The Nautical Institute Mooring and Anchoring Ships Vol 2 Inspection and Maintenance W. Vervloesem AMNI Foreword by Mr E E Mitropoulos Secretary General IMOMOORING AND ANCHORING SHIPS Volume 2 INSPECTION & MAINTENANCE by Walter Vervloesem AMNI Published by The Nautical Instivute 202 Lambeth Road, London SE1 7LQ, England ‘Telephone +44 (0)207 928 1351 Fax +44 (0)207 401 2817 First edition published 2009 Copyright ©The Nautical Institute 2009 Al rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form, by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher, except for the quotation of brief passages in reviews. Although great care has been taken with the writing of the book and production of the volume, neither The Nautical Institute nor the author can accept any responsibility for errors or omissions or their consequences. “The book has been prepared to address the subject of mooring and anchoring ships, inspection and maintenance. This should not, however, be taken to mean that this document deals comprehensively with all of the concerns that will need to be addressed or even, where a particular matter is addressed, that this document sets out the only definitive view for all situations. The opinions expressed are those of the author only and are not necessarily to be taken as the policies or views of any organisation with which he has any connection, Readers should make themselvesaware of any local, nacional or international changes to bylaws, legislation, statutory and administrative requirements that have beea introduced which might affect any decisions taken on board. ‘Typesetting and layout by: JA Hepworth FNI 1 Ropers Court, Lavenham, Suffolk CO10 9PU, England ‘wwwhepworth-computer-services.co.uk and Jacamar (UK) Limited ‘Weaver House, Forestside, Rowlands Castle PO9 6EQ, England ‘wwwejacamar.co.uk Cover design by: Jim Judd, Tradeset UK Printed in England by Newnorth Print Lid. T: 01234 333718 Is IN 978 1 870077 941 ii, THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTEFOREWORD by Efthimios E, Mitropoulos Secretary-General, International Maritime Organization E fry time a ship enters port, 2 mooring operation. ensues. Pethaps, because of its routine nature, there has been lictle formal presentation of this essential activity, and practices have been handed down from one generation of owners and seafarers to the next. However, when new ship types evolve and new equipment is developed or innovative port and terminal design ideas see che light of day, it becomes essential to have definitive guidance from which to introduce new and appropriate working practices. In this context, designers need to know the properties of the wires and ropes that are going to be used for mooring before they can specify the performance standards of the mooring equipment and the way the lines are to be deployed. On the other hand, seafarers, schen confronted with new mooring equipment, need, to know how it operates and the key factors relating to safe working practices. There are issues, 100, for port operators who need to provide safe berths with adequate mooring facilities which are compatible ‘with the type of ship using the pore and the ship's own mooring methods. To rake onc example concerning the interface between ship and shore, fendering is used today in many different ways and its provision is based on complex science, The use of compressible fenders with self tensioning mooring winches introduces a whole new range of operational considerations which did not exist in the days when ships simply went alongside solid dock walls. ‘At IMO we have been concerned about safety in mooring operations since we were approached by the International Harbour Masters’ Association (hich had conducted a survey among its members) with a proposal co study the subject and develop appropriate standards. Following this, the International Chamber of Shipping (ICS) undertook to provide IMO with definitive ‘guidance and, at the same time, ‘The Nautical Institute recognised the need for a major project ro provide a book that could become an authoritative reference on the topic. ‘The cooperation between The Nautical Institute and the ICS has resulted in these remarkable volumes. This involved a collaborative venture of considerable complexity covering a subject which has never before been fully explained. It isto the credit of The Nautical Insticute, the authors and the ICS chat this project has come to fruition. The presentation of the material, cogether with its hhclpful illustrations, means that the information the books provide is readily accessible for use by the scafuter aboard ship. The texts also provide an ideal basis for developing eraining programmes and safe ‘working procedures. Accompanying the descriptions of principlesand practicein Volume | isa photographic record of both good and bad practices in Volume 2. ‘These illustrations aim to demonstrate how wear and rear can downgrade the safety integrity of mooring systems if they are not properly maintained. Ie is always a pleasure for me to recognise an industry- wide team effort to produce useful and original work and I know how hard it can be co cross borders and cover interdiseiplinary areas. What is so appealing about this projects the fact that itis directed primarily at the mariner who, ultimately, has to use the ropes, wires and equipment to best advantage in all sorts of different ports and in varying weather conditions — and use them in a prudene and cautious manner to) prevent casualties My congratulations go to the authors lan Clark (Volume 1) and Walter Vervloesem (Volume 2) on achieving such a comprehensive insight into a complex and wide-ranging subject such as mooring, MOORING & ANCHORING SHIPS (Vol. 2) iiINTRODUCTION the mate saw the tension coming on the line, saw i part, but never heard it. There have been many accidents where mooring and tug lines have parted with lightening speed and devastating consequences. Could the death of the mate, AB and ‘Chippy’ on, the windlass have been avoided? What pur them into that vulnerable position in the first place and what remedies were available? “The shock breaking of a steel hawser extended by ‘one metre due to tension contains an enormous store of energy which is instantly converted into kinetic recoil. The Aaying end is not really predictable. Not surprisingly, there isa rule on all tug boats that nobody stands on the working deck when the tug has the tow line under tension. For a ship, though, the situation is not so simple. Other tasks have to be performed at the ‘mooring stations and seamen can have their minds on other things. Berthing and unberthing are complex operations and need to be planned. Each operation has its own circumstances, affected by variations in environmental conditions, the configuration of quays, the availability of tugs, the capability of the crew and the ship's characteristics. Having procedures will help to ensure that there is effective command and control. Procedures need t0 take account of all engaged in the operation, including, the pilot whose orders directly affect the operation. In this context a simple mooring plan helps to provide clarity of purpose, economy of effort and a positive response to contingencies Because of the forces involved it is essential char safe practices are adopted at all times and good habits reinforced so that if the unexpected happens no injury will occur, Mooring is teamwork and each individual needs to know the capability and limitations of their equipment. Because there are three (sometimes ‘more) areas of operation — bow, stern and bridge, it is essential to have effective communications linking the operation through the bridge. Regular use and exceptional loadings lead to wear and tear, It is essential to have a regular programme of inspection and to maintain, replace or repair any deficiencies Officers and crew who may change frequently need sound training in the practice of mooring, based upon the physical principles of the forces involved and be familiar with the equipment, controls and ‘communications of their particular ship. This guide is directed to masters, officers and pilots and has as its aim to provide information which will enable those in responsible positions on board to monitor, control and carry out mooring operations safely and efficiently. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author wishes to acknowledge assistance and cooperation with the supply of information from: Bexco n.x/sa. — Hamme (Belgium) Casar drahtscilwerk Saar GmbH (Germany) Mennens n.v. = Zwijndrecht (Belgium) ‘The author further wishes to thank: Lt. Cdr. J.A. Hepworth, Javafame Computer Services, for his valued and professional assistance over the last 10 years and for setting up the layout of this Volume A.Hunt, Jacamar, for the final layout of this Volume Mr. Crombez ~ Brusselle Marine Industries for informacion received iv THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE Mr I. Clark ~ author of “The Nautical Institute on Moorings - Vol. 1’, for his feedback Mr. C. J. Parker retired publisher of The Nautical Institute, for initiating this project Bridget Hogan, Director of Publishing and Marketing of The Nautical Institute, for her help and assistance during the completion of this Volume Capt. ¥. Beeckman and Capt. M. Van der Voort, ‘members of the Belgain Branch of The Nautical Insticute, for their help and assistance with towing issues His wife and children for their patience, understanding and support during the writing of this bookBIBLIOGRAPHY Code of Safe Working Practices ~ MCA (April 2006), Deck Seamanship ~ (Compass Seacadets) Fibre rape inspection and retiremene criteria (Cordage Institute Int. Guideline — CI 2001-04) 3 Guidelines for Mooring Arrangements (1992) ~ Secberufsgenossenschaft Hamburg FM 55-501 - Ground ackle TACS Rec. 1984/Corr.2004/Rev.2 2005 — N° 10 (Equipment) IACS Rec. 2003 — July 2007 — N° 79 - Guidelines for Securing by Welding of Chain Cable Studs in Service TACS Int. 2006/Cors.1 2007 - SC212 (Sept.2006) (Cort. July 2007) Shipboard fittings and supporting hull structures associated with towing and mooring on conventional vessels IACS Req. 1981/Rev.5 2005 A1(1981)(Rev. 11987) (Rev. 21992) (Rev. 31994) (Rev. 4ug.1999) (Rev.5June2005): Equipment TACS Req, 2004/Rev.3 2007A2(Jan2004) (Corr.1 Feb2004) (Rev. 1July2004) (Rev. 2Sept2006) (Rew.3]uly2007) Shipboard fittings and supporting hull scruccures associated with towing and mooring, con conventional vessels TACS Req. 2002/Rev. 2 2003S 27(Nov.2002) (Rev. March2003) (Cort IJuly 2003) (Rex.2Nov.2003): Strength requirements for deck fittings and equipment IACS Req, 2002/ Rev.2 2005L4(Nov. 2002) (Rew. ‘uly 2003) (Rev.2Nov. 2005): Closure of chain lockers IACS Req.1988 / Rev.5 2004(Rev 11997) (Rev. 2uly1999) (Rev.3fuly2002) (Rev.4July2003) (Rev.SMay 2004): Anchor chain cables and accessories including chafing chain for emergency towing arrangements IACS Req.W29 (June2005): Requirements for manufacture of anchors Lloyds Register Chronology of Anchor Chain IMO MSC.1/Cite.1255 27 May 2008: Guidelines for owneis/operators on preparing emergency towing, procedures MSC/Cire.1175 24 May 2005: Guidance on shipboard towing and mooring equipment IMO Resolution MSC 35(63) (Adopted 20 may 1994): Adoption of guidelines for emergency towing arrangements on tankers (Annex 7) IMO Resolution MSC 132(73) (Adopted on22 May 2002): Adoption of amendments to the guidelines for emergency towing arrangements on tankers (Annex 25) IMO Resolution MSC 137(76) (Adopted on 4 December 2002): Standards for ship manoeuvrability (Annex 6) IMO Resolution MSC 194(80) (adopted on 20 May 2005): Adoption of amendments to the international convention for the safety of life at sea, 1974, as amended MCGA-hsc_chapter6_2000_is EU Directive on Marine Equipment (96/98/EC): Anchoring, towing and berthing MGN 308 (M+E) Mooring, towing or hauling equipment on all vessels ~ safe installation and safe operation ‘Mooring Equipment Guidelines ~ Second Edition 1997 (OCIMF) Mooring Equipment Guidelines ~ Third Edition 2008 (OCIMF) Mooring Operations (Dec. 2003) — P&O/Princess Cruises Ship Inspection report (SIRE) Programme (OCIMF) Ship Knowledge — A Modern Encyclopedia — K. Van Dokkum “The Boatswain's Manual ~ Capt. A.G.W. Miller (1984) “The Maritime Progress Book Zeemanschap voor de grote Handelsvaatt —S.P. De Boer/J.A. Schaap Various articles, documents form Internet Author’ apologies for any inadvertent omissions in this list MOORING & ANCHORING SHIPS (Vol. 2) vPUBLISHER’S NOTE Overview pf the mooring project ‘When the International Harbour Masters’ Association undertook a major worldwide survey of its members into mooring accidents and incidents in 2004, ic concluded that mooring incidents were increasing Is paper was submitted to the IMO and discussions revealed there was little practical guidance on the subject thar could directly help to reduce the level of incidents ‘The Nautical Insticute was also concerned about the growing number of injuries and fatalities sustained during mooring operations reported to its confidential Maviner’s Alerting and Reporting Scheme (MARS) and articles in its monthly journal Seaways. Sadies mooring accidents that had heen investigated by maritime authorities and che records of a major P&I club. Contributory factors included: crews unaware of dangers; poor equipment maintenance; unsuitable mooring decks design of; equipment used wrongly; tugs caught in difficule positions unable to escape; poor communications; larger ships; equipment not suitable for the new technology ropes, smaller crews and less experienced supervision. The International Chamber of Shipping (ICS) led ‘an initiative, supported by other non-governmental organisations affliated co the IMO, to develop a publication to address the principles behind mooring ‘operations, safe working practices and the maintenance of mooring equipment — aimed at all classes of vessel. Cargo vessels experience more diversity than tankers in the variety of port facilities they encounter and generally need mooring systems appropriate co their trade, it was argued. “The Institute's review revealed chat «raditional seamanship books do not adequately address mooring, issues of new technology and modem working practices. The technical standards for mooring, equipment as specified by IMO, IACS, ISO and BSI and governmental notices from different marine administrations needed revision to bring them into fine with each other and to bring them up to date with current industry best practice “The principal industry source to cover this subject, The Mooring Equipment Guide, is published by The Oil Companies International Marine Forum, now on its third edition. This authoritative book is aimed primarily atthe safe mooring of tankers and gas carriers ac tanker terminals. Ie gives theoretical calculations for mooring functions and provides extensive informacion, con mooring systems design and equipment standards vi THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE ‘The work formed an essential element in preparation of the Insitute’ study and every effort has been made through cooperation with OCIMF to ensure there is compatibility in established principles. ‘The mooring and anchoring project “The Institute therefore commissioned a major work: into the subject of mooring and anchoring ships to provide information on principles and safe working practices. It would also demonstrate what to look for when inspecting and maintaining mooring equipment. Consultation “The consultation in the development of these two volumes has been very extensive, involving masters and pilots of different vessels and trades; rope and wire manufacturers; equipment _ manufacturers; classification societies; pore authorities; government administrations; international bodies; shipping companies and individual specialists. ‘The challenge for the authors, Ian Clark and Walter Vervloesem, was to assimilate this extensive information and present it ima seamanlike way. Volume 1 ‘The text is built around extensive and detailed illustrations, Chapter 1 examines the forces acting on a ship including static loads and the dynamic forces encountered with gusts, surges and interaction. Chapter 2 looks at mooring line patterns and effective ‘ways of deploying mooring lines to best advantage. Chapter 3 covers mooring equipment and ship fictings. Chapter 4 examines mooring equipment and its use for ships firted with dedicated mooring winches. Chapter 5 describes how to conduct routine ‘mooring operations for berthing and un-berthing, moving ship and the safety considerations implicie in those operations. Chapter 6 covers anchoring, and anchoring equipment. There are also annexes covering personal safety; single point mooring: shore- based mooring systems; access arrangements and the ‘maintenance of mooring lines and equipment as an introduction to Volume 2. The two volumes can be bought separately or as a pair. Any reader who identifies an omission which, in their views should be included in any furure editions, is encouraged co contribuce an explanation co the publisher at [email protected]. CJ Parker OBE FNI Ex-Publisher and originator of the project at ‘The Nautical Institute Octobes, 2009AUTHOR'S FOREWORD ‘We all know thas about 90% of goods are transported by ships. Whar many people do not know or realise is thac ships, before being able co load or discharge their cargocs, and bring wealth to nations worldwide, have to enter port and tie up alongside the loading terminals, remain properly moored throughout the cargo operations and eventually cast off and sail away to the next port of destination. Sometimes, ships may have to use their anchors for manoeuvring, mooring the ship to the seabed pending permission to enter port, carrying our further cleaning before loading the next intended cargo, or when draft restrictions do not allow pore entry and requite loading or discharge co take place at the roads The size and weight of mooring and anchoring equipment, together wich che fact thar they require purpose buile and rotating high power deck ‘equipment, make mooring and anchoring operations one of the most dangerous and difficult operations aboard ships. Failure of equipment as a result from, overloading or improper maintenance, poor mooring, techniques or anchoring practices has resulted in loss of life and limb and has been at the base of delays, breakaway incidents, damage to quay and terminals. Most readers of this book will remember some rear misses ot accidents whereby mooring ropes or ‘mooring equipment failed. During my career as ship inspector, [ have identified many cases when poor ‘maintenance and poor mooring practices added up to accidents waiting to happen. During subsequent discussions with ships’ staff and crews I found chat poor maintenance and bad practice were very often the resule from unfamiliarity with mooring systems, lack of understanding of forces acting on mooring ‘equipment, reduced crew, new or wrong types of ropes, bad design, poor communication between the crew and shore personnelilinesman, and last but not lease, time pressure. Despite efforts made by some companies to install good maintenance and safe mooring practices on board, problems, deficiencies and bad practice are still frequently identified during ship inspections ot mooring relaced claim investigations. ‘The fact that problems are identified on almost every ship is an indication that good maintenance, proper inspection and safe operation practices are not only overlooked by those in charge of the mooring stations, bur are actually systematically being overlooked by all involved — ships staff, superintendents, lass, flagscates and PSC. This further shows the need to provide specific information on mooring practices and mooring equipment. It also underpins the reed for the subject of mooring to be addressed by all interested parties chroughout the intemational shipping industry. The fact that, following an inquiry from the International Chamber of Shipping into bad mooring practices. The Nautical Institute was requested to publish a book on the subjece of moorings makes ie clear chat che importance of mooring equipment maintenance and operation has been identified by the industry and that there is the will to make inroads towards an enhanced mooring awareness campaign throughout all levels in our industry, from shipyards, manufacturers, shipping companies and superineendents to ship board crew and industry inspectors. I was honoured of being asked 0 contribute to this challenging project by The Nautical Institute in 2005 and although I knew it would be a major task to complete the present Volume, I decided to write this book in the anticipation and hope that it will be of value to those engaged in the maintenance, operation, and inspection of mooring equipment, and result in enhanced safety on the mooring stations and help shipboard crew to get moorings right from the first time, every time, all the time. Walter Vervloesem (AMNI) Antwerp 24th September 2009 MOORING & ANCHORING SHIPS (Vol. 2) vilCONTENTS Foreword... Incroduction . Acknowledgements nnn Bibliography. Publisher's Note. Author's Foreword sn vit Chapter page 1 Mooring ropes... 2 Mooring wires... 3 Mooring winches. 4 Windlasses... 5 Ground tackle and anchoring equipment... 6 Shipboard fittings. 185 7 Towing operations .. 217 Index page Lise of illustrations... Index vai THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTEChapter 1 MOORING ROPES Natural fibre ropes Synthetic fibre ropes Rope design/conseru: Rope properties Static properties . + Breaking strengeh . * Elongation + Static bending = Giep Dynamic properties + Tension fatigue + Bending fatigue + Yarn abrasion Selecting the right rope for the job = Rope strength — Weight (Hoating/non-floating) . — UV resistance . Abrasion resistance Water absorption Handling Melting point ‘Temperature resistance (Chemical resistance Colour Splicing possibility Diameter Y Conseruction . Elasticity . ‘Working loads and safe working loads . Shock loads . ~ Bending ~ Rotation/twise — Economic factors Availability Storing ropes after use Inspecting ropes — Abrasion damage ~ Temperature damage ~ Crushing/pinching damage = Stiffness ~ Pulled yarns = Cat yarns ~ Inconsistent diameter = Kinks, hockles and twist damage ~ Discolouration Estimating residual strength after damage Rope repairs and downgrading, ~ Downgrading = Local repairs and downgrading, = Cursing away the damaged pare Splicing + Splicing of parted ends (end-to-end splices) + Damaged eye + The use of spliced mooring ropes ~ Knots Rope retirement Rope replacement Rope disposal “The use of shackles and cow hitches Receiving new ropes on board MOORING & ANCHORING SHIPS (Vol. 2) 1Mooring ropes i the marine industry, many different rypes of ropes are used for different purposes, Ropes are generally made from vegetable fibres, man made fibre of metallic wires. This section provides some additional information on ropes that are either made up of natural fibres or synthetic (man-made) fibres. Natural fibre ropes Any type of fibrous material can be used for spinning shore lengths of fibrous material together to form yarns which, in their turn, can be used to make strands and finally ropes. The main types of nacural fibres that are used are manila, hemp, coir and sisal In ancient times, natural fibre ropes were used for all applications for which ropes were required. Nowadays, however, natural fibre rapes are being replaced more and more by ropes made of synthetic (also referred to as man-made) fibres. The use of natural fibre rope may still be prefered when environmental issues are concerned or when a firm grip is required, since ‘most natural fibres have a rather rough texcure which provides a better grip. “The most frequently used type of natural fibre rope that we find on board today is manila rope, made from Musa Textilis/Abaca fibres (banana family) but named afcer,and commonly known as, the port in the Philippines from where it was exported ~ Manila. This is used for pilot ladders, manropes and various nets ~ helicopter nets and score nets. Ths is because its rather rough texture provides a good grip even when the rope is wet. Also, when there is a possiblity of exposure to fire, manila rope may be selected because ofits capacity to withstand heat and fire well. As manila rope will not rot, it does not need to be tarred and forms a durable and strong type of rope. However, manila rope will swell when wet — a disadvantage, especially when the ‘manila rope has to run over sheaves or through blocks. Also, when a new manila rope is used; one should realise chat ie will stretch by between 20-30%. Hemp ropes, made from the Canabis sativa plane may still be used for small diameter ropes but have generally been replaced by manila ropes. Hemp rope vill not swell when wet, but is subject to rotting and is generally tarred to prevent premature deterioration. Coir is a less well known fibre variery and comes from the coconut palm. Tris less durable than hemp and is very prone to rotting, especially when stowed away when still wer. It is much lighter chan hemp rope and will loac on water. Whilst coir has very good stretch characteristics (up to 40-50%) a coir rope is 2 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE ‘much weaker than a hemp rope ~ only 254% of the strength of a hemp rope of similar construction, Sisal ropes, made from the fibres of the leaves of the American aloé/Agalve sisalana plant, have nearly the same screngch characteristics as hemp, but are not as strong 2s manila. As sisal rope will absorb water it ‘will normally be treared with oil to reduce absorption. Although still used in the yachting industry, cotton rope is of no great importance to the merchant navy Synthetic fibre ropes Nowadays, natural fibre ropes are not used very often for mooring purposes. Their role has been taken over by synthetic fibre ropes, with the fibres are made of polymers. Polymers are molecules which repeat almost indefinitely. Therefore the issue of synthetic ropes is addressed in more detail in this chapter. Synthetic ropes are generally produced from polypropylene, polyester, polyamide (Nylon), aramid (Kevlar!Twaron), polyolefins, liquid crystal polyester (LCP-Vectran) oF gel-spun polyethylene (commonly known as High Modulus Poly Ethylene (HMPE — “Dyneema’,‘Spectra)) Rope design/construction Synthetic ropes are made from polymers which are melted, forced chrough a die and shaped into fibres. ‘These fibres are then grouped together to form a filament (monofilament). The filaments then solidify in air or liquid and are drawn (called ‘spinning’) to orienc the moleculesand increase the tensile strength of the fibre/filament. Yarns are then made by assembling the filaments through ewisting or aligning (aligned yarns will be kept together with an outer jacket or a resin compound). The yarns will next be ewisted to form strands and finally a number of strands will be assembled 1o form the rope of choice. In general, five main types of assembly or rope construction are seen. These are: + Parallel lay (parallel yarns or strands, assembled, together under an outer (braided) jacket). Figure 1A. Parallel ay rape + Laid (generally 34 strand constructions which have @ considerable amount of ewist).Cae Figure 1B Laid rope + Stranded (twisted strands arranged in one or more concentric rings around a cencral core strand (similar co wire rope construction)). SSS Figure 1C Sine rope + Plaited (also known as ‘square braids’, eight stranded ropes (octoplait) of a somewhat square cross section (also multiplaic is available on the market) paar PREBE Figure 1D Plated rope + Braided (che braid consists of an equal number of interwoven clockwise and anti-clockwise strands). Figure 1E Braided ope “The degree of twist in yarns and strands has to be carefully considered at the construction or design stage. Increasing the twist will increase the tightness ofa rope and allow the rope to retain its cross sectional shape, so reducing the possibility of the rope being flattened, yas being caught or hooked behind obstacles and yarns being cut by sharp objects. However, the tighter the twist, the greater the tension in the yarns will be, which reduces the minimum breaking load Furthermore, a closer pitch of the strands in a tightly ‘wisted rope will increase the stretch under a given load. In cases where strict control over the operation is required, increased stretch might be a disadvantage. Rope properties “The basic properties of synthetic fibre ropes greatly depend on the type of fibre selected and it will be the construction of the rope which will determine how efficiently those basic properties can be used. In other words, the rope design can modify the rope ccharacteristies, but it cannot change the fundamental properties or behaviour of the fibre material. Typical basic fibre properties are tensile strength, modulus of elasticity, eemperature resistance (short and continuous exposure) and abrasion resistance (under dry and wet conditions). This means that, for a given application, a specific type of fibre material will have to be selected. Moreover, this material will then have to be processed to give the fibre rope the required characteristics. The art of rope manufacturing and, more specifically, making the perfect rope for a specific application, lies in finding the perfect match between, the fibre properties and the construction of the rope. In order to find this perfect match, rope manufacturers need information and data about the material to be used, the best way of processing it and its behaviour whilst in service. Much information can be obtained from industry data which is grouped into evo main categories ~ static and dynamic rope properties: L Static properties Static properties are defined as the behaviour of a rope under a static or monotonic increasing load. Data about the staic properties of a rope are generally obrained through tests in a laboratory or under controlled and known conditions and are, therefore, of a more theoretical nature. In general, the factors that determine the static properties of a rope are: Breaking strength The strength of a rope is determined by its breaking strength. A rope will be able to withstand a certain load and, once this load limi is exceeded, the rope will break. More scientifically, this means that a rope will bochave elastically up to a certain limiting load beyond, which ie is weakened and likely to break. The strength of che rope will be a function of the fibre material and the construction of the rope, which in curn determine the diameter and weight of the rope. Elongation Constructional or initial elongation of a rope is a non-reversible phenomenon 10 which a rope is subjected when itis first put under load. Ieisa function of the rope design/construction, manufacturing conditions and clements such as splices in the rope. ‘The process of bedding-in of the fibres under the initial load will result in a reduction in yarn diameter. Due to the helical structure of the rope, this will result in elongation of the rope. Load elongation will be different for ropes which are new and for ropes where the fibres have already started to be bedded-in. The clongation effect for a given load will reduce with the use of the rope, but the breaking load will remain about the same. MOORING & ANCHORING SHIPS (Vol. 2) 3Static bending “The maximum load a rope can take is determined by a combination of longicudinal and lateral toad. ‘When a rope is bene around a pin (or similar shaped contrivance such as a bollard, btt, Panama chock, etc), the rope strength will be adversely affected because the longicudinal load will be reduced whereas the lateral stresses will increase under the influence of bending. “The resulting loss in efficiency from bending of a laid ‘or braided rope is a function of the diameter of the pin and the diameter of the rope and can be calculated a follows: Efficiency 054 I D(pin)/d(rope) ‘This means that the loss in efficiency of a mooring rope passing over a bollard with a large diameter will be less than if the rope were to be placed over a bollard with a smaller diameter. ‘When talking about efficiency loss in a rope which. is bent or in an eye (which is an extreme bend), one should actually be asking how much of the strength is lost by passing the rope over a pin, In cases of a soft eye/standard splice termination, like the eye in a mooring rope, the diameter of the pin or bollard should be at least rwice the diameter of the rope which will result in a strength efficiency of 65% per leg (or