Dane D.

Artica
BSBA - 1A

Activity 20

Make a research on invasive species found in the Philippines. On the table below, list down five
invasive species, their desired effect and their negative effect to the biodiversity.

1. Invasive aquatic plants

There have also been introductions of aquatic exotic micro-and macro-flora into the country that
have not been recorded. However, many exotic freshwater macrophytes have been introduced for
ornamental purposes. The ones of national concern are as follows:
A. Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes ). It is labeled as the “ecosystem engineer” or “invasive
habitat modifier” and its invasiveness is related to clogging waterways, impeding boat transport
and fishing activities, and reducing fisheries productivity (MacKinnon, 2002). Their dense
monospecific mats lowers dissolved oxygen levels in the water. This weed species has covered at
least 20% of the water surface of Laguna de Bay in the 1980s and caused heavy damage on the
fish pens and cages during typhoons. It is also considered a nuisance as it reduces phytoplankton
growth and food of fish, thereby affecting fishing and aquaculture activities in major lakes in the
Bicol Region.

B. Water fern (Salvinia molesta). This floating aquatic fern aside from being a pest in the
irrigated rice fields (Sinohin and Cuaterno, 2002), also negatively affects the biodiversity and
abundance of freshwater species including fish and submerged aquatic plants, and thus affects
fishing activities, and boat travels.

C. Water lettuce/ Duck weed (Pistia stratiotes). It is an invasive free floating weed capable of
forming dense mats on the surfaces of lakes, ponds, rivers and other bodies of water. Also
common in rice fields, but its biostatus is still uncertain. Three species of invasive alien
microalgae, Cochlodinium polykrikoides, Alexandrium minutum and Chattonella marina, are
known to be associated with harmful algal blooms in the coastal waters of Palawan and
Pangasinan.
2. Invasive aquatic animals
A. Golden apple snail (Pomacea canaliculata). Originally introduced to increase the protein
source of Filipino diet, but now a major pest hindering the promotion and adoption of direct-
seeded rice. This snail is also blamed to displace the native edible snail, Pila conica, in Luzon
(Pagulayan, 1997). Chemical control of the snail pest with imported molluscides was estimated
to be valued at US$23 million in 1984-1998 (Joshi, 2005). It is also a vector of rat lungworm
parasite that affects humans. This freshwater mollusc is a truly IAS, as its utilization as food is
less than its population in natural waters. Presently, a book on the “Global Advances on the
Ecology and Management of the Golden Apple Snails” with contributors from different
geographical regions is being edited by R. C. Joshi and L. S. Sebastian, Philippine Rice
Research Institute (PhilRice), Philippines.

B. Fishes. In the Philippines, twelve exotic aquatic organisms with invasive reports and their
impacts are summarized. On the other hand, Juliano et al. (1989) and Guerrero (2002) have
reported more than 40 introductions of fish, crustacean and mollusc species since1907. There
are nine exotic species found in the country but records of their establishment and distribution
in natural waters are not clearly known. Most of these are popularly sold as ornamental fishes
in pet shops and their potential impacts are highlighted. Their negative impacts can be
summarized as follows: competition for food, reduction of the population of native fishes,
occurrence of potential new pathogenic parasites, pollution of major lakes, and eutrophication
of lakes and reservoirs. Three invasive freshwater fishes in Philippine lakes have been
previously reported by Juliano et al. (1989). These species are the indigenous white goby
(Glossogobius giurus) and the eleotrid (Hypseleotris agilis ) which were accidentally
introduced in Lake Lanao, and the exotic Asiatic/Thai catfish (Clarias batrachus). The two
former species are responsible for the loss of the endemic cyprinids in Lake Lanao, Mindanao;
while the catfish is believed to have displaced the native catfish (Clariasmacrocephalus) in
Luzon.

More recently, the South American sucker mouth catfish or “janitor fish”, earlier identified as
Plecoptomus hypoglosus and later verified to be Pterygoplichthys pardalis and P. disjunctivus
have become invasive in the Marikina River (Metro Manila), Lake Paitan in Cuyapo, Nueva
Ecija and Laguna de Bay (Agasen, 2005). Introduced by the aquarium trade industry, the species
escaped into natural waters. Damage to the banks of the Marikina River and fish cages in Laguna
de Bay by the nuisance catfish is claimed. A bounty system for the eradication of the “janitor
fish” has been launched by the City Government of Marikina. The live fish is brought at the price
of P5 per kilogram and then destroyed. A World Bank-funded project for the conversion of the
species into fishmeal is being implemented by the Laguna Lake Development Authority in
cooperation with a farmer’s cooperative in Laguna.

The Louisiana crayfish introduced as an ornamental species in the late 1990s may
become a truly invasive species if it escapes to natural waters. It consumes aquatic plants and
this may include rice plants. In Spain, it has become invasive in rice fields and pesticides are
used to control it.

Only last year, the presence in Lake Taal (Batangas) of the “jaguar guapote”
(Parachromis managuensis ), a piscivorous cichlid from Central America, was reported by
Agasen (2005). Believed to have been introduced as an aquarium fish the species has become
established (naturally breeding) and invasive. Fishermen of the lake have reported a decline
in their catch of indigenous fish species as the white goby (G. giurus) and the theraponid
(Therapon plumbeus) as well as that of the introduced Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus).
Considered as a threat to the indigenous and endemic fishes of the lake, increased fishing
effort to eradicate the “jaguar guapote” has been recommended.

Mosquito fish (Gambusia affinis ) is locally known as "bubuntis" or nicknamed as

million fish they are prolific breeders. It is a live -bearer, meaning fully-grown fish are
produced instead of eggs by females. It spawns throughout the year and feeds on zooplankton.
The fish was introduced from Hawaii in 1905 to the Philippines primarily for mosquito and
malaria control. It consumes mosquito larvae. This species is also predating on the eggs of fry
of dojo in Banaue rice terraces. It is abundant in canals, rice fields, and other water bodies.
They are of economic importance because of their pest status in fish farms as they are
competitors of the fish being cultured. In pet shops, they are being sold as fish for arowana
and other carnivorous fish. If available in abundance, it can serve as a source of fishmeal.

3. Invasive vertebrates

It is not known how many species of vertebrates used as pets have become feral. In
general, it is likely that migrating people using inter-island boats may have carried with them
some species of amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals, but there is not enough information
documenting these events.

A. Rodents. Four species of non-native rodents (Rattus exulans , Rattus tanezumi, Rattus
tiomanicus and Rattus agentiventur) are invasive pest in the Philippines, that were most likely
carried via boats docking at various seaports. Rattus argentiventer is a species that occurs in
Mindanao and other islands of the Philippines, but not in Luzon (or if so, it has not become
established). If it was to become established in the main rice bowls of Luzon then the impact
could be severe. The breeding ecology of this species is closely aligned with the growing
season of rice (Personal communication: Dr. Grant Singleton, IRRI,Philippines).

B. Lizards. Five species of geckonid lizards widely distributed and closely associated with
human habitations were also probably transported by man through inter-island boats. Soft-
shelled turtles used as food have at times escaped to the wild. It is suspected that the leopard
cat (Prionailurusbengalensis) may have been introduced because of its curious disjunct
distribution being present in Negros and Palawan, but absent in Mindanao and Luzon. Its
occurrence in sugarcane fields (an artificial habitat for wildlife) is in contrast to the other
carnivores (civet cat and palm civet), which are found only in original forests or theirremnants.

C. Birds. Two species of invasive birds have been introduced into the Philippines, Padda
oryzivora and Passer montanus. They are believed to compete with related species, though it
has never been adequately documented.

D. Frogs. Five species that have been introduced into Philippines with negative impacts are as
follows: Neotropical Giant Marine Toad (Bufo marinus L.) was introduced into the Negros
islands in 1934 by the Bureau of Plant Industry from Hawaii to control beetles in sugarcane
fields. It has spread to numerous islands across the Philippines through subsequent
introductions both accidental and deliberate in nature. Its impacts on the native amphibian
fauna remains to be studied thoroughly. However, there is some evidence that it competes with
three native frog species in the lowlands (Rana cancrivora, Polypedates leucomystax and
Kaloula conjuncta negrosensis ) in terms of breeding sites and depositing its eggs in ponds.
American Bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana Shaw) was first bred in Montalban, Rizal in 1960’s to
boost food production. Few years later, this government project collapsed and 14,000 adults
and tadpoles were released in Lake Paoay and Lake Billoca, northern Luzon and Ligawasan
Marsh, Mindanao, respectively. It is known to be voracious predator on other amphibian
species in the United States. Taiwanese frog, Hoplobatrachus rugulosus (Weigmann) was also
introduced for commercial farming. After escaping confinement, it is now widely distributed in
the Southern Luzon. It has been reported to pose risks to several species of small native frogs in
lowland areas.

Common green pond frog, Rana erythraea (Schlegel) found on some islands of the
Philippines has been introduced because of its disjunct distribution (Negros, Panay, and
Laguna). Brown bullfrog, Kaloula pulchra (Müller) is the most recent inroduction. The
reasons for the introduction of R. erythraea into the country is unclear. Among the species, B.
marinus and H. rugulosus exhibit the highest population densities and are the most
geographicallywidespread.

4. Invasive invertebrates
A. Plant pest organisms. Agriculture is one the most vulnerable sectors to IAS since human
actions are the primary means of their introductions. Since 1978, there are about fifteen IAS
included in the preliminary list of 30 introduced species based on bibliographicsearch.

The species that have attained invasive status for the past 5-10 years are: Buff coconut
mealy bug, Nipaecoccus nipae, infesting coconuts, bananas and other economically important
crops and forest species. The long leaf beetle, Brontispa longissima attacks coconuts and
other palms. The rice black bugs, Scotinophara spp. expanding its distribution in many
islands of the Philippines. Several species of leaf miner flies, Liriomyza spp. imported with
cut flowers have attained outbreak levels destroying potato crops and other highland crops in
Benguet and Mountain provinces. Similarly, the spiraling whitefly, Aleurodicus dispersus
affects many vegetable crops and ornamentals; Leucaena psyllid/ Jumping plant lice,
Heteropsylla cubana affects almost 100% of Leucaena leucocephala crop country-wide. Big-
headed ant (Pheidole megacephala) that hauls rice seeds in the upland environment, is also
an introduced pest. Several species of scale insects, mites and gall wasp of dapdap,
Quadrastichus erythrinae Kim. have also become invasive. The most recent introductions are
those that affect the corn in Mindanao (Stenocranus pacificus), the oil palm nursery in
Mindanao (Mycoplasma?) and the coconut in Luzon and in Samar (Brontispa longissima).
Origin or means of introduction into the Philippines are not exactly known but most of them
are suspected to be riders of imported plants or plantproducts.

The invasive species can be products of both in troduction and indigenousness. The
Philippines is an island, and thus, a pest problem in one Philippine island for many years,
now invading another islands of the Philippines is a good case of invasive species. For
example, in rice, the white stem borer (Scirpophaga innotata) in Iloilo, Philippines has been a
chronic rice pest for many years and now invades upland rice in Claveria, Mindanao islands.
Except for the rice black bugs, Scotinophara sp. and S. latiuscula, all rice arthropods listed
are exotic pests that must have landed into the Philippines by multiple pathways: airplanes,
boats, plant materials, hitch hikers, etc. (Table. 3). It is hard to provide full documentation but
once their origin is known then their status can be justified. The orchid virus (Oncydium sp.)
and the potato cyst nematode (Globodera rostochiensis)are seriously affecting orchid and
potato industry in the Philippines.
B. Non-native earthworms. There are several species of earthworms that are invasive non-
native ones and to mention a few are as follows: Pontoscolex corethrurus (origin Brazil),
Polypheretima elongata (origin SE Asia, probably Indonesian region), Amynthas corticis
(origin mainland E Asia), Dichogaster saliens (origin Africa), Nematogenia occidentalis
(origin unclear), Perionyx excavatus (origin India). The “giant earthworms” or “Mystery
worm” (Pheretima spp./ Metaphire spp.) destroy the rice terrace walls by burrowing holes,
and causing water stress and encouraging weed growth thereby affecting rice production in
Banaue rice terraces (Personal communication: Dr. Samuel James,USA).

5. Invasive non-aquaticplants
Numerous alien plant species have successfully invaded natural and human-altered
habitats through deliberate and accidental introductions in the Philippines within the past 400
years. Merrill (1912) notes on introduced plants included in the Flora of Manila, revealed that
50% of the 1,007 species listed had been introduced by man, and of these non-indigenous
plants, half are spontaneous, i.e., have become naturalized, while the other half are cultivated
only. Alarmingly, 334 species, about a third of the plants in the Flora of Manila, have been
brought into the country fairly recently, 242 of which were introduced deliberately and 92
introduced accidentally. Their unrestricted proliferation has had many dire consequences,
including crop loss (in the case of agricultural weeds), decrease in biodiversity and
deterioration of overall environmentalquality.

MacKinnon (2002) reported that many ornamental plants are aggressively spreading out of
control across the ASEAN region. These include Caesalpinia pulcherrima and climbing
plants such as Blue Trumpet Vine (Thunbergia grandiflora), Morning glory (Ipomoea
carnea), Ipomoea cairica, Bougainvillea spectabilis and the edible Thai vine (Coccinea
indica). These plants can smother the original vegetation. Exotic colonizer shrubs such as
Piper aduncum, Mimosa pigra and prickly pear Opuntia monacantha have also been reported
to cover huge areas of the region. Nature reserves and parks in Luzon, Philippines, are
dominated by the admittedly attractive South American shrub (Pachystachyscoccinea).

Several species of Australian Eucalyptus spp. and two species of Acacia (Acacia
auriculiformis and Acacia mangium) grow well in South East Asia and spread naturally over
cleared and burned areas. These species have been associated with the forest firescape, a
disturbance regime linked to timber loss and displacement of natural forests (MacKinnon,
2002). While these exotic species are present in the country, there has apparently been no
assessment regarding the negative impact of the invasiveness of the species.
 Exotic tree species in the country that are considered invasive (at least because they are
also host of insect pests includes: Gmelina arborea, Acacia mangium, Eucalyptus
camaldulensis, Swietenia macrophylla.

Forest tree species planted in the country were identified as bioinvasive based from local
and international sources: There are eight species, namely: Mahogany (Swietenia
macrophylla), Giant ipil-ipil (Leucaena leucocephala), Palosanto (Triplaris cumingiana),
Acacia/Auri (Acacia auricauliformis ), African tulip (Spathodea companulata), Aroma
(Aroma confusa), Mesquita aroma (Prosopis juliflorae) and Paper mulberry (Broussonetia
papyrifera). The B. papyrifera was introduced in 1935 to increase the bast-fibre species
present in Mt. Makiling but because of its good adaptive and competitive characteristics and
several number of dispersal agents, this species appears to be obnoxious and an
environmentalthreat.

Hagonoy, Chromolaena odorata native to tropical America, is a serious agricultural weed in

the Philippines preventing the establishment of other forage species, thus reducing the
availability of edible plants for livestock. It has also been reported to poison livestock due to its
allelopathic properties. During the dry season, thick dried stands of the species are undeniably
fire hazards. The most commonly used methods to deal with infestations are through manual
slashing and use of herbicides. Biological control is also reported to be quite effective,
including the use of the stem gall fly Cecidochares connexa (ISSG, 2006b) and other natural
enemies such as Pareuchaetes pseudoinsulata, and eriophyid mite, Acalitus adoratus, which
have both successfully established in the Philippines since their arrival in the 1980’s.

Cogon grass, Imperata cylindrica is a native species that has infested several million
hectares of the Philippine uplands. In terms of proportion of land area covered, the
Philippines is second to Sri Lanka at 17%. A considerable area of potential agricultural or
forest land is rendered useless because of the colonization by Imperata. It is considered a
noxious weed not only because it has resulted in huge crop yield losses but it also changes
ecosystem properties. It alters fire and hydrologic regimes, displaces native regenerative
plants, reduces control of sedimentation and soil erosion, promotes eutrophication, and
changes biodiversity by reducing species recruitment. It is also allelopathic, parasitic,
allergenic, unpalatable or toxic to grazing animals, and a host for many plant pathogens and
pests. Ways to control cogon include pulling, which is labor intensive, and poisoning with
herbicides. Burning alone is discouraged as it stimulates the weed’s growth and does not
destroy the rhizomes (ISSG, 2005b). The Philippine government, has undertaken the Assisted
Natural Regeneration (ANR) approach to improve degraded lands and thus minimize the
spread of thegrass.
 Large leaf lantana, Lantana camara was introduced as an ornamental due to its colorful
flowers (ISSG, 2006c). It is considered undesirable because it invades pastures and decreases
productivity; replaces native forest species after land is cleared for farming, hence preventing
succession and restoration, and may even poison cattle when eaten. Lantana stands may be
cleared through manual pulling or by burning, but biological control measures exist.

Ipil-ipil, Leucaena leucocephala the only invasive tree species reported in several databases,
was introduced as forage into the Philippines from tropical America during the Spanish
colonial period. This legume was welcomed at first since it made good firewood and provided
shade for understory crops. Exacerbating the problem is that during the American regime,
ipil-ipil was among the plants frequently used in the reforestation efforts. For instance, during
the establishment of forestry and agricultural schools, such as the School of Forestry in Mt.
Makiling, Laguna in 1910, L. leucocephala was planted, along with other exotic plants, to
afforest the school’s grassy area. Now, it is considered a bio-invasive species since it forms
pure stands which are difficult to eradicate and thus make the land unusable (Baguinon et al.,
2005). Ironically, while ipil- ipil is considered an invasive weed in the Philippines, it is
regarded as an important and useful tree in many other countries as it can be used as forage,
firewood, timber, and fertilizer. It is also ecologically beneficial as it aids nitrogen fixation
through its symbiotic relationship with Rhizobium, serves as windbreaker, and assists in the
revegetation of degraded hillsides. This species is so important that many countries are trying
to find measures to control the insect pest Heteropsylla cubana to which Leucaena is the host
(Nampopeth, 1994). Applying this knowledge, the Philippines could use this insect to control
and manage ipil-ipil infestations. Clearly, there is a need to re-evaluate the risk management
aspects of this plant.

Mile-a-minute/ Chinese creeper, Mikania micrantha is a fast growing, creeping and

twining plant that originated from Central and South America and was introduced as an
ornamental plant and a cover crop for plantations, and even as airfield camouflage in World
War II. It is harmful to other plants in that it kills them by blocking out the light and
smothering them. It also competes for water and nutrients and releases chemicals that could
prevent the growth of competitors. Another species, Mikania cordata, a native of Southeast
Asia and Africa, apparently coexists with M. micrantha through niche differentiation in terms
of some physiological parameters. Control of Mikania can be accomplished in several ways.
These plants can be removed manually and cut from the trees and plants that they smother.
However, this is labor intensive, costly, and not very effective because even small remnants
left behind may grow into mature individuals. Herbicides have also been used in an attempt to
eradicate infestations but with little success. Therefore, biological control may be the best
option, although it would take more research to successfully find the suitable biological
control agent.

Reference:

Joshi, Ravindra. (2006). Invasive alien species (IAS): Concerns and status in the Philippines.
Retrieved from
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228680226_Invasive_alien_species_IAS_Concerns
_and_status_in_the_Philippines.