New Standards for

Broadcast Structures ANSI/EIA/TIA-222-G

JOHN WAHBA, PH.D., PE DAVID BRINKER, PE MARK MALOUF, PE JOHN ERICHSEN, PE
Radian Communication Services Rohn Industries, Inc. Malouf Engineering Intl. Valmont Communications
Oakville, ON, Canada Peoria, IL Richardson, TX Plymouth, IN

event of failure. This classification is intended for

ABSTRACT structures that are used for services that are optional
and /or where a delay in returning the services would be
The next revision of the ANSI/TIA/EIA standard acceptable. Ice loading does not apply to this category
“Structural Standards for Steel Antenna Towers and of structures. The nominal 50-year return wind load is
Antenna Supporting Structures” will represent the most reduced using an importance factor to a nominal 25-
drastic change to the standard since its first publication year return loading. Category II structures represent a
in 1949. This revision will change the loads and design substantial hazard to human life and damage to property
criteria for communication towers including broadcast in the event of failure and are intended for services that
structures. It will also have an impact on the load may be provided by other means. Category II
carrying capacity of existing structures. structures use nominal 50-year return wind and ice
loads. Category III structures are essential facilities and
The revised standard (Rev G) is scheduled for release in use nominal 100-year return loads determined using
2003. The proposed changes will require an aggressive appropriate importance factors applied to the nominal
training schedule for all users of the standard. The 50-year return loads.
authors of this paper who are members of he technical
review committee for the TIA/EIA-222 standard will Wind Loads
present in this paper the major changes proposed and
also explain how theses changes may affect broadcast A load factor of 1.6 is applied to nominal wind loads
structures. for strength limit states design. A directionality factor
is applied to the factored wind loads to account for the
INTRODUCTION probability of the wind occurring from the worst-case
direction. Structures that are highly wind direction
This paper outlines the latest development regarding the dependant have a lower directionality factor.
next revision of the ANSI/TIA/EIA-222. It is based on Triangular or square latticed towers are assigned a
the most recent proposals at the time of this writing. directionality factor of 0.85, whereas pole structures are
Subsequent revisions and additions may occur during assigned a directionality factor of 0.95. The
the consensus verification process. directionality factor for a structure is to be used for
determining wind loads on the structure as well as all
DESIGN PHILOSOPHY attached appurtenances. When determining strength
requirements for an appurtenance itself, however, a
This proposed revision of the standard is based on limit directionality factor of 0.95 applies.
states design. The structures are checked for two major
limit states (i) strength limit states and (ii) serviceability Wind speeds are escalated with height according to the
limit states. The strength limit states ensures that terrain characteristics surrounding a given site. The
structures are safe under extreme loading conditions exposure categories are identical to those contained in
while the serviceability limit states checks that the ASCE 7 for Exposure B (urban or hilly areas),
structures is capable of providing the service under Exposure C (flat open areas) and Exposure D (non-
normal conditions. hurricane shorelines). Simplified equations are also
provided for determining wind speed-up effects due to
ENVIROMENTAL LOADS significant topographic features such as hills, ridges and
escarpments.
Structures Classification
Gust effect factors vary based on the type of structure.
Structures are classified according to reliability For self-supporting latticed towers, the gust effect
requirements. Three categories are provided. Category factor varies from 0.85 to 1.00 as the structure height
I structures have the lowest reliability requirements and increases. A constant gust effect factor of 1.10 is
are intended to represent structures for which there is a proposed for pole structures. A 0.85 gust effect factor
low hazard to human life and damage to property in the is specified for guyed masts, however, wind load
responses are modified after analysis to account for the
dynamic characteristics of wind load on guyed A patch loading is introduced for tapered self-
structures. A 1.25 amplification factor to account for supporting latticed towers that have extended straight
dynamic interaction effects is proposed to be applied to portions or portions with significantly reduced leg
the gust effect factor for structures supported on slopes. The patch loading is intended to simulate the
buildings or other structures. A gust effect factor of dynamic wind loading effects on such structures.
1.00 is used for determining the strength requirements
of appurtenances.

Figure 1: Wind Map

projected area due to ice is considered round for the

Ice Loads purposes of calculating drag factors.

A load factor of 2.0 is applied to the nominal radial Nominal 3-second gust wind speeds that are to be
thickness of ice as opposed to the weight of ice or to the considered to occur simultaneously with ice are
projected area of ice. For guyed masts, a 50 degree F provided. A load factor of 1.0 is applied to wind
temperature drop is to be considered for the ice loading for the ice condition since wind pressure is
condition. The weight of ice on a member is calculated applied to a factored ice thickness. Ice loads are
by considering the factored radial thickness of ice escalated with height since ice accumulation is known
around a cylinder that circumscribes the member. The to increase with wind speed. Ice Map is shown in
projected area of ice is calculated by considering twice Figure 2.
the factored radial thickness of ice. The additional
 Figure 2: Ice Map

Earthquake Loads
ANALYSIS METHODS
Earthquake loads rarely govern the design of broadcast
antennas and their supporting structures; however, these This new section of the standard includes the minimum
structures require special considerations of their acceptable models of analysis with requirements to
response characteristics in regions of high seismicity. consider the effects of displacements on member forces
The standard provides design criteria to insure (P-∆ effects).
sufficient strength and stability to resist the effects of
seismic ground motions for self-supporting and guyed For self-supporting lattice towers, the analysis model
antenna supporting structures. Unless otherwise should be either: (a) an elastic three-dimensional truss
required, earthquake effects are only specified to be model made up of straight members pin connected at
considered in very limited areas of high seismicity. joints producing only axial forces in the me mbers, or
(b) an elastic three-dimensional frame -truss model
Serviceability Limit States where continuous members (legs) are modeled as 3-D
beam elements while other members are modeled as 3-
Limit state deformations under service load conditions D truss elements.
are provided in the standard. The service load
condition is defined as a 60 mph wind speed without ice For self-supporting pole structures, the analysis model
using an importance factor of 1.00, a gust effect factor should be an elastic three-dimensional beam-column
equal to 1.0 and a directionality factor of 0.85 for all model producing moments, shears and axial forces in
structures. Structures are limited to 4 degrees twist or the structure with a minimum of five beam elements per
sway rotation and a horizontal displacement equal to pole section.
5% of the height of the structure. In addition, more
stringent rotation requirements are provided for For guyed masts, the analysis model should be either:
structures supporting microwave antennas. (a) an elastic three-dimensional beam-column on non-
linear elastic supports where the mast is modeled as
equivalent three-dimensional beam-column members
supported by cable members with a minimum of five
beam elements in each span; (b) or an elastic three-
dimensional truss model made up of straight members IMPACT ON THE DESIGN OF NEW
or cables pin connected at joints producing only axial BROADCAST STRUCTURES
forces in the members; or (c) an elastic three-
dimensional frame -truss model were the continuous Revision G will introduce new variables to consider for
members (legs) are modeled as 3-D beam elements the design of broadcast structures. The proposed design
while other members are modeled as 3-D truss methodology will allow the design criteria for a
elements. structure to be fine tuned based on site-specific data as
opposed to generic criteria used in previous additions of
Modified Guyed Mast Response the standard.

In addition, section 3.0 of the standard provides a Procurement and user guidelines are provided in an
prescribed method of modifying guyed mast responses annex to identify site-specific and/or suggested
to account for the dynamic effects of wind loading on supplementary requirements for the design of a
taller guyed masts. The procedure redistributes the structure. Default parameters are provided when site-
loads to account for the effects of the dynamic load specific conditions are not available. The default
response. Unlike other approximate methods such as values are intended to result in design criteria similar to
patch-loading techniques, the new procedure generates the generic criteria used in the existing version of the
an estimate of the peak dynamic response envelopes standard. Following is a description of some of the
based on the analysis results from the static analysis. major site-specific and supplementary requirements
The non-wind load responses are separated from the issues to consider for a structure. Some of these issues
wind load responses and the resulting wind load are also appropriate to consider when using the existing
components are then modified. By employing scaling standard.
factors, which are determined based on structure
properties and geometry, the wind-induced dynamic The standard provides county listings of wind, ice and
component of the mast axial, shear, torsion, bending earthquake loading criteria, however, when more
moment and guy forces are obtained. Calibration stringent loadings are know to exist or are required to
studies indicate that the prescribed method provides a satisfy a local requirement, the more stringent
reliable prediction of the dynamic effects of wind loads. requirements should be specified. For example, some
counties are listed as being in a special wind or ice
FOUNDATIONS loading area. Local authorities in these areas may have
more stringent loading requirements. Some areas may
The design of communication structure foundations is be subject to in-cloud icing which may be a more
dominated by unusual and unique design and stringent ice loading condition. These conditions must
installation techniques. When combined with the be considered as supplementary conditions and be
marked change in the design criteria that will be included in the specification for a structure.
legislated by revision G to create loads, reaction sets
and subsequent foundation designs, it is important to Criteria for determining loading criteria are provided
understand the changes that will affect foundation within the standard. This is required for locations
designs. The foundation chapter has been updated to outside the United States and may be also be used to
improve and replace many older design practices and to determine loading criteria for counties located in
provide more concise design information. The changes special loading regions. Minimum design values
implemented are intended to provide the designer the applicable to any location are provided. A means for
information required to design a foundation that is handling specifications that involve “survival” or
economical and consistent with limit states design “withstand” conditions is also clarified in the standard.
methodology. Changes contained within the new
foundation chapter include the elimination of “normal It is not uncommon to have wind speeds reported over
soil”, the inclusion of assumed soil design parameters different averaging periods (for example, a 1 minute
for sites lacking geotechnical information and a more average wind speed or an average hourly wind speed).
concise presentation of the design parameters required A conversion table (Table 1) is provided to convert
to maintain foundation stability. wind speeds to 3-second gust wind speeds which are to
be used with the standard.
 3-sec gust Fastest-mile 10-min Hourly It is known that topographic features can produce
(mph) (mph) avg. mean significantly higher wind speeds as the wind passes
(mph) (mph) over them. The standard provides definitions of various
types of topographic features which must be considered
60 50 42 40 in design. Simplified methods are provided to
determine the magnitudes of the increased wind speeds.
70 58 49 46
The standard also allows the use of more sophisticated
80 66 56 53 methods when accurate topographic data is available.
85 70 59 56 The appropriate type of topographic feature for a
90 75 62 60 structure must be included in the specifications. The
default condition assumes that a structure is not located
95 78 66 63
on a significant topographic feature with that no wind
100 80 69 66 speed-up considerations are required for design.
105 85 73 70
110 90 76 73 It is important to note that for a guyed mast, the relative
differences between the base of the mast and the guy
115 95 80 76
anchor locations must be considered in design. These
120 100 83 79 relative elevation differences must be included in the
125 105 87 83 specification of the structure if detailed topographic
130 110 90 86 data is not available. This information is required in
order to perform a proper analysis of a guyed mast even
135 115 94 89
though the structure may not be located on a significant
140 120 97 93 topographic feature. This information is also required
145 125 101 96 in order to provide the correct length of guys. The
150 130 104 99 default condition is assumed to be level grade between
the guy anchor locations and the base of the structure.
155 135 108 103
160 140 111 106 For any type of structure, it is important to specify the
165 145 115 109 elevation of the base of the structure. Since wind loads
170 150 118 113 are escalated with height, the wind load for a 100 ft.
structure supported at ground level would be less than
the wind load for the same structure supported on top of
Table 1: Wind Speed Conversions a building or other structure.
The category of a structure must be established based Specific criteria are provided in the standard regarding
on the reliability requirements for the structure. The loading from transmission lines. As a default,
design loadings for a structure are modified according transmission lines may be considered to be bundled
to the structure’s category. The standard provides for together in blocks or clusters and distributed on
progressively more stringent loading as the reliability multiple faces. The arrangement of lines has a
requirements or importance of a structure increases significant effect on the wind and ice loading of a
(category 1 to category 3). Importance relates to the structure. If specific arrangements of lines are desired,
consequences of failure to human life or property as the requirements should be clearly defined in the
well as to the type of communication services that are specification for the structure.
supported by a structure. The use of different
classifications results in cost savings for structures that
The ground elevation for a specific site may influence
have lower reliability requirements. The default
the loading for a structure due to the change in air
category is specified as being category 2.
density with elevation. Wind loading is a direct
function of the density of air. The air temperature,
The terrain surrounding a site significantly affects wind weather and the season also affects air density. The
loading for a structure. The proposed standard allows standard provides a value to use for design, however,
the flexibility to consider various types of terrain other values may be provided in the specification for a
(exposure B for rough surfaces, exposure C for flat structure based on the air density representative of the
surfaces, and exposure D for smooth surfaces). site.
Exposure D results in the most stringent loading.
Previous versions of the standard were based on
Revision G of the standard is the first version of the
exposure C conditions. Allowing the use of other
standard that addresses earthquake loading. The soil
exposures results in site-specific design criteria for a structure at a site has a significant effect on the loads
structure based on its surrounding terrain. Exposure C
resulting from an earthquake. Design parameters are
is specified as the default exposure.
provided for various soil conditions. When soil
conditions at a site are known, they should be included the safety sleeve sizes required to be maintained by a
in the specification for the structure. A stiff soil climber.
condition is assumed as a default condition for the
purposes of determining earthquake design parameters. IMPACT ON EXISTING BROADCAST
STRUCTURES
Serviceability requirements are to be investigated under
a 60 mph basic wind speed loading condition without Several new provisions of the standard will have a
ice. This is equivalent to the 50 mph fastest-mile wind major impact on the existing broadcast towers and their
speed specified in the current standard for investigating support capacities.
serviceability requirements. Twist, sway and deflection
limitations are provided. When more stringent The new standard accounts for the site-specific
requirements are required for an application, the conditions more accurately. Classification of the
requirements should be included in the specification for importance category of the structure based on its
the structure. location and its usage, wind exposure categories to
reflect surface irregularities, topographic effects, and
The minimum corrosion protection required by the ice thickness specified by county location; these factors
proposed standard is hot dip galvanizing as in previous are combined to reflect the particularity of the structure
versions. The proposed standard, however9, requires based on its use and location. This categorization will
additional corrosion protection for steel guy anchors in allow the owner of a broadcast tower to have the
direct contact with corrosive soil (resistivity less than environmental loading (by adjusting the return period)
5000 Ohm-cm and/or Ph values below 3 or greater than more closely match the importance of the structure and
9). It is also recommended that additional corrosion the associated risk taken by the owner.
control methods be used for AM antenna structures and
other structures in close proximity to buried pipelines or This new revision of the standard is based on the limit
electrical substations. state loading which will amplify the applied loads and
expose any overall stability issues within a tower
Cathodic control and concrete encasement are specified structure. Some of the slender broadcast towers with
as acceptable additional corrosion protection. When long guy spans will have difficulties having their
taping or coatings are utilized, cathodic protection is analysis model converge to a solution under the
also required due to the increased risk of corrosion at ultimate loading conditions as determined from the new
cracks or discontinuities. The default soil condition is G revision. Some of these overall stability issues may
considered non-corrosive. It is recommended that soil not have always been detected using the older loading
resistivity and Ph values be included in the scope of a provisions.
geotechnical investigation and be included in the
specification for a structure. The new standard provides a county listing of
mandatory ice thickness that escalates with height and
The proposed standard eliminates the use of the term its corresponding simultaneous wind speed. This is
“normal soil”. Instead, presumptive soil parameters are intended to reflect the limit state condition of heavy
included in an appendix for use when a geotechnical icing and the related lower simultaneous wind speed
report is not available. Presumptive soil parameters for when these parameters are combined. Older broadcast
both sand and clay type soils are provided. The default towers that were designed with no ice loading
soil type is clay with a frost depth equal to 3.5 ft. It is consideration will be negatively impacted while some
the intent of the standard that the presumptive other towers that were designed for higher wind speed
parameters will be verified at the time of installation. combined with an ice thickness may result in an
The use of presumptive soil parameters for design is not increase in their support capacity.
allowed for essential facilities (category 3 structures).
The appurtenances loading provisions of the new
Revision G contains significantly more climbing and standard allow for reduction of the drag factors when it
working facilities requirements. For example, rest falls into a supercritical flow condition and allow for a
platforms are required at 150 ft. minimum spacing for reduction in the effective projected areas based on the
structures greater than 500 ft. in height. It is a location of the appurtenances. For a broadcast tower
requirement that warning signs be placed on structures with large diameter waveguide lines, this will result in a
that do not meet the requirements of the standard significant reduction of the loading impact from these
regarding climbing and working facilities. A stamped appurtenances.
or engraved metal identification tag is also to be affixed
at the base of cable safety climb systems indicting the Guyed masts are to be analyzed to resist a modified
size and type of cable (to insure compatibility with a load response under the G revision to account for the
climber’s safety sleeve). The standard specifies a 3/8 dynamic loading that these structures are susceptible to.
inch diameter cable as a standard in order to minimize By redistributing the loading response from a static
analysis, this simplified method provides a loading
pattern that more closely matches a dynamic analysis
results. This provision will impact existing broadcast
towers in that some additional capacity may be
available in the lower portion of the tower and in the
guy wires and anchors, and some reduction in capacity
will result in the upper portions of the tower. Also, the
minimum shear response requirements will negatively
affect towers that were originally designed to closely
meet the loading requirement curve.

The new standard also introduces seismic requirements

for towers that are in high seismic zones. In general,
this provision should not affect broadcast towers unless
they have structural irregularities and are located in
high seismic zones. Then, either a modal analysis (self-
support) or a time history analysis (guyed) would be
required to properly account for the seismic loading.

There are other miscellaneous provisions that will

affect broadcast towers, such as high-frequency
dampers requirements and end articulation of guy
assemblies. These requirements need to be met when
modifying an existing tower.

CONCLUSIONS

In conclusion, the new provisions of the TIA/EIA 222-

G standard will allow the designer to use the state of the
art knowledge in the design of structures and will allow
owners of broadcast towers to fine -tune the design
requirements and utilize site-specific data that more
closely represent the current understanding of the
environmental loading these structures are subjected to.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors wish to acknowledge the hard work of all

their colleagues on the TR14.7 technical committee for
the development of this standard.

REFERENCES

ASCE-98 “Minimum Design Loads for Building and

other Structures” American Society of Civil Engineers,
Jan 2000.