AS and A Level Logic
AS and A Level Logic
AS and A Level Logic
com
Chapter 10 Logic
10 LOGIC
Objectives
After studying this chapter you should
• understand the nature of propositional logic;
• understand the connectives NOT, OR, AND;
• understand implication and equivalence;
• be able to use truth tables;
• be able to identify tautology and contradiction;
• be able to test the validity of an argument.
10.0 Introduction
It may seem unusual for philosophical ideas of logic based on
intuition to be represented mathematically, however, the
mathematics that has developed to describe logic has, in recent
years, been crucial in the design of computer circuits and in
automation.
Is the conclusion 'no grey ducks in this village wear lace collars'
valid?
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No toothache is pleasant.
no S is P universal negative
Example
If fruits are tasty
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If M is P
and S is M
then S is P.
MP
SM
SP
Example
Is this valid?
No M is P
All S is M
Some S is P.
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Solution
An example of this syllogism might be:
Example
• p stands for the proposition 'January has 31 days',
which is true.
• q stands for the proposition ' 4 + 7 = 10 ', which is false.
• 'What a hot day' is not a proposition because it is not in
subject-predicate form; also the word 'hot' is not defined.
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Negation NOT ~
Each proposition has a corresponding negation and, if the Note
proposition is denoted by p, the negation of the proposition is In the printed form, a
denoted by ~p, read as 'not p'. proposition is shown by a
Example small letter printed bold, eg
a, b.
If p is the proposition 'the table is made of pine',
When writing by hand it is
not easy to make letters bold,
then ~p is the proposition 'the table is not made of pine'.
so each letter is written with
If q is the proposition 'the sack is empty', then ~ q is the a squiggle underneath it (as
statement 'the sack is not empty'. It is not correct to assume that with vectors), to indicate that
the negation is 'the sack is full', since the statement 'the sack is it is a proposition.
not empty' could mean 'the sack is only partly full'. For example, the
proposition printed as p
would be hand written as p .
~
Connectives
Simple propositions such as
Conjunction AND ∧
If two propositions are joined by the word AND to form a
compound statement, this is called a conjunction and is denoted
by the symbol ∧ .
Example
If p is the proposition 'the sun is shining'
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Chapter 10 Logic
Disjunction OR ∨
If two statements are joined by the word OR to form a
compound proposition, this is called a disjunction and is
denoted by the symbol ∨ .
Example
If p is the proposition 'Ann is studying geography'
The word 'OR' in this context can have two possible meanings.
The first sentence implies that there is only one delivery of coal
and illustrates the exclusive use of OR, meaning 'or' but not
'both'. The coal can be delivered on Wednesday or Thursday,
but would not be delivered on both days.
The word 'OR' and the symbol ' ∨ ' are used for the inclusive
OR, which stands for 'and/or'.
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Example
Use p, q and r to represent affirmitive (or positive) statements and
express the following proposition symbolically.
Solution
So, let p be 'portfolios may include paintings'
(p ∨ q) ∧ ~ r.
Exercise 10A
1. For each of these compound propositions, use 2. Let p be 'the cooker is working', q 'the food
p, q and r to represent affirmative (or positive) supply is adequate' and r 'the visitors are
statements and then express the proposition hungry'. Write the following propositions in
symbolically. 'plain English':
(a) This mountain is high and I am out of breath. (a) p∧ ~ r
(b) It was neither wet nor warm yesterday. (b) q ∧ r∧ ~ p
(c) During this school year Ann will study two or (c) r∨ ~ q
three subjects.
(d) ~ r∨ ( p ∧ q)
(d) It is not true that 3 + 7 = 9 and 4 + 4 = 8.
(e) ~ q ∧ ( ~ p∨ ~ r)
The laws of reasoning were already well known in his time and
Boole was concerned with expressing the laws in terms of a
special algebra which makes use of what are known as Boolean
expressions, such as ~ a∧ b.
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1. q∧r 3. ~ p ∨ ( q ∧ r)
2. ~ p∧ r 4. r∧ ( ~ p ∨ q)
0 represents false
1 represents true.
p ~p
0 1
1 0
Th
e first column shows the two possibilities that the proposition p can be true or false.
p q p∧ q
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
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Example
Construct the truth table for p ∧ ~ q.
Solution
p q ~q p∧ ~ q
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 0
Exercise 10B
Construct truth tables for the following.
1. q ∨ r 3. p ∨ ~ r
2. ~ p ∧ r 4. ~ p∨ ~ q
Example
Construct the truth table for the compound proposition
( a∨ b)∨ ~ c.
Solution
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Exercise 10C
Construct truth tables for the following:
1. ( a∨ b) ∨ c 5. a∧ ( b ∨ c)
2. a∧ ( b ∧ c) 6. ( a∧ b) ∨ ( a∧ c)
3. a∨ ( b ∨ c) 7. a∨ ( b ∧ c)
4. ( a∧ b) ∧ c 8. ( a∨ b) ∧ ( a∨ c)
If I win the race but am not in the final (illness, injury), then is
the compound proposition a ⇒ b true or false?
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the other two questions and their answers, and hence complete the
following truth table.
a b a⇒ b
0 0
0 1
1 0
1 1
The values in this truth table often cause much argument, until it is
realised that the connective ⇒ is about implication and not about
cause and effect.
a b a⇒ b
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 0
1 1 1
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Example
'If Christmas is coming (C), today is Sunday (S).'
C S C ⇒S
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 0
1 1 1
Exercise 10D
1. Give the truth values (1 or 0) of these (b) I do not spread manure nor do I water the
propositions. plants and the crops do not grow.
(a) If all multiples of 9 are odd, then multiples of (c) If I spread manure the crops grow.
3 are even.
(d) The crops grow if I water the plants and do
(b) If dogs have four legs then cats have four not spread manure.
legs.
(e) If I do not water the plants, then I spread
(c) If the sea is blue, the sky is green. manure and the crops grow.
(d) Oxford is in Cornwall if Sheffield is in 3. Using a, b and c from Question 2, interpret the
Yorkshire. following propositions.
(e) Pentagons have six sides implies that (a) ( a∧ b) ∨ ( a∧ c)
quadrilaterals have four sides.
2. If a represents 'the crops grow', b is 'I water the (b) ( c∨ ~ b) ⇒~ a
plants' and c is 'I spread manure', express these
(c) a ⇒ b ∧ c
propositions in terms of a, b and c.
(a) If I water the plants the crops grow. (d) ~ a∨ c⇒ b
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The truth table for p ⇔ q shown here is more obvious than the
truth table for implication.
p q p⇔ q
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
You will see that p ⇔ q simply means that the two propositions p
and q are true or false together: this accounts for the use of the
word 'equivalence'. Note that if you work out the truth table for
q ⇔ p you will get the same results as for p ⇔ q .
Exercise 10E
1. If a is a true statement and b is false, write 2. If a is 'the theme park has excellent rides', b is
down the truth value of: 'entrance charges are high' and c is 'attendances
(a) a ⇔~ b are large', write in plain English the meaning of:
(b) ~ b ⇔~ a. (a) c⇔ ( a∧ ~ b)
(b) ( ~ c ∨ ~ b) ⇒ a .
p ~p p∨ ~ p
0 1 1
1 0 1
p∨ ~ p is a tautology.
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p ~p p∧ ~ p
0 1 0
1 0 0
p∧ ~ p is a contradiction.
Example
Is [ a∧ ( b∨ ~ b)] ⇔ a a tautology or a contradiction?
Solution
The clearest way to find the solution is to draw up a truth table.
If the result is always true then the statement is a tautology; if
always false then it is a contradiction.
Exercise 10F
Decide whether each of the following is a tautology or a
contradiction.
1. ( a ⇒ b) ⇔ ( a∧ ~ b)
2. [ a∧ ( a ⇒ b)]∧ ~ b
3. ~ ( a ⇒ b) ⇒ [( b ∨ c) ⇒ ( a∨ c)]
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p
q
r
•
•
•
c
Example
Represent the following argument symbolically and determine
whether the argument is valid.
Solution
Write the argument as
a⇒ b
b
a
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The truth table shows that the argument is not always true (i.e.
it is not a tautology) and is therefore invalid. The second line in
the truth table shows that the two premises a ⇒ b and b can
both be true with the conclusion a being false. In other words,
the compound proposition ( a ⇒ b) ∧ b ⇒ a is not always true
(i.e. it is not a tautology). Therefore the argument
a⇒ b
b
a
is invalid.
Exercise 10G
Determine whether these arguments are valid. 3. p⇒ q
1. a⇒ b r⇒~ q
a⇒ c p ⇒~ r
a ⇒ ( b ∧ c) 4. Form a symbolic representation
of the following argument and
2. ~ b ⇒~ a determine whether it is valid.
b If I eat well then I get fat.
a If I don't get rich then I
don't get fat.
I get rich.
(c) ( ~ p∨ ~ q) ⇒ ( p∧ ~ q)
(b) 64 and169 are perfect squares.
(d) ~ p ⇔ q
(c) −4 > − 9 and 4 > − 9 .
(e) ( ~ p ∧ q) ∨ ( r∧ p)
(d) This is neither the right time nor the right
place for an argument. (f) ( p ⇔ q) ⇒ ( ~ p ∧ q)
(e) If the wind is blowing from the east, I will go
sailing tomorrow. 3. Decide whether each of the following is a
(f) The train standing at platform 5 will not tautology:
leave unless all the doors are shut. (a) ~ a ⇒ ( a ⇒ b)
(g) The telephone rang twice and there was no
(b) ~ ( a∨ b) ∧ a
reply.
(h) My friend will go to hospital if his back (c) [ a∧ ( a ⇒ b)] ⇒ a
doesn't get better.
(d) ( a ⇒ b) ⇔~ ( a∧ ~ b)
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4. Decide whether each of the following is a *6. Lewis Carroll gave many arguments in his book
contradiction: 'Symbolic Logic'. Decide whether the following
arguments are valid.
(a) ( a∧ b) ∨ ( ~ a∧ ~ b)
(a) No misers are unselfish.
(b) ( a ⇒ b) ⇔ ( a∧ ~ b) None but misers save egg-shells.
No unselfish people save egg-shells.
(c) ~ ( a∧ b) ∨ ( a∨ b)
(b) His songs never last an hour;
(d) ( a∨ b) ⇒~ ( b ∨ c) A song, that lasts an hour, is tedious.
5. Formulate these arguments symbolically using p, His songs are never tedious.
q and r, and decide whether each is valid.
(a) If I work hard, then I earn money (c) Babies are illogical;
I work hard Nobody is despised who can manage a
crocodile;
I earn money
Illogical persons are despised.
(b) If I work hard then I earn money Babies cannot manage crocodiles.
If I don't earn money then I am not (Hint a : persons who are able to
successful manage a crocodile.
I earn money b : persons who are babies
c : persons who are despised
(c) I work hard if and only if I am successful d : persons who are logical)
I am successful
I work hard.
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