Chapter 1 Final

INTRODUCTION TO TRIBOLOGY – Chapter - 1
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION TO TRIBOLOGY
1.1 Meaning of Tribology
This word has been drive from Greek word TRIBOS, meaning of TRIBOS is rubbing. So, one
can say the Tribology is science of rubbing.
Definition: Tribology is science that deals with friction lubrication and wear of all contacting
surfaces.
Or
Tribology is a study on friction, wear and lubrication of interacting surfaces in relative motion.
 The effect of friction is not only energy loss and wear but also seizure may take place.
 Wear is defined as the progressive loss of substance resulting from mechanical
interaction between two contacting surfaces.
1.1.1 Importance of Tribology

Tribology or friction, wear and lubrication have several consequences in mechanical
components and modern day life. Most consequences of friction and wear are thought of as
negative such as power consumption and heat generation which leads to mechanical failure.
However there are also some positive benefits of friction and wear.
It is estimated that 20% of the power consumed in automobiles is used in overcoming

friction while friction accounts for 10% of the power consumption in airplane piston engines and
1.5 to 2% in modern turbojets. Friction also leads to heat buildup which can cause the
deterioration of components due to thermo-mechanical fatigue. Understanding friction is the first
step towards reducing friction through clever design, the use of low friction materials and the
proper use of lubricating oils and greases.
Friction has many benefits such as the interaction between the tire and the road and the
shoe and the floor without which one would not be able to travel. Friction serves as the inherent
connecting mechanism in knots nails and the nut and bolt assembly. It has some secondary
benefits such as the interaction between the fiber and matrix in composites and damping which
may reduce deleterious effects due to resonance.
Wear is the major cause of material wastage and loss of mechanical performance and any
reduction in wear can result in considerable savings. Friction is a principal cause of wear and
energy dissipation. Considerable savings can be made by improved friction control. It is
Dr. Ramesh Baragur N
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estimated that one-third of the world's energy resources in present use is needed to overcome
friction in one form or another. Lubrication is an effective means of controlling wear and
reducing friction. Tribology solves problems of great economic significance such as reliability,
maintenance and wear of technical equipment ranging from household appliances to spacecraft.
1.12 Consequences of Friction and Wear
1. Friction and wear usually cost money, in the form of energy loss and material loss.
2. Friction and wear can decrease national productivity.
3. Friction and wear can affect national security. Wear of aircraft engines and the barrels of
large guns are examples.
4. Friction and wear can affect quality of life.
5. Wear causes accidents. Traffic accidents are sometimes caused by worn brakes or other
worn parts.
Reducing friction, wear, and the occurrence of seizure by providing a suitable substance such
as oil between two surfaces in relative motion is called lubrication, and the substance used for
this purpose is called a lubricant.
Beside oils, which are typical lubricants, other liquids such as water or emulsion or even
some gases are used as lubricants. Some solids are also used as a lubricant, mostly in the form of
film coatings.
1.2 History of Tribology
 In 1966 with the publication in England of the "Department of Education and Science
Report," sometimes known as the "Jost Report," the word "tribology" was introduced. The
report emphasized the need of interdisciplinary approach including solid and fluid
mechanics, chemistry, and material science is essential in dealing tribology.
 Major breakthrough in tribological science came in 1981 with development of “Scanning
tunneling microscope”(STM) and systematic theory based on “Contact mechanics”.
However, one major drawback of STM was the material under investigation to be
conductive.
 Subsequent development of Atomic Force Microscope (AFM) in 1985 allowed measurement
(surface topography, friction force) of all engineering surfaces. Atomic Force Microscope
can be used for studies of adhesion, scratching, wear, lubrication, surface temperatures and
measurements of elastic/plastic mechanical properties.

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 The developments of tip-based microscopes (STM & AFM) and computational techniques
for simulating tip-surface interactions and interfacial properties, have allowed systematic
investigations for interfacial problems. Modifying and manipulating surface microstructure
provide a bridge between science and engineering.
1.3 Interdisciplinary Approach

The tribological phenomenon is complicated and interconnected. Hence it is necessary to
understand the concepts of TRIBOLOGY in detail. Tribology requires a combination of
knowledge from various disciplines as listed below.
1. Solid mechanics
2. Fluid mechanics
3. Material science
4. Chemistry
5. Thermodynamics
1. Solid Mechanics: Focus is on expressions of contact stresses/deformations and surface
temperatures due to rolling/sliding.
2. Fluid Mechanics: Study of lubricant film formed between various geometric shapes of
rolling/sliding surfaces.
3. Material Science: Focus is on atomic and micro scales mechanisms whereby solid surface
degradation or alteration occurs during relative motion.
4. Chemistry: Deals with reactivity between lubricants and solid surfaces.
5. Thermodynamics: Heat and mass transfer in fluids and bounding.
1.4 Viscosity
The important properties of lubricant are viscosity, viscosity index, oiliness, flash point,
fire point, cloud point etc. Among these viscosity and viscosity index plays important role in
lubrication of bearings, in particular in the selection of the type of oil for a particular tribological
application.
Viscosity of a fluid may be defined as its resistance to flow. It is also defined as

resistance to shear. This resistance is due to internal friction and it is a molecular phenomenon.
This internal friction or molecular friction is known as viscosity.
The ability of fluid film (oil film) to carry load depends directly on the viscosity of
lubricant. That means higher the lubricant viscosity higher will be its load carrying capacity and
maintains a fluid film and there is no metal to metal contact between the interacting surfaces. But
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higher the viscosity the higher will be its resistance to flow. Hence heat generated will be more.
This leads to power loss in bearings. On the other hand if the viscosity of the lubricant is too low,
then it is difficult to maintain the fluid film between the interacting surfaces under load.
Therefore selection of proper viscosity for a particular bearing is an important factor in bearing
design.
1.4.1 Newton’s law of viscosity
It states that shear stress at any point in a fluid flow is directly proportional to rate of shear strain.
F U
y du
h
dy
Figure: 1.1 Newton’s Law of Viscosity
Let F= force applied on the upper plate (moving Plate)
A= cross sectional area of flow
h= distance between two plates
U= velocity of the moving plate
Then the upper layer of the liquid adhering to the moving plate have velocity U. the
lowest layer of liquid adhering to the stationary plate will have zero velocity. The velocity of
different layers of oil gradually increases from zero to U as we consider layers of liquid from
stationary towards moving plate (as shown in Figure: 1.1).
The shear stress at any point be τ and rate of shear strain R. According to Newton’s law
of viscosity, 𝜏 ∝ 𝑅
𝑑𝑢
𝜏∝
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑢
𝜏 = η 𝑑𝑦
𝐹 𝑑𝑢 U
But, 𝜏 = = η = η
𝐴 𝑑𝑦 h

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𝐹 U
Or = ηh
𝐴
Fh
η= Where η is a constant of proportionality called absolute viscosity or dynamic
UA
viscosity.
1.4.1.1 Absolute viscosity (Dynamic viscosity): it is defined as the force required to move a
plane surface having unit cross sectional area over another plate with unit velocity when the two
surfaces are separated by a layer of fluid of unit thickness.
1.4.1.2 Units of absolute viscosity: The unit of absolute viscosity in SI units is Pa-s or N-s/m2
and can be deduced as below.
Fh Nm N N−s
η= =m 2 = m2 = =Pa-s
UA sm s m2
1.4.1.3 Newtonian fluid: A fluid which obeys Newton’s law of viscosity is called Newtonian
fluid. A fluid in which the shear stress is proportional to the rate of shear is called Newtonian
fluid.
Non-Newtonian fluid
Shear
stress τ
Newtonian fluid
Rate of shear R
Figure: 1.2 Variation of shear stress with rate of shear
1.4.2 Kinematic Viscosity: Kinematic viscosity is defined as the ratio of dynamic viscosity to
fluid density.
η
𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦, υ =𝜌
Where,
υ is the kinematic viscosity [m2/s],
η is the dynamic viscosity [Pa-s]
ρ is the fluid density [kg/m3].

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1.4.2.1 Units of Kinematic Viscosity:
𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 η η 𝑁−𝑠/𝑚 2

𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 η𝑘 = = = 𝑁−𝑠 2 /𝑚 4 = m2/s
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝜌 𝜌
Unit of kinematic viscosity in SI units is m2/s, while in CGS units stoke.
Before the introduction of the SI system the most commonly used kinematic viscosity
unit was the Stoke [S]. This unit, however, was often too large for practical applications, thus a
smaller unit, the centistoke [cS], was used. The SI unit for kinematic viscosity is [m2/s],
[Note: 1 [S] = 100 [cS] = 0.0001 [m2/s]
Conversion of kinematic viscosity to dynamic viscosity:
Viscosity in [Pas] = viscosity in [cS] × density of oil [g/cm 3] × 10 -3.]
In many situations it is convenient to use kinematic viscosity rather than absolute

viscosity. The ratio of absolute viscosity to density which is known as kinematic viscosity is
literally kinematic since all trace of force or mass canceling out. Kinematic viscosity can be
determined experimentally more easily and with great precision and is therefore preferred for
characterizing lubricants.
1.4.3 Viscosity Index (VI)
Viscosity Index (VI) is an arbitrary measure for the change of viscosity with variations in
temperature. The lower the VI, the greater will be the change of viscosity of the oil with
temperature and vice versa. It is used to characterize viscosity changes with relation to
temperature in lubricating oil.
The VI scale was set up by the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE). The original
scale only stretched between VI=0 (lowest VI oil, naphthenic oil) and VI=100 (best
oil, Pennsylvania oil), but since the conception of the scale better oils have also been produced,
leading to VIs greater than 100. VI improving additives and higher quality base oils are widely
used to increase the VI.
1.4.4 Effect of Temperature on Viscosity
The viscosity of mineral and synthetic oils decreases with increasing temperature.
Therefore, the temperature at which the viscosity was measured must be quoted with every
viscosity reported. The viscosity of lubricating oils is extremely sensitive to the operating
temperature. With increasing temperature the viscosity of oils falls quite rapidly. From the
engineering viewpoint it is important to know the viscosity at the operating temperature since it

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influences the lubricant film thickness separating two surfaces. When the temperature increases
molecules move away from each other, reducing the intermolecular forces. Hence the viscosity
of the lubricant decreases with increase in temperature. This change is different for different oils
hence while designing a bearing the temperature of the lubricant oil plays an important role.
Figure: 1.3 Variation of absolute viscosity with respect to temperature for various SAE
graded oils.
The oil viscosity at a specific temperature can be either calculated from the viscosity-
temperature equation or obtained from the viscosity-temperature chart shown in figure: 1.3.
Besides the variations of viscosity with temperature, a number of other thermal properties
of fluids are important in lubrication. Some of these are specific heat, volumetric specific heat,
thermal conductivity, and thermal diffusivity.

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1.5 Hagen-Poiseulle law (Discharge through capillary tube)
Hagen-Poiseuille derived an expression for the rate of flow (discharge) through a

capillary tube which is popularly called Hagen-Poiseuille law.
Consider a capillary tube of radius R through which a liquid is flowing. Consider a

cylindrical element of radius r as shown in figure: 1.4.
u=0
R
Shear force
r p (p-dp)
x u=Umax
dx
u=0
Figure: 1.4 Forces acting on an elemental cylindrical element
Assumptions:
1. Flow is steady and laminar.

2. Fluid is incompressible and fills entire tube.
3. Diameter of the capillary is so small that change in pressure across the capillary can be
neglected.
4. The pressure at left end of the capillary tube is greater than that at the right end and drop
in pressure is gradual.
Discharge (Q) = velocity × area

Velocity
The different forces acting on the elemental cylinder are
 Pressure force at left end = p (r2)

 Pressure force at right end = (p-dp) (r2)
 Shear force = τ (2r.dx)
For equilibrium of forces F =0
p (r2) - (p-dp) (r2) - τ (2r.dx) =0
p (r2) - p (r2) + dp (r2) - τ (2r.dx) = 0

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τ (2r.dx) = dp (r2)
𝑟 𝑑𝑝
τ=2 --------(1)
𝑑𝑥
Newton’s law of viscosity applied to capillary tube will be in the following form
du
τ = - η dr -ve sign because as radius of capillary r increases velocity of flow u will decrease.
Substituting this in equation (1) we get

du 𝑟 𝑑𝑝
- η dr = 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑟 𝑑𝑝
du = - 2η 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑥
Integrating the above expression we get,
1 𝑑𝑝
𝑑𝑢 = − 𝑟𝑑𝑟
2η 𝑑𝑥
1 𝑑𝑝 𝑟2
u = − 2η + 𝐶 ------------(a)
𝑑𝑥 2
C is the constant of integration and can be evaluated by applying boundary condition, at r=R,
u=0.
1 𝑑𝑝 𝑅2
0 = − 2η + 𝐶
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑅 2 𝑑𝑝
∴𝐶= 4η 𝑑𝑥
Substituting in (a), we get
𝑟 2 𝑑𝑝 𝑅 2 𝑑𝑝
u = - 4η + 4η
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑅 2 −𝑟 2 𝑑𝑝
u= --------------- (2)
4η 𝑑𝑥
[note: Expression for maximum velocity can be determined by substituting r = 0 in equation (2)
𝑅 2 𝑑𝑝
umax = U = ]
4η 𝑑𝑥
Area
Consider an elemental annular ring of radius r having thickness dr as shown in figure: 1.5. The
area of this elemental ring dA = 2r. dr -------------- (3)

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dr
r R r
x
Figure: 1.5 Flow through capillary tube
Discharge
Discharge = velocity×Area
Discharge across annular section,
dQ = u dA
𝑅 2 −𝑟 2 𝑑𝑝
𝑑𝑄 = 2r. dr
4η 𝑑𝑥
𝜋 𝑑𝑝 2
𝑑𝑄 = 𝑅 𝑟 − 𝑟 3 𝑑𝑟
2η 𝑑𝑥
Integrating the above expression between r = 0 to r = R

𝑅
𝜋 𝑑𝑝
𝑄= 𝑅2 𝑟 − 𝑟 3 𝑑𝑟
2η 𝑑𝑥
0
𝑅
𝜋 𝑑𝑝 𝑟2 𝑟4
= 2η 𝑑𝑥 𝑅2 −
2 4 0
𝜋 𝑑𝑝 𝑅4 𝑅4
= −
2η 𝑑𝑥 2 4
𝜋𝑅4 𝑑𝑝
𝑄=
8η 𝑑𝑥
If d = diameter of capillary, then substitute R=d/2,

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𝜋 𝑑 4 𝑑𝑝
𝑄= 128 η 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑝 𝑝 1 −𝑝 2
Note: 1. The pressure gradient 𝑑𝑥 = , where 𝑝1 − 𝑝2 is the difference between the ends
𝑙
of capillary tube and length of capillary tube.
2. Hagen-Poiseuille law for the discharge of fluid through capillary tube is employed in the
measurement of viscosity of liquids in capillary tube viscometers.
1.6 Flow between two parallel stationary plates
y
B
t Shear force
p (p-dp)
h 2y
b x
dx
Figure: 1.6 Forces acting on the element
Consider the flow of liquid between two parallel stationary plates of width B as shown in
Figure: 1.6.
Assumptions
1. Flow is steady and laminar.

2. The liquid is incompressible and fills the clearance.
3. The width of the plate is high compared to clearance and any change in pressure across
the section is neglected.
4. Pressure at the left end of the clearance is higher than at the right end and drops gradually
from left to right.
Discharge = velocity × area
Velocity
The forces acting on the element are
i. Pressure force at left end = p (b.2y)

ii. Pressure force at the right end = (p-dp) (b.2y)
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iii. Shear force = τ (b.dx) 2
For equilibrium of forces F=0
p (b.2y) - (p-dp) (b.2y) - τ (b.dx) 2 = 0
p (b.2y) - p (b.2y) + dp. (b.2y) - τ (b.dx) 2 = 0
τ (b.dx) 2 = dp. (b.2y)

𝑑𝑝
τ = 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 --------------(1)
Newton’s law of viscosity applied to this case will be as follows

du
τ = − η dy -ve sign because velocity u decreases with increase in y.
Substituting in equation (1)

du 𝑑𝑝
− η dy = 𝑦 𝑑𝑥
1 𝑑𝑝
du = − 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
η 𝑑𝑥
Integrating the above expression,
1 𝑑𝑝 𝑦 2
𝑢 = −η + 𝐶 ----------- (2)
𝑑𝑥 2
Where C is constant of integration and can be determined by applying the boundary condition, at
y=t, u=0.
1 𝑑𝑝
0 = − 2η 𝑡2 + 𝐶
𝑑𝑥
1 𝑑𝑝
C = 2η 𝑡2
𝑑𝑥
Substituting the value of C in equation (2) we get,
1 𝑑𝑝 2 1 𝑑𝑝 2
𝑢= − 𝑦 + 𝑡
2η 𝑑𝑥 2η 𝑑𝑥
𝑡 2 −𝑦 2 𝑑𝑝
𝑢= ----------------- (3)
2η 𝑑𝑥
Hence the velocity distribution is parabolic and the velocity is maximum at midsection while it is
zero at the stationary plate.

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[ Note: Expression for maximum velocity is observed at y = 0; hence maximum velocity u max is
𝑡 2 𝑑𝑝
given by umax = ]
2η 𝑑𝑥
Area
Consider an elemental cross-sectional area (b.dy) above and below having same velocity as
shown in figure 1.7. Total area subjected to discharge is dA = 2 (b.dy).
y
B
t
dy
y
h
x
b
Figure: 1.7 Flow between two parallel plates
Discharge
Discharge = velocity × area
Elemental discharge dQ = u dA
Substituting the values of u and dA in the above equation,
𝑡 2 −𝑦 2 𝑑𝑝
dQ = 2 (b. dy)
2η 𝑑𝑥
b 𝑑𝑝
=η 𝑡 2 − 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥
Integrating the above between the limits y = 0 to y = t,

𝑡
b 𝑑𝑝
𝑄= 𝑡 2 − 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦
η 𝑑𝑥
0
𝑡
b 𝑑𝑝 𝑦3
= 𝑡2𝑦 −
η 𝑑𝑥 3 0
b 𝑑𝑝 𝑡3
= 𝑡3 − 0−0
η 𝑑𝑥 3
b 𝑑𝑝 2𝑡 3
= η 𝑑𝑥 3

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2𝑏 𝑡 3 𝑑𝑝
𝑄= 3η 𝑑𝑥
Considering the entire width and taking t =h/2

3
ℎ
2𝐵 𝑑𝑝
𝑄= 2
3η 𝑑𝑥
𝐵ℎ 3 𝑑𝑝
𝑄= 12η 𝑑𝑥
Problem: 1.1 Two reservoirs A and B are connected by a capillary tube of bore 1.25 mm and
length of capillary is 1250 mm as shown in figure: 1.8. Pressure in the reservoir A is 40 N/cm2
and that of reservoir B is 20 N/cm2. Calculate the rate of flow between the reservoirsif the tanks
are filled with an oil of viscosity 180 cP.
A B
Capillary tube
Figure: 1.8 Problem 1.1
Given data:
d = 1.25 mm = 1.25×10-3
L = 1250 mm = 1.25 m
pA = 40 N/cm2 = 40×10-4
pB = 20 N/cm2 = 20×10-4
η = 180 cP = 180×10-3 N-s/m2 or Pa-s
[Note: 1 cP = 10-3 N-s/m2 or Pa-s]
𝜋 𝑑 4 𝑑𝑝
Flow through capillary tube, 𝑄 = 128 η 𝑑𝑥
𝜋𝑑 4 𝑝 𝐴 −𝑝 𝐵
= 128 η 𝐿
4
𝜋 1.25×10 −3 40×10 −4 −20×10 −4
= 128 180 ×10 −3 1.25
𝑄 = 5.37 × 10−8 𝑚3 𝑠 ----------Answer

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1.7 VISCOSITY MEASUREMENTS
Various viscosity measurement techniques and instruments have been developed over the
years. Viscosity of liquids is determined by instruments called viscometer. The most commonly
used are
1. Capillary viscometers – efflux viscometers
2. Rotational viscometers
3. Falling Ball Viscometers
Capillary viscometers are suitable for fluids which are Newtonian fluids. The rotational
viscometers are suitable for fluids which are non-Newtonian in nature.
1.7.1 Capillary Type Viscometers
This type of viscometer is based on laminar flow through a circular pipe. One type of
capillary viscometer for liquids is the Ostwald viscometer (Figure 1.9). In this viscometer, the
viscosity is deduced from the comparison of the times required for a given volume of the tested
liquid and of a reference liquid to flow through a given capillary tube under specified initial head
conditions.
During the measurement the temperature of the liquid should be kept constant by
immersing the instrument in a temperature-controlled water bath.
Figure 1.9 Ostwald Viscometer
In this method the Hagen-Poiseuille law for a capillary tube with a laminar flow regime is used
𝑉 ∆𝑃𝜋𝑟 4
𝑄= =
𝑡 8ηl
15
Where t is time required for a given volume of liquid V with density of 𝜌 and viscosity η to flow
through the capillary tube of length l and radius r by means of the pressure gradient ∆𝑃. The
driving force ∆𝑃 of this instrument is 𝜌gl. Then
𝑉 𝜋𝑟 4 𝜌gl
=
𝑡 8ηl
Or
πr 4 ρgt
η= = Constant ρt
8V
The capillary constant is determined from a liquid with known viscosity.
1.7.1.1 Saybolt and Redwood Viscometer (efflux viscometers): The main disadvantage of the
capillary tube viscometer is the errors that arise due to the variation in the head loss and other
parameters. However, the Hagen-Poiseuille formula can be still applied by designing an efflux
type viscometer that works on the principle of vertical gravity flow of a viscous liquid through a
capillary tube. The Saybolt viscometer has a vertical cylindrical chamber filled with liquid whose
viscosity is to be measured (Figure: 1.10 (a)). It is surrounded by a constant temperature bath and
a capillary tube (length 12mm and diameter 1.75mm) is attached vertically at the bottom of the
chamber. For measurement of viscosity, the stopper at the bottom of the tube is removed and
time for 60ml of liquid to flow is noted which is named as Saybolt seconds. So, Eq. (1) can be
used for the flow rate Q is calculated by recording the time (Saybolt seconds) for collection of
60ml of liquid in the measuring flask. For calculation purpose of kinematic viscosity (η k), the
simplified expression is obtained as below;
η 1.8
ηk =𝜌 = 0.002𝑡 − ------------(1) where, ηk in Stokes and t in seconds
𝑡
A Redwood viscometer is another efflux type viscometer (Figure: 1.9(b)) that works on the same
principle of Saybolt viscometer. Here, the stopper is replaced with an orifice and Redwood
seconds is defined for collection of 50 ml of liquid to flow out of orifice. Similar expressions can
be written for Redwood viscometer. In general, both the viscometers are used to compare the
viscosities of different liquid. So, the value of viscosity of the liquid may be obtained by
comparison with value of time for the liquid of known viscosity.

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Figure: 1.10 Efflux viscometers (a) Saybolt viscometer (b) Redwood Viscometer
1.7.2 Rotational Viscometer
Viscometers used especially for non-Newtonian fluids are the rotational type consisting
of two concentric cylinders, with the annulus containing the liquid whose viscosity is to be
measured (Figure 1.11). When the outer cylinder is rotated at a constant speed, and the rotational
deflection of the inner cylinder becomes a measure of the liquid’s viscosity.
Figure 1.11 Rotational viscometer
When the distance between the cylinders d, is small we can define the velocity gradient
for laminar flow regime as
𝑑𝑣 𝜔𝑅
=
𝑑𝑟 𝑑
Where R is radius of the inner cylinder and 𝜔 is angular velocity of the outer cylinder
(rotor) defined by 𝜔 = 2N/60. When the rotor is rotating at a constant angular velocity 𝜔 and
the inner cylinder is held motionless, the torque from the torsion spring on the inner cylinder
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must be equal but opposite in direction to the torque on the rotor from the motor. The effective
area of the applied torque is 2Rh where h is length of the inner cylinder. From Newton’s law of
viscosity
dv ωR
𝜏= η = η
dr d
ωR
Frictional torque, T = 𝑘𝜃 = 𝜏𝐴. 𝑅 = η . 2Rh. R
d
2π R 3 hω
k𝜃 = η d
kθd Kθ
η= = ------- where K is constant of the instrument since R, d and  are
πR 3 hω ωh
constants for the instrument.
1.7.3 Falling Ball Viscometer
Another instrument commonly used for determining viscosity of a liquid is the falling (or rolling)
ball viscometer (Figure 1.12), which is based on Stoke’s law for a sphere falling in a fluid under
the effect of gravity. A polished steel ball is dropped into a glass tube of a somewhat larger
diameter containing the liquid, and the time required for the ball to fall at constant velocity
through a specified distance between reference marks is recorded.
Figure: 1.12 Rolling and Falling ball viscometers

The following equation is used to determine the viscosity of the liquid
η = t ρb − ρf K
Where, η = absolute viscosity, cp
t = falling time, s
ρb = density of the ball, g/cm3
ρf = density of fluid at measuring temperature, g/cm3
K = ball constant. The ball constant K is not dimensionless, but involves the mechanical
equivalent of heat.
18
The rolling ball viscometer will give good results as long as the fluid flow in the tube
remains in the laminar range. In some instruments of this type both pressure and temperature
may be controlled.
1.8 Conformal and Nonconformal Surfaces
Conformal surfaces: Conformal surfaces fit into each other with a high degree of geometrical
conformity. On such surfaces the load is carried over a large area. The load-carrying surface area
remains essentially constant while the load is increased. Fluid film journal bearings (Figure 1.13
a) and slider bearings have conformal surfaces.
Ex: journal bearings, slider bearings
Nonconformal surfaces: The nonconformal surfaces which are in contact with each other do not
conform to each other. The load is carried by a small lubrication area. The lubrication area of a
nonconformal interface is less than that of a conformal interface. In general, the lubrication area
between nonconformal surfaces enlarges considerably with increasing load, but it is still smaller
than the lubrication area between conformal surfaces.
Ex: mating gear teeth, cams and followers, and rolling-element bearings (Figure 1.13 b)
Figure 1.13 (a) Conformal surfaces (b) Nonconformal surfaces

Differences between conformal and nonconformal surfaces
Conformal surface Nonconformal surface
1 The two surfaces fit into each other with a The two surfaces do not conform to each
high degree of geometrical conformity other
2 The load is carried over a large area The load is carried over a small area.
3 The lubrication surface area remains The lubrication area between

essentially constant while the load is nonconformal surfaces enlarges with
increased. increasing load
4 Ex: journal bearings, slider bearings Ex: mating gear teeth, cams and
followers, and rolling-element bearings

19
1.9 Lubrication
Lubrication is a process by which the friction and wear rates in a moving contact are reduced by
using suitable lubricant. Lubricant is a substance introduced between relatively moving parts to
reduce friction (μ = 0.1 to 0.0001) and wear rate.
1.9.1 Advantages of lubrication
1. Reducing friction and wear rate

2. Reducing heat generation and hence decreases power loss
3. Transport Debris away from Interface
4. Provide Cooling
5. Reducing instant failures.
6. Reducing fatigue failure (Lubricant reduces the force required in tangential direction so
reduces the Fatigue Failure)
7. Reducing surface failures.
8. Reducing stress concentration.
1.9.2 Applications of Lubricant:

1. Transmission parts. 2. Bearings. 3. Cams and followers. 4. Journals. 5. Seal faces. 6. Any
situation involving metal to metal contact.
1.9.3 Requirements of lubricant:
• Lubricant must form a film to separate the surfaces and reduce the friction between metal to
metal contact in order to improve the efficiency of the system.
• Needs to adhere to the surfaces (attachment of thin lubricant layer on the surfaces).
• Must neutralize the corrosive products of combustion.
• Withstand high temperature inside the cylinder.
• Lubricant should support heavy shaft and loads.
• Lubricant should avoid contact stresses.
• Lubricant should have ability to dampen.
1.10 Lubrication Mechanisms (Lubrication Regimes): Different types of lubrication

regimes are
1. Hydrodynamic lubrication
2. Elastohydrodynamic lubrication
3. Boundary lubrication
4. Partial or mixed lubrication
20
The fluid film lubrication depends on fluid mechanics and kinematics, but it is still
ultimately a problem of two surfaces that are either in partial-contact or separated by a thin fluid
film. Further, Reynolds equation that governs fluid film lubrication is based on the assumption of
thin film. Therefore it is necessary to understand the importance of these lubrication mechanisms
relative to the surface texture of the contacting pair. A dimensionless film parameter λ “specific
film thickness” is used to classify the four lubrication regimes. Rrms,a is root mean square (rms)
surface roughness of surface A, and Rrms,b is rms surface roughness of surface B as shown in
Figure 1.14.
Figure 1.14 Specific film thickness

Specific film thickness (film parameter) 𝝀 is defined as the ratio of the fluid film
thickness to the composite surface roughness and is given by
ℎ 𝑚𝑖𝑛
Specific film thickness 𝜆 = ------------(1)
2
𝑅𝑟𝑚𝑠 2
𝑎 +𝑅𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑏
ℎ𝑚𝑖𝑛 = oil film thickness

2 2
𝑅𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑎 + 𝑅𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑏 = composite surface roughness
2
𝑅𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑎 = RMS roughness of surface A
2
𝑅𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑏 = RMS roughness of surface B
Based on the value of dimensionless film parameter (𝜆), Eq.(1) lubrication mechanisms
are classified as follows :
Boundary lubrication, 𝝀 < 1

Hydrodynamic lubrication, 𝝀 > 5
Mixed lubrication, 1 < 𝝀 < 3
Elastohydrodynamic, 3 < 𝝀 < 5

21
Figure 1.15 Regimes of lubrication

10. 1. Hydrodynamic lubrication
Hydrodynamic lubrication is generally characterized by conformal surfaces. A positive

pressure is developed in a hydrodynamically lubricated journal or thrust bearing because the
bearing surfaces converge and the relative motion and the viscosity of the fluid separate the
surfaces. The existence of this positive pressure is able to support a normal load. The magnitude
of the pressure developed (usually less than 5 MPa) is not generally large enough to cause
significant elastic deformation of the surfaces. It is shown later that the minimum film thickness
in a hydrodynamically lubricated bearing is a function of normal applied load wz, fluid velocity
ub of the lower surface, lubricant viscosity ηo and geometry (Rx and Ry). Figure 1.16 shows some
of these characteristics of hydrodynamic lubrication. Minimum film thickness hmin as a function
of ub and wz, for sliding motion is given as
𝑢𝑏 1 2
ℎ𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝐻𝐿 ∝ --------------(1)
𝑤𝑧
The minimum film thickness normally exceeds 1 μm.
Figure 1-16 Characteristics of hydrodynamic lubrication.

22
In hydrodynamic lubrication the oil films are generally thick so that solid metal to metal
contact is effectively prevented. This condition is referred to as "the ideal form of lubrication,"
since it provides low friction and high resistance to wear. The lubrication of the solid surfaces is
governed by the bulk physical properties of the lubricant, mainly the viscosity, and the frictional
characteristics arise purely from the shearing of the viscous lubricant.
For a normal load to be supported by a bearing, positive hydrodynamic pressure must be
developed over the bearing length. Figure 1.17 illustrates three ways of developing positive
pressure in lubricated bearings. For a positive pressure to be developed in a slider bearing
(Figure 1.17 (a)) the lubricant film thickness must be decreasing in the sliding direction. In a
squeeze film bearing (Figure 1.17 (b)) the squeeze action with squeeze velocity wa has the
bearing surfaces approach each other. The squeeze mechanism of pressure generation provides a
valuable cushioning effect when the bearing surfaces approach each other. Positive pressures
will be generated only when the film thickness is diminishing. In an externally pressurized
bearing, sometimes referred to as "a hydrostatic bearing" (Figure 1.17 (c)), the pressure drop
across the bearing supports the load. The load-carrying capacity is independent of bearing
motion and lubricant viscosity. There is no surface contact wear at starting and stopping as there
is with the slider bearing.
Figure 1.17 Mechanism of pressure development for hydrodynamic lubrication. (a) Slider
bearing. (b) Squeeze film bearing. (c) Externally pressurized bearing.
10.2. Elastohydrodynamic lubrication
Elastohydrodynamic lubrication (EHL) is a form of hydrodynamic lubrication where
elastic deformation of the lubricated surfaces is significant. The features important in a
hydrodynamically lubricated slider bearing (Figure 1.17 (a)) such as converging film thickness,
sliding motion, and a viscous fluid between the surfaces are also important here.
Elastohydrodynamic lubrication is normally associated with nonconformal surfaces. There are
two distinct forms of EHL.
a. Hard EHL
b. Soft EHL

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10.2.1 a. Hard EHL: Hard EHL relates to materials of high elastic modulus such as metals. In
this form of lubrication the elastic deformation and the pressure viscosity effects are important.
Figure 1.18 gives the characteristics of hard elastohydrodynamically lubricated conjunctions.
The maximum pressure is typically between 0.5 and 3 GPa; the minimum film thickness
normally exceeds 0.1 μm. These conditions are different from those found in a hydrodynamically
lubricated conjunction (Figure 1.16). When loads are normally applied on nonconformal
machine elements, the elastic deformations are larger than the minimum oil film thickness.
Furthermore, the lubricant viscosity can vary by as much as 10 orders of magnitude within the
lubricating conjunction.
Figure 1.18 Characteristics of hard elastohydrodynamic lubrication.

The minimum film thickness is a function of the same parameters as for hydrodynamic
lubrication (Figure 1.16) but with the additions of the effective elastic modulus
2
𝐸 ′ = 1−𝜐 2 2 ------------------------(2)
𝑎 + 1−𝜐 𝑏
𝐸𝑎 𝐸𝑏
and the pressure-viscosity coefficient of the lubricant ξ. The relationships between the minimum
film thickness and the normal applied load and speed for hard EHL are given below.
ℎ𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝐻𝐸𝐻𝐿 ∝ 𝑤𝑧−0.073 ------------------------(3)
ℎ𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝐻𝐸𝐻𝐿 ∝ 𝑢𝑏0.68 ---------------------------(4)
Comparing the results for hard EHL (eqs. (3) and (4)) with those for hydrodynamic
lubrication (eq. (l)) yielded the following conclusions:
(1) The exponent on the normal applied load is nearly seven times larger for hydrodynamic
lubrication than for hard EHL. This implies that the film thickness is only slightly affected by
load for hard EHL but significantly affected for hydrodynamic lubrication.
(2) The exponent on mean velocity is slightly higher for hard EHL than for hydrodynamic
lubrication.

24
Engineering applications of elastohydrodynamic lubrication are gears, rolling element bearings,

and cams (made of high-elastic-modulus materials).
10.2.1 b. Soft EHL: Soft EHL relates to materials of low elastic modulus such as rubber. In soft
EHL the elastic distortions are large, even with light loads. The maximum pressure for soft EHL
is typically 1 MPa, in contrast to l GPa for hard EHL (Figure 1.18). This low pressure has a
negligible effect on the viscosity variation throughout the conjunction. The minimum film
thickness is a function of the same parameters as in hydrodynamic lubrication with the addition
of the effective elastic modulus. The minimum film thickness for soft EHL is typically l μm.
Engineering applications in which elastohydrodynamic lubrication is important for low-
elastic-modulus materials include seals, human joints, tyres, and a number of lubricated machine
elements that use rubber as a material.
The common features of hard and soft EHL are that the local elastic deformation of the
solids provides coherent fluid films and that asperity interaction is largely prevented. This
implies that the frictional resistance to motion is due to lubricant shearing.
10.3. Boundary lubrication

In boundary lubrication the solids are not separated by the lubricant. Hence fluid film
effects are negligible and there is considerable asperity contact. The contact lubrication
mechanism is governed by the physical and chemical properties of thin surface films of
molecular proportions. The properties of the bulk lubricant are of minor importance and the
friction coefficient is essentially independent of fluid viscosity. The frictional characteristics are
determined by the properties of the solids and the lubricant film at the common interfaces. The
surface films vary in thickness from 1 to 10 nm--depending on the molecular size.
Figure 1.19 illustrates the film conditions existing in fluid film and boundary lubrication.
The surface slopes in this figure are greatly distorted for purposes of illustration. To scale, real
surfaces would appear as gently rolling hills rather than sharp peaks. The surface asperities are
not in contact for fluid film lubrication but are in contact for boundary lubrication.
Figure 1-20 shows the behavior of the friction coefficient in the different lubrication
regimes. In boundary lubrication, although the friction is much higher than in the hydrodynamic
regime, it is still much lower than for unlubricated surfaces. The mean friction coefficient
increases a total of three orders of magnitude in going from the hydrodynamic to the
elastohydrodynamic to the boundary to the unlubricated regime.

25
Figure 1.19 Film conditions of lubrication regimes.
Figure 1.20 Bar graph showing friction coefficients for various lubrication conditions
Figure 1-21 shows the wear rate in the various lubrication regimes as determined by the
operating load. In the hydrodynamic and elastohydrodynamic regimes there is little or no wear,
since there is no asperity contact. In the boundary lubrication regime the degree of asperity
interaction and the wear rate increase as the load increases. The transition from boundary
lubrication to an unlubricated condition is marked by a drastic change in wear rate. As the
relative load is increased in the unlubricated regime, the wear rate increases until scoring or
seizure occurs and the machine element can no longer operate successfully. Most machine
elements cannot operate long with unlubricated surfaces. Together figures 1-20 and 1-21 show
that the friction and wear of unlubricated surfaces can be greatly decreased by providing
boundary lubrication.

26
Figure 1.21 Wear rate for various lubrication regimes.

Boundary lubrication is used for heavy loads and low running speeds, where fluid film
lubrication is difficult to attain. Mechanisms such as door hinges operate under conditions of
boundary lubrication. Other applications where low cost is of primary importance use boundary
lubrication in rubbing sleeve bearings.
10.4 Partial lubrication
lf the pressures in elastohydrodynamically lubricated machine elements are too high or
the running speeds are too low, the lubricant film will be penetrated. Some contact will take
place between the asperities, and partial lubrication (sometimes referred to as "mixed
lubrication") will occur. The behavior of the conjunction in a partial lubrication regime is
governed by a combination of boundary and fluid film effects. Interaction takes place between
one or more molecular layers of boundary lubricating films. A partial fluid film lubrication
action develops in the bulk of the space between the solids. The average film thickness in a
partial lubrication conjunction is less than 1 μm and greater than 0.01μm.
It is important to recognize that the transition from elastohydrodynamic to partial
lubrication does not take place instantaneously as the severity of loading is increased, but rather a
decreasing proportion of the load is carried by pressures within the fluid that fills the space
between the opposing solids. As the load increases, a larger part of the load is supported by the
contact pressure between the asperities of the solids. Furthermore, for conformal surfaces the
regime of lubrication goes directly from hydrodynamic to partial lubrication.
11. Classification of lubricants

Lubricant is substance that reduces friction and wear at the interface of two materials. The
lubricant at interface reduces the adhesive friction by lowering the shear strength of interface.
Based on the shear strength of lubricant or molecular state, lubricants are classified in four
categories.
1. Solid lubricants

27
2. Liquid lubricants
3. Semi-solid lubricants
4. Gaseous lubricants
5.
Figure 1.22 Molecular state of lubricants

11.1 Solid Lubricants: A solid lubricant is basically any solid material which can be placed
between two bearing surfaces and which will shear more easily under a given load. The
coefficient of friction in dry lubrication is related to the shearing force and the bearing load. Two
primary property requirements are:
1. Material must be able to support applied load without significant distortion, deformation
or loss in strength.
2. Coefficient of friction and the rate of wear must be acceptably low.
Advantages & disadvantages of solid lubricants are listed in Table 1
Table 1 Advantages and Disadvantages of solid lubricants
There are two methods of applying solid lubricant. The first method to apply solid
lubricant is powder coating. We can use powder form of solid lubricant and rub against the tribo
surfaces. Two eccentric cam are shown in Figure 1.23. Left hand side cam (Figure 1.23a) is
rubbed with MoS2 powder. After three hours of operation, MoS 2 coating gets detached from the

28
cam surface and worn out cam is shown in Figure 1.23b. In short; if self healing mechanism is
missing, then operating life of solid lubricated component will be very short. Therefore, often
carrier fluids are used to coat MoS2 under operating conditions and replenish MoS2 whenever
required.
Figure 1.23 Eccentric cam

Solid lubricants as Bonded Coating: To increase the durability of solid lubricants coated on
surfaces often binders along with lubricating pigments are used. Bonded coatings provide greater
film thickness and increased wear life and are more reliable and durable method for applying
solid lubricants. Under carefully controlled conditions, coatings consisting of a solid lubricant
and binding resin agent are applied to the material by spraying, dipping, or brushing. Dipping is
less expensive method. Resins, binder agents, remain effective if operating temperature is lesser
than 3000C. Inorganic binders, such as metal salts or ceramics, are used for higher temperature
application (> 3000C).
Typical applications of bonded coating of solid lubricants are: (a) Cylindrical bushes
(Plain bearings) (b) Separator (Cage of rolling bearing) (c) Electrical brushes (Additive to
carbon-graphite).
11.1.1 Classification of Solid Lubricants: - Solid lubricants in use are self-lubricating
composites. These are classified as polymer, metal-solid, carbon and graphite and ceramic and
cermets.
a. Polymers: These lubricants are suitable to bear light loads. With recent advances in polymers,
polymers make the largest group of solid lubricants. There are two main limitations of solid
lubricants which must be accounted before selecting polymers as solid lubricants.
• Low thermal conductivity of polymers inhibits heat dissipation, which causes premature failure
due to melting.
• Two polymers in sliding contact will normally operate at significantly at reduced speeds than a
polymer against a metal surface.
b. PTFE: -In polymer solid lubricants PTFE, Nylon and Synthetic polymers are common solid
lubricants. Poly Tetra Fluoro Ethylene (PTFE) is a polymer produced from ethylene in which all
the hydrogen atoms have been replaced by fluorine atoms. Teflon is trade name of PTFE given
29
by Du Pont. Very light load applications. Poor adhesion of PTFE to other materials is
responsible for very low μ (< 0.1).
Advantages of PTFE:
• High chemical stability, great chemical inertness, because of carbon fluorine bonds.
• Very low surface energy, low friction (0.1), high P, low V.
• Nontoxic- useful in pharmaceutical and food industries.
Disadvantages of PTFE:
• Too soft, high wear rate.
• Poor creep resistance, Low load capacity.
• Poor thermal conductivity, high thermal expansion, temperature limit < 250oC.
• Vacuum is detrimental to performance.
c. Nylon: - Similar to PTFE, but slightly harder (Specific wear rate; 10 -6 - 10-5 mm3/min).
d. Synthetic polymers: - Most of disadvantages of PTFE can be overcome by using fillers
(glass, carbon) & impregnating it with metal (bronze, lead) structures.
With a suitable rigid (metal) backing, PTFE can withstand wear under extremely high
loads (100 MPa) or more, with a friction coefficient of 0.1 or less and virtual freedom from stick-
slip sliding. The wear rate of polymer composites is highly dependent on the surface roughness
of the metal counter faces. In the initial operating stages, wear is significant but can be reduced
by providing smooth counter faces. As the run-in period is completed, the wear rate is reduced
due to polymer film transfer or by polishing action between the sliding surfaces. The low thermal
conductivity of polymers inhibits heat dissipation, which causes premature failure due to
melting.
11.1.2 Metal – solid lubricant:
These metal solids lubricants are lamellar solids and depend upon film transfer to achieve
low friction. But continuous transfer of film may reduce the life of component; therefore often
"no lamellar solids" are added to lamellar solids to lower the friction characteristics.
Molybdenum Disulfide: It is one of the most common used metal-solid lubricants.
Advantages of MoS2:
1. High Load Carrying (> 700 MPa)
2. Low Friction
3. High temperature lubricant particularly in space.
Limitations of MoS2:
1. Moisture detrimental to performance
2. Film thickness ~ 15 μ m.

30
Molybdenum disulphide starts to oxidize significantly above 350 0C in oxygen and 4500C in air,
but the main oxidation product is molybdic oxide, which is itself a fair high temp lubricant. In
high vacuum, the disulphide is said to be stable to 10000C and it evaporates very slowly, so that
it has been widely used in space.
11.2.3 Carbon and Graphite:
Low tensile strength and lack of ductility of bulk carbon make it good powder form solid
lubricant. Their high thermal and oxidation stabilities at temperatures of 500 to 600 0C enable use
of this solid lubricant at high temperatures and high sliding speeds.
Strengths of graphite:
1. Moderate loads (< 275MPa).
2. Low friction.
3. High temperature stability.
Weaknesses of graphite:
1. Corrosion.
2. Vacuum detrimental to performance.
The low friction behavior of graphite is due to adsorbed moisture or vapors. At temperature
lesser than 100oC, possibility of adsorbed moisture or vapors is reduced; therefore graphite may
not be effective lubricant. Lubrication performance of graphite increases with increase in
temperature, but beyond 500oC the possibility of corrosion also increases.
11.2.4 Ceramic and Cermets (metal bonded ceramic) coatings:
Ceramics and cermets can be used in applications where low wear rate is more critical
than low friction. These composites can be used at temperatures up to 1000 0C. Ceramic/Cermet
coating up to 0.5 mm thick on metal substrates offer a convenient way of utilizing the wear
resistance of metal with a minimum processing cost.
The coating of these materials can be applied using:
• Plasma spraying.
• Impingement coatings from a detonation gun.
 Improved adhesion to the substrate metal and lower porosity.
 Electrolytic deposition from electrolyte containing ceramic particles (Tribomet
coating).
11.3 Semi-Solid Lubricant:
Grease is a black or yellow sticky mass used in the bearings for lubrication purpose.
Lubricating greases consist of lubricating oils, often of quite low viscosity, which have been

31
thickened by means of finely dispersed solids called thickeners. It consists of base oils (75 to
95%), additives (0 to 5%) and minute thickener fibers (5 to 20%).
a. Base Oil: - Many different types of base oil may be used in the manufacture of a grease,
including petroleum (napthenic: more popular, parafinic) and synthetic (PAO's, esters, silicones,
glycols). The viscosity of the base oil is the most significant property. A lighter, lower viscosity
base oil is used to formulate low temperature greases, while heavier, higher viscosity base oil is
used to formulate high temperature greases.
b. Additives: - Chemical additives are added to grease in order to enhance their performance.
Performance requirements, compatibility, environmental considerations, color and cost all factor
into additive selection. Solid lubricants such as graphite, MoS 2, EP additives are few examples.
c. Thickener: - The two basic types of thickeners are organic thickeners and inorganic
thickeners. Organic thickeners can be either soap-based or non-soap based, while inorganic
thickeners are non-soap based. Simple soaps are formed with the combination of a fatty acid or
ester (of either animal or vegetable origin) with an alkali earth metal, reacted with the application
of heat, pressure or agitation through a process known as saponification. The fiber structure
provided by the metal soap determined the mechanical stability and physical properties of the
finished grease. In order to take on enhanced performance characteristics, including higher
dropping points, a complex agent is added to the soap thickener to convert it to a soap salt
complex thickener. The greases are then referred to as "complexes”. The most commonly used
economic grease is lime (calcium) base grease (max. temperature 55-800C). Soda (Sodium) base
grease (max. temperature 90-1200C) is preferred over lime based grease in rolling bearings.
Complex Grease: - Complex grease is similar to regular grease except that the thickener contains
two dissimilar fatty acids, one of which is the complexing agent. This imparts good high
temperature characteristics to the final product.
Advantages of Greases
• Remains at application point and adhere to surface.
• Less-frequent application needed.
• Good for inclined/vertical shafts.
• Seal out contaminants and less expensive seals needed.
• Water resistant and reduce oil vapor problems.
• Prolong the life of worn parts by filing irregularities.
• Provide better mechanical lubrication cushion for extreme conditions such as shock loading,
reversing operations, low speeds and high loads.
• Reduce noise and vibrations.

32
Disadvantages of Greases:
• Because of semi-solid nature of greases, it does not perform the cooling, so poor dissipation of
heat.
• Once dust or dirt enters the grease, it cannot be easily removed and would act as deterrent in
performance.
• No filtration. So contaminants/wear-debris cannot be separated.
11.4 Liquid Lubricants
There are two systems for oil classification.
1. SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers) viscosity grade and
2. API (American Petroleum Institute)
The SAE viscosity grade is known as the “W” number when classifying winter oils. In
general, the lower the first number, the better the oil performance in extremely cold conditions.
Conversely, the higher the second number the better the oil protection at higher
temperatures. The API designation is typically “S” designation for gasoline engines and a “C”
designation for diesel engines. Most of today’s oils carry an SH, CF or SJ, CF designation
signifying that they are suitable for use in all gasoline or diesel automotive applications.
11.4.1 Classification of Liquid Lubricants:
a. Vegetable oils
b. Animal oils
c. Mineral oils
a. Vegetable oils: - Castor and Rapeseed oils are the examples for vegetable oils.
i. Less stable (rapid oxidation) than mineral oils at high temperature.
ii. Contain more natural boundary lubricants than mineral oils.
b. Animal oils: - These are fatty substances extracted from animals, and fish. They are
composed of fatty acids and alcohols. They are called fixed oils because they do not volatilize
unless they decompose. This process is known as drying. The fixed oils which are slow to dry
(slow in oxidation) are used for lubrication. Fixed oils are usually added to mineral oils to
improve film formation as these lubricants have extreme pressure properties. Common examples
of these lubricants are tallow, castor oil and fish oil. One of major problem of this class of
lubricants is the availability.
c. Mineral oils: - Extracted from crude oil. Mineral oils that are used as lubricants are obtained
by fractional distillation of prtroleum. Mineral oil consists of hydrocarbons (Composed of 83-
87% carbon and 11-14% hydrogen by wt.) with approximately 30 carbon atoms in each molecule
(composed of straight & cyclic carbon chains bonded together). Also contain sulphur, oxygen,

33
nitrogen. Based on sulphur contents these oils are classified as Pennsylvanian oil (< 0.25%),
Middle East (~1%), Venezuelan (~2%), Mexican (~5%) 0.1% to 1.0% preferred. This means
Mexican and Venezuelan are least preferred.
Figure 1.24 Stribeck curve

Figure 1.24 indicates "Zone 1", "Zone 2" and "Zone 3" based on product of viscosity,
speed and inverse of apparent pressure. Mineral oils are suitable for "Zone 3", while grease may
be used for "Zone 2" and solid lubricants for "Zone 1".
Classification based on chemical forms of mineral oils: - Mineral oils are classified as
paraffins, naphthene and aromatic. Paraffins are preferrable choice compared to napthenes or
aromatics.
a.Paraffinic Oils: - These oils have good natural resistance to oxidation. But on oxidation it
forms acids, which means when burnt, leaves a hard carbonaceous deposit.
Characteristics of paraffinic oils
1. Good thermal stability.
2. Low volatility.
3. High viscosity index (VI=90-115)
4. High flash point.
5. Pour point higher than naphthenic or aromatic.
b. Naphthenic Oils: - Lower VI (15-75)

Characteristics of Naphthenic oils
1. Less resistant to oxidation.
2. Lower flash points than paraffinic.
3. Lower pour point than paraffinic therefore good for low temperature applications.
4. When burnt soft deposits are formed, therefore abrasive wear is lower.
5. Oxidation leads to undesirable sludge type deposits.
34
c. Multigrade Oils: - Most oils on shelf today are multigrade oils, such as 10W30 or 20W50.
These oils are made by adding polymers in mineral oils to enhance viscosity indices. At cold
temperatures the polymers are coiled up and allow the oil to flow as their low numbers indicate.
As the oil warms up the polymers begin to unwind into long chains that prevent the oil from
thinning as much as it normally would. In other words, in the uncoiled form, they tend to
increase the viscosity thereby compensating for the decrease in viscosity of the oil.
d. Synthetic Oils: - Synthetic oils were originally developed more than 50 years ago and became
widely used in jet engines. Less than -120oF ambient temperatures, 60000 shaft rpm, and 500o +F
exhaust temperatures proved too much for conventional oils. Synthetics were created specifically
to withstand these harsh conditions and to date every jet engine in the world uses synthetic
lubricants. Synthetic oils are engineered specifically in uniformly shaped molecules with shorter
carbon chains which are much more resistant to heat and stress.
Characteristics of synthetic oils
 Viscosity does not vary as much with temperature as in mineral oil.
 Rate of oxidation is much slower.
 Cost (expensive, but applied where mineral oils are inadequate).
Common synthetic oils are
Polyglycols (Polyalkyleneglycol), Esters, Silicon, Perfluoropolyalkylether, Perfluoropolyethers.
Few Remarks on usage of lubricants: -
Grease: - Provides excellent protection against environmental contamination but restricted to a

speed of 2 m/s for the reason of inadequate heat dissipation.
Liquid: - Low viscosity oils have low fluid friction losses (provided metal to metal contact is
avoided) and consequently low heat generation. Liquid can carry away heat.
Under high loads and slow rubbing speed a hydrodynamic film cannot form, hence mineral oils
are combined with fatty oils to give a boundary lubrication layer.
11.5 Gas Lubrication: - A most interesting aspect of gases is their viscosity-temperature
relationship. That is, the viscosity of gases increases with temperature and is only moderately
affected by changes in temperature and pressure. In contrast to this situation, as mentioned
earlier in this chapter, liquids vary inversely with temperature and are strongly sensitive to
temperature and pressure variations. Gas (i.e, Air, Neon, Nitrogen, and Helium) lubrication is
used for ultra thin film thickness(separation) between tribo-pairs. The viscosity of air is midrange
of the gases; hydrogen has the lowest and neon the highest value. Figure 1.25 shows the variation
of viscosity with temperature for different gases.

35
Figure 1.25 Viscosity of gases as a function of temperature

Advantages
 Temperature range (-2000C to 20000C). No vaporization, cavitation, solidification,
decomposition.
 Very low viscosity (1000 times less viscous than even the thinnest mineral oil), therefore
ultra low friction. Possibility for high speed application.
 Cleanliness.
 No seal requirement for lubrication.
Disadvantages
 Very low load capacity.
 Low damping.
 Ultra low film thickness.
 Smooth surfaces & very low clearance (to maximize load capacity & minimize flow rate)
needs a specialist designers & manufacturer (close tolerance).
 Less forgiving of errors in estimating loads or of deviations from specifications during
manufacture and installation.
Selection of Lubricant Type: - Load and speed are two major factors (as shown in Figure 1.26)
which affect selection of lubricants environment and sealing requirements are additional factors
which affect lubricant selection. Apparent area, material conductivity and friction coefficient
decide the operating temperature.
Topt α (μFV/A.K)
Where, Topt = operating temperature
36
μ = coefficient of friction
F = normal force
V = velocity
A = Area of contact
K = Thermal conductivity.
Figure 1.26 Lubricant selection

37

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INTRODUCTION TO TRIBOLOGY – Chapter - 1

1.1.1 Importance of Tribology

It is estimated that 20% of the power consumed in automobiles is used in overcoming

1.12 Consequences of Friction and Wear

1.2 History of Tribology

Dr. Ramesh Baragur N

1.3 Interdisciplinary Approach

Viscosity of a fluid may be defined as its resistance to flow. It is also defined as

Figure: 1.1 Newton’s Law of Viscosity

Let F= force applied on the upper plate (moving Plate)

A= cross sectional area of flow

h= distance between two plates

U= velocity of the moving plate

Dr. Ramesh Baragur N

Figure: 1.2 Variation of shear stress with rate of shear

υ is the kinematic viscosity [m2/s],

η is the dynamic viscosity [Pa-s]

ρ is the fluid density [kg/m3].

Dr. Ramesh Baragur N

1.4.2.1 Units of Kinematic Viscosity:

𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 η η 𝑁−𝑠/𝑚 2

Unit of kinematic viscosity in SI units is m2/s, while in CGS units stoke.

[Note: 1 [S] = 100 [cS] = 0.0001 [m2/s]

Conversion of kinematic viscosity to dynamic viscosity:

Viscosity in [Pas] = viscosity in [cS] × density of oil [g/cm 3] × 10 -3.]

In many situations it is convenient to use kinematic viscosity rather than absolute

1.4.3 Viscosity Index (VI)

1.4.4 Effect of Temperature on Viscosity

Dr. Ramesh Baragur N

Dr. Ramesh Baragur N

1.5 Hagen-Poiseulle law (Discharge through capillary tube)

Hagen-Poiseuille derived an expression for the rate of flow (discharge) through a

Consider a capillary tube of radius R through which a liquid is flowing. Consider a

1. Flow is steady and laminar.

Discharge (Q) = velocity × area

The different forces acting on the elemental cylinder are

 Pressure force at left end = p (r2)

For equilibrium of forces F =0

p (r2) - (p-dp) (r2) - τ (2r.dx) =0

p (r2) - p (r2) + dp (r2) - τ (2r.dx) = 0

Substituting this in equation (1) we get

Integrating the above expression we get,

Substituting in (a), we get

Dr. Ramesh Baragur N

Figure: 1.5 Flow through capillary tube

Discharge across annular section,

Integrating the above expression between r = 0 to r = R

If d = diameter of capillary, then substitute R=d/2,

Dr. Ramesh Baragur N

of capillary tube and length of capillary tube.

1.6 Flow between two parallel stationary plates

Figure: 1.6 Forces acting on the element

1. Flow is steady and laminar.

Discharge = velocity × area

The forces acting on the element are

i. Pressure force at left end = p (b.2y)

iii. Shear force = τ (b.dx) 2

For equilibrium of forces F=0

p (b.2y) - (p-dp) (b.2y) - τ (b.dx) 2 = 0

p (b.2y) - p (b.2y) + dp. (b.2y) - τ (b.dx) 2 = 0