J JMRT 2020 04 053

JMRTEC-1646; No.
of Pages 17
ARTICLE IN PRESS
j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 2 0;x x x(x x):xxx–xxx
Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
www.jmrt.com.br
Review Article
Past and present techniques of self-healing in

cementitious materials: A critical review on
efficiency of implemented treatments
Aamar Danish ∗ , Mohammad Ali Mosaberpanah, Muhammad Usama Salim

Civil Engineering Department, Cyprus International University, Nicosia, North Cyprus, Turkey
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: Concrete is being extensively used in construction industry worldwide because of its avail-
Received 24 February 2020 ability and affordability but it is vulnerable to crack formation. Because of cracking concrete’s
Accepted 19 April 2020 durability reduces due to ingression of chloride and water which corrodes rebars in rein-
Available online xxx forced concrete. Moreover, frequent inspection and maintenance of concrete structures is
hectic and costly. Therefore, self-healing techniques are known methods to cease cracking
Keywords: and regaining the strength and durability of concrete. This study discusses available self-
Concrete healing techniques and agents/materials by highlighting their applications, criticization and
Crack formation performance in various published studies. Based on this review, geometry and size of cracks
Durability have an important role in selecting self-healing techniques and agents/materials, however,
Maintenance encapsulation of chemical healing agents shows more effective results due to better reaction
Self-healing agents between un-hydrated cement particles and healing agents/materials.
© 2020 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the
CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Aamar Danish secured his bachelors degree (Bronze Medalist) at Eastern Mediterranean University with 100% scholarship.
Civil Engineering from University of Engineering & Technol- He completed his Ph.D. dissertation entitled “Mechanical char-
ogy, Taxila Pakistan and currently pursuing his master degree acteristics Investigation of Ultra-High-Performance Concrete
in Structural Engineering (Construction & Building Materials) using Design of Experiment and Response Surface Method-
at Cyprus International Engineering. He is working on using ology” in 2016. After graduation, he joined Girne American
cenosphere as secondary cementitious material in concrete University, Girne, Cyprus as a full-time lecturer in fall 2016.
batching. Alongside his master degree, he is also working as He is now Assistant Professor at Cyprus International Univer-
research associate and course assistant with Assistant Prof. sity, Nicosia, Cyprus since 2017. He has background of teaching
Dr. Mohammad Ali Mosaberpanah. Moreover, he is also work- many undergraduate and graduate courses and advising grad-
ing as Assistant Editor in Sustainable Structure & Material, An uate students. Moreover, several master students have been
International Journal. graduated under his supervision and many masters and Ph.D.
students are still ongoing. He is interested and motivated to
Mohammad Ali Mosaberpanah moved to Cyprus in 2011 to make research and define new research projects as he pub-
pursue his Ph.D. program in the Civil Engineering Department lished many articles in well reputed journals. In 2018, he
∗
Corresponding author.
E-mails: [email protected] (A. Danish), [email protected] (M.A. Mosaberpanah), [email protected] (M.
Usama Salim).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2020.04.053
2238-7854/© 2020 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Please cite this article in press as: Danish A, et al. Past and present techniques of self-healing in cementitious materials: A critical review on
efficiency of implemented treatments. J Mater Res Technol. 2020. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2020.04.053
JMRTEC-1646; No. of Pages 17
ARTICLE IN PRESS
2 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 2 0;x x x(x x):xxx–xxx
Fig. 1 – Significant causes of deterioration/damage of concrete structures [9].
was invited by Dean of Civil Engineering department of Laval designers and contractors. Cracks formed in concrete can be
University, Quebec City, Canada, and funded by Cyprus Inter- categorize into following states:
national University to conduct two research projects with the
collaboration of construction materials lab researchers at The (i) Plastic state
University of Laval. Now, Next to academic activities, he is col-
a. Plastic settlement
laborating on several projects with international researchers
from different universities. b. Formwork movement
c. Plastic shrinkage
Muhammad Usama Salim is a final year master student at the
(ii) Hardened state
Department of Civil Engineering, Cyprus International Univer-
a. Thermal stress
sity. His main area of interest includes material reactions in
concrete like Alkali Aggregate Reaction (AAR) and Alkali Car- b. Chemical reaction
bonate Reaction. He is currently researching on slowing down c. Error in detailing and design
above mentioned reactions in concrete by using by-products d. External/overload
of waste materials such as fly ash and cenospheres.
Cracks in concrete might not affect concrete structures at
early stages but can surely effect their lifespan [10]. A con-
siderable amount of money is allocated worldwide to repair
1. Introduction
existing concrete structures annually. Apart from the produc-
tion cost of concrete ($60–80 m–3 ), maintenance and repairing
Concrete is an indispensable construction material, which
cost is estimated to be $147 m–3 . Developed countries like USA,
is being used widely for roads, buildings, tunnels, subways,
Germany, South Korea, etc. are facing significant amounts of
bridges, and other infrastructure construction [1]. Generally,
concrete structures deterioration, which causes them to spend
concrete is composed of water, binder, coarse and fine aggre-
more money on maintenance and repair in contrast to build-
gate [2]. Concrete is a material of choice due to several
ing new structures [11]. The US spends around $18–21 billion
applications and properties like high compressive strength,
on maintenance, repair and replace of deteriorated structures
high durability, cost effectiveness, easy accessibility of its con-
[12]. American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) presented a
stituents, compatibility of adjusting with rebars and casting
report stating that in next five years the US and Asian coun-
in different sizes and shapes [3–5]. Unfortunately, concrete is
tries will need approximately $2.2 trillion and $2 trillion for
highly vulnerable to cracking and other kind of damages (like
maintenance of structures respectively [13]. Almost all repair
deterioration) which allows some severe chemicals (acid rain
cases do not increase the life of structure in contrast to the
and salts etc.) to enter in concrete [6]. Cracking is one of the
amount spent on them. Deterioration of structures do not only
important causes of concrete deterioration and reduction in
put a heavy toll on country’s economy but also affect it socially
durability [7,8] as Fig. 1 shows that cracking is one of the main
and environmentally.
cause of structure damage/deterioration reported by clients,
ARTICLE IN PRESS
j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 2 0;x x x(x x):xxx–xxx 3
Fig. 2 – No. of publication regarding self-healing concrete 1973–2018 [16].
Fig. 3 – Problems maintenance of structures causes.
In the view of increasing cracking of structures, researchers cracking of concrete structures because process of regular
invented a method named as self-healing to overcome con- inspection and repair/maintenance is impossible for mas-
crete structure deterioration whose popularity can be seen sive concrete structures due to large requirement of labor
by increasing number of article publications each year as and cost [15]. Considering mentioned circumstances, self-
shown in Fig. 2. Although, the process of self-healing in healing or automatic repair is an effective process of sealing
concrete without human intervention (without adding any harmful cracks without intervening any human effort or cap-
material/admixture to fills flanks/cracks) was first discovered ital investment. Some of the major benefits of self-healing
in 1836 [14], but from the past few decades, researchers are of concrete is given in Fig. 3. Nowadays, self-healing mech-
finding different novel methods to functionalize self-healing anism is being used in variety of structures as shown in
of concrete [11]. Self-healing is the best method to reduce Fig. 4.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Fig. 4 – Application of self-healing in different civil engineering structures [9].
In the view of civil engineering structure’s vulnera- 2.1. Autogenous/natural healing

bility to crack, increasing attention towards self-healing
agents/materials and methods, problems of structural main- Almost 20–30% cement in conventional/traditional concrete
tenance and applications of self-healing techniques requires remain unhydrated. If concrete starts to crack, unhydrated
a comprehensive study to introduce some novel advance- cement particles reacts with the ingress water. This reaction
ments in enhancing self-healing ability of concrete structures. starts hydration process again and make hydration products to
Although, a lot of research has been conducted on the prop- fill the cracks. This inherited self-healing process is known as
erties and applicability of self-healing agents/materials but autogenous healing [37]. Autogenous healing can be possible
there is no article available which provides extensive study in following ways [26,38] as in Fig. 6a and b.
on the efficiency/performance past and present self-healing
techniques in cementitious materials. Therefore, this arti- A. CaCO3 or Ca(OH)2 formation to block cracks.
cle discusses past and present techniques of self-healing in B. Hydration of unhydrated particles of cement.
cementitious materials by highlighting their types, properties, C. Blocking of cracks by presence of impurities in water.
efficiency and triggering mechanism. D. Expansion/swelling of calcium-silicate hydrate (CSH) gel.
The data and information provided in this review arti-
cle was collected from known available sources (like Google All mentioned processes can occur simultaneously. More-
Scholar, Web of Science, Web of Knowledge, ScienceDirect and over, some of the mentioned processes can only fill the cracks
Website of Institutes) since 1980. The primary concern was not partially and leave the rest. Among all natural healing mech-
just to find and collect the most influential published work anisms formation of CaCO3 and Ca(OH)2 is the most effective,
on the mentioned topic but to identify prospects for future which can be formed in the following way:
development. Additionally, quantitative content analysis was
implemented on the fragmented data related to efficiency and H2 O + CO2 ⇔ H2 CO3 (1)
performance of self-healing techniques.
H2 CO3 ⇔ H+ + HCO3 - (2)
2. Taxonomy of self-healing techniques HCO3 - ⇔ 2H+ + CO3 2- (3)
Ca2+ + CO3 2- ⇔ CaCO3 (4)

Several self-healing techniques has been discovered until now
and discussed in several studies (as shown in Fig. 5) are
Ca2+ + HCO3 - ⇔ CaCO3 + H+ (5)
summarized below. Generally, different types of self-healing
techniques are used in the target environment based on the
Many studies were carried out to investigate the efficiency
characteristics of cracks like length and width as shown in
of autogenous healing and factors effecting it [26,40,41]. It has
Table 1.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Fig. 5 – Hierarchical view of self-healing techniques [17–26].
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Table 1 – Self-healing techniques applicability with mentioned crack width.

S. No. Techniques Crack width (m)
1 Natural healing <60 × 10−6 [27,28]

2 Encapsulation and bacteria 0.97 × 10−3 [29–33]
3 Supplementary cementitious materials <200 × 10−6 [34,35]
4 Other chemical and biological methods Up to 0.22 × 10−3 [36]
Fig. 6 – (a) Autogenous/natural self-healing methods [26,38]. (b) Autogenous healing due to physical, chemical and
mechanical processes in cementitious materials [39,40]
been found out that mechanisms of autogenous healing are Such addition in concrete mix effects the type of mix
effective for the small sized cracks, however, sometimes larger prepared by influencing pozzolanic reactions, healing
cracks (<200 ␮m) apart from cracks greater than 300 ␮m can mechanism duration and consumption of Ca(OH)2 .
also be cured in water presence. Major factors affecting auto- 3. Aggregate type
genous healing depends on: (i) concrete age and composition, This factor affects pattern of cracking and related healing
(ii) water presence (iii) crack shape and size. process to be initiated.
4. Class of concrete
2.1.1. Age and composition Concrete class is related to w/c ratio, ease of binder in devel-
Autogenous healing potential depends upon concrete compo- oping appreciable quantity of (CSH) gel due to hydration,
sition which includes following parameters: binder type and quantity used.
5. Concrete age
1. Clinker content in cement Concrete age is vital for healing mechanism. Early age of
Cement type is not that important factor to influence concrete is more profound [34] as it has more unhydrated
concrete composition. However, supply of calcium ions is bonding particles to form new CSH gel. Scanning electron
determined by clinker contents (in cement) which eventu- microscope (SEM) examination revealed that regaining of
ally showcase the ability of matrix to form precipitates of strength of cracked concrete submerged in water is due to
CaCO3 . the formation of CSH and portlandite while the regain in
2. Silicate addition concrete stiffness is related to formation of ettringite.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
2.1.2. Presence of water encapsulation and by using vascular network method. Growth
Water submergence is considered best suited for self-healing of microorganisms is concrete’s environment (PH value, mois-
exposure. Presence of water is vital for autogenous healing ture content and temperature) is not appreciable due to which
phenomenon for proceeding chemical reactions and also act in most of the cases, spores are used instead of microbial
as transporting agent for particles. Different properties (tem- broth. Moreover, encapsulation method is applicable in harsh
perature, pressure gradient, alkalinity, pressure and hardness concrete conditions, but this method is quite complex and
[42]) of water present also effects healing phenomenon. More- expensive. Additionally, vascular network method to expand
over, few studies have found that self-healing phenomenon microbial broth over cement matrix is a way of protecting bac-
works perfect in wet and dry cycles as compared to complete teria from inappropriate concrete conditions but this method
water submerged conditions. This is possible because CaCO3 is complex and lacks constructability in view of todays’ tech-
can easily form due to massive availability of carbon dioxide nology.
(CO2 ) in air.
2.3. Engineered self-healing
2.1.3. Crack shape and size
Geometrically, cracks suggest the extent of autogenous heal- Various methods of engineered self-healing of cracks in con-
ing by identifying crack dimensions (height, length and width) crete has been explored so far which depends upon crack
and crack pattern (branched or accumulated). Narrower cracks width. Apart from engineered self-healing concrete many self-
can be healed easily and quickly also by limiting width of crack healing concrete techniques has been explored but a practical
and enhancing healing mechanism. Controlling the crack for- remedy is still unavailable for-example bacterial approach is
mation and expansion can also store and transport water effective method but mostly it is very difficult for bacteria to
throughout the matrix to enhance hydration (and healing) [43]. survive because they get killed during concrete mixing and
Additionally, age of first crack is also important along with placing [25]. Other methods of concrete healing such as vascu-
crack geometry for enhancing autogenous healing. lar technique can cause pre-maturation of healing agents even
before crack starts forming [41]. While methods of engineered
2.2. Autonomic healing self-healing, concrete gives better results than mentioned
approaches, such techniques utilize fiber reinforced or engi-
Autonomic concrete healing is an artificial healing process. neered cementitious composites. These methods give better
Such healing is processed when an appropriate healing agent results in real world because they require no special compo-
is added to concrete, so that healing/blocking of crack can be nents, good at regaining durability and cost effective.
done without any external aid at ambient temperature [16].
This type of healing can be achieved by chemical and biological
processes. 3. Effective self-healing techniques
2.2.1. Chemical self-healing 3.1. Encapsulation

An autonomic healing type of concrete carried out by incor-
porating chemical compounds into the cracks. Chemical Encapsulation is the most common and effective methods to
self-healing concrete can be made by mixing fresh concrete ingress healing agent into composite materials such as con-
with chemical reagent (liquid) such as glue. There are many crete. A variety of materials are available to make healing
processes to accomplish chemical healing of concrete such agents and capsules depending upon desired efficiency. Suc-
as hollow pipette, encapsulation method, etc. There are two cessful encapsulation technique is possible only if mechanical
modes for chemical self-healing of concrete, active and pas- resistance of capsules used can overcome internal forces of
sive mode. There is a difference between two nodes is that concrete mixing [46]. Encapsulation healing techniques are
active mode needs external supply of chemical reagent con- function of capsule viscosity, shell thickness, diameter and
trary to passive mode [24]. surface [47]. This technique is capable of extending active
duration and releasing pattern of chemical/biological heal-
2.2.2. Biological self-healing ing agents in concrete. A lot of researches suggested that this
Biologically healed concrete is an environmentally sound process is versatile and effective because of its efficiency to
process that can be achieved by using microorganisms in regain concrete’s properties like mechanical and durability.
designing self-healing concrete [44,45]. The reason behind Additionally, encapsulation techniques are facing repeatabil-
choosing microorganisms is that they can grow anywhere ity challenge as concrete structures damages for multiple
such as in soil, acidic springs, water, oil reservoir, etc. Gen- times and capsules deliver limited amount of healing agents
erally, there are three types of microorganisms including in the crack of concrete due to which longtime usability is
bacteria, virus and fungus. Out of the mentioned microorgan- not possible. However, nowadays researches are focused on
isms types, bacteria of special strains are the most effective smart release of healing agent suggesting the manufacturing
to be used for self-healing concrete because of its ability of capsules through which multi-healing cycles will be possi-
to precipitate certain useful chemical to be used in design- ble [48]. Such study was carried out by using healing material
ing self-healing concrete. In this process microorganisms are in tube, but it reduced the recovery of durability properties
incorporated in concrete through various methods for exam- each time healing process starts [49,50]. Depending upon loca-
ple incorporation of microbial broth in freshly form concrete, tion for dispersion of capsules, encapsulation techniques are
in spores form, immovable form on silica gel, in the form of classified as tabular glass (capsule dispersion at estimated
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Table 2 – Summary of encapsulation techniques used.

Shell material Encapsulated material Percentage replacement Performance References
with cement weight (%)
Polyurethane/urea Sodium silicate 2.5–5 - Reduces crack width and [51]

formaldehyde transmission of ultrasonic wave
Poly (urea Epoxy 1–4 - Increases flexural strength [52]
formaldehyde)
- Reduces damage index
Urea formaldehyde Epoxy 0–9 - Reduces porosity, chloride [53–58]
diffusion and permeability
-Increases compressive, tensile
strength and dynamic elastic
modulus
Ca(NO3 )2 0.25–2 - Increases elastic modulus and [59–61]
surface resistivity
Sodium silicate 0.5–5 - Increases stiffness [62]
Dicyclopentadiene 0.25 - Increases stiffness
Poly-urea Sodium silicate 0.8 - Reduces capillary absorption [63]
Poly Epoxy 0–2 - Increases fracture energy [64]
styrene-divinylbenzene
- Reduces water absorption
Melamine Epoxy 1–4 - Increases flexural strength [65]
urea–formaldehyde
Microcapsules Bacterial spores 1–5 - Enhances crack healing power [33]
- Reduces water permeability
Silica Epoxy 5–10 - Reduces sorptivity coefficient [66]
Polyvinyl alcohol Calcium sulpho 10 - Increases dynamic elastic [67]
aluminate modulus
Alginate Ag+ 10 - Enhances chloride resistance [68]
failure locations) and microcapsules (dispersion of capsules leaves no room for concrete (incorporated with encapsulated
in the matrix uniformly). Healing induced by encapsulation chemical agents) recycling.
self-healing can be broadly classified as chemical agents and
bacterial precipitation. The encapsulation techniques used in 3.1.2. Bacterial precipitation
different researches are given in Table 2. Generally, material used for manufacturing of capsules to
encapsulate microbial species are of different type such as
melamine-based and diatomaceous earth [33,78]. Moreover,
3.1.1. Chemical agents microbial species used in mentioned capsules are of different
Different encapsulation materials for instance polymers, types depending upon various factors like crack width, con-
light-weight aggregates, glass and ceramic tubes, etc. are crete type and temperature, etc. These bacteria are generally
being used for development of self-healing phenomenon in Bacillus sphaericus, pseudofirmus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa,
cement matrix. Among mentioned encapsulating materials, etc. Mentioned bacteria have been successfully encapsulated
polymeric capsules are being used widely by preparing them for accompanying self-healing in concrete and had differ-
through an oil-in-water dispersion phenomenon of poly- ent effects on various properties on concrete as listed in
meric material. In order to make strong Urea (NH2 CON2 ) and Tables 3 and 4, respectively. The main advantage of using this
formaldehyde (CH2 O) capsule shell, NH2 CON2 and CH2 O are technique is that it is environmental friendly and compati-
generally reacted in liquid phase. The prepolymer formed by ble with cement matrix while its main disadvantages include
mentioned reaction in liquid phase can be taken out to give repeatability issues, performance dependent (mainly on mois-
somewhat rough texture to capsules [69–71]. This explained ture) and costly. The stages to be followed to incorporate
technique can be used to enhance bonding with cement encapsulated bacterial precipitation in concrete are shown in
matrix. Several other materials for manufacturing/processing Fig. 7.
of capsules are polyurethane and melamine-based capsule
material, glass tubes and acrylic tubes (perspex cast), etc. [72].
A variety of healing agents has been introduced in above men- 4. Quality of self-healing techniques
tioned capsules such as solution of sodium silicate [73,74],
epoxy [64,75], isocyanate prepolymer [49,72], cyanoacrylate In order to quantify the quality of self-healing methods six
[76] and MMA monomer [76,77]. Design and geometry of cap- criterions are used. Self-healing method should show six crite-
sule used for encapsulating healing agents play an important rions to ensure quality of self-healing method’s functionality
role in fulfilling its function. This mechanism is beneficial as and indented role in structures. Apart from using these cri-
it can come in action in case of multiple cracking with a good terions as quality quantifying tool, they can also be used to
efficiency to restore mechanical properties of concrete but this determine advantages and disadvantages/limitations of var-
technique is not environmental friendly, weaken concrete and ious self-healing approaches. These six criterions are shelf
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Table 3 – Bacteria encapsulated for self-healing in concrete.

Bacteria used Self-healing formation Summary References
Bacillus sphaericus Ureolytic precipitation of - Reduces permeability [31]

Ca(NO3 )2
- Enhances self-healing phenomenon
- Enhances strength
- Reduces in permeability [32]
- Enhances healing ratio [33]
- Reduces in permeability
- Reduces in water absorption [79]
Bacillus cohnii C6 H10 CaO6 metabolically - Seals larger crack [80]
converted
- Bacteria remain active till 6 months
Bacillus Conversion of source of - Source of calcium affects healing ratio [81]
calcium to carbonate
- Bacteria remain active till 4 months
Bacillus Subtilis C6 H10 CaO6 decomposition - Enhances healing action [82]
Table 4 – Effect of bacteria used as self-healing in concrete on various concrete properties (↑: Increases, ↓: Decreases).
Bacteria Used Sample age (days) Compressive strength Permeability Water absorption References
Sporosarcina 7 ↑ – – [83]
pasteurii
28
28 ↓ [84]
Bacillus cohnii 7 ↑ – – [85]
28
56
Bacillus sphaericus 7 ↑ ↓ – [86]
28
3 ↑ – ↓ [87]
7
21
28 ↓ ↓ – [33]
90
Diaphorobacter 7 ↓ – – [88]
nitroreducens
28
Bacillus 3 ↓ – – [44]
pseudofirmus
7
28
Fig. 7 – Various stages incorporate encapsulated bacterial precipitation in concrete.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Table 5 – Self-healing efficiency criterions vs self-healing methods [11,15].

S. no. Criterion Self-healing technique
Chemical Microorganisms Admixtures Glass tubing Intrinsic healing

encapsulation encapsulation
1 Shelf life Long, depends Spores pertain Depends on Long, depends Long
on encapsulated for at least six additive’s on encapsulated
healing agent months so does reactivity and healing agent
this approach hydration
2 Pervasiveness Yes, as capsules Yes, as capsules Yes, as additives No, tubes can Yes, as they can
can be dispersed having spores are thoroughly only be placed be available
throughout can be dispersed mixed and where the cracks anywhere in
concrete throughout dispersed are anticipated matrix
matrix throughout
matrix
3 Quality Restores Demonstration Demonstration Demonstration Demonstration
mechanical of complete of complete of self-sealing of self-sealing
properties of self-sealing but self-sealing but and restores and restores
matrix, restoration of restoration of mechanical mechanical
self-sealing mechanical mechanical properties properties
property has not properties is less properties has without 100% without 100%
been not been efficiency efficiency
investigated investigated
4 Reliability No sufficient No sufficient No sufficient No sufficient No sufficient
data available for data available for data available for data available for data available for
assessment assessment assessment assessment assessment
5 Versatility Yes, as it is No, as it needs No, as it needs Yes, as it is Yes, as it is
independent of continuous continuous independent of independent of
environment moisture moisture environment environment
exposure exposure
6 Repeatability No sufficient No sufficient No sufficient Not repeatable Yes, but up-to
data available for data available for data available for some extents
assessment assessment assessment
life, perverseness, quality, reliability, versatility and repeata- 4.3. Quality

bility. These criterions have been evaluated with different
self-healing techniques in Table 5. Additionally, there are sev- On ideal basis, self-healing process should recover transport
eral structural tests that are used to evaluate efficiency of (impermeability, infusibility, etc.) and mechanical (strength,
self-healing approaches as listed in Table 6. stiffness, ductility, etc.) properties of concrete structure.
However, if self-healing technique only recover transport
4.1. Shelf life properties then the process is only self-sealing not truly
self-healing. This indicator implies that self-healing should
Civil engineering structures have a certain service life such as not only seal cracks but also bind crack faces together
50–100 year or even more (based on the type of structures). chemically.
Although, it is not possible to estimate when a concrete struc-
ture will start to damage which implies that self-healing must 4.4. Reliability
also aid in life span of structure which is known as shelf life.
This criterion shows that used self-healing method (chemical, This indicator refers to self-healing method’s consistency to
biological, physical or a combination) must have some shelf recover mechanical and transport properties of concrete. If
life. any method has large consistency (greater variation coeffi-
cient) then the process lacks reliability.
4.2. Perverseness
4.5. Versatility
Since civil engineering structures are quite complex hav-
ing combined environmental (wind, earthquake, etc.) and Civil engineering infrastructure and structures are exposed
mechanical (dead, live, etc.) loadings, it is not possible to esti- to various environments some are continuously wet, and
mate from where the crack will occur, it can be anywhere in some are dry or both. Structures can also be exposed
a structure irrespective of any specific crack orientation. This to high chloride/sulphate environment such as struc-
criterion ensures that self-healing method used should be per- tures in northern areas and coastal regions. Self-healing
vasive and should not be available in some limited parts of method should be versatile if it is applicable to variety of
concrete structure. environments.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Table 6 – Various structural tests to evaluate concrete’s self-healing efficiency.

Test/properties Methods/tests Identification References
Visual inspection Correlation of digital image Cracks tend to close after heat [89]
treatment
Infrared analysis Formation of precipitated [90,91]
products
X-ray tomography/radiography Release of encapsulated [50,92]
self-healing agent
Micromorphology Crystals starts to deposit in [93–95]
crack
SEM Crystals starts to deposit in [44,73,96–98]
crack
ESEM Capsule starts to break [99]
partially
Raman spectroscopy Determination of chemical [96]
composition
X-ray diffraction Determination of crystalline [100]
materials
Image analysis/optical Determination of healing [73,101–103]
microscopy rate/crystal deposition into
cracks
Regaining mechanical strength Compression strength test Regain of stiffness and strength [104,105]
Frame/column deformation [49]
(horizontal)
Impact loading on slab [49]
Bending test (3-point &4-point) [47,50,71,72,77,106–111]
Tensile strength test [28,106]
Frequency analysis Capsule containing healing [112–117]
agent breaks
Regaining compactness Neutron radiography Determination of water uptake [118,119]
by capillary action through
healed cracks
Salt scaling Salt scaling resistance [120]
Low and high pressure Flowing of water/air through [10,31,39,50,114,121–123]
water/air permeability cracks healed
Osmotic pressure Ion ingression resistance [117]
Ultrasonic transmission Continuation of material [100]
technique
Diffusion of chloride Chloride ingression resistance [124,125]
Water uptake through capillary Water uptake by capillary [95,126]
action action through healed crack
Corrosion test Corrosion resistance [74]
4.6. Repeatability various healing techniques to work effectively as listed in

Table 8.
Due to varying loads on a structure, cracks can occur repeat-
edly in the lifespan of structure. Therefore, self-healing
process should not only heal structure’s cracks once but
repeatedly whenever the crack appears. This indicator implies 5.1. Ingression of solutions and gasses
that self-healing process should remain active during the lifes-
pan of structure. Such triggering mechanism can be qualified by submerging
the samples in water or exposing them to cycles (wet/dry) dur-
ing complete healing period. But such practices for practical
5. Triggering mechanism of healing agent structure can never get wet except during rainfall. Apart from
rainfall, water triggered healing mechanism never become
There must be some triggering mechanism behind healing active except for structures containing super absorbent poly-
action in concrete to be started. There are three types of mers (SAP). Structures containing SAP induce healing action
triggering mechanism in self-healing phenomenon of con- due to moisture absorption upon high relative humidity
crete namely: (i) ingression of solutions or gasses, (ii) cracking, exposure [127]. Moreover, especially for bacterial self-healing,
(iii) internal and external heating action. All these mecha- presence of oxygen and water should be present. Major advan-
nisms are listed in Table 7. Apart from different triggering tage of this mechanism is that such triggering agents are
mechanism available, there are some conditions available for widely distributed in matrix. Additionally, such agents will not
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Table 7 – Various process responsible for self-healing phenomenon in concrete [32,79,80,129–131].

Triggering mechanism Requirement Explanation
Addition of solutions and gas Solution/gas Self-healing processing

Water Hydration and autogenous healing
Water and CO2 Formation of CaCO3 and autogenous
healing
High relative humidity Expansion of hydrogels used and
autogenous healing
Water and O2 Spores activation and precipitation of
bacterial CaCO3
CO2 Degradation of coating surrounding
expanded clay
Cracking Crack + water Fast action to crack closure
Possibility of capsule breakage (exposure
of healing agent) on crack formation
Ease of injecting healing agent
External heating 150 ◦ C Melting of ethylene-vinyl acetate particles
100 ◦ C Wax coating melting
90 ◦ C + Water Closing of crack by Polyethylene
Terephthalate
Internal heating 48 ◦ C Paraffin coating melts
93 ◦ C Melting of ethylene-vinyl acetate film
Table 8 – Conditions required for working of various healing techniques [132–134].

Sr. No. Self-healing Conditions
techniques
Cracks with water Cracks with CO3 2- Crack width Methods to supply
healing agent
1 Self-healing due to No requirement for Not necessary Depends upon Capsule or vascular
adhesive agent water presence amount of agent system
added small/wide
cracks can be healed
2 Bacterial Continuous Continuous Cracks of width up Immobilization of
self-healing availability of water availability of CO3 2− to 450 ␮m can be bacteria
is required is required healed
3 Autogenous Continuous Presence of CO3 2− is Cracks with width –
self-healing availability of water not necessary but (<50 ␮m) can be
required they can enhance healed
healing efficiency
4 Self-healing due to Continuous Not necessary Cracks of width up Can be added
admixtures availability of water to 450 ␮m can be directly during
is required healed concrete mixing or
by encapsulation
be able to initiate healing unless liquids and gasses intrude 5.3. Internal and external heating
into the cracks.
It is not financially feasible to supply heat externally because
it requires structural monitoring for cracks. In the view of
5.2. Cracking this, structural monitoring can be avoided with the continuous
supply of electric current. But using sensitive strain sensors
Cracking as triggering mechanism of healing is very appre- and permanent supply of electric current still raises system
ciable because matrix responds very fast. Healing agent is cost. Concrete can also deteriorate if the matrix is overheated.
released into the crack upon cracking and it further depends Moreover, at 100 ◦ C available water in concrete begins to vapor-
upon curing of healing agent. Breakage of capsule during crack ize, and at 180 ◦ C dehydration and collapsing of microstructure
formation depends upon capsule wall brittleness and appre- occurs [128]. Apart from above-mentioned disadvantages,
ciable adhesion between capsule boundary and the matrix. this triggering mechanism in self-healing concrete (using
But excessive brittleness can break capsule during concrete encapsulation technique) overcome the requirement of
mixing. Hence, extensive care and flexible capsule material using brittle capsule, which eases mixing and casting of
should be used to protect capsule during mixing of concrete. concrete.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Table 9 – Self-healing techniques for various structures and environments.

Sr. No. Self-healing Structure environment
techniques
Under water Under ground Open air Indoor elements
1 Self-healing due to Hardly Recommended but Recommended Recommended

adhesive agent recommended in absence of water
2 Bacterial Recommended Recommended Recommended with Hardly
self-healing water requirement recommended
3 Autogenous Recommended Recommended Recommended with Hardly
self-healing water requirement recommended
4 Self-healing due to Recommended Recommended Recommended with Hardly
admixtures water requirement recommended
Fig. 8 – Cost and performance analysis of concrete with and without healing agents [138].
in USA [135]. Annually $18–21 billion is spent on maintenance,

6. Selection of self-healing techniques
protection, repairing of concrete structures by their owners
[136]. In USA, ASCE claimed to invest $3.6 trillion to repair and
Various localities and environments of structures determine maintain concrete structures for seven year since 1998 [137].
different self-healing techniques to be used as shown in About 45% investment on construction is spend on inspection,
Table 9. Bacterial, admixture and autogenous self-healing maintenance and repair while in Europe this expenditure is
need water in the cracks for healing action to proceed, which 50%. Moreover, China spends 250 billion RMB annually to pro-
makes mentioned healing techniques best suited for struc- tect reinforced concrete structures from corrosion. Hence, by
tures under water. But self-healing due to adhesive agent is incorporating healing agents in concrete can reduce repair-
not recommended for structures under water because water ing/maintenance cost of structures and can provide more
present in cracks stops adhesive agent to be released into sustainable and cheap structures.
cracks and get hardened. Moreover, for underground struc- Detailed analysis of life cycle for self-healing of concrete
tures, all healing techniques can be applied but if water table was done by studying concrete mixtures with and without
is high then self-healing due to adhesive agent is not recom- healing agents [138] as shown in Fig. 5. Conventional concrete
mended. Additionally, cracks in underground structures also requires repairs after regular intervals to maintain structural
undergo wet/dry cycles, which facilitates precipitation of CO2 integrity until it requires reconstruction. In Fig. 8, line B shows
into crack and makes such conditions for applicability of bac- regained durability of infrastructure by incorporating healing
terial and autogenous self-healing. agents. Although, higher capital is required but long-term ben-
As most of the structures are built in open air having neg- efits are greater than traditional concrete.
ligible or no water available in cracks due to which bacterial,
admixture and autogenous self-healing are very difficult to
apply. 8. Conclusion
This paper discusses various methods self-healing in con-

7. Expense of self-healing methods crete. A comprehensive taxonomy is presented which covers
all possible methods used for designing self-healing concrete
Self-healing of concrete to regain its mechanical properties with different healing agents and efficiencies. Encapsulation
is practical solution to obtain concrete’s durability by lower- of chemical healing agents to manufacture concrete is bet-
ing maintenance and repairing cost of concrete structures. ter option because it shows good results of reaction between
According to some estimate $5.2 billion is spent on mainte- un-hydrated cement particles and healing agents. Accord-
nance of bridges. Additionally, repair of structures increases ing to available healing technologies, the efficiency of healing
loss of capital (due to traffic jams) and productivity which is method depends on how much the matrix and healing agent
estimated to be 10 times the cost of constructing a structure interact with each other. Geometry and size of crack also plays
ARTICLE IN PRESS
and important role in predicting effective results of concrete [6] Basheer L, Kropp J, Cleland DJ. Assessment of the durability
being healed for-example healing uniform width cracks can of concrete from its permeation properties: a review. Constr
be different from healing cracks of variable width. Build Mater 2001;15:93–103.
[7] Shaikh FUA. Effect of cracking on corrosion of steel in
concrete. Int J Concr Struct Mater 2018;12:3.
[8] Yoo D-Y, Kim S, Kim M-J, Kim D, Shin H-O. Self-healing
Future recommendations capability of asphalt concrete with carbon-based materials.
J Mater Res Technol 2019;8:827–39.
Future prospective for discussed topic should be further stud- [9] Gardner D, Lark R, Jefferson T, Davies R. A survey on
ied to enhance the client’s and manufacturer’s confidence in problems encountered in current concrete construction
and the potential benefits of self-healing cementitious
using self-healing concrete instead of going for costly repair
materials. Case Stud Constr Mater 2018;8:238–47.
procedures. These recommendations include:
[10] Mihashi H, Nishiwaki T. Development of engineered
Encapsulation being a standout self-healing technique self-healing and self-repairing concrete-state-of-the-art
should be studied further to make it practically applicable report. J Adv Concr Technol 2012;10:170–84.
at commercial level. Such studies should include concrete [11] Li VC, Herbert E. Robust self-healing concrete for
mixing strategy to avoid capsule breakage and negatively sustainable infrastructure. J Adv Concr Technol
influencing mechanical properties. 2012;10:207–18.
[12] Li Z, Leung C, Xi Y. Structural renovation in concrete. CRC
To be used on commercial level, the efficiency of
Press; 2014.
self-healing in concrete has to be proven under severe [13] Mather B, Warner J. Why do concrete repairs fail. Interview
environmental conditions which includes unideal curing con- held at Univ. of Wisconsin, Dept. of Engrg. Professional
ditions/temperatures, severe weathering conditions (sulphate Development, MD, WI,
or salt attack), freeze and thaw cycles. http://aec.engr.wisc.edu/resources/rsrc07.html. Accessed
Techniques for in situ applicability of self-healing agents 2019.
[14] Hearn N, Morley C. Self-sealing property of concrete –
should be researched on. As such techniques depend upon
experimental evidence. Mater Struct 1997;30:404–11.
available budget, hence, cost of such mechanism should be
[15] Souradeep G, Kua HW. Encapsulation technology and
kept low as compared to the repair cost (direct/indirect). techniques in self-healing concrete. J Mater Civil Eng
2016;28:04016165.
[16] Sidiq A, Gravina R, Giustozzi F. Is concrete healing really
Authors contribution efficient? A review. Constr Build Mater 2019;205:257–73.
[17] Al-Thawadi SM. Ureolytic bacteria and calcium carbonate
formation as a mechanism of strength enhancement of
Aamar Danish: Concept, data collection and analysis, investi-
sand. J Adv Sci Eng Res 2011;1:98–114.
gation, original draft composition and editing [18] Chahal N, Rajor A, Siddique R. Calcium carbonate
Mohammad Ali Mosaberpanah: Concept, investigation, precipitation by different bacterial strains. Afr J Biotechnol
methodology, writing, review and editing 2011;10:8359–72.
Muhammad Usama Salim: Investigating, methodology, [19] De Muynck W, Cox K, De Belie N, Verstraete W. Bacterial
writing and editing carbonate precipitation as an alternative surface treatment
for concrete. Constr Build Mater 2008;22:875–85.
[20] Ghosh P, Mandal S, Pal S, Bandyopadhyaya G,
Chattopadhyay B. Development of bioconcrete material
Conflict of interest using an enrichment culture of novel thermophilic
anaerobic bacteria. Indian J Exp Biol 2006;44:336–9.
All authors declare no conflict of interest [21] Gollapudi U, Knutson C, Bang S, Islam M. A new method for
controlling leaching through permeable channels.
Chemosphere 1995;30:695–705.
references [22] Jonkers HM. Self healing concrete: a biological approach. In:
Self healing materials. Springer; 2007. p. 195–204.
[23] Siddique R, Chahal NK. Effect of ureolytic bacteria on
concrete properties. Constr Build Mater 2011;25:3791–801.
[1] Danish A, Salim MU, Ahmed T. Trends and developments in [24] Toohey KS, Sottos NR, Lewis JA, Moore JS, White SR.
green cement “A sustainable approach”. Sustain Struct Self-healing materials with microvascular networks. Nat
Mater In J 2019;2:45–60. Mater 2007;6:581.
[2] Abdullahi M. Effect of aggregate type on compressive [25] Van Der Zwaag S. Self-healing materials: an alternative
strength of concrete. Int J Civil Struct Eng 2012;2:782. approach to 20 centuries of material science. Delf: Springer;
[3] Muhammad NZ, Keyvanfar A, Majid MZA, Shafaghat A, 2007.
Mirza J. Waterproof performance of concrete: a critical [26] Wu M, Johannesson B, Geiker M. A review: self-healing in
review on implemented approaches. Constr Build Mater cementitious materials and engineered cementitious
2015;101:80–90. composite as a self-healing material. Constr Build Mater
[4] Muhammad NZ, Shafaghat A, Keyvanfar A, Majid MZA, 2012;28:571–83.
Ghoshal S, Yasouj SEM, et al. Tests and methods of [27] Parks J, Edwards M, Vikesland P, Dudi A. Effects of bulk
evaluating the self-healing efficiency of concrete: a review. water chemistry on autogenous healing of concrete. J Mater
Constr Build Mater 2016;112:1123–32. Civil Eng 2010;22:515–24.
[5] Palanisamy M, Kolandasamy P, Awoyera P, Gobinath R, [28] Yang Y, Yang E-H, Li VC. Autogenous healing of engineered
Muthusamy S, Krishnasamy TR, et al. Permeability cementitious composites at early age. Cement Concr Res
properties of lightweight self-consolidating concrete made 2011;41:176–83.
with coconut shell aggregate. J Mater Res Technol 2020.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
[29] Dong B, Han N, Zhang M, Wang X, Cui H, Xing F. A [48] Dong B, Wang Y, Fang G, Han N, Xing F, Lu Y. Smart
microcapsule technology based self-healing system for releasing behavior of a chemical self-healing microcapsule
concrete structures. J Earthquake Tsunami 2013;7:1350014. in the stimulated concrete pore solution. Cement Concr
[30] Qian CX, Luo M, Ren LF, Wang RX, Li RY, Pan QF, et al. Compos 2015;56:46–50.
Self-healing and repairing concrete cracks based on [49] Thao TDP. Quasi-brittle self-healing materials: numerical
bio-mineralization. Key Eng Mater 2015:494–503. modelling and applications in civil engineering; 2011.
[31] Wang J, Van Tittelboom K, De Belie N, Verstraete W. Use of [50] Van Tittelboom K, De Belie N, Van Loo D, Jacobs P.
silica gel or polyurethane immobilized bacteria for Self-healing efficiency of cementitious materials containing
self-healing concrete. Constr Build Mater 2012;26:532–40. tubular capsules filled with healing agent. Cement Concr
[32] Wang J, Snoeck D, Van Vlierberghe S, Verstraete W, De Belie Compos 2011;33:497–505.
N. Application of hydrogel encapsulated carbonate [51] Grantham M, Basheer PM, Magee B, Soutsos M. Concrete
precipitating bacteria for approaching a realistic solutions 2014. CRC Press; 2014.
self-healing in concrete. Constr Build Mater 2014;68:110–9. [52] Li W, Jiang Z, Yang Z. Acoustic characterization of damage
[33] Wang J, Soens H, Verstraete W, De Belie N. Self-healing and healing of microencapsulation-based self-healing
concrete by use of microencapsulated bacterial spores. cement matrices. Cement Concr Compos 2017;84:48–61.
Cement Concr Res 2014;56:139–52. [53] Wang X, Xing F, Zhang M, Han N, Qian Z. Experimental
[34] Huang H, Ye G, Damidot D. Effect of blast furnace slag on study on cementitious composites embedded with organic
self-healing of microcracks in cementitious materials. microcapsules. Materials 2013;6:4064–81.
Cement Concr Res 2014;60:68–82. [54] Souza L, Al-Tabbaa A. Microfluidic fabrication of
[35] Van Tittelboom K, Gruyaert E, Rahier H, De Belie N. microcapsules tailored for self-healing in cementitious
Influence of mix composition on the extent of autogenous materials. Constr Build Mater 2018;184:713–22.
crack healing by continued hydration or calcium carbonate [55] Dong B, Ding W, Qin S, Han N, Fang G, Liu Y, et al. Chemical
formation. Constr Build Mater 2012;37:349–59. self-healing system with novel microcapsules for corrosion
[36] Stuckrath C, Serpell R, Valenzuela LM, Lopez M. inhibition of rebar in concrete. Cement Concr Compos
Quantification of chemical and biological calcium 2018;85:83–91.
carbonate precipitation: performance of self-healing in [56] Wang X, Sun P, Han N, Xing F. Experimental study on
reinforced mortar containing chemical admixtures. Cement mechanical properties and porosity of organic
Concr Compos 2014;50:10–5. microcapsules based self-healing cementitious composite.
[37] Byoungsun P, Young CC. Investigating a new method to Materials 2017;10:20.
assess the self-healing performance of hardened cement [57] Dong B, Fang G, Ding W, Liu Y, Zhang J, Han N, et al.
pastes containing supplementary cementitious materials Self-healing features in cementitious material with
and crystalline admixtures. J Mater Res Technol urea–formaldehyde/epoxy microcapsules. Constr Build
2019;8:6058–73. Mater 2016;106:608–17.
[38] Talaiekhozan A, Keyvanfar A, Shafaghat A, Andalib R, Majid [58] Katoueizadeh E, Zebarjad SM, Janghorban K. Investigating
MA, Fulazzaky MA, et al. A review of self-healing concrete the effect of synthesis conditions on the formation of
research development. J Environ Treat Tech 2014;2:1–11. urea–formaldehyde microcapsules. J Mater Res Technol
[39] Aldea C-M, Song W-J, Popovics JS, Shah SP. Extent of healing 2019;8:541–52.
of cracked normal strength concrete. J Mater Civil Eng [59] Milla J, Hassan MM, Rupnow T, Al-Ansari M, Arce G. Effect
2000;12:92–6. of self-healing calcium nitrate microcapsules on concrete
[40] De Rooij M, Van Tittelboom K, De Belie N, Schlangen E. properties. Transport Res Rec 2016;2577:69–77.
Self-healing phenomena in cement-based materials: [60] Hassan MM, Milla J, Rupnow T, Al-Ansari M, Daly WH.
state-of-the-art report of RILEM technical committee Microencapsulation of calcium nitrate for concrete
221-SHC: self-Healing phenomena in cement-Based applications. Transport Res Rec 2016;2577:8–16.
materials, vol. 11. Springer; 2013. [61] Al-Ansari M, Abu-Taqa AG, Hassan MM, Senouci A, Milla J.
[41] Van Tittelboom K, De Belie N. Self-healing in cementitious Performance of modified self-healing concrete with
materials – a review. Materials 2013;6:2182–217. calcium nitrate microencapsulation. Constr Build Mater
[42] Ma H, Qian S, Zhang Z. Effect of self-healing on water 2017;149:525–34.
permeability and mechanical property of [62] Gilford J III, Hassan MM, Rupnow T, Barbato M, Okeil A,
medium-early-strength engineered cementitious Asadi S. Dicyclopentadiene and sodium silicate
composites. Constr Build Mater 2014;68:92–101. microencapsulation for self-healing of concrete. J Mater
[43] Martinelli E, Barros JA, Ferrara L. Recent advances on green Civil Eng 2013;26:886–96.
concrete for structural purposes: The contribution of the [63] Giannaros P, Kanellopoulos A, Al-Tabbaa A. Sealing of
EU-FP7 project EnCoRe. Springer; 2017. cracks in cement using microencapsulated sodium silicate.
[44] Jonkers HM, Thijssen A, Muyzer G, Copuroglu O, Schlangen Smart Mater Struct 2016;25:084005.
E. Application of bacteria as self-healing agent for the [64] Li W, Jiang Z, Yang Z, Zhao N, Yuan W. Self-healing
development of sustainable concrete. Ecol Eng efficiency of cementitious materials containing
2010;36:230–5. microcapsules filled with healing adhesive: mechanical
[45] Van Tittelboom K, De Belie N, De Muynck W, Verstraete W. restoration and healing process monitored by water
Use of bacteria to repair cracks in concrete. Cement Concr absorption. PLOS ONE 2013;8:e81616.
Res 2010;40:157–66. [65] Li W, Zhu X, Zhao N, Jiang Z. Preparation and properties of
[46] Han N-X, Xing F. A comprehensive review of the study and melamine urea-formaldehyde microcapsules for
development of microcapsule based self-resilience systems self-healing of cementitious materials. Materials 2016;9:152.
for concrete structures at Shenzhen University. Materials [66] Calvo JG, Pérez G, Carballosa P, Erkizia E, Gaitero J, Guerrero
2017;10:2. A. Development of ultra-high performance concretes with
[47] Joseph C, Jefferson AD, Isaacs B, Lark RJ, Gardner DR. self-healing micro/nano-additions. Constr Build Mater
Experimental investigation of adhesive-based self-healing 2017;138:306–15.
of cementitious materials. Magaz Concr Res 2010;62:831–43.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
[67] Lee Y-S, Ryou J-S. Self healing behavior for crack closing of [86] Achal V, Mukerjee A, Reddy MS. Biogenic treatment
expansive agent via granulation/film coating method. improves the durability and remediates the cracks of
Constr Build Mater 2014;71:188–93. concrete structures. Constr Build Mater 2013;48:1–5.
[68] Xiong W, Tang J, Zhu G, Han N, Schlangen E, Dong B, et al. A [87] Achal V, Mukherjee A, Reddy MS. Microbial concrete: way to
novel capsule-based self-recovery system with a chloride enhance the durability of building structures. J Mater Civil
ion trigger. Sci Rep 2015;5:10866. Eng 2010;23:730–4.
[69] Kessler M, Sottos NR, White SR. Self-healing structural [88] Erşan YÇ, Da Silva FB, Boon N, Verstraete W, De Belie N.
composite materials. Compos Part A: Appl Sci Manuf Screening of bacteria and concrete compatible protection
2003;34:743–53. materials. Constr Build Mater 2015;88:196–203.
[70] Brown EN, White SR, Sottos NR. Retardation and repair of [89] Jefferson A, Joseph C, Lark R, Isaacs B, Dunn S, Weager B. A
fatigue cracks in a microcapsule toughened epoxy new system for crack closure of cementitious materials
composite–Part II: In situ self-healing. Compos Sci Technol using shrinkable polymers. Cement Concr Res
2005;65:2474–80. 2010;40:795–801.
[71] Xing F, Ni Z, Han N, Dong B, Du X, Huang Z, et al. [90] Yuan XZ, Sun W, Zuo XB. Study of feasibility of heat melt
Self-healing mechanism of a novel cementitious composite adhesive being used in crack self-healing of cement-based
using microcapsules. In: Proceedings of the international materials. Appl Mech Mater 2011;99:1087–91.
conference on durability of concrete structures, Hangzhou, [91] Wiktor V, Jonkers HM. Quantification of crack-healing in
China. 2008. novel bacteria-based self-healing concrete. Cement Concr
[72] Thao TDP, Johnson TJS, Tong QS, Dai PS. Implementation of Compos 2011;33:763–70.
self-healing in concrete–proof of concept. IES J Part A: Civil [92] Mihashi H, Kaneko Y, Nishiwaki T, Otsuka K. Fundamental
Struct Eng 2009;2:116–25. study on development of intelligent concrete characterized
[73] Huang H, Ye G, Leung C, Wan K. Application of sodium by self-healing capability for strength. Trans Jpn Concr Inst
silicate solution as self-healing agent in cementitious 2001;22:441–50.
materials. In: International RILEM conference on advances [93] Ter Heide N. Crack healing in hydrating concrete. Delft
in construction materials through science and engineering. University of Technology, Delft; 2005. p. 128.
2011. p. 530–6. [94] Sangadji S, Schlangen E. Self healing of concrete
[74] Pelletier MM, Brown R, Shukla A, Bose A. Self-healing structures-novel approach using porous network concrete. J
concrete with a microencapsulated healing agent. Adv Concr Technol 2012;10:185–94.
Technical report of University of Rhode Island, Kingston, [95] Sisomphon K, Copuroglu O, Fraaij A. Application of
USA, http://energetics.chm.uri.edu/system/files/Self%20 encapsulated lightweight aggregate impregnated with
healing%20concrete%20-7-11.pdf. Accessed 2019. sodium monofluorophosphate as a self-healing agent in
[75] Chowdhury RA, Hosur MV, Nuruddin M, Tcherbi-Narteh A, blast furnace slag mortar. Heron 2011;56(1/2).
Kumar A, Boddu V, et al. Self-healing epoxy composites: [96] Homma D, Mihashi H, Nishiwaki T. Self-healing capability
preparation, characterization and healing performance. J of fibre reinforced cementitious composites. J Adv Concr
Mater Res Technol 2015;4:33–43. Technol 2009;7:217–28.
[76] Dry CM. Repair and prevention of damage due to transverse [97] Ahn T-H, Kishi T. Crack self-healing behavior of
shrinkage cracks in bridge decks. In: Smart structures and cementitious composites incorporating various mineral
materials 1999: Smart systems for bridges, structures, and admixtures. J Adv Concr Technol 2010;8:171–86.
highways. 1999. p. 253–7. [98] Nijland TG, Larbi JA, van Hees RP, Lubelli B, de Rooij M. Self
[77] Dry C. Matrix cracking repair and filling using active and healing phenomena in concretes and masonry mortars: a
passive modes for smart timed release of chemicals from microscopic study. In: Proc. 1st Int. Conf. on Self Healing
fibers into cement matrices. Smart Mater Struct 1994;3:118. Materials. 2007. p. 1–9.
[78] Wang J, De Belie N, Verstraete W. Diatomaceous earth as a [99] Li VC, Lim YM, Chan Y-W. Feasibility study of a passive
protective vehicle for bacteria applied for self-healing smart self-healing cementitious composite. Compos Part B:
concrete. J Indus Microbiol Biotechnol 2012;39:567–77. Eng 1998;29:819–27.
[79] Wang J-Y, De Belie N, Verstraete W. Diatomaceous earth as a [100] Haddad R, Bsoul M. Self-healing of polypropylene fiber
protective vehicle for bacteria applied for self-healing reinforced concrete: Pozzolan effect. Irbid, Jordan: Civil
concrete. J Indus Microbiol Biotechnol 2012;39:567–77. Engineering Department, Jordan University of Science and
[80] Jonkers HM. Bacteria-based self-healing concrete. Heron Technology; 1999.
2011;56:1–12. [101] Nishiwaki T, Koda M, Yamada M, Mihashi H, Kikuta T.
[81] Xu J, Yao W. Multiscale mechanical quantification of Experimental study on self-healing capability of FRCC using
self-healing concrete incorporating non-ureolytic different types of synthetic fibers. J Adv Concr Technol
bacteria-based healing agent. Cement Concr Res 2012;10:195–206.
2014;64:1–10. [102] Sisomphon K, Copuroglu O. Self healing mortars by using
[82] Khaliq W, Ehsan MB. Crack healing in concrete using different cementitious materials. In: International
various bio influenced self-healing techniques. Constr Build Conference on Advances in Construction Materials through
Mater 2016;102:349–57. Science and Engineering. 2011. p. 5–7.
[83] Bang S, Lippert J, Yerra U, Mulukutla S, Ramakrishnan V. [103] Sisomphon K, Copuroglu O, Koenders E. Surface crack
Microbial calcite, a bio-based smart nanomaterial in self-healing behaviour of mortars with expansive additives.
concrete remediation. Int J Smart Nano Mater 2010;1:28–39. In: 3rd International Conference on Self-healing Materials,
[84] Chahal N, Siddique R, Rajor A. Influence of bacteria on the Bath, UK. 2011. p. 44–5.
compressive strength, water absorption and rapid chloride [104] Yang Z, Hollar J, He X, Shi X. A self-healing cementitious
permeability of fly ash concrete. Constr Build Mater composite using oil core/silica gel shell microcapsules.
2012;28:351–6. Cement Concr Compos 2011;33:506–12.
[85] Burne RA, Chen Y-YM. Bacterial ureases in infectious [105] Katsuhata T, Ohama Y, Demura K. Investigation of
diseases. Microb Infect 2000;2:533–42. microcracks self-repair function of polymer-modified
mortars using epoxy resins without hardeners. In:
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Proceedings of 10th international congress on polymers in [122] Kunieda M, Shimizu K, Eguchi T, Ueda N, Nakamura H.
concrete. 2001. p. 23–5. Fundamental properties of ultra high performance-strain
[106] Qian S, Zhou J, Liu H, De Rooij M, Schlangen E, Gard W, et al. hardening cementitious composites and usage for repair. J
Self-healing cementitious composites under bending loads. Jpn Soc Civil Engrs, Ser. E2 (Mater Concr Struct)
In: Proceedings of 2nd international conference on self 2011;67:508–21.
healing materials. 2009. [123] Nishiwaki T, Mihashi H, Jang B-K, Miura K. Development of
[107] Sun L, Yu WY, Ge Q. Experimental research on the self-healing system for concrete with selective heating
self-healing performance of micro-cracks in concrete around crack. J Adv Concr Technol 2006;4:267–75.
bridge. Adv Mater Res 2011:28–32. [124] Lee HXD, Wong HS, Buenfeld N. Self-sealing cement-based
[108] Dry C, Corsaw M, Bayer E. A comparison of internal materials using superabsorbent polymers. In: Proceedings
self-repair with resin injection in repair of concrete. J Adhes of the international RILEM conference on use of
Sci Technol 2003;17:79–89. superabsorbent polymers and other new additives in
[109] Yang Z, Hollar J, He X, Shi X. Laboratory assessment of a concrete. 2010. p. 15–8.
self-healing cementitious composite. Transport Res Rec [125] Termkhajornkit P, Nawa T, Yamashiro Y, Saito T.
2010;2142:9–17. Self-healing ability of fly ash–cement systems. Cement
[110] Kuang Y-c, Ou J-p. Passive smart self-repairing concrete Concr Compos 2009;31:195–203.
beams by using shape memory alloy wires and fibers [126] Şahmaran M, Li VC. Durability properties of micro-cracked
containing adhesives. J Central South Univ Technol ECC containing high volumes fly ash. Cement Concr Res
2008;15:411–7. 2009;39:1033–43.
[111] ter Heide N, Schlangen E. Self-healing of early age cracks in [127] Snoeck D. Self healing concrete by the combination of
concrete. In: First international conference on self healing microfibres and reactive substances. Ghent, Belgium: Ghent
materials. 2007. p. 1–12. University; 2011. Master thesis.
[112] Yang Y, Lepech MD, Yang E-H, Li VC. Autogenous healing of [128] Schneider U. Behaviour of concrete at high temperatures:
engineered cementitious composites under wet–dry cycles. Ernst; 1982.
Cement Concr Res 2009;39:382–90. [129] Lee H, Wong H, Buenfeld N. Potential of superabsorbent
[113] Sahmaran M, Li M, Li VC. Transport properties of polymer for self-sealing cracks in concrete. Adv Appl Ceram
engineered cementitious composites under chloride 2010;109:296–302.
exposure. ACI Mater J 2007;104:604. [130] Dejonghe P, De Belie N, Steuperaert S, Snoeck D, Dubruel P.
[114] Nanayakkara A. Self-healing of cracks in concrete subjected The behaviour of suberabsorbing polymers as a sealing
to water pressure. In: Proceedings of conference on new agent in concrete: absorption kinetics, degradation and
technologies for urban safety of mega cities in Asia. 2003. water permeability. In: 3rd International conference on
[115] Jacobsen S, Sellevold EJ. Self healing of high strength self-healing materials (ICSHM 2011). 2011. p. 123–4.
concrete after deterioration by freeze/thaw. Cement Concr [131] Kim J, Schlangen E. Super absorbent polymers to simulate
Res 1996;26:55–62. self healing in ECC. In: van Breugel K, Ye G, Yuan Y, editors.
[116] Abd Elmoaty AEM. Self-healing of polymer modified 2nd international symposium on service life design for
concrete. Alexandria Eng J 2011;50:171–8. infrastructures. 2010. p. 849–58.
[117] Song M, Jeon S, Song Y. The change of osmosis pressure by [132] Cao QY, Hao TY, Su B. Crack self-healing properties of
crack self-healing of cementitious materials. In: concrete with adhesive. Adv Mater Res 2014:1880–4.
Proceedings of 3rd international conference on self healing [133] Li VC, Yang E-H. Self healing in concrete materials. In: Self
materials. 2011. p. 27–9. healing materials. Springer; 2007. p. 161–93.
[118] Zhong W, Yao W. Influence of damage degree on [134] Choi YC, Park B. Enhanced autogenous healing of ground
self-healing of concrete. Constr Build Mater granulated blast furnace slag blended cements and
2008;22:1137–42. mortars. J Mater Res Technol 2019;8:3443–52.
[119] Van Tittelboom K, Snoeck D, Vontobel P, Wittmann FH, De [135] Freyermuth CL. Life-cycle cost analysis for large bridges.
Belie N. Use of neutron radiography and tomography to Concr Int 2001;23:89–95.
visualize the autonomous crack sealing efficiency in [136] Emmons PH, Sordyl DJ. The state of the concrete repair
cementitious materials. Mater Struct 2013;46:105–21. industry, and a vision for its future. Concr Repair Bull
[120] Sisomphon K, Çopuroğlu O, Fraaij A. Durability of 2006;19:7–14.
blast-furnace slag mortars subjected to sodium [137] Herrmann AW. Asce 2013 report card for america’s
monofluorophosphate application. Constr Build Mater infrastructure. In: IABSE symposium report. 2013. p. 9–10.
2011;25:823–8. [138] Van Breugel K. Is there a market for self-healing
[121] Reinhardt H-W, Jooss M. Permeability and self-healing of cement-based materials. In: Proceedings of the first
cracked concrete as a function of temperature and crack international conference on self-healing materials. 2007. p.
width. Cement Concr Res 2003;33:981–5. 1–9.

J JMRT 2020 04 053

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

J JMRT 2020 04 053

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

J JMRT 2020 04 053

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

JMRTEC-1646; No.

Available online at www.sciencedirect.com

Past and present techniques of self-healing in

Aamar Danish ∗ , Mohammad Ali Mosaberpanah, Muhammad Usama Salim

Fig. 1 – Signiﬁcant causes of deterioration/damage of concrete structures [9].

Fig. 2 – No. of publication regarding self-healing concrete 1973–2018 [16].

Fig. 3 – Problems maintenance of structures causes.

Fig. 4 – Application of self-healing in different civil engineering structures [9].

In the view of civil engineering structure’s vulnera- 2.1. Autogenous/natural healing

2. Taxonomy of self-healing techniques HCO3 - ⇔ 2H+ + CO3 2- (3)

Ca2+ + CO3 2- ⇔ CaCO3 (4)

Fig. 5 – Hierarchical view of self-healing techniques [17–26].

Table 1 – Self-healing techniques applicability with mentioned crack width.

1 Natural healing <60 × 10−6 [27,28]

2.2.1. Chemical self-healing 3.1. Encapsulation

Table 2 – Summary of encapsulation techniques used.

Polyurethane/urea Sodium silicate 2.5–5 - Reduces crack width and [51]

Table 3 – Bacteria encapsulated for self-healing in concrete.

Bacillus sphaericus Ureolytic precipitation of - Reduces permeability [31]

Fig. 7 – Various stages incorporate encapsulated bacterial precipitation in concrete.

Table 5 – Self-healing efﬁciency criterions vs self-healing methods [11,15].

Chemical Microorganisms Admixtures Glass tubing Intrinsic healing

life, perverseness, quality, reliability, versatility and repeata- 4.3. Quality

Table 6 – Various structural tests to evaluate concrete’s self-healing efﬁciency.

4.6. Repeatability various healing techniques to work effectively as listed in

Table 7 – Various process responsible for self-healing phenomenon in concrete [32,79,80,129–131].

Addition of solutions and gas Solution/gas Self-healing processing

Table 8 – Conditions required for working of various healing techniques [132–134].

Table 9 – Self-healing techniques for various structures and environments.

Under water Under ground Open air Indoor elements

1 Self-healing due to Hardly Recommended but Recommended Recommended

in USA [135]. Annually $18–21 billion is spent on maintenance,

This paper discusses various methods self-healing in con-

You might also like