BREVE HISTORIA DEL DESCUBRIMIENTO DE LA ACTIVIDAD ELÉCTRICA EN EL CEREBRO

Acoustic Brainwave Entrainment with Binaural Beats

Dr. Jeffrey D. Thompson, D.C., B.F.A.

What are Binaural Beats?

Binaural beats are auditory brainstem responses which originate in the superior olivary nucleus of each
hemisphere. They result from the interaction of two different auditory impulses, originating in opposite
ears, below 1000 Hz and which differ in frequency between one and 30 Hz (Oster, 1973).For example,
if a pure tone of 400 Hz is presented to the right ear and a pure tone of 410 Hz is presented
simultaneously to the left ear, an amplitude modulated standing wave of 10 Hz, the difference between
the two tones, is experienced as the two wave forms mesh in and out of phase within the superior
olivary nuclei. This binaural beat is not heard in the ordinary sense of the word (the human range of
hearing is from 20-20,000 Hz). It is perceived as an auditory beat and theoretically can be used to
entrain specific neural rhythms through the frequency-following response (FFR)--the tendency for
cortical potentials to entrain to or resonate at the frequency of an external stimulus. Thus, it is
theoretically possible to utilize a specific binaural-beat frequency as a consciousness management
technique to entrain a specific cortical rhythm.  

The "Frequency-Following Response" Effect.

The binaural-beat appears to be associated with an electroencephalographic (EEG) frequency-
following response in the brain (3). Many studies have demonstrated the presence of a
frequency-following response to auditory stimuli, recorded at the vertex of the human brain (top
of the head). This EEG activity was termed "frequency-following response" because its period
corresponds to the fundamental frequency of the stimulus (Smith, Marsh, & Brown, 1975).
Binaural-beat stimulation appears to encourage access to altered states of consciousness.

Various Uses

Various Uses of Audio with Embedded Binaural Beats

Uses of audio with embedded binaural beats that are mixed with music or various pink or
background sound are diverse. They range from relaxation, meditation, stress reduction, pain
management, improved sleep quality, decrease in sleep requirements, super learning, enhanced
creativity and intuition, remote viewing, telepathy, and out-of-body experience and lucid
dreaming. Audio embedded with binaural beats is often combined with various meditation
techniques, as well as positive affirmations and visualization.

Resonant Entrainment of Oscillating Systems

Resonant entrainment of oscillating systems is a well-understood principle within the physical
sciences. If a tuning fork designed to produce a frequency of 440 Hz is struck (causing it to
oscillate) and then brought into the vicinity of another 440 Hz tuning fork, the second tuning
 fork will begin to oscillate. The first tuning fork is said to have entrained the second or caused it
to resonate. The physics of entrainment apply to bio-systems as well. Of interest here are the
electromagnetic brain waves. The electrochemical activity of the brain results in the production
of electromagnetic wave forms which can be objectively measured with sensitive equipment.
Brain waves change frequencies based on neural activity within the brain. Because neural
activity is electrochemical, brain function can be modified through the introduction of specific
chemicals (drugs), by altering the brain's electromagnetic environment through induction, or
through resonant entrainment techniques.

The Discovery of Binaural Beats

Binaural beats were discovered in 1839 by a German experimenter, H. W. Dove. The human
ability to "hear" binaural beats appears to be the result of evolutionary adaptation. Many
evolved species can detect binaural beats because of their brain structure. The frequencies at
which binaural beats can be detected change depending upon the size of the species' cranium. In
the human, binaural beats can be detected when carrier waves are below approximately 1000
Hz (Oster, 1973). Below 1000 Hz the wave length of the signal is longer than the diameter of
the human skull. Thus, signals below 1000 Hz curve around the skull by diffraction. The same
effect can be observed with radio wave propagation. Lower-frequency (longer wave length)
radio waves (such as AM radio) travel around the earth over and in between mountains and
structures. Higher-frequency (shorter wave length) radio waves (such as FM radio, TV, and
microwaves) travel in a straight line and can't curve around the earth. Mountains and structures
block these high-frequency signals. Because frequencies below 1000 Hz curve around the skull,
incoming signals below 1000 Hz are heard by both ears. But due to the distance between the
ears, the brain "hears" the inputs from the ears as out of phase with each other. As the sound
wave passes around the skull, each ear gets a different portion of the wave. It is this waveform
phase difference that allows for accurate location of sounds below 1000 Hz(9). Audio direction
finding at higher frequencies is less accurate than it is for frequencies below 1000 Hz. At 8000
Hz the pinna (external ear) becomes effective as an aid to localization. In summary it's the
ability of the brain to detect a waveform phase difference is what enables it to perceive binaural
beats.

How It Works on the Brain

How It Works on the Brain

When signals of two different frequencies are presented, one to each ear, the brain detects phase
differences between these signals. "Under natural circumstances a detected phase difference
would provide directional information. The brain processes this anomalous information
differently when these phase differences are heard with stereo headphones or speakers. A
perceptual integration of the two signals takes place, producing the sensation of a third "beat"
frequency. The difference between the signals waxes and wanes as the two different input
frequencies mesh in and out of phase. As a result of these constantly increasing and decreasing
differences, an amplitude-modulated standing wave -the binaural beat- is heard. The binaural
beat is perceived as a fluctuating rhythm at the frequency of the difference between the two
auditory inputs. Evidence suggests that the binaural beats are generated in the brainstem's
superior olivary nucleus, the first site of contra-lateral integration in the auditory system (Oster,
 1973). Studies also suggest that the frequency-following response originates from the inferior
colliculus (Smith, Marsh, & Brown, 1975)" (Owens & Atwater, 1995). This activity is
conducted to the cortex where it can be recorded by scalp electrodes.  

Altered States
Binaural beats can easily be heard at the low frequencies (< 30 Hz) that are characteristic of the
EEG spectrum (Oster, 1973). This perceptual phenomenon of binaural beating and the objective
measurement of the frequency-following response (Hink, Kodera, Yamada, Kaga, & Suzuki,
1980) suggest conditions which facilitate entrainment of brain waves and altered states of
consciousness. There have been numerous anecdotal reports and a growing number of research
efforts reporting changes in consciousness associated with binaural-beats. "The subjective effect
of listening to binaural beats may be relaxing or stimulating, depending on the frequency of the
binaural-beat stimulation" (Owens & Atwater, 1995). Binaural beats in the delta (1 to 4 Hz) and
theta (4 to 8 Hz) ranges have been associated with reports of relaxed, meditative, and creative
states (Hiew, 1995), and used as an aid to falling asleep. Binaural beats in the alpha frequencies
(8 to 12 Hz) have increased alpha brain waves (Foster, 1990) and binaural beats in the beta
frequencies (typically 16 to 24 Hz) have been associated with reports of increased concentration
or alertness (Monroe, 1985) and improved memory (Kennerly, 1994).
Passively listening to binaural beats may not spontaneously propel you into an altered state of
consciousness. One's subjective experience in response to binaural-beat stimulation may also be
influenced by a number of mediating factors. For example, the willingness and ability of the
listener to relax and focus attention may contribute to binaural-beat effectiveness in inducing
state changes. "Ultradian rhythms in the nervous system are characterized by periodic changes
in arousal and states of consciousness (Rossi, 1986).
(Shannahoff-Khalsa, 1991; Webb & Dube, 1981). These naturally occurring shifts may underlie
the anecdotal reports of fluctuations in the effectiveness of binaural beats. External factors are
also thought to play roles in mediating the effects of binaural beats (Owens & Atwater, 1995).
The perception of a binaural beat is, for example, said to be heightened by the addition of white
noise to the carrier signal (Oster, 1973), so white noise is often used as background. "Music,
relaxation exercises, guided imagery, and verbal suggestion have all been used to enhance the
state-changing effects of the binaural beat" (Owens & Atwater, 1995). Other practices such as
humming, toning, breathing exercises, autogenic training, and/or biofeedback can also be used
to interrupt the homeostasis of resistant subjects (Tart, 1975).

Brain Waves & Consciousness

Brain Waves and Consciousness

Controversies concerning the brain, mind, and consciousness have existed since the early Greek
philosophers argued about the nature of the mind-body relationship, and none of these disputes
has been resolved. Modern neurologists have located the mind in the brain and have said that
consciousness is the result of electrochemical neurological activity. There are, however,
growing observations to the contrary. There is no neuro-physiological research which
conclusively shows that the higher levels of mind (intuition, insight, creativity, imagination,
understanding, thought, reasoning, intent, decision, knowing, will, spirit, or soul) are located in
brain tissue (Hunt, 1995). A resolution to the controversies surrounding the higher mind and
consciousness and the mind-body problem in general may need to involve an epistemological
shift to include extra-rational ways of knowing (de Quincey, 1994) and cannot be
comprehended by neuro-chemical brain studies alone. We are in the midst of a revolution
focusing on the study of consciousness (Owens, 1995). Penfield, an eminent contemporary
neurophysiologist, found that the human mind continued to work in spite of the brain's reduced
activity under anesthesia. Brain waves were nearly absent while the mind was just as active as
in the waking state. The only difference was in the content of the conscious experience.
Following Penfield's work, other researchers have reported awareness in comatose patients
(Hunt, 1995) and there is a growing body of evidence which suggests that reduced cortical
arousal while maintaining conscious awareness is possible (Fischer, 1971;West 1980;
Delmonte, 1984; Goleman 1988; Jevning, Wallace, & Beidenbach, 1992; Wallace, 1986;
Mavromatis, 1991). These states are variously referred to as meditative, trance, altered,
hypnogogic, hypnotic, and twilight-learning states (Budzynski, 1986). Broadly defined, the
various forms of altered states rest on the maintenance of conscious awareness in a
physiologically reduced state of arousal marked by parasympathetic dominance (Mavromatis,
1991). Recent physiological studies of highly hypnotizable subjects and adept meditators
indicate that maintaining awareness with reduced cortical arousal is indeed possible in selected
individuals as a natural ability or as an acquired skill (Sabourin, Cutcomb, Crawford, &
Pribram, 1993). More and more scientists are expressing doubts about the neurologists' brain-
mind model because it fails to answer so many questions about our ordinary experiences, as
well as evading our mystical and spiritual ones. The scientific evidence supporting the
phenomenon of remote viewing alone is sufficient to show that mind-consciousness is not a
local phenomenon (McMoneagle, 1993).  
If mind-consciousness is not the brain, why then does science relate states of consciousness and
mental functioning to Brainwave frequencies? And how is it that audio with embedded binaural
beats alters brain waves? The first question can be answered in terms of instrumentation. There
is no objective way to measure mind or consciousness with an instrument. Mind-consciousness
appears to be a field phenomenon which interfaces with the body and the neurological
structures of the brain (Hunt, 1995). One cannot measure this field directly with current
instrumentation. On the other hand, the electrical potentials of brain waves can be measured and
easily quantified. Contemporary science likes things that can be measured and quantified. The
problem here lies in oversimplification of the observations. EEG patterns measured on the
cortex are the result of electro-neurological activity of the brain. But the brain's electro-
neurological activity is not mind-consciousness. EEG measurements then are only an indirect
means of assessing the mind-consciousness interface with the neurological structures of the
brain. As crude as this may seem, the EEG has been a reliable way for researchers to estimate
states of consciousness based on the relative proportions of EEG frequencies. Stated another
way, certain EEG patterns have been historically associated with specific states of
consciousness. It is reasonable to assume, given the current EEG literature, that if a specific
EEG pattern emerges it is probably accompanied by a particular state of consciousness.  
As to the second question raised in the above paragraph, audio with embedded binaural beats
alters the electrochemical environment of the brain. This allows mind-consciousness to have
different experiences. When the brain is entrained to lower frequencies and awareness is
maintained, a unique state of consciousness emerges. This state is often referred to as
hypnogogia "mind awake/body asleep."  
 Slightly higher-frequency entrainment can lead to hyper suggestive states of consciousness. Still
higher-frequency EEG states are associated with alert and focused mental activity needed for
the optimal performance of many tasks. Perceived reality changes depending on the state of
consciousness of the perceiver (Tart, 1975). Some states of consciousness provide limited views
of reality, while others provide an expanded awareness of reality. For the most part, states of
consciousness change in response to the ever-changing internal environment and surrounding
stimulation. For example, states of consciousness are subject to influences like drugs and
circadian and ultradian rhythms (Rossi, 1986; Shannahoff-Khalsa, 1991; Webb & Dube, 1981).
Specific states of consciousness can also be learned as adaptive behaviors to demanding
circumstances (Green and Green, 1986).  

Synchronized Brain Waves

Synchronized brain waves have long been associated with meditative and hypnogogic states,
and audio with embedded binaural beats has the ability to induce and improve such states of
consciousness. The reason for this is physiological. Each ear is "hardwired" (so to speak) to
both hemispheres of the brain (Rosenzweig, 1961). Each hemisphere has its own olivary
nucleus (sound-processing center) which receives signals from each ear. In keeping with this
physiological structure, when a binaural beat is perceived there are actually two standing waves
of equal amplitude and frequency present, one in each hemisphere. So, there are two separate
standing waves entraining portions of each hemisphere to the same frequency. The binaural
beats appear to contribute to the hemispheric synchronization evidenced in meditative and
hypnogogic states of consciousness. Brain function is also enhanced through the increase of
cross-collosal communication between the left and right hemispheres of the brain.

Resetting your Brains Sodium/Potassium Ratio in Theta

Your brain cells reset their sodium & potassium ratios when the brain is in Theta state. The
sodium & potassium levels are involved in osmosis which is the chemical process that
transports chemicals into and out of your brain cells. After an extended period in the Beta state
the ratio between potassium and sodium is out of balance. This the main cause of what is known
as "mental fatigue". A brief period in Theta (about 5 - 15min) can restore the ratio to normal
resulting in mental refreshment.  

Binaural Auditory Beats Affect Vigilance Performance and Mood

This research report included Dr. Jeffrey Thompson, DC, BFA's work which was chosen as one of the
top alternative healing modalities in the United States in the 1990's.    Duke University Medical Center
and the University of Virginia collaborated in the study, which was funded through CSCAT (The
Center for the Study of Complementary and Alternative Therapies).
 James D. Lane,* Stefan J. Kasian,* Justine E. Owens** and Gail R. Marsh*
*Departments of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North
Carolina; and **Center for the Study of Complementary and Alternative Therapies, School of Nursing,
University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia Received 18 July 1997; Accepted 29 August 1997
When two tones of slightly different frequency are presented separately to the left and right ears the
listener perceives a single tone that varies in amplitude at a frequency equal to the frequency difference
between the two tones, a perceptual phenomenon known as the binaural auditory beat. Anecdotal
reports suggest that binaural auditory beats within the electroencephalograph frequency range can
entrain EEG activity and may affect states of consciousness, although few scientific studies have been
published. This study compared the effects of binaural auditory beats in the EEG beta and EEG
theta/delta frequency ranges on mood and on performance of a vigilance task to investigate their effects
on subjective and objective measures of arousal. Participants (n =29) performed a 30-min visual
vigilance task on three different days while listening to pink noise containing simple tones or binaural
beats either in the beta range (16 and 24 Hz) or the theta/delta range (1.5 and 4Hz). However,
participants were kept blind to the presence of binaural beats to control expectation effects.
Presentation of beta-frequency binaural beats yielded more correct target detections and fewer false
alarms than presentation of theta/delta frequency binaural beats. In addition, the beta-frequency beats
were associated with less negative mood. Results suggest that the presentation of binaural auditory
beats can affect psychomotor performance and mood. This technology may have applications for the
control of attention and arousal and the enhancement of human performance.
©1998 Elsevier Science Inc.

WHEN two pure auditory signals of similar frequency are mixed together, the phase interference
between their waveforms produces a composite signal with a frequency midway between the upper and
lower frequencies and an amplitude modulation that occurs with a frequency equal to the difference
between the two original frequencies. For example, mixing tones of 100Hz and II 0 Hz yields a signal
with a perceived frequency of 105 Hz that rises and falls in amplitude with a frequency of 10 Hz. The
amplitude-modulated composite signal is called an auditory beat.
A similar phenomenon occurs when auditory signals of similar frequency are presented separately to
the left and right ear through stereo headphones. Although each ear hears only one of the frequencies,
the listener perceives the middle frequency and the amplitude modulation, even though the auditory
beat does not exist in physical space. This phenomenon, called a "binaural auditory beat," and
described more than 25 years ago (6), is created by the brain's processing of the two separate auditory
signals at the level of the olivary nuclei of the brainstem.
Binaural auditory beats provide a mechanism for stimulating the auditory system at very low
frequencies, below the frequency threshold of hearing. Such very low frequency auditory stimuli might
be capable of eliciting an entrainment of EEG frequencies, similar to that known to occur during low
frequency photic stimulation (photic-driving). Anecdotal evidence does suggest that presentation of
low-frequency binaural auditory beats can elicit a variety of changes in the listener's state of
consciousness that might have a broad range of practical applications (5,7). For example, the
presentation of binaural auditory beats in the delta and theta frequency ranges is said to be associated
with enhanced creativity and improved sleep. Preliminary experimental studies suggest that binaural
auditory beats in the EEG beta frequency range can enhance attention and memory task
performance(3), and that those in the alpha frequency range may increase alpha EEG production and
subjective relaxation (2).
A recent study examined the effects of delta and theta frequency binaural auditory beats on EEG
spectral patterns in healthy volunteers. EEG spectra were compared between a period of wakeful rest
and a period in which participants listened through stereo headphones to pure tones designed to
produce binaural beats in the theta and delta range. During the stimulus period participants produced
significantly less spectral power in the alpha and beta EEG bands and significantly more power in the
theta and delta bands, evidence of possible EEG entrainment by the binaural beat stimuli. During
stimulation participants reported subjective experiences similar to meditative, trance, or hypnogogic
states.
Taken together, the anecdotal, clinical, and preliminary experimental evidence suggests that the
presentation of binaural auditory beats may produce controllable changes in EEG and/or subjective
states of consciousness. Only the most recent studies include sufficient experimental controls and can
be considered as scientific investigations. Even so, the value of potential applications of a technology
for self-control of EEG patterns and states of consciousness argues for continued investigation of the
binaural beat phenomenon and its psycho physiological effects.
The present study was designed to investigate whether different patterns of binaural-beat stimulation
could produce changes in level of arousal and alertness manifested in behavior and mood. A double-
blind cross-over design was used to compare two distinct Patterns of binaural-beat signals, one
containing binaural beats in the EEG-beta frequency range and the other binaural beats in the EEG-
delta/theta range. These patterns were selected because these EEG frequency bands are typically
associated with states of alertness versus drowsiness, and entrainment of these frequencies might thus
enhance or impair alertness. The binaural-beat signals were presented continuously during the
performance of a 30-min vigilance task that required continuous video monitoring and responses to
infrequent targets. We predicted that presentation of binaural-beat signals in the EEG beta frequency
range would elicit better task performance in this monotonous task (more correct detection of targets
and fewer false alarms) than presentation of binaural beat signals that entrained EEG frequencies in the
theta/ delta range. We also expected that differential stimulation would affect the mood changes
associated with the monotonous task, especially those related to subjective alertness and fatigue.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Subjects
Volunteers were recruited by advertisement from the Duke University community. They were
required to be in good health, have normal hearing and vision (corrected or uncorrected), and be
free from acute illness or use of medications. Thirty-two people were recruited and 29
completed the protocol. This group had a mean age (±SD)of 32 (± IO) years with a range from
19 to 51 years. The group contained 19 females and 10 males; 20 whites, 8 blacks, and 1
Asian;18 employed workers and 11 students. All volunteers were nonsmokers. Each received
$30 for completion of the study.
 Materials
Binaural beat stimulation. Binaural beat signals were presented stereophonically by cassette
tape. Three different tapes were prepared as follows. All three tapes contained a background of
"pink noise" with uniform amplitude in the frequency spectrum from 40-320 Hz and decreasing
amplitude (12 db/octave) at frequencies above and below these limits. Tapes also contained
carrier tones at 100,200, 250, and 300 Hz, which had amplitudes 15 db above the amplitude of
the pink noise. The tape constructed for the training session contained no binaural beat stimuli,
but the tapes for the two experimental treatments did. For the delta/theta condition the 100-Hz
tone was presented with a 1.5-Hz binaural beat, the 200 and 250 Hz tones were presented
with4-Hz binaural beats, and the 300-Hz tone was presented with no binaural beat.
Thus, this tape included binaural beats at 1.5 and 4 Hz. For the beta condition the 200-Hz tone
was presented with a 16-Hz binaural beat and the 300-Hz tone was presented with a 24-Hz
binaural beat. The 100 and 250-Hztones were presented with no binaural beat. The tape for the
beta condition contained binaural beats at 16 and 24 Hz. Subjectively the three tape recordings
sounded exactly alike, described by subjects as similar to the constant monotonous roar of a
waterfall or the sound inside a large propeller-driven airplane. The presence of binaural beats
was very difficult to detect when the tapes were listened to by the experimenters, and none of
the participants reported noticing them. The tapes were played to subjects through stereo
headphones, and volume was set to a comfortable listening level.
Vigilance task A continuous performance vigilance task was administered using it personal
computer (Compaq 386 SX), which contained a multifunction' data acquisition and timing card
(ADAI 100; Real Time Devices, State College, PA) configured to measure response times with
a precision of I ms. The vigilance task was administered using a special-purpose computer
program written by J. D. L. It can be summarized as follows.
The participant watched the VGA video monitor as individual stimuli of 5-cm height were
displayed at a rate of 1/s and a duration of 100 ms. The stimuli were capital letters that were
selected at random from a list of 20 capitals that excluded those with similar shapes (e.g. 0 and
Q).On 10% of stimulus presentations, the previous letter was repeated. This repetition of a
stimulus was the target for the participant to detect. The computer program presented 1 target in
each block of 10 stimuli (every10-s interval) to insure that 6 targets were presented each
minute, although the position of the target within the block was random. The intervals between
targets ranged from 0 to 18 stimuli. The participant pressed the spacebar of the keyboard as
quickly as possible each time a target was detected. The total duration of the vigilance task was
30 min. Instructions emphasized the importance of continuous monitoring for targets, rapid
responding, and the importance of maintaining good performance throughout the entire task.
The computer program administered all stimuli and recorded the parameters of each stimulus
trial. Response latency was measured for all key presses and recorded with stimulus data for
later analysis.

Mood Assessment
The Profile of Mood States (POMS;EDITS, San Diego, CA) was used to assess changes in mood. The
POMS contains 65 adjective rating items (O to 4 scale) that describe feelings people experience (e.g.,
friendly, tense, grouchy, etc.). Item ratings can be summarized on standard scales that represent six
general moods: tension-anxiety; depression-dejection; anger-hostility; vigor-activity; fatigue-inertia;
and confusion-bewilderment (4). This inventory was administered before and after the vigilance task to
assess task-related changes in mood.

Procedure
Participants were kept blind to the true purpose of the study. When volunteers were recruited, they
were told that the study was intended to evaluate a new computerized vigilance task and to assess how
stable performance was over several days. Throughout the study, they were told that task conditions
were identical across days and that the tape-recorded sounds were intended to provide a uniform
monotonous auditory background that would blackout any external sounds. Participants were not told
about the differences in the treatment conditions or the presence of auditory binaural beats on the tape
recordings. This deception was judged to be necessary to prevent expectation bias regarding treatment
effects. Furthermore, keeping participants unaware of the presence of binaural-beat stimulation
prevented the distraction of actively listening to the tape recordings in order to determine their content,
which could help to maintain arousal during the task and interfere with the development of a vigilance
decrement. Use of this deception was approved by the Medical Center Institutional Review Board, and
participants were debriefed at the conclusion of the study.
Each volunteer took part in three experimental sessions that were identical except for the treatment
condition. Sessions were scheduled beginning between1300 and 1600 hours, and all sessions for a
participant were scheduled at the same time of day. Participants were asked to abstain from recreational
drugs and alcohol for at least 24 h prior to testing and to get a normal night's sleep. Compliance was
confirmed by self-report. The first experimental session was intended for training and to provide a
stable level of performance for the two subsequent test sessions. The control tape recording, which
contained the same sounds but no binaural beats, was presented during the training session. The beta
and theta/delta treatment conditions were presented in the second and third sessions. The tape cassettes
were blind-coded so that treatments were presented double-blind, and the order of treatments was
counterbalanced across subjects.
Each session began with the completion of a short battery of questionnaires. The first session included
completion of informed consent procedures followed by completion of demographic and health history
forms. During the second and third sessions different psychological questionnaires were completed
during this time. The POMS was completed at the end of this battery each day, immediately before the
vigilance task, with instructions to describe feelings at that moment.
The computer program displayed instructions for the vigilance task on the monitor and presented
samples of the stimuli. The experimenter reviewed the instructions with the participant, and the
participant's questions were answered. Participants then completed a 1-min practice/warm-up trial of
the vigilance task, and performance feedback was provided upon completion. When the experimenter
was convinced that the participant understood how to perform the task, the actual task was begun.
The participant performed the task while seated at a desk in a swivel chair. The room was dimly lit.
The experimenter adjusted the stereo headphones and started the tape playback. Auditory volume was
adjusted to a comfortable listening level for the participant that would block perception of external
sounds. Then the experimenter left the room, and the participant began the 30-min vigilance task after a
brief delay. The tape-recorded binaural-beat stimulation was presented continuously during the task.
Immediately after completion of the task, the participant completed a second POMS to indicate how
she or he felt at that moment. The experimenter reviewed a summary of performance to insure that
instructions had been followed and reasonable levels of success obtained. However, participants
received only general positive feedback each day.

RESULTS

Vigilance Performance
Task performance was scored as the number of correct target detections (out of a possible 180 targets)
and the number of false alarms (when a key press response was made to a non target stimulus). The
number of hits and false alarms in the beta and theta/ delta binaural beat conditions were compared by
paired t-test. Because we proposed a directional hypothesis, that beta frequency beats would improve
performance compared to theta/delta frequency beats, a one-tailed test was used to maximize statistical
power from our sample.
A total of 180 targets were presented during the 30-min task Participants detected a significantly larger
number of targets when exposed to the beta-frequency binaural beats (mean = 153.5, SD = 23.6) than
when exposed to theta/delta-frequency binaural beats (mean = 147.6, SD = 34.7). The difference in the
number of correct detections was 5.9 ± 3.4 (mean -- SEM), which yielded t(28) = 1.7 (p < 0.05). In
contrast, participants produced more false alarms in the theta/delta condition (mean = 8.7, SD = 12.2)
than in the beta condition (mean = 6.6, SD = 9.4). The difference in false alarms was 2.0 -- 0.9 (mean ±
SEM), which yielded t(28) = 2.26 (p <0.02). Thus, the binaural beat treatments had the predicted
effects on vigilance task performance.
To determine whether the treatments had differential effects on performance decrements during the
vigilance task, performance scores for six 5-minperiods were analyzed with a two-condition (beta
versus theta/delta) by6-period repeated-measures analysis of variance, using Greenhouse-Geisser
corrections. The effect of period was significant for correct detections(F(5, 135) = 7.63, p < 0.0008),
but the condition by period interaction was not (F(5, 135) = 1.40, p < 0.24); Although there was a
significant decrement in correct detections over time during the task, the rate of decrement did not
differ significantly between the beta and theta/delta conditions. For false alarms neither the period
effect or the interaction were significant (both p > 0.20).

Subjective Mood
POMS scale scores were evaluated by two conditions X two period repeated measures analysis of
variance, in which the interaction tested the hypothesis that the binaural-beat stimuli would alter how
the vigilance task affected mood. The main effect of period represented the effects of the vigilance task
itself, regardless of treatment. We did not propose directional hypotheses for each of the six mood
scales of the POMS, and thus used this omnibus approach to detect treatment effects.
As demonstrated by significant interactions, the binaural-beat condition affected scores for
confusion/bewilderment (F(l, 28) = 7.30, p <0.01) and fatigue/inertia (F(l, 28) =4.07, p <0.05), with a
trend observed in scores for depression/dejection (F(l, 28) =3.81, p< 0.06). Scores for
confusion/bewilderment rose more from the beginning to the end of the vigilance task when the
participant listened to theta/delta binaural beats (mean = 1.9, SE = 0.4, p < 0.0001), than when beta
binaural beats were presented (mean = 0.9, SE = 0.4, p < 0.03).Moreover, scores for fatigue/inertia also
rose more when the participant listened to theta/delta binaural beats (mean = 3.6, SE = 0.7, p <0.0001),
than when beta binaural beats were presented (mean = 2.3,SE = 0.8, p < 0.005). In contrast,
depression/dejection scores rose slightly (mean = 0.3, SE = 0.2) when participants listened to the
theta/delta binaural beats during the vigilance task and dropped slightly (mean = -0.4, SE = 0.4) when
they listened to beta binaural beats.
Scores for vigor/activity did not contain a significant condition by period interaction, although there
was a significant period effect (F(l,28) = 25.02, p < 0.0001). Scores dropped from the beginning to the
end of the task (mean = -2.9).

DISCUSSION
The results of this study provide evidence that presentation of simple binaural auditory beat stimuli
during a 30-min vigilance task can affect both the task performance and the changes in mood
associated with the task. The observed effects were consistent with our predictions regarding
differential effects on alertness and mood. Binaural beats in the beta EEG frequency range were
associated with relative improvements in target detection and reduction in the number of false alarms
compared to binaural beats in the theta/delta EEG frequency range. Moreover, beta binaural beats were
associated with smaller increases in task-related confusion and fatigue compared to theta/delta beats,
and the two conditions had different effects on scores for depression/dejection.
Scores on the confusion/bewilderment scale increased under both conditions, but rose significantly
more during theta/delta frequency stimulation. This scale includes the items "confused," I unable to
concentrate," "muddled," "bewildered," "efficient" (scored in reverse). "forgetful" and "uncertain about
things." It appears to represent "a self-report of cognitive efficiency"(4). Changes observed in this study
suggest that the theta/delta binaural beats produced a subjective impairment in the ability to think
clearly. Performance of the vigilance task also increased scores for fatigue/inertia in both conditions,
but more so for the theta/delta condition. This scale describes "a mood of weariness, inertia, and low
energy level" (4) and includes "worn-out," "listless," "fatigued," "exhausted," "sluggish," "weary," and
"bushed" as its items. The depression/dejection scale represents depressed mood accompanied by a
sense of inadequacy, and includes "unhappy," "sorry," "sad," "miserable," "hopeless," "unworthy,"
"discouraged," "desperate" and "worthless" among its items. Together these scales suggest that the
negative changes in mood produced by a monotonous task may have been partially ameliorated by the
presentation of beta-frequency binaural beats.
These effects on behavior and mood were observed in the absence of participant expectations, and
experimental controls ruled out other "placebo" effects. Not only were participants unaware of their
treatment condition, they were unaware that different binaural-beat treatments were being presented
during the three days of testing. Although experimenters knew the true nature of the study, they were
careful to maintain the cover story throughout the study. Moreover, they were also blind to the order in
which the experimental treatments were administered and thus could not systematically bias the results.
We presume that the behavioral and mood effects were mediated by changes in level of central nervous
system arousal induced by binaural-beat stimulation. It is plausible that these signals entrained
corresponding EEG frequencies and increased relative EEG spectral power in the beta or theta/delta
bands. Such an interpretation is consistent with earlier studies that suggest apparent EEG changes in
response to binaural beat stimulation (2), although he evidence of such effects remains preliminary.
The present study lacked EEG measurements that could confirm this interpretation, but future studies
can test this hypothesis directly.
It is interesting to note that similar changes in performance of a vigilance task were observed when
normal volunteers were trained using biofeedback to increase or suppress EEG theta activity (1). Those
trained experimental groups did differ both in theta activity and in vigilance performance during
testing, and suppression of theta activity during the task was associated with relatively better vigilance
performance. Perhaps binaural-beat stimulation provides alternative means of suppressing theta
activity, or enhancing beta Activity, to enhance performance. If so, it has the distinct advantage that it
requires neither extensive training nor intent to self-control EEG for its successful application.
The observations in the present study have interesting implications. If binaural beat auditory
stimulation can influence behavior and mood, then such stimulation may have useful applications for
the self-control of arousal, attention, and performance. There may be potential applications of these
performance enhancing signals in situations that demand high levels of continuous sustained attention
and performance, such as commercial highway driving or air traffic control. Performance enhancing
stimulation may prove useful in other occupational tasks as well. Conversely, binaural-beat stimulation
that decreases arousal may have applications in the treatment of insomnia or stress.
The phenomenon of binaural auditory beat stimulation and their psycho-physiological consequences
deserves further study. Additional controlled studies will be required to determine what behavioral,
affective, and cognitive effects different patterns of binaural beats might have and how any associated
changes in physiology, behavior, or subjective experience might be used. Little is known about the
mechanisms that may be involved in the transduction of simple auditory signals into changes in mood
and performance demonstrated here. However, the results of this study demonstrate clearly that simple
binaural-beat auditory stimulation can influence psychomotor and affective processes, even when
people are unaware that such signals are being presented.

REFERENCES

1. Beatty, J.; Greenberg, A.; Deibler, W. P.; O' Hanlon, J. F. Operant control of occipital theta rhythm
affects performance in a radar monitoring task. Science 183:871-873; 1974.
2. Foster, D. S., EEG and subjective correlates of alpha-frequency binaural-beat stimulation combined
with alpha biofeedback. 1996:http:Hwww.Monroelnstitute.org/research/alpha-binaural-beat.html
3. Kennerly, R. C., An empirical investigation into the effect of beta frequency binaural-beat audio signals
on four measures of human memory.1994:http://www.MonroeInstitute.org/research/humanmemory-
kennerly.html
4. McNair, D. M.; Lorr, M.; Droppleman, L. F. Ed ITS manual for the profile of mood states. San Diego:
EdITS;1992.
5. Monroe, R. A. Far journeys. New York: Doubleday; 1985.
6. Oster, G. Auditory beats in the brain. Sci. Am. 229:94-102; 1973.
7. Russell, R., ed. Using the whole brain. Hampton Roads Publishing Co.: Norfolk, VA; 1993.

Neuroacoustics: The Healing Power of Sound

 
 By Erik L. Goldman | Editor-in-Chief - Vol. 5, No. 3. Fall, 2004
ALBUQUERQUE, NM—The experience of sound is at the very core of human consciousness, and it can be a
powerful tool for healing, said Jeffrey Thompson, DC, at the annual meeting of the American Holistic Medical
Association.

For more than 20 years, Dr. Thompson has been exploring neuroacoustics and the therapeutic application of sound.
His researches have led to the development of precise protocols for using sound to modulate brainwave patterns,
affect sympathetic-parasympathetic balance, and synchronize the activity of the right and left brain hemispheres. He
has applied these methods in stress reduction, cardiovascular disease prevention, management of depression, and a
host of other conditions.                                                                         

“It is akin to the picking of a lock on the neurophysiologic processes that the body already uses to heal itself,” said
Dr. Thompson, director of the Center for Neuroacoustic Research, San Diego. His work with neuroacoustics is very
different from other forms of music therapy. It is not about facilitating a patient’s musical self-expression, nor does it
use music as a palliative. It involves direct application of specific sound combinations—unique to each patient, but
precise and measurable—to entrain beneficial physiologic responses.

Primordial Sounds and Self-Awareness

Perception of sound begins in the womb, and it begins very early. “At 16 weeks’ gestation, we become
aware of vibration, and life begins to filter into us.” The eardrums and the skin—sensors of vibration—are
the first sense organs to become active. For a developing fetus, the intrauterine world is largely a world of
sound. Sound travels 5 times more efficiently through water than through air, and a mother’s stretched
abdominal wall is an ideal membrane for transmitting sound. 

In many respects, it is through sound that a gestating human becomes aware of itself. In applying sound to
healing, Dr. Thompson has found certain types of sounds—the heartbeat, respiratory sounds, passage of
blood through vessels, organic bodily sounds—register deeply in the human nervous system. These
“primordial sounds” are immediately recognizable to any person regardless of gender, culture, race, age, or
social status; they are truly universal. 

Recordings of primordial sounds can be used therapeutically to access aspects of consciousness and memory
to which an individual is typically unconscious. In order to obtain these effects in adults, however, it is
necessary to slow down recordings of womb sounds by several octaves (divisions of two).  “A 16 week old
fetus has a tiny little eardrum. Compared to that, the mother’s heart is huge, and the heartbeat is a very
deep, gigantic sound. To re-create the intrauterine soundscape that a fetus hears, you have to slow
everything down.”

Physical Resonance
Much of Dr. Thompson’s work is based on two key principles: Firstly, that every tissue, just like every
physical object, will resonate to very specific sound frequencies; Secondly, that there are mechanisms within
the nervous system that synchronize neurophysiologic functions and cycles with coherent rhythmic pulsations
from the external world. 

Almost everyone has seen images of a wine glass being exploded by sound. The important point in such
experiments is that only a certain frequency will explode a particular wine glass. It is not only a question of
volume. 

Every physical substance has particular frequencies at which it will become excited to a higher vibratory
state. This is best observed with tuning forks: a fork designed to produce a frequency of 440 Hz can induce or
“entrain” the vibration of a second fork of 440 Hz, if it is struck and brought into the vicinity of the second
 fork. A fork designed to produce a different frequency will not be able to induce this sympathetic vibration in
a 440 Hz fork. 

Dr. Thompson has found similar principles operating in the tissues of the body. Every organ, every bone, has
a unique size, density and mass, and therefore, a unique resonant frequency. One aspect of his approach is to
identify resonant frequencies of various tissues, particularly the brain and spinal column. 

“My first attempts at this involved trying to do chiropractic spinal adjustments using sound. Each vertebra
is a different size, density and mass, and like a wineglass, can be resonated with the correct sound. This
causes the vertebra to vibrate back into its correct position. Similarly, cranial bones and cerebrospinal
fluid can be influenced with sound resonances. The brain itself is an organ with a unique size, density and
mass. So I started to ask, what would the effect be of exposing the brain to its own fundamental frequency
vibration pattern?”

Coupled Oscillation and Biosynchronization

The principle of coupled oscillation, “reflects a property in all things to sort of fall into step together,” said
Dr. Thompson. It was initially described in 1665, by Dutch physicist, Christiaan Huygens. In observing the
movement of pendulum clocks, Huygens found that when two similar clocks were in close proximity, their
pendulums, no matter how they started swinging initially, would soon fall into a precise anti-synchrony
(swinging precisely in the same rhythm, but in exactly opposite directions). This synchronized pattern of
movement would emerge within a half hour, and remain stable indefinitely. 

The significance of Huygens’ observations was not recognized for several centuries, and physicists today are
still working out the mathematics to describe coupled oscillation. But the principle has been observed in the
movement of subatomic particles, intergalactic nebulae, and on all scales in between, including biological
systems. 

On the biological plane, the principle is known as biosynchronization. Examples include circadian rhythms
governing metabolism, synchronization of menstrual cycles among women who live closely together, and
movements of fish schools and flocks of migratory birds. Essentially, it is about saving energy: when part of a
coherent group momentum, an individual conserves energy. 

Since the emergence of encephalography, researchers have studied brainwave patterns and how they respond
to external stimuli. A vast body of data shows that brainwave patterns and therefore, aspects of
consciousness, synchronize with external stimuli. US Navy researchers in the 1950's showed that brainwave
patterns could be controlled by strobe light stimulation. They termed this phenomenon "Sensory Evoked
Potentials," and it underscores the fact that the brain’s internal rhythms follow the strongest immediate
external pulse patterns.   

Sound is one of the most powerful means of entraining brainwave patterns.  “Brainwaves will time
themselves to external sound pulses, if we provide those pulses at specific brainwave speeds,” explained Dr.
Thompson.  

For example, normal daily awareness, the so-called Beta wave pattern, is characterized by electrical activity
at 13-30 cycles per second. If someone in their ordinary state listens to sounds pulsing at 4.5 cycles per
second, a frequency characteristic of Theta brainwave states, his or her brain will naturally synchronize to the
sound, thus inducing a theta state. Theta is, essentially, “where the brain goes when it is dreaming,” explained
Dr. Thompson, adding that many ancient shamanic healing practices are based on using sound to induce
Theta states or “waking dreams.”

Similarly, various meditative states have characteristic EEG thumbprints. Much of Dr. Thompson’s work
 consists in using sounds with sympathetic resonances to specific brainwave functions to influence a patient’s
state of consciousness.

Binaural Beats and Hemispheric Synchronization

In 1973, Dr. Gerald Oster, a biophysicist at Mount Sinai Medical Center, New York, started a minor
revolution when Scientific American published his paper called, "Auditory Beats in the Brain." Dr. Oster was
exploring the neurologic implications of a phenomenon called “beating tones” or “difference tones,” long
recognized by musicians and physicists. Beating tones occur when two tones are closely, but not precisely
tuned to one another. The difference between the frequencies of the two tones becomes audible as a pulse.

Dr. Oster reported that the same phenomenon occurs when people listen on headphones to tones tuned to
within 18% of one another. When the two tones are fed separately into the ears through headphones, the brain
detects the out-of-phase relationship between the two notes, and a “perceptual integration of the two signals
takes place, producing the sensation of a third "beat" frequency,” Dr. Oster explained in his 1973 report. 

“The difference between the signals waxes and wanes as the two different input frequencies mesh in and
out of phase. As a result of these constantly increasing and decreasing differences, an amplitude-
modulated standing wave—the binaural beat—is heard. The binaural beat is perceived as a fluctuating
rhythm at the frequency of the difference between the two auditory inputs.”  

In other words, if the left ear is given a tone of 100 Hz, and the right ear is given a tone at 105 Hz, the brain
will perceive a “binaural” beat of 5 Hz. 

The most provocative of Dr. Oster’s findings was that the brains of his subjects would entrain to these
binaural pulses, producing mild alterations in consciousness. Since publication of that original paper, a host
of investigators have looked at how binaural beats affect brainwave activity. They have found some fairly
consistent patterns. 

Binaural beats in the Delta (1 to 4 Hz) and Theta (4 to 8 Hz) brainwave ranges are associated with relaxed,
meditative, and creative states (Hiew, 1995), and can also induce restful sleep. Binaural beats in the Alpha
range (8 to 12 Hz) tend to increase Alpha waves (Foster, 1990); those in the Beta frequencies (16 to 24 Hz)
have been associated with reports of increased concentration or alertness (Monroe, 1985) and improved
memory (Kennerly, 1994).

Beyond just entraining brainwave patterns, Dr. Oster also found that binaural beats invariably induced
synchronization of electrical activity in the right and left hemispheres, something that rarely occurs in
ordinary waking consciousness. This is explained by the fact that each ear is physiologically "hardwired" to
both hemispheres. Each hemisphere has its own olivary nucleus, which processes sound signals. When
someone perceives a binaural beat, there are actually two standing waves of equal amplitude and frequency
present, one in each hemisphere. These two standing waves entrain portions of each hemisphere to the same
frequency.

“By entraining brainwaves with binaural beats using headphones, it is possible to float the brain in this
state of hemispheric synchronization for prolonged periods. Each time we do this, it is like exercising a
new brain function, which makes the brain more able to engage this function as it's normal repertoire of
behavior,” Dr. Thompson said. 

“Using sound in these ways, it is possible to make profound changes in brainwave patterns and states of
consciousness, observable on brainwave mapping equipment (EEG), as well as positive changes in the
body, measurable with blood tests, bio-feedback equipment and other sophisticated procedures. We are
also able to influence the core balance and functioning of the brain and central nervous system as a
whole,” said Dr. Thompson.
Finding Autonomic Balance
One of the most important aspects of his approach is in using sound to balance a patient’s sympathetic and
parasympathetic nervous system activity. Dr. Thompson makes extensive use of both EEG and heart rate
variability (HRV) monitoring. The latter is a form of spectral analysis of cardiovascular activity, providing an
accurate assessment of autonomic function. Recent advances in technology have made it possible to assess
HRV in real time, allowing investigators to correlate changes in sympathetic and parasympathetic tone with
changes in brainwave activity.

“Most overly stressed people show sympathetic dominance all of the time. They are unable to relax, cannot
wind down, and have difficulty sleeping,” he explained. People with clinical depression show a different
pattern, characterized by high levels of both anxiety and inhibition. They usually show both high sympathetic
and high parasympathetic tone, “like having your feet on the gas pedal and the brake at the same time.” 

In working with a patient, Dr. Thompson’s first step is to find specific resonant frequencies that affect shifts
in autonomic activity and brainwave patterning. He does this by recording the patient’s own voice, and then
playing it back in a slow sweep from very low to very high frequencies, while the patient is lying on a
specially designed sound table. The table contains transducers able to produce low-frequency sound
vibrations in the range of 20-500 Hz. The sound table delivers sound not only to the ears but to the spinal
column, muscles and skeletal elements as well.

“Bear in mind that the entire posterior one-third of the spinal cord consists of nerve tract bundles whose sole
purpose is transmission of vibrational sense data to the brainstem, cerebellum, pons, medulla,
hippocampus/limbic system (emotional processing areas) and various areas of the cerebral cortex. The sound
table allows us to deliver sound directly through the body, and an entirely different aspect of the nervous
system is brought into play, with the possibility of a much deeper response.”

He believes it is important to use a patient’s own voice, because it is entirely unique and thoroughly innate to
that person. “There’s something deeply recognizable about my own voice to my unconscious mind. The
harmonic overtone patterns of my own voice tell me about my tissues as a whole.”

When exposing someone to his or her own voice at various frequencies, Dr. Thompson monitors the EEG and
HRV patterns very carefully. “I’m looking for a shift from sympathetic to parasympathetic activity. It occurs
at unique frequencies for each person.” Once he identifies which “note” produces the shift, he makes 3-D
recordings of the patient’s voice singing the key frequencies. He can then pitch-shift the recording up or
down by octaves (multiples of two) to affect different tissue types. 

“There is a direct relationship between this fundamental sound frequency that causes a balancing of
someone’s body systems and various specific brainwave states of consciousness,” he said. “There are five
brainwave frequencies for healing which can be calculated as octaves of a patient’s fundamental healing
tone.”

After identifying the patient’s key frequencies, he then creates a therapeutic plan using particular
combinations of frequencies for physical symptoms and others for emotional work, stress reduction and sleep.
In addition to the weekly office-based sessions and sound table work, Dr. Thompson also gives his patients
CDs of their voices for use with headphones for at-home daily entrainment practice.

A Healer’s Journey
Though he began his career as a more or less conventional chiropractor, music and art were always essential aspects
of Dr. Thompson’s life, and it was natural for him to consider ways in which they might be applied to healing. His
initial experiments with sound in the late 1980s convinced him that this was a worthy direction. 
“The responses I was getting using sound frequency work began to outshine anything I was getting from chiropractic
manipulation, craniosacral therapy, acupuncture or anything else I was practicing at the time. It had the smell of
someone coming up against his purpose in life.”

The decision to sell his thriving chiropractic practice and establish an independent clinic and research institute devoted
exclusively to neuroacoustics was not an easy one. But it is one that has been extremely fulfilling in the long run. 

He emphasized that there is something fundamentally satisfying, not to mention therapeutically powerful about
working with sound. “You’re orchestrating all the powers the brain has for healing. As things begin to clear up, the
patient gets back in touch with who he or she really is.”

This, he stressed, is the ultimate goal, regardless of the specific clinical condition an individual patient presents.
“Ultimately, it is not about fixing symptoms, it is about waking up. Healing the symptoms is the booby prize. When
people have true healings, it is a reflection of the fact that they’ve woken up.”

Sound for Self Healing

Bio-Tuning® is a Holistic, Tri-body, Healing Modality brought to us by Dr. Jeffrey Thompson.
It is “Healing the Body * Heart * Mind and Spirit through the Scientific Application of Sound”
 

What is Bio-Tuning®?
Bio-tuning®, Bio-Tune™, Voice-Tone™ and Fundamental Frequency™ are words coined by Jeffrey
Thompson, D.C., B.F.A. early in his career. He used each word to descriptively identify an important
aspect in his research and then in his resulting comprehensive answer to a person’s
body/heart/mind/spirit need for a holistic, life-giving, personal growth, peak performance program. All
are an integral part of the Bio-Tuning Modality, which is not just a relaxing experience, though it is
that. It is the Stimulator of one’s Inner Power to heal and bring forth one’s abilities and capabilities. We
frequently refer to that Power as an “Internal or Inner Physician”, a Bio-organic Intelligence, or Life
Force. Whatever name, for this Power Within, which is comfortable to you, is fine.
Bio-Tuning is an "All-in-One" program, which includes our Guidelines for Health addressing
nutritional needs, exercise, mental outlook, sleep and personal care. Bio-Tuning provides an individual
with a convenient, fun, economical, and powerful way to achieve brain and nervous system balance for
vibrant, productive, healthy living. All known to Dr. Thompson brainwave states currently offered in
the Bio-Tuning program are available in three (3) Phases. Phase I centers upon balancing your physical
“body” (meridians, organs, the autonomic nervous system, etc.); your emotional "body", through
special additional testing to facilitate the resolution of past and current traumas and hurts; and your
mental "body" to evaluate and adjust your belief systems, making them truthful and life-affirming so
they can support you in your life’s journey. Phase I also contains very special states affecting regions of
the brain which are more active at rest than during task performance. These assist many to know more
clearly who they are in time, space, society.
Phase II, built solidly upon the benefits and foundation of Phase I, stresses higher avenues of
awareness, personal growth, creativity and peak performance. Phase III uses technology to give its
highest benefit to mankind: deep meditation and ecstatic states of consciousness. It is the “Pinnacle”
Phase, facilitating transformative spiritual growth and expanded consciousness. We do not say it
replaces your spiritual practices of Christianity, Yoga, Zen, Buddha or those of other true religions, but
rather that it may well complement your prayer and meditation and accelerate your personal growth,
awareness, consciousness, evolution.
Bio-Tuning® is very individualized, from the first moment of communicating with an interested party,
and especially later as it finds the specific frequency which brings one holistically into a state of
homeostasis. It then uses your personal Voice-Tone™ for healing and growth purposes. In each
session, you hear and feel and see your vibration and frequency, each segment working to balance and
re-train the nervous system into a neuro-synergy, a beautiful and joyous state of homeostatic adaptive
functioning. This sound portion of your session is recorded for you, either digitally or on a compact
disc, your choice, utilizing Dr. Thompson’s hi-tech and very effective technology which actually
creates the sound program for you. One then uses this program on a daily basis at home, as
recommended. This is not hard to do; rather the challenge is not listening to the program more than the
recommended number of times. Yes, it is a “narcissistic trip” – a positive, healthy and legal “trip” as
many say, frequently emitting a “Wow, that was wonderful!” or “Oh, I don’t want it to stop!”
Because Bio-Tuning is specific to an individual, goes to the causality of that individual’s challenge,
concern or need, known or unknown, it is appropriate for all ages and all conditions. Bio-Tuning® is
life-changing and, in non-too-few cases, life-saving. It is an awesome experience, safe for the smallest
infant to the most fragile mature individual. (Pets also enjoy the audio programs made for their owners
or for them!)
 

What brainwave states are used in Bio-Tuning®?

Dr. Thompson follows the natural law of healing. So the brainwave states used follow in sequence with
the Delta state for physical healing occurring first. Most everyone has three (3) Delta brain states and
so the first three (3) sessions are focused on physical healing.
Some benefits are very obvious and almost miraculous from the first session forward, while many are
more subtle and manifest in a greater ability to heal, to sleep, have better energy, an overall boost in
feeling better, more ability to handle the challenges of life more calmly and easily, etc., etc. The list of
benefits is long and can be different for each individual, since Dr. Thompson’s Bio-Tuning seems, as
mentioned, to have a unique ability to go to the causality of a person’s need.
In the fourth session, the Theta brainwave state is used. This is where emotions and past hurts and
traumas can be healed. For many, the Theta brainwave session "thaws" "frozen" feelings from past
traumas, hurts, neglect. As the brain state for healing feelings and emotions, the Theta session is very
gentle but powerful: insights enhance understanding and realizations come with the “Aha” moments
brought about by hemisphere synchronization and one’s receptivity and readiness. Again, the process is
to balance and awaken the "Inner Physician" and allow It to do “Its job”. Processing and releasing the
stored toxic emotional traumas occur when the physical energetic body is ready and able to safely
receive the emotionally charged energy.
The fifth session uses the Alpha brain state where beliefs systems can be righted and one’s purpose of
life discovered or more fully uncovered. De-crystallizing self-defeating, negative belief systems about
one’s self and ability to be healed, loved and successful is another very powerful and personally
liberating experience from the Bio-Tuning® process.
One could equate Bio-Tuning to having a Chiropractor, a Therapist and a Friend on a CD or in a Flac
Player! Yes, all are there! Many individuals receive chiropractic adjustments, insights and emotional
releases and healing, and a re-scripting of belief systems when listening to their Audio Programs at
home. This is because all, even the vertebrae alignment is controlled by the brain and it is the brain and
the nervous system, of which the brain is a part, which is being educated and re-trained in the Bio-
Tuning process. It is like a personal gym: an Inner Gym accompanied by a Custom Trainer, finely
attuned to your needs and capabilities!< /p>

Do I go through the Program and “Magic, I am a new person!”?

Don’t we all wish – one pass-through and we are perfect!!! Life is a journey with many forks in the
road looming in front of us, day in and day out. Bio-Tuning is here to assist each interested individual
to make the correct choices for him/herself and so to help heal the Global Body of the Universe, of
which we are all a part.
Just as regular maintenance for your driving vehicle needs attention from time-to-time, so do we. If the
research recommendations for your vehicle are followed, the vehicle lasts a long time and runs well
beyond its expected longevity. Bio-Tuning is this on-going maintenance program for each individual
once you have completed the number of brainwave states in which you are interested. Once completed,
as Dr Thompson would say, “listening to one of your programs three (3) times a week is maintenance
and if you want to grow and expand your consciousness, you will listen every day”. Eventually it may
be only one (1) time every three or seven (3 or 7) days. This is no chore, though finding the time
sometimes can be complex. Listening is amazingly easy, especially if you have one of Dr Thompson’s
vibroacoustic products at home, such as a Dr Thompson Neuroacoustic Sound Chair. Each session is a
different experience, but very balancing and regenerating. It is for you and the sound is you!

Methods for Stimulation of Brainwave Function Using Sound

Dr. Jeffrey D. Thompson, D.C., B.F.A.

From previous evidence of effective human biological response using various sounds and sonic
vibration frequencies, certain sounds have been found to have a direct effect upon physiological
systems (i.e. pulse rate, respiration, GSR, EMG pupillary dilation, EEG, EKG, body temperature, and
others). Recent advances in technology and research have yielded a wealth of information concerning
sonic waveforms and their effect on the body and the brain. A new science of psychoacoustics has
arisen, parallel to the already established discipline of music therapy. Front-runners in the field of sonic
vibration, sound and music for stimulating physical and subconscious response have shown positive
results.
More recent evidence has shown physical and psychological responses using electronically disguised
nature sounds. This includes ocean, wave, water, wind, animal human, organic, dolphin, etc. sounds
processed electronically in different octaves, speeded up and slowed down, processed through different
filters and embedded with specific frequencies for resonating brain waves into target states for opening
the subconscious mind. Studies carried out in a variety of centers across the United States have seen
positive physiologic responses to the application of sound frequencies and music.
One aspect of the current experimental projects with which we have seen powerful response is in the
realm of "Primordial Sounds". These sounds consist of deeply recognizable sounds to the subconscious
mind, i.e. nature sounds and physical organism sounds. It has been further found that these sounds have
profound impact when they are disguised in such a way that the conscious mind does not recognize
them. This then activates a mechanism similar to the subconscious programming response in which
spoken phrases are speeded up or slowed down to unrecognizable values, yet the subconscious mind
seems to easily hear the message and produce significant results in altered behavior. By exposing test
subjects to sound environments of disguised "Primordial Sounds", a state of subconscious "openness"
seems to occur in which a heightened suggestibility of the mind occurs. In some cases it appears that
even neuro-hormone and autonomic body processes respond to specific sound frequency patterns. The
possibilities for this level of communication with higher brain function and the implications for the
fields of psychology, learning, and healing are too great to ignore.
Many of the sounds, which have been used thus far, have a striking similarity to a number of the space
sound recordings from NASA. Indeed, one of the interesting peculiarities of disguising the primordial,
nature, and organic sounds is that they tend to sound like one another at different octave levels.
Dolphin chirps slowed down many times, sound very similar to human voice sounds and some of the
Voyager I and II space recordings. Normal dolphin sounds speeded up by octaves sound like birds.
Human voice sounds speeded up, sound first like birds and then like dolphins, etc. - all with a powerful
effect on the subconscious mind. More extensive research is needed to refine the existing, observed
responses of the brain and central nervous system to external methods for opening more specific levels
of higher brain function.
Since ancient times, human beings have been using sound to enhance altered states of consciousness.
Methods for delving deeper into the mysteries of the power of human consciousness to change our lives
and control inner and outer forces of nature have been employed for thousands of years. China used
meditation gongs; in Tibet, metal "singing" bowls, bells, cymbals, and chanting; in India, tamboura
drums and a whole wealth of musical traditions based on the "tonic" note and these and others were
used in numerous other cultures across the planet.
The ancients imparted a sophisticated, intuitive knowledge of how the tuning of the bowls, bells,
chanting etc. could create sonic vibration interference patterns whose pulse rates could influence brain
function and states of consciousness. They were using the "low-tech" approach of what is today, a
rapidly expanding science of high-tech applications of sound to expand consciousness.
Previous research by numerous university and government research centers around the world has
shown conclusive evidence that specific states of consciousness are associated with specific brainwave
frequency patterns. Other research dating back as far as the 1940's has indicated the ability to influence
these brainwave patterns, and be highly specific, using pulsed/modulated sound frequencies through
speakers and/or headphones. This is the "high-tech" solution for what the ancients had already achieved
with "low-tech" tools thousands of years before. With far more sophisticated tools for measuring what
happens in the brain during expanded states of consciousness, combined with more sophisticated tools
for influencing the brain to travel to these states, we now have the ability to use our technological
know-how to accelerate our own biological abilities and perhaps, our own evolution.
One of the first experiences we have as a fetus growing in the womb, is the sensation of hearing sound.
Before the fetus is large enough to touch the inside of the mother' womb, it is floating free in body
temperature amniotic fluid - effectively a sensory deprivation chamber, a float tank, which would mean
no sense of touch. Since the mouth and nose is filled with amniotic fluid, there would be no sense of
taste or smell.
With multiple layers of tissue of the abdominal wall, placental walls, and closed eyes of the fetus, there
would be darkness and no sense of sight. The amniotic fluid would also fill the ear canals and be
pressed up against the eardrum. Since sound travels through water five times more efficiently then
through air, the sense of hearing would be five times more acute.
Let's imagine what this sound environment might sound like. First there would be the swishing water
sound of amniotic fluid, then the pulse sound of the arteries next to the eardrum, then the mother's
pulse through the arteries of the placenta, then the large and small intestine sounds (the gurgles and
gloops), then the mother's respiration sounds, voice sounds and heartbeat sounds resonating the chest
cavity, and finally all the external world sounds amplified through the mother's stretched abdominal
wall - pressurized amniotic fluid - eardrum of the fetus. "In the beginning was the Word": was
SOUND. Sound can be used as a powerful tool for accessing deep levels of the subconscious mind.
The profound effect of the use of sounds recorded in space to tap the deepest regions of the
subconscious mind, in part, may stem from an idea first put forth by psychologist Carl Jung. His idea of
the "collective unconscious" was that, if one travels deep enough into the subconscious mind, one
eventually reaches a level of the subconscious common to all people. One level of the collective
unconscious is the deep, primordial recognition by the subconscious mind, of energy pattern vibrations,
which are deeply familiar, both having arisen from the same primordial roots. It gives one an
experience of being in a sound environment that is at once both utterly alien and deeply familiar at the
same time, an experience of inner poise and deep relaxation of the mind. It may be in this way, that the
similarities of recordings sent back from the planets in our solar system, can sound so hauntingly
similar to nature recording electronically disguised so that only the subconscious mind can recognize
them. For instance, some parts of the recordings sent back by Voyager from Jupiter sound very similar
to dolphins. Sounds from the smallest moon of Uranus (Miranda) sound like choirs of voices singing;
and parts of the rings of Uranus sound like giant Tibetan bowls and bells.
Repeated exposure to this type of sound begins to create a "learned response" in the mind - a familiar
place to travel deep inside. This repeated experience appears to begin a process of "exercising" a
deeper, more essential part of one's consciousness, which, like a muscle, begins to build up its
functional ability. It is this response which seems to be the reason for such profound experiences being
reported by people who have used the space sound recordings on a regular basis.
The widespread acceptance of a biochemical basis for expanding higher brain function, including
memory, has been increasing in scientific circles since the discovery of neuro-chemical transmitters in
the 1960's and their effect on mind enhancement. A key factor contributing to this acceptance is the
evidence of a link between specific brain states and brain function with specific methods of external
stimulation of the brain. Some of the first experiments into affecting brain function through external
stimulation were carried out by the U.S. Navy in the 1950's. These experiments gave the first
indications that brainwave function could be controlled by strobe light stimulation that caused a
"biological following response" in the brainwaves of test subjects. This phenomenon, termed "Sensory
Evoked Potentials," indicated that the body's internal rhythm patterns would follow the strongest
external, naturally occurring pulse patterns.
The early experiments carried out by Mark Rosenzwerg and his colleagues with rats in enriched and
impoverished environments clearly demonstrated that there was a correlation between learning and
brain chemistry. They also were able to show conclusively that specific stimulation of the brain could
lead to increased brain functioning abilities.
Since this time a host of research projects carried out by such teams as the National Institute for Mental
Health; the Veteran's Administration Hospital in Palo Alto, California; MIT, Cornell University; Cal
Tech (Takiji Kasamatsu); U.C. Irvine (Gary Lynch); Northwestern University (Aryeh Routtenberg);
Johns Hopkins (Dr. Solomon Snyder, Professor of Psychiatry & Pharmacology); Dr. Margaret
Patterson, MD; and Marie Curie Cancer Memorial foundation, Surrey, England (Dr. Capel); have
shown that brain electrical activity and neuro-chemical hormone function are involved in accessing
deeper memory response and expanded brain function. From the standpoint of quantum physics, as we
examine ever smaller particles of matter - people made of cells, made of molecules, made of atoms,
made of protons/electrons, made of quarks, etc. - we eventually reach a state of reality where the
smallest particles of matter, when broken further, do not yield smaller particles which we can put
names on, but rather a universal energy matrix of relationships of vibration patterns. In actuality there
is nothing solid in the universe at all. Consciousness itself is a vibration pattern.
the “abreaction,” the emotional discharge, instead of being therapeuticaLy useful, might be a learned
response to the environment (the privilege of working with psychotherapists who embrace the
emotional-discharge schOl of therapy).
Instead of the kind of shriL doubling of the emotional output, as had haPened in the past when
discerning psychodynamic therapists had aCused her of “secondary gain”—that is, “geTing
something” out of the emotional display (like aTention)—she sighed, shruGed her shoulders, and said,
“Oh, weL.” (How do you argue with a “liTle robot” who always teLs the truth?) Instead, it says, “You
have a lot of muscle tension” (EMG- Electromyography) or, “Your hands are frEzing and your head is on
fire—which is fueling that migraine!” (temperature biofEdback). Or, “Your brain waves are similar to
those we have sEn before with head-injury patients” (EG or neurofEdback). “Can you think of any
traumatic brain injury you forgot to teL me about?”
BiofEdback and neurofEdback skate elegantly betwEn the paradigms of psychopharmacology and
psychiatry on the one hand and psychodynamic or behavioral psychotherapy on the other. Relying
neither on medicines nor on lengthy talking analyses and interventions, it does a third thing. It hOks
someone up to a machine, which is neutral. The machine puts no one on drugs, nor does it analyze
one’s Oedipal dileMas or “flawed reinforcement history.”
What Are Epsilon & Lambda Waves?
When we talk about brainwave entrainment, and specifically binaural beats, we usually refer to four
key brainwave states: Delta, Theta, Alpha and Beta. And a fifth, which isn't mentioned as much, which
is gamma.
But there are two other types of brainwaves that don't get much attention: Epsilon waves and
Lambda waves.
The reason is that unlike Theta and Alpha, for example, we don't have much scientific data to go on
that will help us understand how brainwave entrainment in these areas may benefit our lives.
Indeed, apart from cardiologists measuring Epsilon wave activity via heart monitoring as a way of
detecting Arrhythmogenic Right Ventricular Dysplasia (ARVD), we  don't know much about Lambda
and Epsilon brainwave activity.
But we do know enough to make the topic very interesting. For one, both these brainwave types,
despite being at opposite ends of the spectrum, are very closely related.
Understanding Lambda Waves
Frequency:
Lambda waves oscillate at a frequency of  100-200 Hz.
* Oscillate means to move or swing back and forth in a regular rhythm.
Overview:
Lambda are very high frequency waves, much higher than the Gamma frequency range, and even
higher than the Hyper Gamma range, which is around the 100Hz mark.
As mentioned in the introduction, Lambda waves are closely related to Epsilon waves. Interestingly, if
you zoom in far enough you would see that embedded within the slow Epsilon wave is a very fast
Lambda wave. The Epsilon wave is essentially riding on the Lambda wave.
Lambda waves are associated with experienced meditators, such as the Tibetan monks, who are able
to meditate in the Himalayan mountains for hours without succumbing to the very low temperatures.
Similarly, you may have heard of a man known as the ‘Iceman', who is able to control his core body
temperature and withstand freezing temperatures. It is thought that he is able to tap into the Lambda
waves brain state for a prolonged period of time.
Lambda is therefore associated with a much higher level of consciousness, beyond simply deep
meditation or spiritual consciousness. It is more a state of complete oneness and wholeness.
Benefits:
The Lambda state seems to be an almost a secretive one, one that is somewhat shrouded in mystery.
And that would make sense considering it is incidentally tied to the Tibetan meditation tradition.
Lambda is often associated with a moment of discovery and insight that is indescribable, an “aha”
moment, so to speak. I guess the best way of putting it would be if you suddenly understood the
meaning of life: you'd be able to feel it and sense it, but unable to put it into words.
Understanding Epsilon Waves
Frequency:
Epsilon waves oscillate at a frequency of 0.1 – 0.5 HZ
Overview:
The Epsilon waves are very low-frequency, below that of delta waves which start at 0.5Hz. To give you
an idea of just how low that is, most electroencephalogram (EEG) devices are not able to measure
below o.5 Hz.
The same ‘riding' phenomenon seen in Lambda waves can be seen in Epsilon waves. If you zoom in far
enough you would see that embedded within the Lambda wave is a very slow Epsilon wave (riding).
And so there seems to be a circular pattern that occurs between the very high end of the brainwave
spectrum and the very low end of the brainwave spectrum. And this is where it gets really interesting.
The so-called Epsilon state is associated with ‘suspended animation'; a state where you're alive but
with no obvious signs – so no perceivable heartbeat, respiration or pulse. It is said that some yogis
and meditation masters are able to achieve this state.
So I find it extremely interesting that the Lambda waves and the Epsilon waves, despite being at
opposite ends of the spectrums, seem to have an interconnectivity, whereby they support each other.
Now, considering the above regarding ‘suspended animation', it would seem that those accessing
these states through meditation and practices of higher consciousness are seemingly walking the line
between life and death, almost.
And again I reference back to what I said earlier about not being able to fully explain what happens in
these states, which makes absolute sense to me because it is a level of consciousness that is
essentially indescribable, and perhaps immeasurable by science.
Benefits:
So the benefit of  accessing the Epsilon state is purported to be an extraordinary state of
consciousness, one of a much higher awareness, and perhaps one of suspended animation.
Using Lambda and Epsilon Entrainment
You won't actually find many Lambda and Epsilon recordings for sale on the popular brainwave
entrainment stores. This is mainly because there really isn't the research available to be able to
quantify results and explain what the benefits would be.
So essentially it's a leap of faith and something that you'd be experimenting with.
It should also be noted that Lambda waves are extremely high frequency waves and may have the
potential to cause headaches in some people.
Additionally, if you experiment with Epsilon entrainment, you should do so when lying down or sitting
in a meditation (lotus) position. Do not drive a car, operate machinery or do anything that requires
your full concentration.
For those new to brainwave entrainment music, my personal recommendation is that you start off
with the most common brainwave states (Delta, Theta, Alpha, Beta).
As a general rule of thumb I advise beginners to start off with some Theta entrainment for relief of
stress and anxiety, to access a meditative state, and enhance creativity; Alpha entrainment for focus,
productivity and positivity, and delta for better sleep.
The best way to encourage the production of these brainwaves would be to practice daily meditation
and to use other brainwave entrainment music. This will encourage the synchronization of the left
and right brain hemispheres and subsequent higher brain functioning.
If you do want to try some Lambda or Epsilon entrainment, check out iAwake. This store carries some
quite progressive titles that delve into the deeper levels of spiritual consciousness.
In Summary
Despite oscillating at very different frequencies, Lambda and Epsilon waves appear to produce a very
similar state of high-level consciousness, yet one that can't really be described outside of somewhat
ambiguous language.
The two states are interconnected, but this may not be as relevant as we think. We see a similar
occurrence with Gamma waves: when we zoom right in we can usually see a Gamma wave
underneath a Lambda wave.
This is because all of these brainwave states are interconnected. If we took a snapshot of our
brainwaves at any one given time, we would of course find one dominant brainwave category, but we
would also see a spectrum of brainwaves of different frequencies.
But what we do know is that very experienced meditators, such as the Himalayan Tibetan monks,
produce an abundance of these waves during meditation sessions, and seemingly tap into a level of
consciousness that the majority of us will never discover.
What that consciousness represents, or can do for us in the physical realm of this world, is unknown
and undocumented by science

Exploring Neurofeedback Therapy: Benefits, Treatment &

Scientific Evidence
Neurofeedback is part of a broader treatment known as biofeedback.

Of course, “neuro” refers to the brain, and that's what we're most concerned with
on this blog, but I'm going to cover the whole spectrum so you fully understand
what the concept of biofeedback is and how neurofeedback fits in to this form of
therapy.

First we'll look at how it works and the different types, then the difference between
neurofeedback and brainwave entrainment such as binaural beats, and whether or
not the science says neurofeedback really works.
 Electrode sensors are attached to the head during neurofeedback.
What is Biofeedback?

Biofeedback is a technique that has evolved with a guiding philosophy that patients
should be able to work with their bodies to alleviate symptoms.

The therapy is used to help prevent or treat conditions, including anxiety,

migraines, incontinence, chronic pain and high blood pressure.

The practice is — simply enough — people healing through the process of

observation of the signals their own bodies emit.

This idea is not totally foreign, nor is it new. The chances are, you’ve experienced
or partook in a kind of biofeedback if you’ve ever gotten your temperature recorded
or blood pressure tested.

In biofeedback therapy, the idea is exactly the same: instruments are used to
record and deliver feedback on the condition of the body. As a result, patients are
more equipped to take care of themselves.
Biofeedback’s draw is that by harnessing the power of your mind and becoming
aware of what's going on inside your body, you can gain back control over specific
health problems.

Different Types of Biofeedback

There are typically three types of biofeedback: Thermal, Electromyography, and

Neurofeedback.

In each case, a clinician will record information about the state of the body and the
symptoms via a monitor. They will then go through a series of therapies to see how
the body reacts, giving a patient a collection of methods that allow them to self-
regulate their body’s functioning and help alleviate symptoms

Thermal biofeedback is used to measure skin temperature. This type of therapy

can be helpful for those who suffer from disorders like Raynaud’s, which is
characterized by a lack of blood-flow to extremities like fingers, toes, noses, and
even ears.

Thermal biofeedback has been used to great success for those with Raynaud’s —
80-90 percent of whom report improvements in circulation and decrease in
symptoms following the treatment.

Electromyography biofeedback is a technique that helps a clinician evaluate and

record the activity of important muscle groups. It is used to assess muscle and
nerve cell health and potential degeneration. This technique can be enacted with
an instrument called an electromyograph, which will produce a report of the activity,
called an electromyogram.

Neurofeedback (also known as EEG biofeedback) is a technique that measures a

patient’s brain-wave activity, a useful look into the minds of those suffering from
various attention and mental disorders.

What's the Difference Between Biofeedback & Neurofeedback?

To clarify, biofeedback is a general, umbrella term used to describe the overall

methodology of utilizing medical instruments to take a measurement of some kind
of bodily function that the body cannot measure metrically itself.

Examples include: weighing the body with a scale, measuring blood pressure with
a cuff, taking temperature with a thermometer, scanning the brain with a PET scan.
Neurofeedback falls under the umbrella of biofeedback, but refers specifically to
biofeedback therapy that is based on brainwave readings (electroencephalograms).

Neurofeedback is used to treat the following:

o addictions

o ADHD

o anxiety

o asthma

o autism and Asperger’s

o bipolar disorder

o cerebral palsy

o chemotherapy side effects

o chronic fatigue syndrome

o chronic pain

o cognitive decline, including dementia

o cognitive enhancement

o depression

o dissociative disorders

o eating disorders

o epilepsy

o fibromyalgia

o headaches, including migraines

 o high blood pressure

o insomnia

o learning disabilities

o memory loss

o obsessive compulsive disorder

o Parkinson’s disease

o post-traumatic stress disorder

o restless leg syndrome

o schizophrenia

o stress

o stroke

o tinnitus

o Tourette’s syndrome

o traumatic brain injury

Whether or not you are considering using biofeedback or neurofeedback to

improve your health or alleviate specific symptoms, it’s indisputable that the
practice of monitoring bodily functions and attempting to give people more power
over their own well-being is both a noble cause and a hallmark of a changing
medical mindset.

What is Neurofeedback?

Neurofeedback is also known as EEG biofeedback, neurotherapy and brain

training. It provides real-time information about your own EEG activity and enables
a person to alter his or her own brainwave characteristics by helping the brain to
learn to reorganize and by conditioning the brain to function better.
The object of training is to re-educate the brain to make voluntary changes via
computerized graphic displays and or auditory signals that challenge the brain to
function more effectively.

Neurofeedback therapy can be used to help patients with attention deficit

hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), anxiety, depression, seizures and addiction.

Researchers have also found that this type of biofeedback therapy is a great
method to reduce pain from migraine headaches.

Others have lauded neurofeedback therapy as a great method of coping for those
who are experiencing post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and anxiety, and for
those who need cognitive and behavioral therapy or retraining from mental
disorders.

What Happens During Neurofeedback Therapy?

You will usually be placed in a quiet space, in a comfortable chair. The doctor will
then attach special sensors called electrodes to your head that will feed your brain
wave patterns into a computer system.

Typically, you’ll be able to see your brain activity presented in the form of a video
game on a monitor.

You will be asked to interpret what you see on the screen. After a while, you’ll learn
to control your brain activity to produce a healthy a brain state. So essentially you
are playing a video game with your mind. Cool, huh?

The result is that you are harnessing your brain’s ability to change behaviour. This
is known as neuroplasticity (modifying your brainwave patterns).

However, different systems operate in different ways though:

For example: There are some methods of neurofeedback that produce the needed
frequency to heal your brain — kind of like binaural beats brainwave entrainment —
such as the LENS method, the pEMF of Neurofield, and the CES machine (Cranial
Electrical Stimulation).

Then there are monitoring devices, such as Emwave that help you to learn to
regulate your involuntary nervous system that controls your heart rate.

More recently, a program called NeurOptimal®, developed by Zengar Institute, has

presented a new approach . With this system, you listen to music and watch an
ever-changing visual display, although you can close your eyes and tune out if you
prefer. Kids can even play a game or read a book while sitting down.

NeurOptimal® does not push or pull your brain in any particular direction but
instead simply gives the brain information about what it has just done. The brain
uses this information to re-organize itself.

The result is said to be a more robust and flexible central nervous system that
allows problems to dissipate in a non-invasive way.

When the system detects turbulence in your brain activity, it uses music to gently
signal your brain to alter course. In this way, your brain learns to retrain itself to
become more effective, calm and balanced.

Different Types of Neurofeedback Therapy

There are numerous neurofeedback systems available at different clinics, and

systems for use at home. Here's an explanation of the most common ones:

1. Traditional Neurofeedback:

This is based on operant condition and help retrain the brainwave to optimal level.
Methods include Othmer’s low frequency; Paul Swingle Method; Kurt Thornton
Gamma Coherence, Nancy White’s alpha/theta training and Robert Thatcher
Zscore training.

2. LENS (Low Energy Neurofeedback System):

Developed by Len Ochs, Lens Neurofeedback is a form of biofeedback that works

with a person’s brainwaves. It acts like a catalyst that activates the brain’s own
capacity for self-regulation and self-healing to restore optimal brain function. It
facilitates changes in people of all ages with a wide variety of presenting issues.
Addressing the brain in its own electromagnetic language, LENS opens the way for
the brain to ‘defragment and reboot’, allowing it to get past frozen, dysfunctional
patterns.

3. NeuroField:

This system allows the body to engage its own restorative systems so as to return
to a balanced, homeostasis state. It utilizes an ultra-low intensity, pulsed
electromagnetic field (pEMF) to replenish energy and reduce stress in the brain
and body.
4. pRoshi (Personal Roshi):

The ROSHI differs from standard EEG feedback in that a pair of goggles with lights
is used to communicate with the brain directly and disrupt inefficient patterns in the
brain. The lights flash at a constantly varying speed, helping the brain to correct
dysfunctional patterns and calm the nervous system, reduce spasm and spasticity,
relieve pain and reduce inflammation.

5. HEG (Hemoencephalography):

HEG detects changes in the brain's energy consumption. The result is a much
simpler feedback signal – it goes up when the brain activates (increases its energy
consumption) and down when the brain deactivates (relaxes its energy
consumption). It measures the blood flow in the brain and feedbacks to encourage
blood flow to the targeted regions. This is known to be effective for migraines and
depression.

6. CES (Cranial Electrotherapy Stimulation):

CES produces tiny “microcurrents” that apply a small, pulsed electric current across
a person's head with the intention of treating a variety of conditions such as
anxiety, depression and insomnia.

7. AVS (Audio/Visual Stimulation):

Through light and sound in coordination together, this type of machine promotes
regulation and balancing of the brain/body system.

How Long Does Neurofeedback Last?

A neurofeedback training session typically lasts about 30 minutes.

It doesn't hurt, so don't worry. Most people find it a pleasant and rewarding
experience.

The clinician will guide you through the entire process.

What Happens After Neurofeedback?

After a session, a therapist will usually help patients practice relaxation techniques
that have been supported by their biofeedback test. These techniques might
include: muscle relaxation, breathing exercises, guided imagery and meditation.

Though each clinic may have different advice, depending on the system they use.

How Much Does Neurofeedback Cost?

Neurofeedback is generally charged in sessions, and not usually covered by health

insurance. Typically you might pay the following:

Initial Assessment Session (1 hour): £70 / $90

45 minute follow up session: £50 / $65

30 minute follow up session: £35 / $45

Can't I just Use Binaural Beats at Home Instead?

Neurofeedback generally works in a different way to binaural beats. It is more of a

“system listens, system feedbacks a correction, brain responds” process, rather
than moving the brain into a particular brain state with a concentrated flow of
specific frequencies.

There is no brain feedback when listening to binaural beats.

However, systems like CES, LENS or pRoshi do correct the brain in a similar way.
They cause a positive change in brainwave patterns by prompting dysfunctional
brain patterns to correct themselves and return to a healthy state.

So essentially it shifts you from a negative brain state to a positive one.

Binaural beats have been proven to do just that, and prove particularly helpful for
symptoms of anxiety, poor concentration, bad sleep patterns, etc.

Binaural beats are a lot cheaper too, so that would be my first port of call before
shedding out for neurofeedback.
 ✓ Check out the best binaural beats here
What Scientific Evidence is There for Neurofeedback?
– ADHD

ADHD is the most studied condition within the neurofeedback world a meta
analysis of 15 studies on ADHD, researchers concluded that neurofeedback
effectively reduces the symptoms of inattention, impulsiveness, and hyperactivity.

One review of large-scale clinical trials found that neurofeedback therapy induces a

state of relaxed attention, modulates both over and under-arousal, and works
comparably to the typical stimulant medications prescribed for ADHD.

However, in a triple blind, randomised study on ADHD patients, recorded in Lancet
Psychiatry, researchers compared neurofeedback therapy, ‘fake’ neurofeedback
therapy, and CBT (cognitive behavioral therapy).

They found improvements in all three groups. The neurofeedback group was no
more significant, leading at least one prominent researcher to proclaim that
“although neurofeedback training is effective in reducing ADHD symptoms, it
neither outperforms sham neurofeedback nor group psychotherapy. As such,
neurofeedback cannot be recommended as an efficient approach in the treatment
of adults with ADHD.”

In addition, an August 2016 analysis of 13 randomised trials regarding

neurofeedback therapy for children with ADHD came to a similar conclusion, the
authors of which stated that “findings from this meta-analysis suggest that
neurofeedback cannot currently be recommended as a treatment for children with
ADHD.”

– Depression

One study on depression found that the use of neurofeedback decreased

depressive symptoms by 50% and, by the end of the study, 5 out of 6 participants
were deemed to be “in remission.”

– Performance

One widely reported success story is the Canadian Olympic team. These athletes
utilized a variety of biofeedback techniques (including neurofeedback) to sharpen
their skills and make them more serious competitors in the 2009 Olympics.
They incorporated the techniques into their “Top Secret – Own The Podium”
project, an attempt that was largely successful. Canadians overall placed
exceedingly well during the games.

Indeed, studies have found that neurofeedback improves performance by assisting

athlete’s concentration and motivation through their competition period.

Further Research
You can find a comprehensive bibliography of neurofeedback studies from the International Society
for Neurofeedback & Research here.
In Conclusion
We know that the study of disorders needs to revolve around connections in the brain in order to
better understand and alleviate the symptoms a patient is experiencing. And this changing method of
approaching disorders explains the surge in popularity of biofeedback and associated therapy
techniques such as neurofeedback.
However, research is still evolving, as is technology. And because of that evidence is somewhat
inconsistent, with some trials reporting good results and others varied and sometimes none at all.
Where neurofeedback is concerned, it is quite plausible that it might work for some and not for
others. Similarly, some people respond very well to brainwave entrainment while others don't benefit
much at all.
Science still doesn't fully understand how the brain works and why some people respond to certain
treatments and others don't; indeed, it is the most complex organ in the body.
There are many therapies we can experiment with that are relatively inexpensive, such as binaural
beats, hypnosis, mindfulness practice, yoga and meditation,  all of which many people have found
work wonders for anxiety, stress, lack of focus, insomnia, pain relief and other conditions where a
simple shift in brainwave activity can make a huge difference to our wellbeing.
The important thing is to keep an open mind to possibility and explore and discover what works best
for you.
NEUROFEDBACK

Also called

 EG Biofeedback
 Brain training
 Neuro-therapy
 Neuro-training
 Attention training
 Peak performance training

BIOFEDBACK

 Using information about how the body is working to alter what’s going on

Biofeedback was popular in the 70s for managing anxiety. The client got sound tones for rewards
when his GSR (Galvanic Skin Response) met the pre-set levels.

We now know our brains are much more plastic than we used to think. Our brains can

 learn,
 change,
 improve,
 heal

THE BIG IDEA

When you have information what your brain waves are doing, your brain can use that information
to change how it works.

THE BIG IDEA

When you have information what your brain waves are doing, your brain can use that information
to change how it works.
The human brain weighs about 12 ounces at birth, about 35 ounces at 1 year
By age 5, the brain is about its full size and weight about 3 pounds (about 2% of adult body weight).
Your brain uses about 20-30% of your body’s basic energy and about 20% of your oxygen.
By age 20-25, we have 100 billion neurons but then we start to LOSE brain cells.
As many as 10,000 brain cells die every day after age 20. Fortunately, those 100,000,000,000 neurons
are a generous supply!
BRAINWAVES (GET IMAGES)

1. NEURONS:
These are neurons. Your brain has hundreds of billions of them!
Diagram of a neuron.
A group of real neurons.

2. BRAINWAVES
Brainwaves (EGs) reflect the brains electrical activity.
A neuron at rest is like a little battery. Whenever a neuron is active, its voltage changes briefly and
may change by 100 mV or more.

Electrical activity in a single neuron.

When millions of neurons fire at the same time, they may produce electrical activity detectable to an
electrode placed on the head.

Two real human brains.

The left image is an MRI.

Two illustrations of the brain producing electricity.

For example, if you hear a tone, many different groups of neurons fire as your brain processes that
tone.
EEGs can tell us when and where these groups of neurons fire. Doctors often use this technique to
diagnose hearing disabilities, since EEGs can reveal which groups of neurons are damaged.

This figure shows some of the EEGs evoked by a tone.

Early responses (within 0.1 seconds of the tone) are very consistent.
Later EEG components may vary depending on whether you ignored the tone, if it was meaningful to
you, if you expected it, and other factors.

Most EEG studies use an electrode cap. This is a special cap that contains electrodes at certain
locations over different areas of the head.
On rare occasions, doctors may need to use surgery to implant an electrode inside the skull to get
better recordings. This is only done when medically necessary. For example, doctors may need to
know exactly what area of a patients’ brain is creating seizures.

Most EEG recordings use an electrode cap that contains a large number of electrodes.
Many labs use between 16 and 64 electrodes, but caps with 256 or more electrodes have been used
in scientific and medical studies.
Different electrode caps.
Most electrode caps are designed with electrodes over specific areas of the skull (and thus specific
areas of the brain). Otherwise, you would be recording from different brain areas each time you use a
cap.
These are standardized electrode locations, called the International 10-20 system.

A typical EEG session

Scientists run subjects all the time in EEG experiments. Subjects may be paid, they may volunteer, or
they may receive class credit for participating. Before preparing a subject for EEG recording, s/he is
shown the lab and the equipment, and is asked to sign a consent form agreeing to be in the study.
This is very important. Scientists are required to get informed consent from subjects. After this, the
preparation begins.

A typical EEG session

It is often necessary to place an electrode on or behind the ear before donning the electrode cap.
Scientists often clean the area behind the ear with rubbing alcohol. Some people put electrodes near
the eye to detect blinking and other eye movements.

The scientist measures the subjects’ head and then places the correct sized cap on his head.

A typical EEG session

The scientist checks the cap to make sure there is a good connection between each electrode and the
brain.
The subject is now ready for recording! A typical recording session lasts about an hour. It takes
roughly 30 minutes to prepare a subject for recording, depending on the number of electrodes, the
subjects’ hair, the scientists’ skill, type of electrode cap, and other factors.

Brainwave Categories
Most people have heard of free-running EGs. These are naturally produced, rhythmic brainwaves that
do not require outside activity.
Well known free running EGs include
Delta (1-4 Hz), found in deep sleep.
Theta (4-8 Hz), found in sleep, meditation, hypnosis.
Alpha (8-14 Hz), indicate relaxation and closed eyes.
Mu (8-14 Hz), largest when individual is not moving Beta (nonspecific higher frequencies), indicate
alertness

This graph shows about four seconds of EEG from a human subject. Each of the 15 lines represents a
different electrode site.
This has a lot of alpha activity (about 10 waves per second), meaning the subject was probably awake
but drowsy with eyes closed. Again, alpha waves are a type of free running EG
However, people sometimes are interested in the brains’ response to a certain event. For example, if
someone touches your hand or plays a tone, your EEG will change as your brain process that event.
The technical term for EEG activity based on a specific event is an event related potential (ERP).
One common bump is called the P300, named because it starts about 300 milliseconds after an event.

There are other technologies for studying brain activity. Two well-known techniques are PET and
fMRI. These approaches provide different information than EGs. EGs are very good at telling when a
brain area was active, but are poor at finding exactly where in the brain the signal came from. EEG
recording equipment is also much cheaper, easier to use, and more portable that the tools needed for
PET or fMRI. Some people use EGs in combination with fMRI. This can be a very powerful tool for
finding exactly when and where something occurs.

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ISOTONES
 1. . FUNCTIONAL BRAIN WAVES Psychserv Phils., INC
10. CLASIC EEG diagnostics for neurological problems specifically seizure problems
11. German physiologist and psychiatrist Hans Berger (1873–1941) recorded the first human EEG in 1924.
[7] Expanding on work previously conducted on animals by Richard Caton and others, Berger also invented
the electroencephalogram (giving the device its name), an invention described "as one of the most
surprising, remarkable, and momentous developments in the history of clinical neurology “. His discoveries
were first confirmed by British scientists Edgar Douglas Adrian and B. H. C. Mathews in 1934 and
developed by them.
12. An electroencephalogram (EEG) is a test used to detect abnormalities related to electrical activity of the
brain. This procedure tracks and records brain wave patterns. Small metal discs with thin wires (electrodes)
are placed on the scalp, and then send signals to a computer to record the results.
13. EEG is most often used to diagnose epilepsy, which causes abnormalities in EEG readings. It is also
used to diagnose sleep disorders, coma, encephalopathies, and brain death. EEG used to be a first-line
method of diagnosis for tumors, stroke and other focal brain disorders
14. The history of EEG is detailed by Barbara E. Swartz in Electroencephalography and Clinical
Neurophysiology. In 1875, Richard Caton (1842–1926), a physician practicing in Liverpool, presented his
findings about electrical phenomena of the exposed cerebral hemispheres of rabbits and monkeys in the
British Medical Journal. In 1890, Polish physiologist Adolf Beck published an investigation of spontaneous
electrical activity of the brain of rabbits and dogs that included rhythmic oscillations altered by light. Beck
started experiments on the electrical brain activity of animals. Beck placed electrodes directly on the
surface of brain to test for sensory stimulation. His observation of fluctuating brain activity, lead to the
conclusion of brain waves.
15. In 1934, Fisher and Lowenback first demonstrated epileptiform spikes. In 1935 GiBs, Davis and Lennox
described inter ictal spike waves and the three cycles/s pattern of clinical absence seizures, which began
the field of clinical electroencephalography. Subsequently, in 1936 GiBs and Jasper reported the interictal
spike as the focal signature of epilepsy. The same year, the first EEG laboratory opened at Massachusetts
General Hospital
16. NEUROFEDBACK brainwaves for diagnostics and therapy/wellness
17. Neurofeedback (NFB) also called neurotherapy or  neurobiofeedback, is a type of biofeedback 
that uses real-time displays of brain activity —most commonly electroencephalography  (EG), to teach self-
regulation of brain  function.
18. Joe Kamiya popularized neurofeedback in the 1960s when an article about the alpha brain wave
experiments, he had been conducting was published in Psychology Today in 1968.
19. Kamiya’s experiment had two parts. In the first part, a subject was asked to keep his eyes closed
and when a tone sounded to say whether he thought he was
in alpha. He was then told whether he was correct or wrong. 
Initially the subject would get about fifty percent correct, but
some subjects would eventually develop the ability to better distinguish between states
In the second part of the study, subjects were asked to go into 
alpha when a bell rang once and not go into the state when  the bell rang twice. 
Once again, some subjects were able to enter the state on command. Alpha states were connected
with relaxation, and alpha training had the possibility to alleviate stress and stress-related conditions.
20. The work of Barry Sterman, Joel F. Lubar and others has been relevant on the study of beta training, 
involving the role of sensorimotor rhythmic EEG activity  This training has bEn used in the treatment of 
epilepsy  attention deficit disorder and hyperactive  disorder 
The sensorimotor rhythm (SMR) is rhythmic activity  between 12 and 16 hertz that can be recorded from 
an area near the sensorimotor cortex. SMR is found in waking states and is very similar if not identical to 
the sleep spindles that are recorded in the second  stage of sleep
21. Within the last 5–10 years, neurofEdback has taken a new  aProach in taking a lOk at dEp states.
Alpha-theta training has bEn tried with patients with  alcoholism other aDictions as weL as anxiety This low 
frequency training diFers greatly from the high frequency beta 
and SMR training that has bEn practiced for over thirty years 
and is reminiscent of the original alpha training of Elmer GrEn  and Joe Kamiya. Beta and SMR training
can be considered a  more directly physiological aProach, strengthening 
sensorimotor inhibition in the cortex and inhibiting alpha  paTerns, which slow metabolism.  Alpha-theta
training, however, derives from the  psychotherapeutic model and involves aCeSing of painful or 
repreSed memories through the alpha-theta state The alpha-
theta state is a term that comes from the representation on the  EG
22. conceptual aProach caLed the COrdinated ALocation of Resource Model (CAR) of brain
functioning which states that specific cognitive  abilities are a function of specific electrophysiological 
variables which can overlap acroS diFerent cognitive  tasks The activation database guided EEG
biofEdback  aProach initiaLy involves evaluating the subject on a 
number of academicaLy relevant cognitive tasks and  compares the subject's values on the QEG 
measures to a normative database, in particular on  the variables that are related to suCeS at that task
23. 3D NEUROFEDBACK- LORETA LORETA (LOW RESOLUTION ELECTROMAGNETIC
TOMOGRAPHY).
24. 3D NeurofEdback expands on the capabilities of surface 
neurofEdback with a fuL range of new advances; bringing to 
bear the next generation of 3D brain imaging and training 
tOls. In the hands of a skiLed clinician, it is the ultimate brain  training tOlkit.   
Using a fuL 19 sensor cap, the clinician is able to train any 
number of areas together (as oPosed to individual surface 
areas with the more coMon 2 sensor neurofEdback). By  using a medical research database (Z-
score) and dEp brain  source imaging (LoRETA), 3D neurofEdback can directly 
train entire brain networks; targeting overaL electrical activity 
(amplitude), brain coNectivity (coherence), proceSing spEd  (phase), and more.   
25. This is made poSible by more advanced imaging capability 
– if you can detect it, you can train it. BeTer imaging equals 
beTer results. BeTer targeting means beTer reliability.  Training multiple areas at once means leS seSions.
For clinicians, being able to sE exactly what is going on 
over the entire brain at aL times is a real advantage, and by 
integrating research software the clinician can map, track,  and kEp the training entirely up to date.   
3D neurofEdback takes more skiL and experience to 
operate, and the equipment required runs at a gOd twenty 
times the cost of basic equipment. Hence, seSions usuaLy 
cost about a third more than for traditional neurofEdback – 
however one requires far fewer seSions to sE results. 
26. Eating Disorder Epilepsy Fetal Alcohol Syndrome Learning Disabilities Migraine ObseSive-
Compulsive Disorder Pre-Menstrual Syndrome Post-Traumatic StreS Disorder SlEp Disorders Stroke
ToureTe’s Syndrome Traumatic Brain Injury
27. The foLowing syndromes have potential therapeutic eFectiveneS using NeurofEdback: Borderline
Personality Disorder DiSociative Identity Disorder Cognitive Decline in the Elderly Parkinson’s Disease
28. MIDBRAIN ACTIVATION
29. The Shichida Method of Right Brain Training
30. Dr. Shichida uses the term “right brain education” to describe his cuRiculum methods and to distinguish
it as being diFerent and distinct from the traditional education which utilizes the more linear left brain
aProach to learning
31. Four major functions of the right brain 1: High-spEd, high-capacity memory mechanism. He explains
that the left brain turns data from the external world into language. This requires "sequential proceSing,"
wherein data is proceSed one bit at a time. It is a time- consuming activity. The right brain, on the other
hand, proceSes information very quickly as images or pictures.
32. 2) A second function of the right brain is the combination of memory with imagination to produce
"structures which transcend our personal experience and knowledge 3) A third right-brain function is the
production of waves which resonate with the universe 4) A fourth function of the Right Brain is -rapid
automatic calculation
33. Right brain capabilities that aL children poSeS are: 1. The 5 senses of the right brain. CoResponding to
the 5 senses of the left brain (sight, hearing, touch, taste, smeL) the right brain also has its 5 senses
However they are not the senses of sight and hearing in the normal maNer, but the ability to sE, hear,
sense things through waves translated into images. These 5 senses of the right brain are its basic abilities.
When these abilities are released, man becomes capable of sEing images as motion pictures. 2. The ability
to sE images in the form of motion pictures. 3. Photographic memory. 4. The ability to do complex mental
calculations. 5. The conversion of images to words, numbers, symbols and the reverse. 6. The ability to
master foreign languages easily. 7. The ability to receive inspiration and use it towards unique creativity. 8.
The ability of photographic spEd-reading. 9. The ability to receive information on an intuitive level, and to
use that information aCordingly.
34. The Shichida Method of Right Brain Training The Characteristics of The Shichida Method Brain
Training The left and right hemispheres of the brain have diFerent capabilities. The right brain poSeSes the
ability to retain complete image of things sEn at a glance in the memory. Also, it is the receptacle for
inspiration and the site of expreSion for image abundant creativity. To create a balance betwEn our human
and animal minds, "We must bring the functions of the brain stem to life, especiaLy those of its center-the
diencephalon." Shichida Makato says that, strictly speaking, the development of the right brain is the
development of the diencephalon of the brain's right hemisphere. In other words, it is the development of
the dEp, unconscious levels of the brain.
35. On the subject of activating the diencephalon, Shichida recoMends "imaging training," suCeS at which
coNects the human mind with the universal mind. Spiritual education In aDition to aDreSing the theory and
practice of right-brain development and human learning potential, Shichida streSes balance and
complementarity betwEn the two sides of the brain. To him, right-brain education is ultimately spiritual
education
36. Shichida's cuRicula include games to teach "direct visual imaging," spEd-reading and the making of
mnemonic aSociations. In claS, the teacher places 10 diFerent pictographic cards against the whiteboard.
He or she then coNects the cards to each other with a story, creating a picture in the mind which facilitates
memorization. Shichida says that with practice, "Kids no longer nEd the verbal coNections. They can easily
remember 40 to 50 cards. For many kids even 100 cards aren't a problem." Another interesting feature of
Shichida Makato's claSes is that they do not aTempt to present principles underlying knowledge. Instead,
they provide students with large volumes of raw data. The rationale is that when data is presented quickly,
the left brain caNot kEp up in its eForts to order data and turn it into language. Instead, it gives up and
takes a break, aLowing the right brain a chance to handle it. "After the right brain has taken in the data, the
brain can search for paTerns and systems on its own."
37. About Brain Waves Brainwaves •Beta waves are generated by the brains of adults when fuLy awake.
•Alpha waves are produced by the brains of young children. •Theta waves are generated as we enter slEp
and while we dream. •Delta waves are produced in dEp slEp
38. Midbrain Activation is the technique of optimizing the function of our miDle brain, which is the ‘bridge’
betwEn the left and right brain. Having this ‘bridge’ activated aLows for the retrieval of information betwEn
the left and the right brain, which leads to more eFiciency in learning and absorbing information. Midbrain
Activation aLows the brain to function as a whole, rather than only utilizing one part of the brain. It also
brings out and strengthens characteristics such as creativity, memory, aPlication skiLs, self-confidence,
and
39. BRAIN FINGERPRINTING brain waves in forensics
40. Brain fingerprinting is a forensic science technique that uses electroencephalography (EG) to determine
whether specific information is stored in a subject's brain
41.  It consists of measuring and recording a  person's electricalbrainwaves and brain 
response known as P300-MERMER ("Memory  and Encoding Related Multifaceted 
Electroencephalographic Response") after the  subject is exposed to words, phrases, or 
pictures on a computer scrEn
42. The P300 (P3) wave is an  event related potential (ERP) component 
elicited in the proceS of decision making. It is  considered to be an endogenous potential, as 
its oCuRence links not to the physical  aTributes of a stimulus, but to a person's  reaction to it
43. When recorded by electroencephalography (EG), it  surfaces as a positive deflection in voltage with a 
latency (delay betwEn stimulus and response) of  roughly 250 to 500 ms.
The signal is typicaLy measured most strongly by  the electrodes covering the parietal lobe. The 
presence, magnitude, topography and timing of this  signal are often used as metrics of 
cognitive function in decision making proceSes.  While the neural substrates of this ERP component 
stiL remain hazy, the reproducibility and ubiquity of  this signal makes it a coMon choice for 
psychological tests in both the clinic and laboratory.
44. Brain fingerprinting was invented by Lawrence FarweL. He 
hypothesized that the brain proceSes known or relevant information 
diFerently than unknown or iRelevant information ( FarweL & Donchin 1991). 
The brain's proceSing of information known to the subject is revealed  by a specific paTern in the EEG
(electroencephalograph) ( FarweL & Smith 2001, FarweL 1994). 
FarweL's brain fingerprinting originaLy used the P300 brain response to 
detect the recognition of the known information ( FarweL & Donchin 1986, 1991, FarweL 1995a). 
Later, FarweL discovered the P300-MERMER, which extends the basic 
P300 and is reported to provide greater aCuracy and statistical 
confidence (Encyclopedia of Forensic Science 2014, 
FarweL & Smith 2001, FarweL 1994, FarweL 1995b, FarweL et al. 2013). 
Brain fingerprinting has an eRor rate of leS than 1%, as weL as high 
statistical confidence (Encyclopedia of Forensic Science 2014) in 
45. Brain fingerprinting has bEn ruled admiSible  for court use in the United States of 
America (HaRington v. State  2001,Encyclopedia of Forensic Science 
2014, FarweL & Makeig 2005, FarweL 2012).  It has bEn used in a number of high-profile 
criminal cases such as the murder trial of  TeRy HaRington (HaRington v. State 2001) 
and the sentencing of serial kiLer J. B.  Grinder (Encyclopedia of Forensic Science  2014, FarweL et
al. 2013).
46. CLARITY a new brain imaging technique by Karl DeiSeroth
47. BIOENGINER PSYCHIATRIST NEUROSCIENTIST STANFORD UNIVERSITY KAROLINSKA
INSTITUTE Karl DeiSeroth
48. CLARITY is a technique developed in the DeiSeroth  lab at Stanford University.
The method is used to transform an intact tiSue into  an opticaLy transparent and permeable hydrogel-
hybridized form that can undergo iMunostaining and  high resolution 3-D imaging without damage to the 
sample.  By clearing the tiSue while preserving fine structural 
details, CLARITY provides a technique for obtaining  high-resolution information from complex systems 
while maintaining the global perspective neceSary to  understand system function.
49. APlications In terms of brain imaging, the ability for CLARITY imaging to reveal specific structures in
such unobstructed detail has led to promising avenues of future aPlications including local circuit wiring
relationships betwEn neural ceLs, roles of subceLular structures, beTer understanding of protein
complexes, and imaging of nucleic acids and neurotransmiTers. An example of a discovery made through
CLARITY imaging is a peculiar 'laDer' paTern where neurons coNected back to themselves and their
neighbors, which has been observed in animals to be connected to autism-like behaviors
50. NIH director Francis Collins has already expressed his hopes for this emergent technology, saying:
"CLARITY is powerful. It will enable researchers to study neurological diseases
and disorders, focusing on diseased or damaged structures without losing a global
perspective. That’s something we’ve never before been able to do in three dimensions."

6. BRAINWAVE FREQUENCIES
8. SPONTANEOUS BRAIN POTENTIALS Alpha, beta, theta and delta are names for typical shape of so-called
spontaneous brain potentials because they are not effect of some stimulus from outside, but just from inner
examinee state (meditation, relaxation, sleeping, calculating…).
9. Associated Mental State Awake but relaxed and not processing much information. When you get up in the
morning and just before sleep, you are naturally in this state. When you close your eyes, your brain automatically
starts producing more Alpha waves. Alpha is usually the goal of experienced meditators, but to enter it using NP2
is incredibly easy. Since Alpha is a very receptive, absorbent mental state, you can also use it for effective self-
hypnosis, mental re-programming, accelerated learning and more. 8hz - 12hz Frequency Alpha Wave
10. Hans Berger named the first rhythmic EEG activity he saw, the “alpha wave.” This is activity in the 8-12 Hz
range seen in the posterior head regions when an adult patient is awake but relaxed. It was noted to attenuate with
eye opening or mental exertion. This activity is now referred to as “posterior basic rhythm,” the “posterior
dominant rhythm” or the “posterior alpha rhythm.”
11. The posterior basic rhythm is actually slower than 8 Hz in young children (therefore technically in the theta
range). In addition to the posterior basic rhythm, there are two other normal alpha rhythms that are typically
discussed: the mu rhythm and a temporal “third rhythm.” Alpha can be abnormal; for example, an EEG that has
diffuse alpha occurring in coma and is not responsive to external stimuli is referred to as “alpha coma.”
12. Associated Mental State Wide awake. This is generally the mental state most people are in during the day and
most of their waking lives. Usually, this state in itself is uneventful, but don't underestimate its importance. Many
people lack sufficient Beta activity, which can cause mental or emotional disorders such as depression, ADD and
insomnia. Stimulating Beta activity can improve emotional stability, energy levels, attentiveness and
concentration. 12hz - 38hz Frequency Beta Wave
13. Low amplitude beta with multiple and varying frequencies is often associated with active, busy or anxious
thinking and active concentration. Rhythmic beta with a dominant set of frequencies is associated with various
pathologies and drug effects, especially benzodiazepines. Activity over about 25 Hz seen in the scalp EEG is
rarely cerebral (i.e., it is most often artifactual).
14. Associated Mental State Light sleep or extreme relaxation. Theta can also be used for hypnosis, accelerated
learning and self-programming using pre-recorded suggestions. Theta is seen normally in young children. It may
be seen in drowsiness or arousal in older children and adults; it can also be seen in meditation. Excess theta for
age represents abnormal activity. 3hz - 8hz Frequency Theta Wave
15. Associated Mental State Deep, dreamless sleep. Delta is the slowest band of brainwaves. When dominant
brainwave is Delta, the body is healing itself and “resetting” its internal clocks. Do not dream in this state and are
completely unconscious. Delta is seen normally in adults in slow wave sleep. It is also seen normally in babies. It
may be seen over focal lesions or diffusely in encephalopathies 0.2hz - 3hz Frequency Delta Wave
17. SIGNIFICANCE OF BRAINWAVES Can tell a lot about a person simply by observing their brainwave
patterns. For example, anxious people tend to produce an overabundance of high Beta waves while people with
depression tend to produce an overabundance of slower Alpha/Theta brainwaves. Researchers have found that not
only are brainwaves representative of mental state, but they can be stimulated to change a person's mental state,
and even help treat a variety of mental disorders. Certain Brainwave patterns can even be used to access exotic or
extraordinary experiences such as “ lucid dreaming “ or ultra-realistic visualization.
18. STIMULATING THE BRAIN WITH LIGHT & SOUND The Neuro-Programmer uses sound and light to
directly affect the brain through a complex neural process called Brainwave Entrainment . What is Brainwave
Entrainment? Refers to the brain's electrical response to rhythmic sensory stimulation, such as pulses of sound or
light. When the brain is given a stimulus, through the ears, eyes or other senses, it emits an electrical charge in
response, called a Cortical Evoked Response . These electrical responses travel throughout the brain to become
what you “ see and hear . “ This activity can be measured using sensitive electrodes attached to the scalp.
20. When the brain is presented with a rhythmic stimulus, such as a drum beat for example, the rhythm is
reproduced in the brain in the form of these electrical impulses. If the rhythm becomes fast and consistent enough,
it can start to resemble the natural internal rhythms of the brain, called brainwaves. When this happens, the brain
responds by synchronizing its own electric cycles to the same rhythm. This is commonly called the Frequency
Following Response (or FFR)
21. Frequency Following Response (FFR)
22. FFR can be useful because brainwaves are very much related to mental state. For example, a 4 Hz brainwave
is associated with sleep, so a 4 Hz sound pattern would help reproduce the sleep state in your brain. The same
 concept can be applied to nearly all mental states, including concentration, creativity and many others. It can even
act as a gateway to exotic or extraordinary experiences, such as deep meditation or “lucid dreaming” type states
23. ENTRAINMENT Entrainment is a principle of physics. It is defined as the synchronization of two or more
rhythmic cycles. The principles of entrainment are universal, appearing in chemistry, neurology, biology,
pharmacology, medicine, astronomy and more…
24. BENEFITS Long-lasting benefits Using brainwave stimulation and dynamic psychological techniques, the
Neuro-Programmer enables to achieve profound and lasting results. Change your thought patterns and behaviors
Self-Programming: Using focused, but customizable psychological techniques, combined with the methods of
hypnosis and neuro-linguistic programming (NLP), the Neuro-Programmer 2 helps us change nearly anything
about us. Emotional reactions, bad habits, behaviors, thought patterns and more.
25. Rid of bad habits Rid of limiting beliefs and destructive thought patterns Change emotional reactions Access
helpful mental states on demand Explore self-hypnosis and visualization techniques
26. Fetal brainwaves and personhood Kushner emphasizes that what is significant about the onset of fetal brain
waves is that the fetus in addition to being merely biologically alive, now ‘has a life’ and can be the subject of
experiences. Kushner addresses the fact that thought the nervous system is the first to start developing, it is the
last system to complete development.
27. ELECTRICAL BRAIN POTENTIAL There are about 13 billion neurons in human brain; they are
communicating using electrochemical connections. As human brain, skin, cerebral liquid and skull have
reasonably good conductivity it is possible to measure electrical activity of synchronous active groups of neurons
by placing electrodes on the skull. We need two electrodes to get electric circuit closed; voltage that we measure
is a projection of vector that shows directions of neurons activity to vector that is defined with electrodes. It
shows that measured voltage is not just a function of number of active neurons, but also a function of they
position in brain rather to electrode position.
28. To get better information about neurons activity it is possible to use more than two electrodes, this is used
specially in so called brain mapping , when the result is brain image with areas of activity and inactivity.
29. To standardize research and diagnostic results there is a standard for electrode positioning called 10-20
standard.
30. John D. Hamilton, Robert Asarnow, et al; The Neurobiology of Early-Onset Schizophrenia: An Update;
Symposium, American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 2002, San Francisco, CA, Oct 2002
31. LEONARDO BRAINMAP EEG and PSG Very high-performance up to 256-channel EEG and PSG
Recording based on notebook or PC System and provides clear, sharp traces. The amplifier system is designed
specifically for the EEG and PSG monitoring to satisfy the needs of the physician's office, hospital, or medical
center and combines the latest digital design techniques with years of amplifier design and manufacturing
experience.

https://es.slideshare.net/MILENSRAMOS/functional-brainwaves-final?qid=50aecee9-75e6-4317-a1da-
471250ac3b61&v=&b=&from_search=6
https://es.slideshare.net/kkapil85/eeg-in-neurology-and-psychiatry
https://es.slideshare.net/Powerman5000/epilepsia-en-la-clnica-aes-2011?qid=f3e8ec60-2f4b-4040-
8ca2-1d3061843d1d&v=&b=&from_search=12
https://es.slideshare.net/rogelio_dm/electroencefalograma-eeg-en-epilepsia?qid=067038a3-d237-
46e2-ac4d-b7d0766eff03&v=&b=&from_search=3
https://www.slideserve.com/tausiq/neurofeedback
https://es.slideshare.net/drshama65/brain-wavesppt
https://es.slideshare.net/sajjadhussainraja/recognition-of-abnormal-eeg
CORTEZA PREFRONTAL FP1, FZ, FP2
FUNCIONAMIENTO EJECUTIVO: establece metas, inhibe información ajena al proceso de planificación
dirigido a metas, planifica y toma decisiones, memoria de trabajo. Los lóbulos prefrontales tienen
conexiones con la amígdala. Autorregulación, iniciación, comportamiento socioemocional en contexto
social, reconocimiento y producción de expresión del lenguaje (prosodia)
La disminución de la activación prefrontal izquierda puede reflejar una experiencia depresiva en la
que el aumento de la activación prefrontal derecha puede reflejar ansiedades.
Los lóbulos prefrontales tienen redes neuronales que conducen a la amígdala.
Regulación del sistema nervioso autónomo
Atiende estímulos internos y externos,
Determina la cantidad de atención que se distribuirá entre los estímulos en competencia.
Sistema de supervisión de la atención: atención sostenida.
Programación y control de motores
Recupera la memoria y la utiliza
Capacidad para inhibir el comportamiento de manera adecuada en contextos sociales complejos.
Gratificación retrasada
Flexibilidad mental
Comprender el concepto de pasado, presente y futuro.
Proporcionar conciencia de lo que es gratificante y placentero.
Regulación de las emociones (modular e inhibir impulsos)
Organizador, creativo, resolución de problemas.
Capacidad para aprender de la experiencia. Prueba de la realidad
Desarrollo de personalidad
Apego, conciencia, empatía
Fz: campos oculares frontales, observación motora, de enfoque y de acción.
(Fpz - inhibición emocional, modulación de respuestas emocionales (sensibilidad) y conductuales,
motivación / atención).

FP1 y F3: atención lógica y detallada, FP2 y F4 - atención emocional / contextual

organización de las respuestas (como un
director de orquesta), semántica
FP1 - recuperación verbal. Memoria de trabajo FP2 - Procesamiento de caras y objetos, forma,
visual, comportamientos analíticos verbales y de estructura y contextos, memoria episódica
aproximación. (cuando la hiperactividad puede correlacionarse
con irritabilidad, impulsividad, falta de tacto,
comportamiento maníaco y de pánico)

LÓBULO FRONTAL
FUNCIONES EJECUTIVAS SUPERIORES
Puerta atencional. Toma de decisiones. Resolución de problemas, memoria, conciencia social,
carácter, motivación, planificación, juicio. Los lóbulos frontales son responsables de la atención
inmediata y sostenida, las habilidades sociales, las emociones, la empatía, la gestión del tiempo, la
memoria de trabajo, la fibra o carácter moral, la planificación ejecutiva y la iniciativa. Identifican
problemas y pueden enviarlos a otras partes del cerebro para su resolución.
El cerebro no es solo un organismo de procesamiento cognitivo; también es el asiento de nuestra
conciencia. Las emociones, la moral y el yo social no pueden aislarse de las actividades del lóbulo
frontal; también están involucradas otras estructuras más profundas.
Existe una relación entre el lóbulo frontal y la amígdala. La corteza frontal es responsable del
procesamiento más complejo del cerebro y tiene las proyecciones más pesadas hacia la amígdala, y
las dos se combinan para formar una red que es el cerebro social.
F3 y F7 - Comportamiento de enfoque, F4 y F8: comportamiento de evitación,
compromiso, interés, regulación del estado de abstinencia, control de los impulsos (vínculos
ánimo, procesamiento de información importantes con la amígdala). Variaciones del
emocional positiva, conciencia consciente. tono emocional (aprosodia motora)
Sistema de neuronas espejo frontal: empatía e F4 - pensamiento inductivo creativo, inductivo
intención de los demás. emocional, metafórico, recuperación a corto
F3 - juicio, planificación, atención sostenida, plazo de la memoria del objeto espacial,
inhibición de respuestas, recuperación de la vigilancia, atención selectiva y sostenida.
memoria episódica verbal, resolución de F8 - memoria de trabajo espacial y visual,
problemas, secuenciación, deducir hechos para estructura o configuración, atención sostenida,
Legar a conclusiones. procesamiento emocional facial consciente,
F7: crea y controla la salida del lenguaje hablado prosodia
y escrito, la memoria de trabajo visual y Conciencia de empatía. Sentir el bien y el mal.
auditiva, la atención selectiva del área de Broca Puerta emocional. Área de vigilancia.
(recuperación de palabras, semántica, Aprensión, desinterés
comprensión verbal, habla) Atención sostenida y selectiva, ritmo
Atención dividida y selectiva Procesamiento de ira, ansiedad, miedo.
Regulación de impulsos agresivos y sexuales

FRANJA CENTRAL C3, Cz, C4

Las cortezas sensitiva y motora corren paralelas entre sí y están divididas por el surco central. Las dos
cortezas combinadas se denominan corteza sensoriomotora. La corteza sensorial por sí sola es la
corteza somatosensorial primaria o la corteza somatosensorial: discriminación espacial y la capacidad
de identificar dónde se originan las funciones corporales. Responsable tanto de los sentidos externos
del tacto, temperatura, dolor como de los sentidos internos de la posición articular, estado visceral y
dolor.
La corteza motora primaria puede denominarse simplemente corteza motora: control consciente de
todos los movimientos del músculo esquelético. Movimientos hábiles y operaciones repetitivas
suaves como escribir en el teclado de la computadora, tocar instrumentos musicales, escribir a mano,
el funcionamiento de maquinaria compleja y hablar con fluidez. Es el centro y la estación de
conmutación entre los músculos voluntarios del cuerpo y el cerebro.
Cz - corteza de asociación somato-sensorial (Centro del sistema límbico afectivo - PROBABLEMENTE).
Funciones sensorio-motoras, memoria a corto plazo
Conciencia del cuerpo, posición corporal, movimiento corporal, coordinación de la entrada sensorial
con la salida motora.
Actividad motora gruesa, caminar, lanzar una pelota
Movimientos de motricidad fina: destreza con la pluma, enhebrar agujas, dibujar, hablar.

C3 - mano y dígitos (con F3 - escritura a mano e C4 - cognición de la música, razonamiento /

inhibir o ejecutar acción), audición, felicidad, toma de decisiones y emocional / sentimiento, y
sintaxis además, interrumpe el proceso de señales
corporales básicas, alegría y tristeza.

La corteza sensoriomotora no solo divide la parte anterior de la posterior, sino que también sirve
como una unión que coordina el movimiento que también está guiado en parte por las sensaciones.

LÓBULOS TEMPORALES T3 y T4
Corteza de asociación auditiva; fonética, letras al sonido, captar la imagen completa frente a sentir
todo en fragmentos (puede ser disfuncional en el autismo), memoria episódica, valencia emocional y
regulación (temperamento). Sin un dominio claro del hemisferio izquierdo, pueden producirse dislexia
y tartamudeo. Debido a que las mujeres tienen hasta un 30% más de conexiones interhemisféricas,
manejan mejor la dislexia y comprenden mejor las emociones interpersonales.
T3, T5 (izquierda) Wernicke: comprensión tanto T4, T6 (derecha) - conciencia emocional y física
verbal como de lectura. consciente (ínsula), sentido de dirección.
Percepción visual de lo que es un objeto. Memoria visual y visualización, categorización
Procesamiento de integración y percepción de la percepción de la entonación de la voz del
entrada auditiva. sonido, música.
Comprensión de la percepción auditiva y visual Reconocimiento facial.
(lectura y reconocimiento de palabras). Percepción espacial y facial: señales sociales.
Memoria a largo plazo: auditiva (verbal) y visual. Tira central T4-T6 (unión temporal-parietal RHS -
Percepción y comprensión lingüística copia de tonos emocionales, comprensión -
"Voz interior" insinuaciones y matices, memoria no verbal.
Humor positivo Percepción visual de lo que es un objeto
(reconocimiento de objetos).
Reconocimiento de símbolos.
Memoria a largo plazo.
contenido emocional (ansiedad) debido a la
proximidad a la amígdala y al hipocampo.

LÓBULOS PARIETALES P3, Pz, P4

Organización, integración y síntesis de estímulos auditivos, de percepción visual y cinestésica,
orientación, procesamiento cognitivo y atención.
Los lóbulos parietales resuelven los problemas que conceptualizan los lóbulos frontales. Etiquetado
como "corteza de asociación".
Pz: integración de información somatosensorial con percepciones visuales posteriores, memoria de
trabajo
Corteza parietal posterior: sentido de la dirección, síndrome de Balint (el cliente no puede prestar
atención a varios objetos simultáneamente, no puede cambiar la atención de un lugar a otro, o tal vez
de una modalidad sensorial a otra.)
Parietal y occipital - memoria procedimental
Pz Posterior puede implicar memoria a largo plazo, integración sensorial y algunas decisiones rápidas
en situaciones de crisis.
El huso parietal beta refleja hipersensibilidad sensorial o defensividad sensorial, auditiva, visual y
cinestésica.
P3 - Procesamiento del lenguaje, integración de P4 – “Bloc mental” de dibujo visual-espacial,
uno mismo, razonamiento lógico y memoria, procesamiento espacial y de imágenes,
imaginación, ortografía y memoria a corto plazo, decodificación facial, integración con el entorno,
cálculos matemáticos, nombrar objetos, memoria espacial, tal vez efectos de disfunción,
gramática compleja, construcción de oraciones y preocupación por uno mismo, orientación del
procesamiento matemático (conciencia del lado mapa, conocimiento de la diferencia entre
derecho del cuerpo). derecha e izquierda, yo en el espacio, música,
imagen corporal, acto físico de vestirse.
(conciencia del cuerpo del lado izquierdo),

LÓBULOS OCIPITALES O1, Oz, O2

Corteza de asociación visual. Procesamiento visual, memoria procedimental, ensueño, percepción
visual.
Campo visual, ayuda a localizar objetos en el entorno, ver colores y reconocer dibujos e identificar
correctamente objetos, leer, escribir y deletrear.
El aumento de la activación de los occipitales puede reflejar problemas del tronco encefálico
(cerebelo y movimiento corporal involutivo).
Debido a que el lóbulo occipital limita con los lóbulos parietal y temporal, las anomalías del EEG en
ubicaciones posteriores en esos dos lóbulos, a menudo se extienden a las regiones del lóbulo oCipital.
Oz - Alucinaciones
O1 - codificación de memoria con tareas O2 - percepción, visión, color (algo de forma y
semánticas movimiento)

FUNCIONES IMPORTANTES A TRAVÉS DE LÓBULOS Y SITIOS:

IMPLICACIONES DEL ENTRENAMIENTO
Comportamientos y síntomas de los lóbulos frontales:
Comportamientos oposicionales desafiantes y antisociales. Este comportamiento puede ser paralelo a
la ralentización excesiva del EEG y al FSC (Flujo Sanguíneo Cerebral) inadecuado en otras áreas
prefrontales, especialmente Fp1 y Fp2.
Los clientes con miedo excesivo como resultado de un trauma, ansiedad y negligencia pueden tener
una amígdala hiperactiva.
El entrenamiento a lo largo de la Fz dorsal anterior y la Fpz ventral puede tener un impacto en el
comportamiento social y la fortaleza moral (la disfunción se manifiesta como un comportamiento
irresponsable, falta de afecto apropiado, euforia en algunos y expectativa incorrecta en otros).
El entrenamiento en la corteza prefrontal derecha puede conducir a una reducción del miedo y crear
una sensación de calma y bienestar.
La verificación de problemas en el lóbulo prefrontal a menudo implica pruebas. Incluso sin probar,
busque: los clientes parecen estar en la niebla, incapaces de concentrarse. Se meten en problemas en
la escuela o con las autoridades de la comunidad. Pueden tener miedo, tener dificultades con
cuestiones éticas o morales, carecer de capacidad empática o destrezas sociales. Dificultad para
realizar tareas administrativas, desmotivado, desconectado. Falta de atención, planificación o juicio
deficiente, tiempo de reacción lento, falta de conciencia social y control deficiente de los impulsos.
Negativo, deprimido o ansioso ... observar las asimetrías frontales.

CORTEX MOTOR SENSORIAL C3, C4, Cz

Comportamientos y síntomas:
El entrenamiento a lo largo del SMR está implícito para accidentes cerebrovasculares, epilepsia,
parálisis, TDAH y trastornos de la integración sensorial motora.
Los clientes que tienen dificultades para ver la secuencia lógica de las tareas cognitivas pueden
beneficiarse del entrenamiento de neurofeedback a lo largo de la corteza sensorial de la LH (C3). El
entrenamiento a lo largo de la corteza sensoriomotora RH (C4) puede invocar sentimientos,
emociones o calma.
LÓBULOS TEMPORALES
Si está "caliente", evite entrenar inicialmente debido a problemas de reactividad (sensibilidad a
información externa o interna, emoción)
Comportamientos y síntomas:
Los problemas de la zona temporal media izquierda podrían reflejar dificultades para mantener una
conversación.
Los problemas del lóbulo temporal derecho pueden reflejar la incapacidad de reconocer melodías
rítmicas intrincadas; aprecio por la música.
Extensión del tiempo medio hacia los lóbulos del hipocampo... memoria episódica, como tareas
funcionales; recordar pagar las facturas, llenar el tanque de gasolina, dónde están las llaves, cómo
jugar al béisbol, dónde están los vasos, etc.
Debido a la proximidad de los lóbulos temporales a la amígdala, podría resultar en un
comportamiento enojado o agresivo.
La ralentización del EEG en los lóbulos temporales a menudo se asocia con conmociones cerebrales,
ya que las lesiones en la cabeza, independientemente del lugar del impacto, a menudo implican
raspado de los lóbulos temporales a lo largo de la parte interna de la fosa media huesuda y afilada.
Los problemas con la desaceleración del lóbulo temporal son el tipo más común de anomalía del
EEG... cambios patológicos importantes en el envejecimiento, condiciones anóxicas, lesiones en la
cabeza y muchas otras etiologías que se encuentran en el lóbulo temporal, especialmente en la
profundidad de este lóbulo, la amígdala, e hipocampo.
Flujo sanguíneo cerebral en los lóbulos temporales (especialmente R) para sujetos con ansiedad y
trastorno de pánico. La ansiedad leve aumenta el FSC; la ansiedad severa reduce los valores de FSC y
el metabolismo cerebral.
LÓBULOS PARIETALES
COMPORTAMIENTOS Y SÍNTOMAS:
Los clientes pueden tener más accidentes automovilísticos porque no pueden atender ambos lados
del campo visual. Puede tener dificultades para jugar juegos de computadora que requieren un
proceso de escaneo de izquierda a derecha. Haga dibujos y parece que falta algo en la parte izquierda
de la imagen... puede haber un déficit en el lóbulo parietal derecho.
Dificultad para seguir las instrucciones para Legar a la oficina, incapacidad para reconocer una
melodía simple, no puede recordar caras, se da la vuelta con facilidad y se pierde ... luego mire el
lóbulo parietal, así como el lóbulo temporal posterior derecho.
Pídale al cliente que escriba algunas oraciones. Haga un dibujo simple, juegue a “el mono ve, el mono
hace”, resuelva algunos problemas matemáticos o verbales simples. ¿Qué tan bien se desempeñan?
¿Qué tan precisa es la imagen? ¿Qué tan difícil es seguir los movimientos de las manos y el cuerpo?
¿Con qué facilidad se resolvieron los problemas o no se resolvieron?

LÓBULOS OCCIPITALES
Comportamientos y síntomas
La dificultad con los recuerdos visuales y la lectura precisa requieren una visión precisa. Los recuerdos
traumáticos que acompañan a los flashbacks visuales a menudo se procesan en los lóbulos occipitales.
Agnosia visual .... incapacidad para percibir y dibujar objetos completos. Agnosia simultánea ...
incapacidad para ver varios objetos al mismo tiempo.
Problemas con la escritura ... no pueden trazar el contorno de un objeto, o unir los trazos durante la
escritura, si ven la punta del lápiz pierden la línea, o si ven la línea ya no pueden ver la punta del lápiz.
Dificultad para colorear u otras actividades espaciales visuales. (Considere también los lóbulos
parietales posteriores para problemas espaciales visuales).
Adultos que tienen accidentes cerebrovasculares o TBI (LESIÓN CEREBRAL TRAUMÁTICA)
Los clientes que tienen PTSD pueden beneficiarse del entrenamiento en los lóbulos occipitales. Existe
una conexión única entre la corteza visual y la amígdala relacionada con el trastorno de estrés
postraumático. Los practicantes a menudo colocan sensores en la corteza visual cuando realizan
entrenamientos de estados profundos.
ESTRUCTURAS CEREBRALES MÁS PROFUNDAS - FUNCIONES
EL SISTEMA LÍMBICO
Está repleto de funciones a pesar de que solo tiene el tamaño de una nuez. Establece el tono
emocional, controla la motivación y el impulso, guarda recuerdos emocionales. El sistema límbico
femenino es más grande en relación con el tamaño del cerebro que el masculino.
HIPOTÁLAMO
Una de las partes más activas del cerebro. Se ocupa principalmente de la homeostasis. Regula el
hambre, la sed, la respuesta al dolor, el placer, el deseo sexual, el sueño, el SNA y, por tanto, el
control del sistema hormonal. Activa el sistema de lucha o huida.
AMÍGDALA
Aporta contenido emocional al lenguaje, entonación, sonido de voz, emoción social, culpa, vergüenza.
Autocensura, juicio (evaluación y magnitud) de miedo, tristeza (no felicidad). La disfunción se
manifiesta como desinhibición social. Almacena recuerdos inconscientes. Media la depresión y la
hostilidad / agresión.
HIPOCAMPO (DEBAJO DE LOS LÓBULOS TEMPORALES)
Memoria consciente (Hemisferio Izquierdo) auditiva y visual (emocional) a corto y largo plazo.
Entonación sonido-voz, memoria y memoria espacial-facial (Hemisferio Derecho).
NÚCLEO SEPTAL
Esto actúa en conjunto con el hipotálamo y el hipocampo, particularmente en relación con la
inhibición interna y el ejercicio de influencias calmantes y amortiguadoras sobre la excitación y el
funcionamiento del sistema límbico.
CIRCUNVOLUCIÓN DEL CÍNGULO (FPZ, FZ, CZ, PZ)
Ser capaz de desviar la atención de uno de un tema a otro. Flexibilidad mental. Funciones ejecutivas.
Adaptarse a circunstancias cambiantes / ver opciones. Ser cooperativo en un contexto social.
1. CIRCUNVOLUCIÓN CINGULADA ANTERIOR
el HUB afecto / regulación emocional y control del sistema límbico. La flexibilidad mental, la
cooperación, la atención, ayuda al cerebro a cambiar de marcha y al niño pequeño a hacer
transiciones, ayuda a la mente a dejar de lado los problemas y preocupaciones, ayuda al cuerpo a
detener los movimientos rituales y los tics, ayuda a contribuir a los circuitos cerebrales que supervisa
la motivación, el yo social y la personalidad. Está estrechamente alineado con la amígdala. Aquí,
imaginación, aprendizaje motor, miedo y dolor.
2. CIRCUNVOLUCIÓN CINGULADA POSTERIOR
Estrechamente alineada con las cortezas parahipocampales y participa en el proceso de creación de
memoria, proporciona orientación en el espacio, así como servicios de monitorización sensorial y
ocular. En general, se considera que la división entre anterior y posterior está en Cz.
El entrenamiento en el vértice, Cz, influye en tres cortezas simultáneamente: somatosensorial,
motora y cingulada ... el cingulado se ocupa de la emoción / sentimiento, la atención y la memoria de
trabajo. Interactúan tan íntimamente que constituyen la fuente de energía tanto de la acción externa
(movimiento) como de la acción interna (pensamiento, animación y razonamiento).
El cíngulo “caliente” significa que es hiperactivo y causa problemas como TOC, AD / ADHD y síndrome
de Tourette.
AD / ADHD: el trastorno puede manifestarse con o sin hiperactividad. Los componentes incluyen falta
de atención, distracción, hiperactividad e impulsividad. Varias localidades cerebrales diferentes
pueden ser sospechosas al evaluar AD/ADHD. La circunvolución del cíngulo y la región medial anterior
pueden ser el primer lugar para mirar.
Flexibilidad y “afluencia”.
TÁLAMO
Conecta los órganos sensoriales con áreas de procesamiento sensorial primario: los ojos con la
corteza visual del lóbulo occipital. Orejas a la corteza auditiva primaria del lóbulo temporal. Sensación
corporal y posición en la corteza somatosensorial primaria del lóbulo parietal. Conecta el cerebelo a la
tira motora. Establece el tono general o el nivel de excitación de toda la corteza cerebral.
Prácticamente todas las entradas que ascienden a la corteza cerebral se canalizan a través de los
núcleos talámicos, la puerta de entrada a la corteza.
SISTEMA DE ACTIVACIÓN RETICULAR (SAR)
Este es el centro del cerebro. Es la clave para "encender el cerebro" y parece ser el centro de
motivación. Mantiene el cerebro alerta, despierto y receptivo a la información. Sirve como un punto
de convergencia para las señales del mundo externo y el entorno interno. El SAR es el centro de
equilibrio de los demás sistemas implicados en el aprendizaje, el autocontrol o la inhibición.

FRECUENCIAS DE ONDAS CEREBRALES:

Las ondas rápidas no son sincrónicas, sincronizadas con el mundo.

LAS ONDAS CEREBRALES GAMMA

Son una actividad EEG muy rápida por encima de 30 Hz. Aunque se requiere más investigación sobre
estas frecuencias, sabemos que parte de esta actividad está asociada con una atención intensamente
enfocada y en ayudar al cerebro a procesar y unir información de diferentes áreas del cerebro.
Gamma se mide entre (36 - 44) Hz y es el único grupo de frecuencia que se encuentra en todas las
partes del cerebro. Cuando el cerebro necesita procesar información simultánea de diferentes áreas,
se plantea la hipótesis de que la actividad de 40 Hz consolida las áreas requeridas para el
procesamiento simultáneo. Una buena memoria se asocia con una actividad de 40 Hz bien regulada y
eficiente, mientras que una deficiencia de 40 Hz crea problemas de aprendizaje. Cuando se entrena,
mejora la memoria, el lenguaje y la facilidad de aprendizaje.
Gamma (40 Hz): estados emocionales subjetivos (pensamientos integrados, aprendizaje.)
Tareas y comportamientos asociados: procesamiento de información de alto nivel, “vinculación
sensorial”. Correlatos fisiológicos: asociados con el procesamiento de tareas ricas en información.

LAS ONDAS CEREBRALES BETA

Son ondas cerebrales pequeñas y relativamente rápidas (por encima de 13-30 Hz) asociadas con un
estado de pensamiento, actividad mental, intelectual y concentración sostenida enfocada hacia
afuera. Este es básicamente un estado de alerta. La actividad en el extremo inferior de esta banda de
frecuencia (p. Ej., El ritmo sensoriomotor, o RSM en Cz) se asocia con una atención relajada. Si alguien
está excepcionalmente ansioso y tenso, puede haber una frecuencia excesivamente alta de ondas
cerebrales beta en diferentes partes del cerebro; pero en otros casos esto puede estar asociado con
un exceso de actividad alfa ineficiente en áreas frontales que están asociadas con el control
emocional.
Si la actividad beta es deficiente, ya sea en todas partes o en áreas pequeñas, el cerebro puede tener
energía insuficiente para realizar tareas.
La actividad beta es una actividad rápida. Refleja tejido cerebral activo desincronizado. Por lo general,
se ve en ambos lados en distribución simétrica y es más evidente frontalmente. Beta debería ser más
alta a la izquierda que a la derecha del cerebro. El aumento de la asimetría beta en el hemisferio
derecho es indicativo de ansiedad.
La hipercoherencia beta puede indicar ansiedad, ataques de pánico y ansiedad ante los exámenes.
Puede estar ausente o reducida en áreas de daño cortical.
Generalmente se considera un ritmo normal. Es el ritmo dominante en aquellos que están alerta o
ansiosos o que tienen los ojos abiertos. Beta rápido es el estado en el que se encuentra la mayor
parte del cerebro cuando tenemos los ojos abiertos y escuchamos y pensamos durante la resolución
de problemas analíticos, el juicio, la toma de decisiones y el procesamiento de información sobre el
mundo que nos rodea. La frecuencia dominante beta puede indicar que hay un exceso de
noradrenalina.
El aumento de beta por sí solo, a menudo es indicativo de retirada de la interacción social (cuando
theta y alfa son más bajos). El aumento de beta en Fp2 y F3 simultáneamente puede ser indicativo de
que el paciente oculta todos los sentimientos y emociones (se puede ver un afecto plano). El aumento
de beta y la disminución de alfa en el frontalis es indicativo de agitación, ansiedad, sentirse abrumado
e impulsividad con explosividad.
La banda beta tiene un rango relativamente grande y se ha dividido en rango bajo, medio y alto.
 Beta baja (13-15) Hz: podría llamarse “Alpha Alto”, anteriormente era conocido como “RMS”:
(Ritmo Motor Sensorial cuando está en C3, Cz o C4). El “Alpha Alto” del sistema motor, es
máximo cuando el cuerpo está quieto.
Estados emocionales subjetivos: relajado pero concentrado, integrado.
Tareas y comportamientos asociados: un SMR bajo puede reflejar “TDA”, falta de atención
enfocada
Correlaciones fisiológicas: es inhibido por el movimiento; un cuerpo restringido o limitado
puede aumentar la RMS
 Beta de rango medio (15-18) Hz:
Estados emocionales subjetivos: pensamiento, conciencia de sí mismo y de su entorno;
Tareas y comportamientos asociados: actividad mental;
Correlaciones fisiológicas: Atención, activo, pero no agitado. Actividad localizada donde se
trabaja, asincrónica.
 Beta alta (por encima de 18 Hz): la actividad muscular tiende a inhibir la beta alta.
Estados emocionales subjetivos: alerta, agitación, ansiedad, preocupación, rumiación,
esfuerzo mental para la resolución de problemas.
Tareas y comportamientos asociados: actividad mental, p. Ej. matemáticas, planificación, etc.
Correlaciones fisiológicas: activación general de las funciones de la mente y el cuerpo.
Hipercoherencia beta: estrés, "atasco de tráfico", abrumado, no puede procesar las redes activadas.
Hipocoherencia beta: inmovilización.
 ÁREA INDICADOR INDICADOR INDICADOR INDICADOR INDICADOR
FRONTAL Ansiedad. Dolor, Hipervigilancia Miedo (beta El aumento
Impulsividad sufrimiento. emocional y frontal de beta en las
(ser personalidad aumentada) áreas
controlado por controladora, Agresión (beta frontales y en
la ansiedad y pasiva y/o frontal el hemisferio
sentirse evitativa. disminuida) derecho (el
abrumado) e Insomnio. cerebro está
impulsividad Una persona funcionando
con esconde sus demasiado
explosividad. sentimientos y rápido) puede
Cambios de emociones (se indicar
humor puede ver un ansiedad,
afecto plano). TOC, manía y
preocupación.
TEMPORAL Lesión Enojo TOC
Cerebral Irritabilidad
Traumática
GLOBAL Ansiedad Insomnio Problemas de TOC
TDA Tensión autorregulación
Insomnio muscular
(el insomnio a Dolores de
menudo revela cabeza
Beta Bajo en
5.1/4.5 Hz)
POSTERIOR Trastorno de Fibromialgia Rumiación Rumiación
Ansiedad Trauma
Rumiación

Las ondas lentas son sincrónicas.

LAS ONDAS CEREBRALES ALFA (8-12 Hz)

Son más lentas y más grandes. El alfa se genera a partir de la resonancia entre el tálamo y la corteza.
Generalmente se asocian con un estado de relajación, tranquilidad y meditación. La actividad en la
mitad inferior de este rango representa en un grado considerable que el cerebro se pone en marcha
lenta, relajado y un poco desconectado, esperando responder cuando sea necesario. Si las personas
simplemente cierran los ojos y comienzan a imaginarse algo pacífico, en menos de medio minuto
comienza a haber un aumento en las ondas cerebrales alfa. Estas ondas cerebrales son especialmente
grandes en el tercio posterior de la cabeza. Las investigaciones de EEG sobre alcohólicos (y los hijos de
alcohólicos) han documentado que, incluso después de períodos prolongados de abstinencia, con
frecuencia tienen niveles más bajos de ondas cerebrales alfa y theta y un exceso de actividad beta
rápida.
Las ondas alfa alcanzarán un pico de alrededor de 10 Hz. Una buena producción de alfa saludable
promueve el ingenio mental, ayuda en la capacidad de coordinarse mentalmente, mejora la sensación
general de relajación y descanso. En este estado, es posible moverse rápida y eficientemente para
realizar cualquier tarea pendiente.
Cuando predomina Alfa, la mayoría de la gente se siente cómoda y tranquila. Alfa parece tender un
puente entre el consciente y el subconsciente. Es el ritmo principal que se observa en los adultos
normales y relajados; está presente durante la mayor parte de la vida, especialmente después del
decimotercer año, cuando domina el reposo.
Se informa que los ritmos alfa se derivan de la materia blanca del cerebro. La sustancia blanca puede
considerarse la parte del cerebro que conecta todas las partes entre sí.
Es un estado preferido para el cerebro y ocurre siempre que una persona está atenta (es un marcador
de estado de atención y sueño), pero no procesa activamente la información. Las ondas alfa son más
fuertes sobre la corteza occipital (parte posterior de la cabeza) y también sobre la corteza frontal.
El cerebro traumatizado entra en inactividad demasiado rápido (en la dirección beta) o demasiado
lento (en la dirección theta). Si hay una coherencia alfa excesiva, el cerebro puede quedar bloqueado
en alfa y ser difícil de acelerar o ralentizar.
Un alfa bajo puede ser indicativo de ansiedad, trastorno de estrés postraumático o deterioro de la
memoria a corto plazo. (El alfa bajo aumenta el cortisol en el cerebro, lo que afecta al hipocampo y,
por lo tanto, a la memoria a corto plazo).
Alfa debería ser más alto en el hemisferio derecho que en el hemisferio izquierdo. La asimetría alfa y
el alfa aumentado localmente son indicativos de depresión. Con un mapeo EEG a ojos cerrados, la
frecuencia dominante normal debería ser alfa.
 Cuando la frecuencia dominante es de 11-12 Hz, es más rápida de lo normal;
 Cuando es de 9.5 a 10.5 Hz se considera normal.
 Cuando es de 8 a 9 Hz, es más lento de lo normal
Un alfa lento (o bajo) puede ser indicativo de problemas metabólicos, problemas relacionados con
toxinas, trastorno bipolar, depresión y abuso de sustancias (es decir, uso/abuso de marihuana). El
aumento de alfa rápido (alto) en la parte posterior puede indicar rumiación emocional.

El alfa se ha relacionado con la extroversión (los introvertidos muestran menos alfas), la creatividad
(los sujetos creativos muestran alfa cuando escuchan y llegan a una solución para los problemas
creativos) y el trabajo mental.
Cuando alfa está dentro de los rangos normales, tendemos a experimentar también buen humor, ver
el mundo con sinceridad y tener una sensación de calma. Alpha es una de las frecuencias más
importantes del cerebro para aprender y utilizar la información que se enseña en el aula y en el
trabajo. Puede aumentarse el alfa cerrando los ojos o respirando profundamente o disminuir el alfa
pensando o calculando.
El entrenamiento Alpha-Theta puede crear un aumento en la sensación, el pensamiento abstracto y el
autocontrol. Alpha nos permite pasar fácilmente de una tarea a otra. Demasiado alfa en la corteza
frontal derecha puede estar asociado con el trastorno desafiante en los niños, mientras que una
amplitud similar en la corteza frontal izquierda puede estar asociada con un estado de ánimo
depresivo.
Estados emocionales subjetivos: relajado; pero no somnoliento; tranquilo, consciente.
Tareas y comportamientos asociados: meditación, inactividad
Correlaciones fisiológicas: relajado, curativo
Subbanda baja alfa (8-10) Hz: consciencia interna de sí mismo, integración mente / cuerpo, equilibrio
Subbanda alta alfa (10-12) Hz: sanación, conexión mente/cuerpo.
Si Alpha está embotado o ausente, suele haber una mala retención de la información y/o una mala
memoria a corto plazo. Cuando la respuesta alfa es inexistente o negativa, existe la posibilidad de
estrés traumático.
Cuando la respuesta alfa es negativa tanto en Cz como en O1, sospeche un trauma emocional.
En la mayoría de los pacientes con fibromialgia severamente angustiados, el QEEG muestra
relativamente poca actividad Alfa y en el grupo con la menor angustia (y dolor) hay un mayor poder
emocional Alfa. Los pacientes con fibromialgia más grave, es decir, aquellos con mayor angustia y
dolor psicológico, son probablemente aquellos con antecedentes de trauma emocional significativo.

INDICADORES DE ONDAS ALFA

ÁREA INDICADOR INDICADOR INDICADOR INDICADOR
FRONTAL Depresión Alfa disminuida TDA Dolor y ansiedad
(asimetría alfa es indicativo de Problemas de
con más alfa a la impulsividad, ser atención
izquierda que a la controlado por la
derecha) ansiedad, sentirse
Falta de abrumado, e
motivación impulsividad con
Falta de alfa explosividad
hemisferio
derecho:
retraimiento
social
GLOBAL El aumento de Depresión El Parkinson El nivel de energía
alfa a la izquierda Problemas puede incluir de la persona es
puede indicar un metabólicos ralentización alfa bajo
cierre emocional Abuso de (especialmente
sustancias cuando el delta es
bajo)
POSTERIOR Depresión, Trauma, Fibromialgia (alfa
pasividad y trastorno de deprimido)
personalidad estrés
evasiva. postraumático

ACTIVIDAD THETA (4-8 Hz)

Por lo general, representa un estado mental más parecido a la fantasía, que se asocia con la ineficacia
mental. A niveles muy bajos (lentos), la actividad de las ondas cerebrales theta indica un estado muy
relajado, que representa la zona de penumbra entre la vigilia y el sueño. Cuando la theta es alta, el
cerebro está trabajando horas extras para reclutar recursos (quizás porque hay una falta de recursos
nutritivos disponibles).
Generalmente, cuando hay un aumento de theta, puede también haber aumentos en delta y alfa
(todas ondas más lentas). Tener un aumento de theta y beta es como conducir con los frenos puestos
(el cerebro no funciona con fluidez).
Las personas con trastorno por déficit de atención e hiperactividad (TDA, TDAH), lesiones en la
cabeza, accidente cerebrovascular, epilepsia, discapacidades del desarrollo y, a menudo, síndrome de
fatiga crónica y fibromialgia, tienden a tener ondas lentas excesivas (generalmente theta y, a veces,
exceso de alfa). Cuando hay una cantidad excesiva de ondas lentas en las partes ejecutivas (frontales)
del cerebro, se vuelve difícil controlar la atención, el comportamiento y/o las emociones. Estas
personas generalmente tienen problemas con el procesamiento cognitivo, la concentración, la
memoria, el control de sus impulsos y estados de ánimo o hiperactividad. Tienen problemas para
concentrarse y exhiben una eficiencia intelectual disminuida.
Theta se genera a través de la vía tálamo-cortical y refleja los recursos utilizados en el cuerpo, que se
introducen en el cerebro cuando es necesario. Está asociada con la dieta y el ejercicio/problemas de
salud. La theta elevada en la parte posterior del cerebro tiende a asociarse con sentimientos de calma
y bienestar.
La actividad theta se clasifica como actividad "lenta". Se ve en conexión con la creatividad, la intuición
y el soñar despierto y es estimulante de recuerdos, emociones y sensaciones. Las ondas Theta son
fuertes durante el enfoque interno, la hipervigilancia, la meditación, la oración y la conciencia
espiritual. Reflejan el estado entre la vigilia y el sueño. Se relacionan con el subconsciente.
Recordemos que Podemos dividir la mente en consciente, subconsciente e inconsciente.
 Gracias al consciente, desarrollamos la inteligencia y adquirimos los conocimientos.
 A través de la mente subconsciente, accedemos a los recuerdos y emociones. Sin embargo,
cuanto más se realice y se mejore una acción conscientemente, primero se vuelve
subconsciente, y luego inconsciente (automática).
 Finalmente, lo inconsciente controla las cuestiones fisiológicas, las sensaciones, el instinto y
los actos reflejos. Es la parte que reprime los recuerdos extremadamente desagradables o los
esconde.

La actividad Theta es anormal en adultos despiertos, pero es perfectamente normal en niños de hasta
13 años. También está presente durante el sueño. Se cree que Theta refleja la actividad del sistema
límbico y las regiones del hipocampo.
Theta se observa en la ansiedad, la activación del comportamiento y la inhibición del
comportamiento. Cuando el ritmo theta parece funcionar normalmente, regula y promueve
conductas adaptativas y complejas, como el aprendizaje y la memoria. En circunstancias emocionales
inusuales, como el estrés o enfermedad, puede haber un desequilibrio de tres sistemas transmisores
principales, lo que da como resultado un comportamiento aberrante. El exceso de theta y delta tiene
un efecto de ralentización y el cerebro está poco activo. La falta de flujo sanguíneo al cerebro
aumenta las ondas theta y delta.
Estados Emocionales Subjetivos: intuitivo, creativo, recuerdo, fantasía, imaginería, creativo, onírico,
pensamientos cambiantes, somnoliento
Tareas y comportamientos asociados: creativos, intuitivos; pero también puede estar distraído,
desenfocado. Correlaciones fisiológicas: curación, integración de mente/cuerpo.
Razones Theta/Beta:
  Mayor de 3:1 constituye un trastorno de onda lenta. P. ej. theta 8.7 sobre beta 11.07 = 0.79 o
demasiada beta
 La razón theta/beta normal en Cz es 1.6:1, y en Fpz es 1.5:1.
 La mayor razón theta/beta se encuentra en Cz o Fz;
 La razón theta/beta más pequeña se encuentra en los lóbulos temporales.
 Una razón theta/beta alta suele ser un indicador de TDAH. Las deficiencias sugieren ineficacia
en la auto-regulación, ansiedad general, automedicación y/o conductas orientadas a la
distracción, agotamiento, depresión, mala calidad del sueño o alcoholismo. Cuando la
proporción es demasiado alta, busque desapego interpersonal con aspectos cualitativos del
comportamiento autista o de Asperger. Se recomienda igualar la actividad del lóbulo frontal y
reducir la relación theta/beta en el área occipital del cerebro.

INDICADORES DE ONDAS THETA

ÁREA INDICADORES INDICADORES INDICADORES INDICADORES INDICADORES
FRONTAL TDAH/TDA Impulsividad/ Confusión/Dificultad Emocional: Desorganización
Ansiedad Trastorno de de aprendizaje trastorno de estrés (cuando theta es
Control de impulsos (Incapaz de captar postraumático más alta en el
Falta de control conceptos, ideas, Depresión/ hemisferio
inhibitorio (cuando información) Abrumado frontal izquierdo
theta es más alto en Las emociones se y en el
el frente y en el apagan hemisferio
hemisferio izquierdo)
derechos).
TEMPORAL Problemas de Problemas de
procesamiento del procesamiento
lenguaje emocional
Problemas de
memoria a corto
plazo
GLOBAL La disminución de Problemas de Problemas para
delta/ theta a nivel procesamiento acceder a
general puede emocional información
indicar que una emocional.
persona tiene poca Problemas de
energía recuperación
(especialmente
cuando el alfa es
alto)
POSTERIOR Dolor y TOC/Perseveración Dificultades de
ansiedad. (dificultad para aprendizaje
La dejarlo ir) problemas de
disminución comprensión de
de theta lectura
puede indicar
problemas de
atención.
LAS ONDAS CEREBRALES DELTA (.5–3.5 Hz)
Son ondas cerebrales muy lentas, de gran amplitud (magnitud) y son lo que experimentamos durante
el sueño profundo y reparador. Las medidas delta no dan indicaciones diagnósticas claras. Las ondas
cerebrales delta también ocurrirán, por ejemplo, cuando las áreas del cerebro se “desconectan” para
absorber la nutrición, y el delta también se asocia con discapacidades de aprendizaje. Si alguien está
experimentando somnolencia, se presentan ondas cerebrales delta y theta más lentas, y si las
personas están algo desatentas a las cosas externas y sus mentes están divagando, hay más theta
presente.
El TDA tiende a mostrar ondas lentas delta de alta amplitud, theta excesiva o un estado alfa
bloqueado. El exceso de alfa y beta es el indicador más confiable de depresión, la cual puede
mostrarse también en problemas de coherencia excesivos o mala comunicación entre hemisferios.
Las frecuencias más bajas son delta y se generan a partir del tronco encefálico y el cerebelo. Su
frecuencia es menor de 4 Hz y ocurren en el sueño profundo y en algunos procesos anormales
también durante las experiencias de “empatía”. Las ondas delta están involucradas con nuestra
capacidad para integrarnos y “soltar” las ideas o sentimientos. Reflejan la mente inconsciente. El delta
es normalmente el ritmo dominante en los bebés. hasta un año de edad y está presente en las etapas
3 y 4 del sueño. Tiende a ser la onda más alta en amplitud y también la onda más lenta.
Aumentamos las ondas Delta para disminuir nuestra conciencia del mundo físico o para la resolución
de problemas complejos. También accedemos a información en nuestra mente inconsciente, a través
de Delta.
Las ondas delta disminuyen en los artistas de alto rendimiento cuando se requiere un alto enfoque y
un rendimiento máximo. Sin embargo, la mayoría de las personas diagnosticadas con trastorno por
déficit de atención, naturalmente, aumentan en lugar de disminuir la actividad delta cuando intentan
concentrarse.
La respuesta Delta inapropiada restringe, a menudo severamente, la capacidad de concentrarse y
mantener la atención. Es como si el cerebro estuviera encerrado en un estado de sueño perpetuo. El
delta parietal (P4) afecta el proceso de asociación de ideas y el procesamiento a nivel córtex. Un
déficit de deltas es indicativo de problemas con la memoria funcional.
Estados Emocionales Subjetivos: sueño profundo, sin sueños, sueño no REM, trance, inconsciencia.
Tareas y comportamientos asociados: letargo, sin movimiento, sin atención.
Correlaciones fisiológicas: sin movimiento, bajo nivel de excitación.
ÁREA INDICADOR INDICADOR INDICADOR INDICADOR INDICADOR
FRONTAL Lesión Trastorno de Demencia Parkinson Delta reducido
Cerebral Aprendizaje puede indicar
Traumática problemas de
memoria de corto
plazo
TEMPORAL Lesión Problemas de Problemas de
Cerebral proceso de memoria de corto
Traumática lenguaje plazo
GLOBAL Lesión Problemas de
Cerebral proceso de
Traumática emociones/TDAH/
POSTERIOR Trastorno de
 Aprendizaje

La biorretroalimentación es el proceso de aprender a controlar las funciones fisiológicas mediante el

uso de instrumentación. Las señales biológicas se transmiten a los alumnos con el objetivo de ganar
control mental sobre los procesos biológicos subconscientes. La biorretroalimentación es una
habilidad de autorregulación y siempre recompensa al alumno. Los alumnos aprenden mejor cuando
el desafío coincide con su capacidad de aprendizaje. La formación que es demasiado fácil o difícil por
lo general no produce cambios.
Cuando los mapas cerebrales son consistentemente azules (hipo-excitación), el cuerpo está ganando
la batalla por los recursos. Cuando los mapas cerebrales están constantemente en rojo, hay una
mayor estimulación.
Poder absoluto: la capacidad intelectual disponible dentro de una frecuencia particular en cada sitio.
La amplitud/fuerza de la frecuencia. Microvoltios al cuadrado.
Potencia relativa: si una frecuencia en particular está dominando otras frecuencias vitales. En
proporción a otras bandas. Distribución de poder. Porcentaje de potencia total en cada canal.
Frecuencia media: la frecuencia media refleja si el ancho de banda se encuentra dentro de los rangos
operativos normales. Por ejemplo, alfa debería alcanzar un máximo de alrededor de 10 Hz, y cuando
alcanza un máximo de 9,5 Hz, las personas pueden quejarse de fatiga, propensión a errores o
simplemente malinterpretar información de entrada vital.
Asimetría: si las ondas cerebrales entre las diversas partes del cerebro están equilibradas (diferencia
de magnitud entre dos sitios). La actividad excesiva puede indicar un agotamiento excesivo de las
células cerebrales. Una actividad insuficiente puede sugerir que las neuronas no se están disparando
lo suficiente para mantener una función adecuada.
Coherencia: qué tan estable es la relación de fase entre dos sitios. El grado de interacción o
comunicación, información compartida, entre sitios del cerebro. ¿Quién habla con quién? El diálogo
interno que refleja la conexión y desconexión de diferentes partes del cerebro para realizar tareas.
Una medida de sincronización entre la actividad en dos canales.
Hipercoherencia: cuando los sitios del cerebro no funcionan de manera eficiente e interdependiente,
sino que tienen demasiada "intercomunicación". La coherencia excesiva tiende a indicar que dos o
más áreas del cerebro están demasiado conectadas o bloqueadas entre sí. Demasiado rígido, y esto
también ocurre cuando el cerebro construye nuevas conexiones neuronales. El cerebro se ha vuelto
demasiado dependiente de estos centros y no procesa y ejecuta la información de manera eficiente,
lo que resulta en un desempeño deficiente en el día a día. La hipercoherencia requiere organización
cortical, mientras que la hipocoherencia no.
Hipocoherencia: esto se denomina interacción entre sitios deficiente y se asocia con una eficiencia
cognitiva disminuida. La coherencia deficiente es una señal de que el cerebro no puede conectar de
manera eficiente las áreas corticales para realizar tareas específicas. Diferenciación insuficiente que
inhibe la comunicación efectiva entre sitios. Las discapacidades de aprendizaje pueden mostrar hiper
o hipocoherencia, mientras que las LCT graves clásicamente muestran una coherencia excesiva. Esto
se encuentra a menudo con una lesión cerebral, después de lo cual los clientes experimentan un
comportamiento y un procesamiento cognitivo estereotipados, perseverantes e inflexibles.
Se requiere una Q completa para evaluar la hipocoherencia (!)
Fase: refleja cuántas de las funciones del cerebro son eventos cronometrados, la energía de una parte
del cerebro llega en el momento adecuado para realizar una tarea. La fase excesiva significa que las
señales llegan demasiado pronto (lo que significa una ralentización de las conexiones), mientras que
la deficiencia significa que llegan demasiado tarde. Ésta es una medida de la relación temporal entre
dos señales. Un bloqueo y desbloqueo de señales. Las ondas de EEG son formas de onda
electromagnéticas que se mueven de voltaje positivo a negativo. Si dos formas de onda cambian de
positivo a negativo exactamente al mismo ritmo, están en fase. Dos formas de onda que se desplazan
a la velocidad opuesta están desfasadas. Las áreas del cerebro que emiten señales consistentemente
en fase lo hacen porque se comunican y procesan la misma información. En consecuencia, se
denominan acoplados.
1. CURSO BASICO DELECTROENCEFALOGRAFIA Ing. Alvaro Rios ABIOIN - USB
2. 2. BASESNEUROFISIOLÓGICAS DEL EG.
3. 3. Bases neurofisiológicas del EG.La electroencefalografía (EG) mide lActividad eléctrica espontánea de
lacorteza cerebral, es decir, la capasuperficial del cerebro Lamada cortex.
4. 4. Bases neurofisiológicas del EG.En un cerebrosano, estActividad es muysimilar en lasdiferentesregiones
delcerebro, por loque no habrándiferenciasapreciablesentre lasdiferentes zonasdel cortex,Lamadaslóbulos.
5. 5. Bases neurofisiológicas del EEG Existie entonces una simetría entre los dos hemisferios cerebrales. El
EEG no tiene un patrón que se reproduzca constantemente -como el complejo QRS del ECG-, lo que dificulta
su interpretación.
6. 6. Bases neurofisiológicas del EGEn ocasiones es difícil diferenciar laverdadera actividad cerebral del
ruidoaleatorio, producido por interferenciasexógenas de otros dispositivos eléctricos,o bien por interferencias
endógenas, comoson el propio ECG y la actividad eléctricadebida al tono muscular (EMG).
7. 7. Bases neurofisiológicas del EGLos EPSP (excitatory post-synapticpotential / Potencial Post-
sinapticoExitatorio ) , IPSP (Potencial Post-sinaptico Inhibitorio) y los impulsos denervio se suman juntos
para producir elelectroencefalograma (EG).
8. 8. Bases neurofisiológicas del EGEl registro de la señalEG indica la actividad delos dipolos eléctricos
quefluctúan formados en lasdendritas de las capasmás superficiales de lacorteza cerebral, capas I yI. Estas
dendritas producenla propagacion de EPSPe IPSP quElectrotonicamente setransfieren entre lascélulas. E:
coRente extraceLulare I: coRente intraceLulare T: coRente transmembranaria
9. 9. Bases neurofisiológicas del EGLas ondas dEG varian suamplitud yfrecuencia.Cuanto más sesincronizan
losimpulsos delnervio, másgrandes son lasondas de EG.
10. 10. Bases neurofisiológicas del EGLa sincronia de la actividad se refiere alagrupamiento de los
acontecimientoseléctricos mientras que la desincronia esla condición en la cual él se separa haciafuera
aleatoriamente en tiempo.
11. 11. Bases neurofisiológicas del EGLa corteza cerebral es la parte másvoluminosa del encéfalo. Una
hendiduraprofunda, denominada cisura longitudinal,lo divide en dos hemisferios, derecho eizquierdo.
12. 12. Bases neurofisiológicas del EGLa corteza es una fina lámina de neuronasinterconectadas que forman una
capa de unosmilímetros de grosor y que recubre la superficieiRegular de los hemisferios cerebrales.
Lasuperficie de cada hemisferio presenta unconjunto de prominencias y surcos (o cisuras)que proporcionan a
la corteza una aparienciaplegada, de tal forma que sólo un tercio de estaqueda expuesta a la superficie.
13. 13. Bases neurofisiológicas del EEG 1. Ganglios basales 2. Tálamo 3. Substancia nigra 4. Amígdala 5.
Cuerpo estriado 6. Tubérculo mamilar 7. Núcleo caudado 8. Putamen
14. 14. Bases neurofisiológicas del EEG 1. Corteza cerebral del hemisferio cerebral izquierdo 2. Cerebelo 3.
Bulbo 4. Area de asociación auditiva asociació 5. Corteza auditiva primaria 6. Area de Broca (área motora del
lenguaje) lenguaje) 7. Area prefrontal 8. Area premotora 9. Area motora somática primaria somá 10. Cisura
de Rolando 11. Area sensitiva somática primaria somá 12. Area tactil primaria 13. Area de asociación
sensitiva somática asociació somá 14. Area de asociación visual asociació 15. Corteza visual primaria 16.
Area sensitiva del lenguaje (área de Wernicke) Wernicke)
15. 15. 1. Esquema de la corteza del área visual primaria 4. Célula estreLada espinosa (interneurona)2. Aferentes
de neuronas talámicas que terminan ramificándose en las diferentes subcapas de la corteza 5. Célula
piramidal3. Diferentes capas y subcapas de la corteza numeradas 6. Célula estreLada simple (sin espinas).
desde la superficie cortical Interneurona
16. 16. Neuronaspiramidales de lacorteza cerebral.Utilizando laimpregnación consales de plata esposible apreciar
latrayectoria de laprolongacionesneuronales.
17. 17. CORTEZA CEREBRALConsideraremos como Región aqueLa parte dela Corteza Cerebral que tenga una
estructuraidéntica. Dentro de cada región existenpequeñas zonas con característicasparticulares, como es la
forma de agruparse lascélulas, vasos y fibras a las que denominamosAreas Corticales.La Corteza Cerebral ha
sido estudiadacentímetro a centímetro por: CAMPBEL,BRODMAN, VOGT y VON ECONOMO.
18. 18. CORTEZA CEREBRALSe utilizan dos nomenclaturas para el estudio delas áreas corticales, la de Von
Economo y la deBrodman.VON ECONOMO: utiliza tres signos: Una letramayúscula que coResponde al
 lóbulo en el cualse encuentra el área; otra letra mayúscula queindica la localización atendiendo a la
proximidado lejanía del polo frontal; y una letra griega quenos indica la subárea.
19. 19. CORTEZA CEREBRALBRODMAN: Utiliza sólo dos signos: uNúmero que nos indica la proximidad
delárea al surco central de Rolando; una letradel alfabeto griego que indica la subárea.Los límites de las áreas
no se limitan a losde una circunvolución o los de un lóbulodeterminado.Puede ser de ayuda para poder situar
másfácilmente las distintas áreas de la cortezacerebral este esquema.
20. 20. BANDAS DE FRECUENCIARitmo delta (0.1-3Hz): Este tipo de ondasno tiene un origen exacto y
aparece enestados de incosciencia, trance o en lafase de sueño no REM. Su aparición enestado de vigilia
suele indicar un estadopatológico.
21. 21. BANDAS DE FRECUENCIARitmo theta (3-8Hz): Tiene una distribuciónregional usualmente aunque se
puede dar endistintos lóbulos, en el oCipital y el temporal.Se observa especialmente en niños de 5 a 7años y
también durante el sueño en losadultos. Esta banda está asociada apensamientos de tipo creativo, a
laimaginación, fantasía.
22. 22. BANDAS DE FRECUENCIARitmo alfa (8-13Hz): Predominaespecialmente en las regiones oCipital
yfrontal. Se asocia a estados de relajación,inactividad mental. Casi siempre aparecencuando se cieRan los
ojos.
23. 23. BANDAS DE FRECUENCIARitmo beta (13-25Hz): Esta es la banda másgrande y suele dividirse en beta
baja, betamedia y beta alta. El ritmo beta bajo se suelelocalizar en los lóbulos frontal y oCipital y losotros dos
están menos localizados. MásiRegular que el ritmo alfa, se asocia Actividad psicofísica. Puede venir en
estadosde agitación, alerta o la actividad mental quese realiza en la resolución de problemas.
24. 24. BANDAS DE FRECUENCIARitmo gaMa (40 Hz): Está muylocalizado. Se asocia a
pensamientosabstractos y con un alto procesamiento deinformación.
25. 25. Resumen de SeñalesTipo de Fecuencia Amplitud Estado mental, Nivel de conciencia ritmo Hz (mV) delta
0,5-3 20-200 Condizioni patologiche teta 3-7 5-100 Sueño profundo alfa 8-13 10-200 Relax beta 14-30 1-20
Atención, concentración, area cortical gaMa >30 1-20 Atención, concentración, area cortical
26. 26. ESTADOS CEREBRALES
1. 1. Electroencefalografía ((eg)) por:: claribel izquierdo santiago,, republica dominicana octubre 22001144

2. 2. Eg  exploración neurofisiológica que se basa en el registro de la actividad bioeléctrica cerebral en

condiciones basales de reposo,, en vigilia o sueño,, y durante diversas activaciones ((habitualmente
hiperventilación y fotoestimulación))..
3. 3. Breve historia  richard caton ((11884422--11992266)),, un médico de liverpool,, presentó en 11887755
sus hallazgos sobre los fenómenos bioeléctricos en los hemisferios cerebrales de ratones y monos,, expuestos
por craniectomía..  hans berger ((11887733--11994411)) comenzó sus estudios sobre electroencefalografía
en humanos,, en 11992200..
4. 4. Información básica  la electroencefalografía es una técnica que permite estudiar la actividad cerebral.. Por
tanto,, la utilizamos para conocer mejor el diagnóstico y la localización de su enfermedad,, y en muchos casos
la intensidad de una posible lesión.. De esta forma,, podemos orientar a su médico especialista sobre el
diagnóstico y tratamiento a seguir..
5. 5. Actividad cerebral:: cerebro  forma parte del sistema nervioso  contiene alrededor de 1100--
1155..000000 m de neuronas,, más del 9900%% de las neuronas del cuerpo  pesa aprox 11,,55 kg ((entre el
22%% y el 33%% del peso de un adulto))  utiliza alrededor del 2200%% del suministro de oxígeno del
cuerpo  tiene una sup.. Aproximada de 22 m22,, y cabe en el cráneo debido a que está doblado//plegado
6. 6. Actividad cerebral:: cerebro  funciones  multitasking:: controla respiración,, latidos cardíacos,,
temperatura.. Conducimos un auto mientras conversamos,, nos indica si sentimos frío o calor,, hambre,, o que
tenemos tareas pendientes para más tarde  para todo ello,, el cerebro tiene partes especializadas,, y si hay un
daño cerebral,, puede verse afectada una o más áreas
7. 7. Actividad cerebral:: cerebro
8. 8. Neurona ==>> sinapsis,, por medio de neurotransmisores
9. 9. Neuronas  las conexiones entre ellas permiten procesar señales y almacenar memorias  nacemos con la
mayor parte de las neuronas que tendremos en toda la vida,, por lo que es difícil que el cerebro dañado se
recupere,, lo que no quiere decir que sea imposible,, debido a la plasticidad neuronal
10. 10.  un neurotransmisor es una molécula en estado de transición,, con déficit o superávit de cargas.. Este
estado de transición le da un tiempo máximo de estabilidad de unas cuantas vibraciones moleculares.. El
medio por el cual se transmite es la mielina,, responsable de la sinapsis neuronal,, que conecta con el grupo
de receptores dendítricos,, descargando en la dendrita específica que admite el neurotransmisor portador de la
carga..  el paso del neurotransmisor por los axones estimula la creación de mielina,, por lo que a mayor
cantidad de mielina,, menor resistencia a la transmisión y menor uso de recursos..
11. 11. Origen de la EEG  los fenómenos que ocurren en la sinapsis son de naturaleza química,, pero tienen
efectos eléctricos laterales que se pueden medir..  una sola neurona no llega a ser apreciable dentro del
montón,, pero si pensamos en ellas como vectores,, lo que medimos es la resultante..
12. 12. Origen de la EEG  estos efectos eléctricos se pueden medir ““in situ”” ((electrodos de aguja)) o en el
cuero cabelludo ((electrodos superficiales)).. Obviamente la intensidad de la señal en el úúltimo caso es
menor,, pero tiene la ventaja de ser una técnica no invasiva..
13. 13. Señales EEG superficiales  magnitud:: 55 a 330000 μμv  ancho de banda:: 00,,55 a 110000 hz
((normalmente se utiliza hasta 7700 hz para clínica))
14. 14. Ubicación de los electrodos  la amplitud,, fase y frecuencia del EEG dependen de la ubicación del
electrodo..  la cabeza es mapeada por 44 puntos:: nasion,, inion,, puntos pre--auriculares derecho e
izquierdo..  forma 1199 electrodos más tierra  los electrodos son puestos midiendo la distancia nasion--
inion y haciendo puntos en 1100%%,, 2200%%,, 2200%%,, 2200%%,, 2200%% y 1100%% a lo largo de su
longitud..  el vértex,, o electrodo cz,, se encuentra ubicado en el punto medio
15. 15. Protocolo internacional sistema 1100--2200
16. 16. Distribución en cabezal eg
17. 17. Electroencefalógrafo  diagrama de bloques electrodos filtro pre (instrumentac) señal + amplificación
aislación
18. 18. A electrodos de aguja ((electrocorticograma))
19. 19. Electrodos superficiales  tienen un baño de oro o de plata  necesitan un gel o pasta conductora para
mejorar la interfaz  se utilizan distintas pastas conductoras,, de acuerdo a la duración del estudio ((por
ejemplo,, para polisomnografía,, un estudio que dura toda una noche,, se utiliza colodión,, el cual tiene mejor
funcionamiento mecánico))
20. 20. Electrodos superficiales autoadhesivos goro - cap
21. 21. Pre ++ amplificación  alta impedancia de entrada,, alta relación de rechazo al modo comúún ((rrmc)) y
bajo ruido  aislación
22. 22. Filtros ancho de banda:: 00,,55 a 110000 hz ((7700 hz es lo habitual en clínica)) al menos de segundo
orden
23. 23. Ondas y ritmos EEG -- vigilia  alfa:: 88 a 1133 hz.. 2200--6600 μμv ((5500 μμv promedio)),, aunque
110000--220000 μμv todavía se considera normal..  beta:: >>1133 hz ((gralmente 1188--2255 hz)).. 55--
1100 μμv,, excepcionalmente supera los 3300 μμv  theta ((o tita,, para los moralistas)):: 44 a 77,,55 hz.. Baja
amplitud  delta:: << 33,,55 hz  mu:: 77 a 1122 hz,, usualmente 88--1100 hz ((también se le llama
““alfoide””)).. 2200--6600 μμv.. Trenes de pocos segundos de duración  lambda:: región occipital,,
relacionadas con actividad visual.. Potenciales evocados visuales
24. 24. Ondas y ritmos EEG -- vigilia
25. 25. Ondas y ritmos EEG -- vigilia  ritmo alfa :: es el ritmo dominante en un electroencefalograma ((eg))
normal.. Se localiza sobre todo en estructuras occipitales y parietales,, siendo más evidentes en condiciones
de relax y al cerrar los ojos.. distribución:: regiones posteriores ((occipitales)) de ambos hemisferios,, en
forma simétrica.. Reflexión en regiones parietales y posterior de lóbulos temporales..
26. 26. Ondas y ritmos EEG -- vigilia ojos abiertos ojos cerados ritmo alfa en regiones posteriores del cerebro
27. 27. Ondas y ritmos EEG -- vigilia cambios de frecuencia y amplitud del ritmo alfa con la edad
28. 28. Ondas y ritmos EEG -- vigilia  ritmo beta:: aparece en aproximadamente el 2200 %% de las personas
normales,, siendo más evidente si el paciente está sometido a tratamientos con fármacos sedantes.. 
significado fisiológico:: no está claro,, pero se supone que tiene relación con la función senso--motora 
presente en personas con función cerebral normal:: en pacientes en coma es un signo de buen pronóstico
29. 29. Ondas y ritmos EEG -- vigilia ritmo beta
30. 30. Ondas y ritmos EEG -- vigilia actividad beta generalizada
31. 31. Ondas y ritmos EEG -- vigilia actividad beta generalizada, inducida con tratamiento barbitúrico
32. 32. Ondas y ritmos EEG -- vigilia  ritmo mu:: es el menos frecuente de los ritmos de un registro normal,,
estando en tan sólo un 1100 %% de los individuos normales.. Localizado en regiones centrales.. Se identifica
por su morfología típica en ““arcos”” y por ser suprimido si se mueve la extremidad superior contralateral.. 
vinculado a los sistemas sensorial y motor,, de forma contralateral.. Sin relación con lo visual ni con la
actividad mental..
33. 33. Ondas y ritmos EEG -- vigilia ritmo mu
34. 34. Ondas y ritmos EEG -- vigilia  ondas lambda:: al realizar movimientos de búúsqueda con los ojos
((fijarse en los detalles de una habitación,, observar diversos elementos de un dibujo,, etc..)) Aparecen
deflexiones en regiones occipitales que se denominan ondas lambda..  morfología:: son ondas agudas,,
usualmente bifásicas y de forma triangular.. Son similares a los elementos agudos transitorios positivos
occipitales que aparecen durante el sueño..  duración:: 110000--225500 ms..  amplitud:: en general,, baja--
mediana amplitud ((<< 5500 μμv)),, pero pueden alcanzar un gran voltaje,, pudiendo ser confundidas con
ondas patológicas..  distribución:: aparecen en regiones occipitales.. Siempre van precedidas de un potencial
generado por el movimiento ocular,, que aparece en regiones anteriores,, y que indica la relación entre los
movimientos discriminadores de los ojos ((o de búúsqueda)) y las ondas lambda..  relación de fase:: aunque
en ocasiones estas ondas pueden ser asimétricas,, siempre aparecen de un modo sincrónico en los dos
hemisferios..
35. 35. Ondas y ritmos EEG -- vigilia ondas lambda en regiones posteriores (ojos abiertos, efecto de parpadeo)
36. 36. Arquitectura del sueño  22 fases definidas::  rem ((rapid eyes movement)) o mor ((movimiento ocular
rápido))  no--rem  ciclo de sueño:: se repite un núúmero variable de veces,, entre 33 y 77,, y la duración de
 cada ciclo es variable,, pero en conjunto dura 7700--112200’’ ((6600--9900’’ de sueño no--rem y 1155--
3300’’ de sueño rem))
37. 37. Estadios del sueño  sueño no--rem  fase sin movim oculares rápidos ((7755--8800%%))  estadio 11::
somnoliencia  estadio 22:: sueño superficial  estadio 33:: sueño mediano  estadio 44:: sueño profundo 
sueño rem  fase de movimientos oculares rápidos ((2200--2255%%))  sueño paradójico
38. 38. Estadios del sueño incidencia de ondas de las distintas fases del sueño no-rem
39. 39. Estadios del sueño estadio 1 no-rem. Ondas agudas del vértex (flechas) y ondas agudas positivas
ocipitales (asteriscos)
40. 40. Estadios del sueño estadio 2 no rem. Husos de sueño (flechas) y complejos k (asteriscos)
41. 41. Estadios del sueño estadio 3-4 no rem. Ondas lentas de baja frecuencia y gran amplitud
42. 42. Estadios del sueño sueño rem
43. 43. Hiperventilación respuesta fisiológica a la hiperventilación. 1. Antes. 2. Un minuto después (theta rítmico
con máximo bifrontal). 3. Dos minutos después (theta y delta, máximos bifrontales). 4. Tres minutos después
(delta ritmico, máximo bifrontal). 5. Un minuto después de finalizar la hiperventilación (similar a 1).
44. 44. Estimulación luminosa intermitente respuesta fisiológica a la eli. Fenómeno de arastre (potenciales de
similar frecuencia que los de la lámpara).
45. 45. Estimulación luminosa intermitente respuesta fotomiogénica
46. 46. Polisomnografía
47. 47. Otras aplicaciones  potenciales evocados
48. 48. Otras aplicaciones  potenciales evocados auditivos •onda i: nervio auditivo •onda i. Núcleo coclear
•onda ii. Complejo olivar superior •onda iv. Núcleo ventral del lemnisco lateral •onda v colículo inferior
•onda vi. Cuerpo geniculado medial.
49. 49. Otras aplicaciones  potenciales evocados auditivos potenciales auditivos evocados entre 1 y 1.000 ms y
sitios anatómicos corespondientes.
50. 50. Otras aplicaciones  potenciales evocados auditivos
51. 51. Otras aplicaciones  potenciales evocados visuales
52. 52. Otras aplicaciones  mapeo cerebral 22d
53. 53. Otras aplicaciones  mapeo cerebral 33d
54. 54. Otras aplicaciones  neurofedback::  es una técnica en la cual entrenamos al cerebro para ayudarlo a
mejorar su propio funcionamiento y el del resto de organismo.. El incorrecto funcionamiento del cerebro
puede observarse a través de un ceg ((electroencefalograma computado o mapeo cerebral computado))..
55. 55. Otras aplicaciones  bci ((brain--computer interface:: interfaz cerebro--computadora))  a partir de
señales EEG  prove un canal de comunicación entre el cerebro y una computadora  el cerebro trabaja por
patrones  se identifica la intención a partir de la actividad mental,, identificando patrones  distintas técnicas
y paradigmas,, que requieren mayor o menor entrenamiento por parte del usuario
56. 56. Otras aplicaciones  bci  áreas de investigación:: mejorar sistema de electrodos mejorar sistema de
comunicación de la señal ((inalámbrica,, por ej..)) identificación de patrones ((matemática compleja))
utilización de elementos portátiles ((no es cómodo andar con una pc por todos lados)) accionamiento ((uso
de computadoras,, sillas de ruedas,, prótesis electromecánicas,, domótica,, etc))
57. 57. Otras aplicaciones  bci
58. 58. Gracias claribel izquierdo tpsg,, enfermera qx
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