 The History of Woodlands in Britain

 The climate in Britain has been arctic for the last several million years, punctuated by
relatively warm timespans, or interglacials of thousands of years, one of which we are in as
of now. Since the last glaciation, British woodland history is considered quite short in terms
of geological time spans, and is also closely related to the human civilization developing.
 At the peak of the last glaciation (100,000 – 12,000 BC), the majority of Britain would have
had no trees. Birch and willow scrub may have grown along the lower reaches of the ice,
with pine in some areas. It’s possible that remnants of pre-glacial flora were sheltered along
the western bays of Great Britain and Ireland’s coasts, but as far as the southern parts of
England, the ice kept any land barren. Information regarding the development of Britain’s
flora following glaciation can be found by studying the deposits of pollen and seed in peat, as
well as by the use of radiocarbon dating. Tundra and moorland followed the retreating ice,
which lead to phases of different tree species spreading from the south. First came birch,
aspen and sallow, followed by pine and hazel continuing to spread north as of 8500 BC,
replacing birch to make it less commonly found for the next few thousand years. Oak and
alder came after pine, then lime, elm, beech, and maple, all spreading northwards one after
the other. From the moment lime arrived, in about 7300, to about 4500 BC the climate
remained stable for a length of time known as the Atlantic Period, a time in which numerous
species grew to form a series of wildwood or wilderness types.
 What did the wilderness or wildwood look like, before man started interfering with it? One
theory holds that Britain and Western Europe in Palaeolithic times was covered from coast to
coast in a wildwood of continuous trees. However, a modern theory proposed by Francis
Vera holds that Western Europe wilderness was a combination of grassland, scrub, and
clusters or groves of trees. It was not a dense, impassable wildwood, but instead, an area
similar to a park, kept up by wild herbivores eating the plants and grass. Throughout earlier
interglacial periods, this may also have been the case in Britain, as creatures of the
Palaeolithic era needed to roam large areas of grassland to survive. A variety of grassland
plants continued to live there in the last interglacial, as according to pollen records. However,
since the last glaciation, the bison, elk and other large herbivores which persisted on
mainland Europe were extinct in Britain, so Vera’s theory may not apply so well to Britain.
 Meanwhile, throughout the period since it’s spread northwards after the last glaciation, the
sustained growth of oak in Britain demonstrates that the wildwood was not as continual as
once believed. Oak is a pioneer species, which requires vacant space to generate more of
itself. Grazing animals are also present to keep areas open, so Oak regenerates in the
thorny brush as a protective measure from their grazing. Archaeological evidence indicates
that red deer, who graze on grass as well as browse from trees, were essential to the
economy in Mesolithic Britain, with people utilizing them for meat, skins, antlers and bones.
 As the Mesolithic (10,000-3000 BC) era ended, evidence of the beginnings of agriculture
emerges. Agricultural weeds, such as plantain and stinging nettle, were also increasing in
number. Nearly all the wildwood was cut down as the population increased rapidly. However,
the falling elm population around 4,000 BC all across Europe has been attributed not to the
clearing of trees, but to what’s referred to as Elm disease.
 Throughout the Bronze Age (2400-750 BC), people were cutting down trees more than ever
before, until the prevalence of the practice “coppicing” peaked, likely at some point during
the early Iron Age. Oliver Rackham (1990) theorizes that nearly 50% of land throughout
England was no longer wildwood by 500 BC. The regrowth from a stump grows more readily
than the original tree, and Neolithic man had discovered this practice, known as coppicing.
Much of the remaining woods were maintained by way of this method during the Bronze Age.
 The Celtic peoples living in the Iron Age were able to master woodworking as an artform.
Today, Celtic woodworking can be seen in houses, boats, wheels and other artifacts of the
time. Coppicing as a means to manage woodland was of massive importance throughout two
millennia that followed. Buildings, roads, fences, carts, and the fuel for heating, cooking,
 metalworking and pottery were all made possible due to wood materials gained from the vital
practice of coppicing.
 A clear divide has existed between wooded and non-wooded regions of Britain since the
time of the Romans. As evidenced by The Domesday Book (1086), all the wood in England
had an economic value and was the property of either an individual or community owner.
Woods were the territories, or ‘exclaves’ of communities who lived some miles away. Even
though it had to be transported over long distances, the materials which woodlands
produced were of obvious value, and their ownership was long before established. Merely
around 15% of land in England was represented by woodland or wood-pasture in the year
1086.
 English woodlands produced mostly underwood used as fuel along with other things, with
small oaks being used to construct buildings. The average wood-framed houses of the
Medieval era mostly used oaks shorter than 18” in diameter. Longer pieces of timber were
hard to come by, and kept only for elaborate buildings intended for the Church. Imported
boards of thin oak or wainscot from Central Europe were brought in for the purpose of
domestic building. Woodland cover was as low as 15% in 1086, and continued to decline
from as a result of an ever-growing population to 10% by 1350. This stopped suddenly with
the plague of the Black Death of 1349 wiping out some of the human population. Woods
which had persisted up to 1350 mostly prospered over the next 500 years.

Questions 1-9 

Do the following statements agree with the information given in the reading passage? In boxes 1-
9 on your answer sheet, write 

TRUE   if the statement agrees with the information

1. An understanding of Britain’s pre-glacial flora’s development has been deduced from studies of
pollen and seed deposits in peat. 
2. Various species of wildwood types began growing in Britain in around the year 8500 BC. 
3. Beech and lime did not spread beyond southern Britain. 
4. The extinction of large herbivores in Europe adds to speculation that Vera’s theory might not be
as applicable to Britain. 
5. The persistence of oak in Britain supports Francis Vera’s theory. 
6. The sharp decline in elm around 4000 BC is more likely to be the result of clearance than elm
disease. 
7. The first evidence of clearance of land for agriculture appears at the end of the Bronze Age. 
8. The practice of coppicing is traceable back to the Neolithic period. 
9. The Black Death negatively impacted growth of forests of Europe. 
ANSWERS

1. An understanding of Britain’s pre-glacial flora’s development has been deduced from studies of
pollen and seed deposits in peat. FALSE
ANSWER EXPLANATION
This answer is FALSE because the statement mentions pre-glacial, which is a contradiction to the
passage's information about post-glacial.

Post-glacial is a synonym of following glaciation.

2. Various species of wildwood types began growing in Britain in around the year 8500 BC.  FALSE  
ANSWER EXPLANATION
(From the moment lime arrived, in about 7300, to about 4500 BC the climate remained stable for a
length of time known as the Atlantic Period, a time in which numerous species grew to form a series
of wildwood or wilderness types) => So we tell that various species of wildwood types began
growing in around 7300 to 4500 BC, therefore, the answer is FALSE.
3. Beech and lime did not spread beyond southern Britain. NOT GIVEN

4. The extinction of large herbivores in Europe adds to speculation that Vera’s theory might
not be as applicable to Britain. FALSE
5. The persistence of oak in Britain supports Francis Vera’s theory.  TRUE 
6. The sharp decline in elm around 4000 BC is more likely to be the result of clearance than
elm disease.  FALSE   

7. The first evidence of clearance of land for agriculture appears at the end of the Bronze
Age.  FALSE   o
8. The practice of coppicing is traceable back to the Neolithic period. TRUE
9. The Black Death negatively impacted growth of forests of Europe. FALSE

10. Every type of wood in England belonged to some person or some community. F  
11. People used woodworking to create elaborate boats, houses, and wheels. C
12. Animals kept expansive areas of land clear without human interference. A