Composition and Nutritional value of Eggs

Eggs
• Eggs are incredibly nutritious. Chicken eggs are the most common kind
of eggs used in Pakistani meals, but other kinds such as duck eggs are
also eaten.
• They contain protein (high biological value), healthy fats, and many
nutrients like vitamins A, D, E, choline, iron and folate, Vitamin b12,
Selenium, Lutein and zeaxanthin
• There is no carbohydrate in the egg.

 The color of the egg yolk is related to the diet of the hen and is due to the
presences of carotenes and any colorings added to the feed.

Composition of an Egg
1. The outer most layer of an egg is called shell.
2. Inside the shell, outer shell membrane sticks to the shell
and inner shell membrane surround the albumin.
3. Consistency of Albumin is thick near the yolk while it’s
thin near the shell.
4. Egg yolk is covered with a membrane known as vitelline
membrane.
5. The yolk is supported by the chalazae which are attached
to the egg white and help to keep
the yolk away from the shell where it could pick up
bacteria.
6. Air cell is formed due to contraction of inner sheel
membrane during cooling after laying eggs.

 All the fat in an egg is found in the yolk

 Introducing egg in the first year of life (to child of greater than 4 months of age)
may reduce the risk of development of food allergy to egg.

Recommendation:

Healthy adults should consume three to four eggs per week.

Quality of Egg:
 A fresh egg when in a plate stands up firmly in a rounded shape. A stale egg flattens
and spread over the plate and the yolk membrane may break when removed from the
shell.

Eggs are composed of three main parts:

SHELL Outer most covering of Egg

11.5%
97% calcium carbonate

3% protein

EGG WHITE It has two visible layers; the thick white nearest to the yolk and the thin white
58.5% nearest to the shell

88% of water,
10.5% protein (mainly ovalbumin or egg albumin and mucin)
riboflavin and other B complex vitamins, sulphur (being the only important
mineral) and traces of fat.

EGG YOLK 16.5% protein,

30% 33% fat,
50% water,
riboflavin, fat soluble vitamins A, D, E, K,
mineral elements including iron and lecithin (an emulsifier).
 WATER

Water is an essential inorganic nutrient. After oxygen, water is

second in importance to the body. The human body is about 50-70%
water.

Functions

Water performs the following important functions in the body:

 It makes all the body fluids e.g. digestives juices, body secretions,
hormones, mucus, saliva, blood, lymph, bile, sweat and urine.
 It acts as a solvent for all the nutrients and other body chemical
products and essential for their absorption and metabolism.
 It is a transport vehicle which carries all the nutrients and the
body wastes from organ to organ.
 It bathes the cells and maintains the cell structure by maintaining
the intra cellular and the extra cellular water. Most of the extra
cellular fluid is found in the circulatory system. Some is found in
hollow organs, joints and bones. But the largest amount
surrounds the cells.
 It serves as a lubricant for membranes and in joints to facilitate
their movement.
 It cushions and protects delicate organs from striking against
their bony cages. Water is present in the protective layers of
fluids that cover the surface of brain, spinal cord, lungs etc.
 It regulates the body temperature through evaporation from the
skin and lungs.
 It maintains the normal blood volume and blood pressure.
 Water provides no calories, but it does provide various mineral
elements e.g. magnesium and calcium in hard water and fluoride
in water that either naturally contains it or to which it has been
added by man.
 Requirements:

The amount needed for an individual is Factors Effecting Water Requirement

variable depending upon the water loss The amount of water lost by the body is
influenced by:
and to some extent on the dryness of
• environmental conditions (as in
food eaten, but usually 6-8 glasses daily summers)
is sufficient. • body conditions including high
temperature (fever)
Routes of Water Losses • Vomiting
• Diarrhea
Water is lost from the body by way:
• Influenza
* Urine • intensive physical activity or exercise,
• lactation, uncontrolled diabetes and
* skin (perspiration) burns.
In such conditions much more water is
* lungs (respiration) required than the normal to replace the
losses.
* eyes (tears)

Sources

Only a small amount of water is formed in the body but the rest has
to be obtained from water, other fluids and foods in the diet.

All foods which are considered to be dry contains appreciable

amount of water such as,

* Milk contain 87% water

* Fruits and vegetables contain 70-95% water

* Meat contain 40-75% water

* Eggs contain 74% water

* Cereals contain 8-20% water

* Bread contain 35% water

 Study Care and Use of Equipments used in Food Preparation

Mixers and Blenders

Introduction

 Save time and labour

 Electricity is replaced by human energy
 Jobs are done more quickly and efficiently
USE OF MIXTURE

HAND HELD MODELS

● Useful for whisking , creaming and mashing

● Can be easily moved to any part of the kitchen
● Should be relatively light and comfortable to hold

FREE STANDING MODEL

● Powerful and large capacity mixtures

● Operates by the rotation of a beater on a disk

Blenders

Blenders have capacity to blend dry as well as liquid ingredients. They should
have :

● Handle
● Pouring lip for liquids
● Base which is easy to fix and remove
● Strong goblet that will withstand heat from liquid

Uses of Blenders

● Can be used for soup making

● Batters
● Baby food preparation
● Pureed fruits and vegetables
● Chopping nuts , herbs and bread crumbs
● Grinding sugar into icing sugar
● Fruits and milk drinks
● Mayonnaise and salad dressing

General Care of Mixtures

● Don't run the machine for longer than necessary

● Don't exceed the recommended capacity of the machine
● Clean thoroughly after use
● When not in use , store in dry place
● Don't overfill the goblet
● Glass goblets are preferable than plastic goblets

Food Processors

Uses

● They carry out wide range of jobs using one piece of equipment
● They can be used for finely chopping vegetables , herbs , meat , cheese , boiled
egg
● Finely slicing vegetables/fruits
● Making bread crumbs
● Grinding whole wheat
● Peeling vegetables
● Shredding vegetables
● Grating vegetables/cheese
Dishwashers
● Automatic dishwashers save time and energy
● Instead of three or four washing obsessions the entire days load can be
washed in one go
● The wash is very hygienic as high water temperatures are used (60°C-65°C)
● Special detergents are used

5 Steps of Dishwashers

1. Pre-wash in cold water

2. Main wash
3. 2 Short rinse to dispose detergent
4. Final hot rinse
5. Drying by an electric heater

The whole cycle takes 20-90 mins.

Care of Dishwashers

Most items can be washed except for the following:

● Hand painted porcelain

● Crystal glassware
● Old cutlery with handles that aren't heat resistant
● Narrow necked vessels

Sink Units

Care of the Sink

● Stainless steel is easy to keep clean and is strong and hygenic

● Should be positioned by a window which provides source of fresh air
● Should be kept clean by the regular use of non-scratch cleaning fluid
● Avoid putting scraps of food or tea leaves down the sink as they may cause
blockage
● Gently put a soft wire down the plug whole and try to remove if there is
blockage

Heated Food Trays and Servers

Similarities
Both are used to keep meals hot
● Food servers range from heated dishes , portable table cabinets and trolleys
● The top is either flat or have fitted food containers with lids
● Some have an un-heated cabinet below the heated top for storing plates and
cutlery
● They have an ordinary socket outlet which should be disconnected before
cleaning
● Heated food trays have tops made from metal , glass or ceramics
● They have a base and feet so that the tray can be put on the table

Pans

More About Pans

● Pans have different types and uses that is milk saucepan , frying pan ,
vegetable sauce pan and pressure cooker.
● Pans are made up of different material like stainless steel , alumunium , iron
or steel.
● Avoid using hard brush for washing non-stick pans
 Kitchen Scales

Uses
● They provide accuracy in weighing out ingredients
● Never drop food into them
● Way out on a flat , firm surface for accuracy
● Clean carefully after use

Cutlery

More About Cutlery

● They should have strong handles
● Good cutting edge on knives
● Easy care design

Kitchen Knives

Uses
It is necessary to have a variety of kitchen knives for different purposes
that is :
● Vegetable knives
● Cheese knives
● Bread knives
● Carving knives
● General purpose knives

HOME GARDENING AND FOOD PRODUCTION

GARDENING

● Gardening is the practice of growing and cultivating plants as part of

horticulture.
● It's the activity of tending and cultivating a garden, especially as a pastime.
VALUE OF PLANNING

Nutritional :

● Consuming more fresh fruits and vegetables is one of the most important
things you can do to stay healthy.

Recreational :

● Get outdoor exercise.

● Gardening is a natural stress reliever.

Educational :
 ● It gives an opportunity to observe the world with their own eyes and to
directly engage in a natural environment.

HOME GARDENING

● Provides an ample supply of high quality vegetables , fruits and herbs at

cheap rates.
● Good Quality and Quantity.
● Gives relaxation and satisfaction of the produced goods.

PROCEDURE OF HOME GARDENING

● Enlist the items you don't eat or ones to which you are allergic
● Have an aim of producing a good quality and quantity of the food plant
● Don't miss any possible food source that you could have

FOOD CHOICES EXAMPLES

● Berries
● Grapes
● Herbs
● Fish
● Garden Vegetables
● Fruit Trees
● Tomatoes
● Celery

RECOMMENDATIONS

Seek guidance from :

● Companies
● Nurseries
● Well-established sellers
BENEFITS
POULTRY

● The manure from the flock of laying hens and roosters will feed the garden

● Laying flock of chickens is the most efficient way to produce high protein
food

● It's also fine as a hobby if you like them

Soil Preparation and Management of Garden

SOIL PREPARATION
● To help ensure success and to derive maximum yields the entire garden should
be planned in detail before anything is planted.
● In planting, you should consider the location of the garden, the crops and
varieties of each to be grown, when and where each crop will be planted and
the amount of each crop to plant
● Ideally the garden soil should be deep, granular and easily pulverized well
drained, high in organic matter such as compost and humus and slightly acid.
● However it is not always possible to have such a soil and it may be beneficial
to improve your soil by adding fertilizer, lime and organic matter.
● The pH test should indicate what minerals or nutrients should be added to the
soil to create optimum soil conditions.
● All garden plants generally require the nutrients, nitrogen, calcium,
phosphorus, magnesium, sulfur and potassium and the soil test should
indicate these levels and recommend additions
● The garden should receive direct sunlight all day. In addition, it should be far
enough from tees so they don’t compete with the crops for water.
● Maintain adequate levels of soil fertility through additions of potassium and
phosphorus releasing materials, such as commercial fertilizer or animal
manures.
● Soil testing should be done every three years to determine levels of these
important nutrients. Build a biologically active, healthy soil through regular
addition of organic matter, such as yard waste, compost and manure
● For planting areas not being cropped, grow annual cover crops, such as
clover or ryegrass to provide additional organic matter.
● The organic materials, which can be used to help build soil nourishment, are
often readily available.
● They include leaves, grass clippings, aged manure and even kitchen scarps
excluding meats and dairy products. These can be added directly or
composted and then added to soil.
● The materials should be either tilled or spaded into the ground to a depth of
about four to six inches in established gardens.
● For a new plot of ground, deeper and more is better, a good rule of thumb is to
till or spade to a depth of a foot or deeper.
● It is beneficial in both old and new, to mulch the ground after the garden has
been planned with additional organic material or mulch, it is good for the soil
and makes weeding a somewhat easier task.
● The soil is alive with micro-organisms which cannot be seen but which are
essential for healthy plants and a successful harvest.
● Organic materials and compost provide for healthy environment for the good
micro-organisms which in turn make for happy plants.
● Earth worms are a good indicator of soil health. If at least five earthworms or
more are seen in a one cubic area of soil, it is a sign that the soil is properly
maintained.
● Earth worms are valuable in other matters besides indicators of health, they
help aerate the soil and their waste is excellent “homegrown” organic
fertilizer.
● If earth worm are not present or are few and far between, the addition of
compost and organic material will help increase the population over several
years.
● Planting cover crops in another critical step in proper soil management and a
step which is often overlooked.
● Cover crops are often called “green manure” and add valuable nutrients and
organic material back into the soil.
● Many also help to attract the beneficial insect and pollinators to the garden
area.
● Cover crops which can be used in the vegetable garden successfully are winter
rye, winter wheat, barely, oats, buckwheat and clover.
● Usually planted in the fall before winter arrives. Some can be successfully
planted in the spring for a fall garden.
● A good garden depends on good soil preparation. Soil is the foundation of
building an optimum garden.
● Organic material, soil testing and cover cropping are the three key
foundations and like a house which is now a home.
● The soil needs to be repaired and nourished overtime for continued
enjoyment.
● Getting your garden soil ready for planting is an essential part of starting a
garden. After you have planned the vegetables garden, mark off the garden
boundaries, then dig or till the areas.
● When starting a new garden digging and tilling can be a pain in the back (and
legs, arms etc). So remember to keep it small.
● Another pointer is not to dig, till or work in the garden when the soil is wet.
● Working wet soil can disrupt the soil structure and make growing vegetables
more difficult.
● But don’t wait until it is bone dry as this may never happen and tilling dry soil
is literally hard.
● Ideally, vegetables prefer a loose, well-drained, fertile soil. Most lawa soil are
good for growing vegetables, but if you notice that yours is exceptionally hard
to work or full of clay you might consider adding a few amendments.
● Most good soils amendments are organic meaning they break down naturally
overtime. Compost and peal mass are two commonly available soil
amendments. Adding an inch or two of these amendments (or others) then
tilling it into the soil can improve the productivity of many vegetables
● Preparation make a seed bed with fine rich soil and no lumps, sticks or stones.
● Weed it well and flatten it neatly with a board.
● Prepare a canopy of snacking or fronds to protect the bed from sun and rain.
● Protect the seed bed from predators (e.g. with walls of thorns, or by putting
trays on a table.

“Plant Selection”

● Plant crops and varieties those are well suited to the soil and climate. When
seeding directly, use disease free, certified seed, if available. Select for
maximum insect and disease resistance in vegetable varieties.
● Select healthy, sturdy transplant with well-developed root systems. Diseases
and insects in young seedings may start in green houses or plant beds and
cause heavy losses in the garden.
● Buy plants from a reputable grower who can assure you that they are disease
and inset-free, or grow your own from seed.
● Use inter plantings in the vegetables garden as opposed to solid plantings of a
crop. This can slow the spread of disease and insects, giving you more time to
deal with them if they occur.
● Space plants properly and thin young vegetables to a proper stand.
Overcrowding causes weak growth and reduces air movement, resulting in
increased insect and disease problems.
● Keep down weeds and grass. They often harbor pests and compete for
nutrients and water. Leaf and other organic mulches are extremely effective
for weed control, as are organic weed mats, plastic and other fabrics.
● Rotate your garden plot. If you can. Do not grow the same kind of produce in
the same place each year. Use related crops in one site only once every three
or four years. Avoid maxing soils in areas by forming permanent raised beds
with distinct borders.
● Avoid injury to plants. Broken limbs, cuts, bruises, cracks and insect damage
are often the site of infection by disease causing organisms. Stay out of the
garden when the plants are wet with rain or dew to prevent spreading
diseases.
● Do not use tobacco products, such as cigarettes or cigars, when working in the
vegetable garden. Tomato, pepper, and eggplant are susceptible to a mosaic
virus disease common in tobacco and may be spread by your hands.
● Remove and dispose of infected leaves from disease plants as soon as you
observe them. Remove severely disease plants before they contaminate
others. Clean up crop refuse as soon as you are finished for the day.
● Keep old sacks, baskets, wooden stakes, decaying vegetables, and other
rubbish, which may harbor insects and disease out of the garden.
● Mulching means putting dry organic material (grass, straw and leaves) about
6 cm deep around the base of plants. The mulch keeps moisture in the soil.
Keeps the soil surface cool and soft prevents weeds, and gradually decays like
compost to enrich the soil.
● It is particularly useful where the soil is poor or there is very little water in
hot climates and hot seasons. The best mulching material is light colored and
reflects the light.
● Use grass and weeds before they produce seeds, otherwise you will be
providing competition instead of reducing it.

“PLANTING AND TRANSPLANTING’

● Sowing big seeds in the ground

● Soil should be raked finely removing lumps, roots, stones
● Seeds should be sown at a distance that allows for the size of the mature plant.
Use peas and knotted string to mark out rows, and measuring sticks to
measure distance between plants. Make furrows at a depth approximately 3
times the seed’s diameter. Add a little compost, then drop in the seeds.
● Cover the seeds and press down
● Water gently and keep damp
● Protect seeds/seedings from sun, rain and predators with
canopies and thorns
● Small seeds need to be started in a protected seedbed,
thinned out hardened off and then planted out.
● Staking tall flower and vegetables plants or planting
them in wire cages prevents the blossoms or fruit from
coming in contact with the soil.
● Time plantings in such a way that the majority of your
crop will avoid the peak of insect infestations. For
example, plant squash as early as possible to avoid
borers, which lay eggs in July. Keep a record of the dates
insect problems occur.
● Plant warm weather crops after the soil has warmed to
avoid problems, with seed and root and to promote
vigorous growth.
● Inspect plants for egg clusters, beetles, caterpillars, and
other insects as often as possible. Hand pick as many
pests as you can. Avoid sprays until the population of
insect has reached a critical threshold level.
● Enlist the aid of birds in your garden. Overall, they do
 more good than harm.
● Consider planting shrubs and trees with fruits that attract them. Keep in
mind, however, if you attract wild birds, you will have to protect ripening
fruit (and even some vegetables) by using bird netting or scare devices
(aluminum pans banging in the breeze are fairly effective) if damage is noted.

● The organic materials that can be used to help build soil nourishment are
often readily available. They include leaves, grass clippings, ages manure and
even kitchen scraps excluding meats and dairy products. These can be added
directly or composted and then added to soil.

Selecting vegetables, fruits and flowers

Suited to area selected for gardening

Selecting Vegetables

1. Consider the space available for gardening

 If you have only a small site available:

 Grow crops that will yield the heaviest over the longest period of time.
 Examples of vegetables suitable for a small garden include:
 Tomatoes
 Peppers
 Cucumber
 Onions
 Vegetables that require much space and yield a small return include:
 Sweet corn
 Water melon
 Pumpkins
 These crops vary greatly in their
response to temperature.
 Some make their best growth in spring and fall or winter when cool
temperatures prevail.
 Other vegetables are very sensitive to cool temperatures and thrive only
during warm weather.
 Lettuce, spinach, cabbage, mustard and turnips are cool-hardy plant, but
there are varieties of each that are more tolerant of warm temperature than
others.

2.Use successive cropping

 Use successive cropping in the garden, because of different climatic

requirements and different maturity rates for various vegetables.
 Benefits of successive cropping include:
 1. It conserves space
2. Enables to grow a variety of crops.
 Examples of successive cropping systems are:
● Spinach, lettuce, green onions followed by;
● Beans, tomatoes, peppers or eggplant, cabbage, cauliflower, carrots, beets or
peas followed by;
● Snap beans, cowpeas or corn, beans followed by;
● Late cabbage, cauliflower or corn , followed by;
● Beans, beets , lettuce, turnips, carrots or by spinach.

3. Decide on vegetable varieties

● After selecting vegetables for gardening, decide on what varieties to grow.

● Vegetable varieties differ in:
1. Their adaptation to different areas of the country,
2. Soil types
3. Resistance to disease and nematodes
4. Quality for fresh use, canning or freezing
5. Days from planting to maturity
● Experienced local gardener provide information on the locally adapted
varieties

4.Grow a variety resistant to diseases and nematodes

● This may eliminate the need for repeated applications of pesticides.

● Consider the intended use of vegetables
● The quality (colour, taste, texture, etc.) and the intended use (fresh, canning
or freezing) of the produce should be considered in the selection of varieties.
● Some varieties are especially suited for fresh consumption, while others are
suited for canning or freezing.
● Difference in quality includes yellow vs. green podded beans, white vs. red
reddish and hot or pungent vs. mild tasting onions.

Selecting Fruits

1. Consider the space available for gardening

● Fruits take more space in the garden than vegetables but they can be equally
rewarding.
● Once established, adapted varieties of fruits will bear year after year.
● Like vegetables, fruits
● require full sunlight.

2. Consider soil drainage and ph

● Strawberries, raspberries, blackberries, blueberries, grapes, cherries,

peaches, plums, apples and pears, these require a well-drained soil.
● Blueberries require a soil ph of 4.5 to 5.0.
● Soil ph of other fruits should be between 5.5 to 6.5.
● Since all fruits blossom early in the spring, frost pockets should be avoided.
● Even when garden has good drainage, the blossoms may have to be protected
against cold.
● Temperature of 300F will often kill blossoms and young developing fruit.

3. Need for cross-pollination

● Apples, pears and plums require cross-pollination.

● Thus more than one variety of these fruits should be planted.
● Wild bees and other insects will pollinate the blossoms.
● Insecticides should not
be applied in the garden
during the period of blossoming
and pollination.

4.Examples of easily grown fruits:

STRAWBERRY:

● The strawberry is probably the best fruit for use in the home garden.
● It takes but little space and fruits will be produced one year after planting.
● Strawberries are very productive.
● Plants should be set 11/2 feet apart in the row with rows spaced 4 feet apart.

GRAPES:

● Grapes should also be considered for the home garden.

● The vines can be used effectively as a screen during summer months.
● One vine will cover 8 to 10 feet of the trellis each year.
● For good fruit production, however, vines must be pruned each winter.

PEACH:

● The peach is an excellent fruit for the home garden.

● With the selection of early, midseason, and late varieties, the peach fruiting
season can be extended to 6 or 8 weeks in most parts of the country.
● The tree will have to be pruned each winter.
● Peaches do not require cross-pollination and a single tree will bear fruit.
● Plant trees no closer than 15 feet apart.

PLUMS:

● Plums also are excellent for the home garden.

● Care must be taken, however, to select only those varieties recommended for
each growing area.
● Plums require little pruning.
● Trees should not be planted closer than 15 feet apart.

APPLES:

● Apples have to be sprayed for disease and insect control more than other
fruits.

5.Fertilization program, watering and use of pesticides

● No matter what fruits are selected for the home garden, a fertilization
program must be followed.
● Grass and weeds should be removed from around all trees.
● When trees are watered sufficient water should be applied to penetrate the top
5 inches of soil.
● Apply fertilizer in the early spring.
● Fruit trees will have to be sprayed to control insects and diseases.
● Caution should be used in selecting and applying pesticides.
● Anticipate that birds and squirrels will be major pests in the home fruit
garden.

Selecting Herbs

● The word “herb” is applied to low plants, some of which emit a particular
fragrance.

USES AND BEBIFITS OF HERBS:

● A number of herbs are used to season, enrich, or otherwise to impart a flavor

and aroma to certain foods, and thus make them more pleasing to the taste.
● Others possess medicinal virtues.
● Fragrant or savory leaves, seeds, buds, bark, and roots have been used for
such purposes since ancient times
● Soil type and quality
● Herbs generally grow in sunny sites, or granular, or easily pulverized
alkaline soil.
● Under propagated conditions, the majority of herbs may be grown
successfully under a wide range of soil conditions but thrive best in a fertile.
● Well prepared soil, mixed with humus and fertilizer, Barnyard manure,
compost and wood ashes are especially beneficial.

Location and drainage

● Consideration should be given to the location of the herbs in the garden.

● For example, sage, thyme and rosemary are sensitive to moist conditions and
require well-drained, moderately humid situation.
● Chervil, parsley, and the mints, on other hand grow best on soils that retain
moisture but have good drainage.
Use and storage of herbs

● Whenever possible, herbs should be used fresh, as some plants when dried
lose their fragrance or flavor (after about 1 year).
● They should be harvested on a clear morning when the leaves are free of dew.
● The leaves usually have the best flavor or fragrance when gathered
immediately before the flowers open.
● Flowers or leaves should be cut with a sharp knife or scissors leaving enough
foliage for new growth.
● Leaves should be washed.
● Excess water shaken off, and then dried on a wire or cheesecloth frame or tied
in bunches and hung up to dry in a dark place.
● Seeds, also, should be thoroughly dried before storing to prevent mold and
loss of viability.
● After curing for several days in an airy room, exposure to the sun for a day or
two before storing will insure safe storage.
● As soon as the leaves or seeds of herbs are dry they should be cleaned of stems
and foreign matter.
● Then place them in airtight glass, metal, or cardboard containers, to preserve
their delicate fragrance and flavor.
● Glass jars make satisfactory s containers, but they should be painted black or
stored in a dark room to prevent beaching of the green leaves by light.

Protecting vegetables, fruits and flowers from pests, heat ,

excessive rain and Natural Bug Sprays

Not all house and garden insects are enemies to the propagation of healthy
plants e.g. Ladybugs , praying mantis, lacewings spiders and horse hair
snakes are among the many winged of crawling “friends’ in the garden who
eat harmful insects. Please check before you spray.
Alcohol Spray

The idea of using rubbing alcohol as a spray for plants pests has been around for years. It can
cause leaf damage to Apple trees.

• Alcohol sprays work on aphids mealy bugs scale insects, trips and whiteflies.

• Alcohol sprays have been used successfully on houseplants and tropical foliage plants.
Most of these have heavy waxy cuticles that are not easily burned.

• Since alcohol can damage plants always test your spray mix on a few leaves of plants first.
Tests results should show up within 2 or 3 days.

Tomato Leaf sprays

Nightshade family plants, such as tomatoes, potatoes and tobacco have toxic compounds
called alkaloids in their leaves. These toxins are water soluble and can be soaked from chopped
leaves and made into home-made sprays

● These sprays work by attracting natural pest enemies

● The good bugs follow the smell of the spray in looking for prey
● Tomato leaf sprays have been used to protect plants from aphids.

Cont.

• Also spraying tomato leaf spray on corn may reduce corn earworm damage. The corn
earworm is also called the tomato fruit worm, as it also attacks tomato plants.

• Spray plants thoroughly particularly undersides of lower leaves and growing tips
where aphids congregate. While this spray is not poisonous to humans on
contact, use care in handling, especially if you are allergic to the nightshade
family.

Garlic Oil Sprays

Garlic oil has a repellent or toxic effect on pests. When it is combined with
mineral oil and pure soap it becomes an effective insecticide.

• Good results with quick kill, have been noted against aphids, cabbage loopers,
earwigs, June bugs, leafhoppers, squash bugs and whiteflies.

• The spray does not appear to harm adult lady beetles, and some gardeners have
found that it doesn't work against the Colorado potato beetles grape leaf
skeletonizers, grasshoppers, red ants, or sowbugs.

Cont.

• Spray plants carefully to ensure thorough coverage.

• To check for possible leaf damage to sensitive ornamentals from the oil and
soap in the spray, do a test spray on a few leaves or plants first. If no leaf
damage occurs in 2 or 3 days, go ahead and spray more.

Herbal Sprays

Many organic farmers are familiar with using sprays made from aromatic herbs
to repel pests from the garden plants.

• Several recent studies confirm the repellent effect of such sprays. Hyssop, Rosemary,
Sage, Thyme and white clover can be used in this manner.

• They have been shown to reduce the number of eggs laid and the amount of
feeding. Damage to cabbage by caterpillars of Diamond back moths and large
white butterflies.
Cont.

● Sprays made from Tansy have demonstrated a repellent effect on imported

cabbageworm on cabbage. Reducing the number of eggs laid on the plants.
● Teas made from Wormwood or Nasturtiums are reputed to repel aphids from
fruit trees and sprays made from ground or blended Catnip Chives.
● Feverfew, Marigolds or Rue have also been used by gardeners against pests that feed on
leaves.
● Try herbal sprays against any leaf-eating pests and make note of what works for future
reference.
● Spray plants thoroughly especially undersides of leaves, and repeat at weekly intervals if
necessary.

“Hot” Dusts

Black pepper, chilli pepper, dill, ginger, paprika and red pepper all contain
capsaicin, & a compound shown to repel insects. Synthetic capsaicin is also
available for field use.

● Researchers have found that as little as 1/25 ounce of capsaicin sprinkled around an onion
plant reduced the number of onion maggot eggs laid around the plant by 75% compared to
control plant.
● Capsaicin-containing dusts repel onion, maggots from seedlings as well as other root
maggot flies from cabbage family plants and carrots.
● Pepper dusts around the base of the plants help repel ants which is desirable in & garden
where ants often protect and maintain aphid colonies on plants.
● Sprinkle along seeded rows of onions, cabbage: or carrots, in a band atleast 6 inches wider
than the row or planting bed.
● A fine sprinkling will suffice, but the more dust you use the better effect.
● Renew after a heavy rain or irrigation. To protect plants from ants. Sprinkle around the
base of plants in an area as wide as the widest leaves.

Nicotine

One of the top three insecticides in 1880s, nicotine in several forms is still widely used.
Nicotine comes from the tobacco plant and is extremely toxic to insects.

● The great advantage of home-made nicotine tea is that it is very short lived,
retaining it’s toxicity for only a few hours after spraying.
● It is relatively nonhazardous to bees and lady beetles because of its short
persistence.
● Nicotine is effective against ground and soil pests especially root aphids and
fungus gnats, and on many leaf-chewing insects Such as aphid immature
scales, leafhoppers, thrips, leafminers, pear psylla and asparagus beetle
larvae.
● For soil pests, pour the spray mixture onto the Soil in the area of the stem base
and root zone.
● For leaf pests, spray leaves thoroughly especially the undersides.
● Nicotine can be absorbed by plant leaves and remain there for several weeks.
To be safe, use nicotine only on young plants and only up to one month before
harvest.
● It's probably safest not to spray nicotine on eggplant, peppers or tomatoes.
● While most tobacco cultivars now grown are resistant to tobacco mosaic
virus, nicotine sprays could contain the pathogen, which will infect
nightshade family crops.
● Tobacco teas are sometimes prepared by home gardeners to control garden
pests, and while not as toxic as nicotine sulfate sprays. Any nicotine solution
toxic enough to kill insects can also be harmful to humans.
Home Made Sprays

These sprays are cheap to make and effective against a range of pests while
also relatively safe for children to make and use.

Chili Pesticide Spray

● To control aphids and other sucking insects.

● Slice a handful of dried chillies and some onion or garlic and mix together in a
litre of water. Grate in a small handful of haro soap. Leave overnight, then
strain through a cloth and add 5 more liters of water.
● Brush, sprinkle or spray on a affected plants, but not in direct sunlight.
● Don't get it on your skin or in your eyes.
● If plant leaves burn, make the mixture weaker with more water. Repeat the
treatment as often as necessary.

Simple Soapy Water Spray

● For sucking insects, use 1 teaspoon to 2 tablespoon of normal liquid detergent

soap for every four and half liters of water.
● Spray as often as needed, especial under the leaves. Increase the amount of
soap if necessary.

Flour or ash

● When dusted onto leaf vegetables suffocate caterpillars. Flour is also a

stomach poison for them.

Tea or coffee spray

● To deter insects soak coffee grounds or tea leaves in water and spray on
plants.

White oil or “summer oil” spray

● To suffocate chewing and sucking insects. Make a concentrated mix with half
a litre of vegetable oil (e.g. coconut oil) and half a cup of detergent/ soap
dissolved in water. To spray, mix 1 tablespoon of the mixture in a litre of
water. If you store the mixture, shake well before using to mix up the
ingredients.

Bug Juice

● It is made with the bug themselves is effective against caterpillars, slugs,

larvae and bugs. Catch and kill a few of the pests which are attacking your
crops, cover with water, grind to a paste and strain through a fine sieve or
cloth. Dilute 50ml in 100 liters of water then spray.

Tomato Leaf Juice

● It is useful in controlling aphids and caterpillars on many plants.
● Boil 500 grams of tomato leaves in 5 litres of water. Stain and dissolve 30
grams of soap in the mix.
● For spraying, use one part of the mixture to four parts of water.
● Do not use this mixture on tomato plants or members of tomato family (e.g.
pepper or Irish potato)

Marigold leaf juice

● It is made the same way as tomato leaf juice is a powerful, broad-spectrum

pesticide ( it even deters fleas on dogs). Wild marigold, which comes up in
field on roadsides or any patch of disturbed soil is much more effective than
the garden variety

Protecting the Garden

Ways of protecting the garden have to take account of the commonest local
animal predators, their size and number, what they attack and how they move
(flying, burrowing, scratching , crawling, and jumping). Local measures are
generally the most economical and effective because they make use of widely
available materials.

Some protective measures are:

● Walls made of brick concrete, stone or earth are strong but need a lot of work.
Dry stone walls need constant maintenance.
● Deep foundations are necessary if they are to prevent burrowing animals.
● Rammed earth walls are easy to make but need tiles on top to keep the water
out.
● Fences made from Brushwood, wattle or Bamboos are light and easy to move
but need to be renewed every year.

Cont.

● More permanent wire fences with concrete posts should plan half a meter
underground to Keep out burrowers.
● Solar-powered electric fences can keep out big animals”
● Hedges or living fences keep out big animals.
● Plants for thorny hedges are cactus and bamboo. Some (e.g. pineapple, lemon
grass, cassava and yucca) give food as well.
● Nets are costly and time-consuming but are effective for keeping birds,
animals and insects away from fruit.

Cont.

● Scarecrows and scarers (e.g. shiny metal or plastic strips) are fun for children
to make, watch, draw and tell stories about.
● At the Grass roots level, mini fences of sticks or thorns protect young plants.
● Coverings (e.g. dry branches or sacks on sticks) keep away chickens and birds
from seedlings.
● Coconut shells or stones can be used as the earth blocks around carrots or
sweet potatoes to keep diggers away from roots.

Cont.

● Chickens are mostly beneficial for the garden, as they seldom destroy
vegetables, aerate the soil by scratching and help to control pests.
● Marigold planted as Mini living fences around seedlings or fruit which
chickens like, such as tomatoes, will keep doing well and not harm to the
garden.

Integrated pest management employs a range of natural methods to reduce and

control pests and diseases.

● Ensuring that plants are healthy is the first strategy.

● Plants should be monitored regularly and treated immediately. The checklist
below covers the main points to be checked.
● Planting particular plants together can attract good insects and drive away
pests. In general, mixed crops and strong smells repel garden enemies, while
flowers attract beneficial insects. “companion planting is a natural way to
protect plants”.
● Flowers which attracts beneficial insects are carrot, celery, clover, coriander,
daily, dill, carrot, citrus, mint, nasturtiums, parsley, parsnip, rosemary, rue,
thyme and yarrow. Let some of your vegetable flower.
● Strong smelling plants which deter pests by “putting them off the scent” are
aloe vera. Artemisia, basil, calendula, chamomile, catnip, chili, chives,
citronella, garlic, ginger, horehound, lantana, lavender, leeks, lemongrass,
marigold, mint, onion, tansy, thyme and tobacco

Plants which repel soil pests:

● Garlic plants kill off some fungi in the soil.

● Some Marigold kills nematodes in the soil.
● Cabbage smell repels soil pests.
● Basil repels tomato hornworms.
● Nasturtiams get rid of Squash bugs.
● Marigolds, mint, thyme and chamomile drive away cabbage moths.
● Radishes trap beetles that attack cucumber and squash.
● Thyme and lavender deter slugs
● Tansy and pennyroyal get rid of ants
● Tomatoes repel asparagus beetles
● Get the right kind.
 Care and use of fresh home produced food
General rule for processing food

● Harvest in the cool of the evening

● Choose ripe, undamaged items
● Cut out any damaged or rotten pieces
● Sterilize equipment and wash hands

Ten simple food preserving projects

● Hang up strings/ bunches of onions, garlic, chilies, herbs, cherry, tomatoes in

a cool shady airy place.
● Cure sweet potatoes, yams, pumpkins by leaving them in a warm shady airy
place for a week after harvesting. The skin will thicken & they will keep better.
Store in dark, cool & dry place.
● DRY FRUIT AND VEGETABLES

in airy open sided shed. Put slices of food on a rack/ mat/ tray well off the
ground with its legs in water to prevent climbing insects. Turn every day until
dry (vegetables) or leathery (fruits). Thin foods (e.g. green leaves) can be dried
whole. Dry legumes and oilseeds on the plant. Store in a cool dry protected place.

● USE A SOLAR DRIER;

A solar drier is basically a box or frame with a plastic cover. It is not difficult to
construct. Solar drying is faster & preserves nutrients better. It takes about three
days for fruit/vegetables strips & slices, two days for leaves. Store dried food in
airtight containers.

● MAKE FLOUR

(e.g. Pumpkin banana, sweet potato, breadfruit & cowpea and use it in cakes
biscuits, pancakes, weaning foods, dry the food, then pound, sieve and store in an
airtight container. For banana flour, pick bananas when three quarters ripe.
Heat them, peel and slice them, then dry the slices. Pound into flour, then sieve
and store.

● MAKE FRUIT LEATHER

by cooking fruit, pulping it and then drying it. For pumpkin leather, wash, peel,
cut up and cook pumpkin, puree, strain, add honey and spices. Spread on an
oiled tray and dry in a solar drier. Cut the leather into squares and wrap in
cellophane.

● PICKLE CUCUMBER
wash 3 kgs of firm fresh, medium size cucumbers and put in a deep bowl. Mix salt
and water enough to cover the cucumbers. Let stand for two days. Drain rinse
and slice. Put ten cups of sugar, ten cups of shite vinegar and some pickling spice
in a pot and bring slowly to a boil to dissolve the sugar. Add sliced cucumbers to
the hot syrup for a few seconds and then pack into clean hot jars. Fill jars with
hot vinegar-sugar solution and seal.

● MAKE KANJI PICKLED CARROT DRINK;

popular in subcontinent. Wash a kg of carrots and grate them into a jar/ bottle.
Add seven liters of clean water, 200g salt & some hot spices (e.g. chili mustard
seed). Close tightly, leaving a tiny hole for gases to escape. Ferment for 7-10 days.
Strain & consume with in 3-4 days.

● MAKE GUAVA JUICE;

choose firm ripe guavas. Wash, cut off ends & slice. Cover with water in a large
pot. Boil until very soft (15-20 mint). Pour into a bag of rough cloth and let it drip
through. Drink it right away. To bottle it, sterilize bottles and lids, boil the juice
again, pour into hot bottles & seal.

● BOTTLE TOMATOES;

use plum tomatoes, ripe but hard. Wash well and remove bad bits. Dip in boiling
water for 30 seconds, cool in water, then peel. Fill jars with tomatoes. Add a
small spoon of lemon juice/ vinegar to each. Seal while hot. Cover jars with water
in a deep pan with straw to stop rattling. Boil for 30 minutes (small jars) or 50
minutes (big jars). Let cool and label.

SNACKS AND DRINKS FROM THE GARDEN

SOME SNACKS FRUIT;

fruit leather, sugarcane, sweet potato, carrot, celery, maize cob, rice cakes,
nuts, sunflower seeds, raw young beans & peas, been & seed spouts from
alfalfa, barley, wheat, beans, pumpkin, popcorn (with salt or honey) made
from maize or sorghum.

SOME DRINKS FRUIT & VEGETABLE JUICES;

herb teas and spice drinks, coconut water, bean milk from pulped & sieved
black or green gram.