steady state conditions. The velocity of the fluid may still be
a function of time. It only implies that if the velocity of the fluid changes in a
particular direction (x, y or z) then it should also change in the other
directions such that mass is conserved without changing its density. The
equation of continuity provides additional information about the velocity
profile and helps in solution of equation of motion.
 Axiom-2
 
Momentum is conserved
 
The second axiom of transport phenomena is "the
momentum is conserved". This means that the rate of
change of momentum in a CV is equal to the summation of
all applied forces and the net rate of inflow of momentum by
convection (when a fluid enters the control volume, it brings
momentum into the control volume (CV), and when it leaves
the control volume, it takes momentum away from the
control volume). Therefore, the conservation momentum
may be written in words as given below.
 
 
 

 
The forces which are encountered in fluid systems are mainly
of two types:
1. Body force: A body force depends on the mass and
acts on the whole volume of the system. The most
common example of a body force is the force due to
gravity.
2. Surface force: A surface force does not depend on the
mass of the system but rather acts on surfaces and is
therefore proportional to the area of the surface.
Surface forces may be further classified into two types:

a. Pressure forces

b. Shear force (due to deformation of the fluid or

velocity gradients)
 
Pressure force is equal to the product of pressure and the
area of surface on which it acts. The direction of pressure
force is always inwards to a given control volume. Therefore,
it works as the compression force.
 
Shear forces are the surface forces which are acting on
different surfaces of a control volume. To define a shear

stress tensor, consider a shear force   acting on a surface

whose unit normal unit vector is  . The shear stress

tensor  can now be defined as shown below.

 

 
In cartesian coordinate systems (for rectangular control
volume), the unit normal vectors are in x, y, and z directions
respectively. Now, consider a surface which has its outward
normal in the x direction(This surface is called x directed
surface or simply x surface). Since the fluid is present

outside the control volume, it will apply a shear force   on

the surface, which is given by the Equation (9.2) as shown
below,
 

Using compaction operation, we have

 

 
Since j is a dummy index there is a summation sign
over j and when we expand it over j we obtain the following
expression.

 
Therefore, interpretation of  ,   and   may be
understood as component of forces acting on a surface
whose outer normal is in x direction. Similarly, we can write,
  and Th
us, we can conclude that there are 9 components of shear
stress as given below:
 
 
 

 
It may be noted that earlier we had seen only one
component of shear stress in the Newton’s law of viscosity
for one-dimensional flow. For better understanding, consider
the Newton's experiment where a fluid is filled between two
parallel plates separated by a distance h. As we apply the
force F in the x direction (along the length of the plate),
there may be 9 components of shear stress but the fluid is
moving in x direction only. Therefore, only those components
of stress tensor are important in momentum balance which

indicate x directed shear forces, that is  ,   and 

. Since, no solid surface is present in x and z directions which
can provide a velocity gradient because of no-slip boundary
condition, there is no velocity gradient present in these

direction. Thus,  is the only non-zero component of the

shear stress tensor in the Newton's law of viscosity

experiment. As discussed earlier   may also be regarded

as the momentum flux. The interpretation is that it
is y directed momentum (fluid layers are moving
in y direction) flowing in x direction from higher momentum
to lower momentum values. Thus,