Chapter 21

De Moivre’s theorem
= 2197∠382.14◦(since 742.14
21.1 Introduction
≡ 742.14◦ − 360◦ = 382.14◦ )
From multiplication of complex numbers in polar form, = 2197∠22.14◦ (since 382.14◦

(r∠θ) × (r ∠θ) = r 2 ∠2θ ≡ 382.14◦ − 360◦ = 22.14◦)

or 2197∠22◦ 8
Similarly, (r∠θ)× (r∠θ)× (r∠θ) = r 3∠3θ, and so on.
In general, De Moivre’s theorem states: Problem 2. Determine the value of (−7 + j 5)4 ,
[r∠θ] n
= r n∠nθ expressing the result in polar and rectangular forms.
The theorem is true for all positive, negative and
5
fractional values of n. The theorem is used to determine (−7 + j 5) =[(−7)2 + 52 ]∠ tan −1
powers and roots of complex numbers. −7
√ ◦
= 74∠144.46
21.2 Powers of complex numbers (Note, by considering the Argand diagram, −7 + j 5
◦ 4 4 ◦ ◦ must represent an angle in the second quadrant and not
For example [3∠20 ] = 3 ∠(4 × 20 ) = 81∠80 by
in the fourth quadrant.)
De Moivre’s theorem.
Applying De Moivre’s theorem:
Problem 1. Determine, in polar form √
(−7 + j 5)4 = [ 74∠144.46◦ ]4
(a) [2∠35◦ ]5 (b) (−2 + j 3)6.
√
= 744 ∠4 ×144.46◦
(a) [2∠35◦ ]5 = 25 ∠(5 × 35◦ ),
from De Moivre’s theorem = 5476∠577.84◦

= 32∠175◦ = 5476∠217.84◦
(b) 3 or 5476∠217◦ 50 in polar form
(−2 + j 3)= [(−2)2 + (3)2 ]∠ tan −1
−2
√ Since r∠θ = r cos θ + j r sin θ,
◦
= 13∠123.69 , since −2 + j 3 5476∠217.84◦ = 5476 cos 217.84◦
lies in the second quadrant
√ + j 5476 sin217.84◦
(−2 + j 3)6 = [ 13∠123.69◦ ]6
√ = −4325 − j 3359
= ( 13)6 ∠(6 × 123.69◦ ),
i.e. (−7 + j5)4 = −4325 −j3359
by De Moivre’s theorem
in rectangular form
= 2197∠742.14◦
226 Higher Engineering Mathematics

Now try the following exercise 13∠427.38◦ . When the angle is divided by 2 an angle
less than 360◦ is obtained.
Hence
Exercise 90 Further problems on powers
of complex numbers (5 + j 12) = [13∠67.38◦] and [13∠427.38◦ ]
1. Determine in polar form (a) [1.5∠15◦ ]5 1 1
(b) (1 + j 2)6 . = [13∠67.38◦ ] 2 and [13∠427.38◦ ] 2
[(a) 7.594∠75◦ (b) 125∠20.61◦ ] 1 1
= 13 2 ∠ × 67.38◦ and
2. Determine in polar and cartesian forms 2
(a) [3∠41◦ ]4 (b) (−2 − j )5 .
(a) 81∠164◦ , −77.86 + j 22.33
1 1
13 2 ∠ × 427.38◦
(b) 55.90∠−47.18◦ , 38 − j 41 2
√ √
3. Convert (3 − j ) into polar form and hence = 13∠33.69◦ and 13∠213.69◦
)7 , giving the answer in polar
evaluate (3 − j√
form. [ 10∠−18.43◦ , 3162∠−129◦ ] = 3.61∠33.69◦ and 3.61∠213.69◦
In problems 4 to 7, express in both polar and Thus, in polar form, the two roots are
rectangular forms. 3.61∠33.69◦ and 3.61∠−146.31◦ .
4. (6 + j 5)3 [476.4∠119.42◦ , −234 + j 415] √ √
13∠33.69◦ = 13(cos 33.69◦ + j sin33.69◦ )
5. (3 − j 8)5
[45530∠12.78◦, 44400 + j 10070] = 3.0 + j 2.0
√ √
6. (−2 + j 7)4 [2809∠63.78◦, 1241 + j 2520] 13∠213.69◦ = 13(cos 213.69◦ + j sin213.69◦ )
(38.27 ×106 )∠176.15◦ ,
7. (−16 − j 9)6 = −3.0 − j 2.0
106 (−38.18 + j 2.570)
Thus, in cartesian form the two roots are
±(3.0 + j2.0).
From the Argand diagram shown in Fig. 21.1 the two
21.3 Roots of complex numbers roots are seen to be 180◦ apart, which is always true
when finding square roots of complex numbers.
The square root of a complex number is determined by
letting n =1/2 in De Moivre’s theorem, Imaginary axis

1 1 1 √ θ
i.e. [r∠θ] = [r∠θ] 2 = r 2 ∠ θ = r ∠ j2
2 2 3.61
There are two square roots of a real number, equal in 213.698
33. 698
size but opposite in sign. 23 3 Real axis
3.61
Problem 3. Determine the two square roots of the 2j 2
complex number (5 + j 12) in polar and cartesian
forms and show the roots on an Argand diagram.
Figure 21.1
12
(5 + j 12) = [52 + 122 ]∠ tan −1
5
= 13∠67.38◦ In general, when finding the nth root of a complex
number, there are n solutions. For example, there are
When determining square roots two solutions result. three solutions to a cube root, five solutions to a fifth
To obtain the second solution one way is to root, and so on. In the solutions to the roots of a complex
express 13∠67.38◦ also as 13∠(67.38◦ + 360◦ ), i.e. number, the modulus, r, is always the same, but the
 De Moivre’s theorem 227
√
arguments, θ, are different. It is shown in Problem 3 (−14 + j 3) = 205∠167.905◦
that arguments are symmetrically spaced on an Argand
diagram and are (360/n)◦ apart, where n is the number −2 −2 2
of the roots required. Thus if one of the solutions to the (−14 + j 3) 5 = 205 5 ∠ − × 167.905◦
cube root of a complex number is, say, 5∠20◦ , the other 5
two roots are symmetrically spaced (360/3)◦ , i.e. 120◦
from this root and the three roots are 5∠20◦ , 5∠140◦ = 0.3449∠−67.164◦
and 5∠260◦ .
or 0.3449∠−67◦ 10

1 There are five roots to this complex number,

Problem 4. Find the roots of [(5 + j 3)] 2 in
rectangular form, correct to 4 significant figures. −2 1 1
x 5 = 2
=√
5 2
√ x5 x
(5 + j 3) = 34∠30.96◦
The roots are symmetrically displaced from one
Applying De Moivre’s theorem: another (360/5)◦ , i.e. 72◦ apart round an Argand
diagram.
Thus the required roots are 0.3449∠−67◦ 10 ,
1 1
(5 + j 3) 2 = 34 2 ∠ 12 × 30.96◦ 0.3449∠4◦ 50 , 0.3449∠76◦ 50 , 0.3449∠148◦ 50 and
0.3449∠220◦ 50 .
= 2.415∠15.48◦ or 2.415∠15◦ 29
Now try the following exercise
The second root may be obtained as shown above, i.e.
having the same modulus but displaced (360/2)◦ from
the first root. Exercise 91 Further problems on the
roots of complex numbers
1
Thus, (5 + j 3) 2 = 2.415∠(15.48◦ + 180◦ ) In Problems 1 to 3 determine the two square roots
of the given complex numbers in Cartesian form
= 2.415∠195.48◦ and show the results on an Argand diagram.
1. (a) 1 + j (b) j
In rectangular form:
(a) ±(1.099 + j 0.455)
2.415∠15.48◦ = 2.415 cos 15.48◦ (b) ±(0.707 + j 0.707)
+ j 2.415 sin15.48◦ 2. (a) 3 − j 4 (b) −1 − j 2
= 2.327 + j0.6446 (a) ±(2 − j )
(b) ±(0.786 − j 1.272)
and 2.415∠195.48◦ = 2.415 cos 195.48◦
3π
+ j 2.415 sin195.48◦ 3. (a) 7∠60◦ (b) 12∠
2
= −2.327 − j0.6446 (a) ±(2.291 + j 1.323)
1 (b) ±(−2.449 + j 2.449)
Hence [(5 + j 3)] 2 = 2.415∠15.48◦ and
In Problems 4 to 7, determine the moduli and
2.415∠195.48◦ or
arguments of the complex roots.
± (2.327 + j0.6446). 1
4. (3 + j 4) 3
Moduli 1.710, arguments 17.71◦ ,
Problem 5. Express the roots of
−2 137.71◦ and 257.71◦
(−14 + j 3) 5 in polar form.
228 Higher Engineering Mathematics
√
By definition, j = (−1), hence j 2 = −1, j 3 = − j ,
1 j 4 = 1, j 5 = j , and so on.
5. (−2 + j ) 4   θ2 θ3 θ4 θ5
Modulus 1.223, arguments Thus e j θ = 1 + j θ − − j + + j − · · ·
 38.36◦ , 128.36◦,  2! 3! 4! 5!
Grouping real and imaginary terms gives:
218.36◦ and 308.36◦
1 θ2 θ4
6. (−6 − j 5) 2 e jθ = 1 − + −···
Modulus 2.795, arguments 2! 4!
109.90◦ , 289.90◦ θ3 θ5
+ j θ− + −···
−2
3! 5!
7. (4 − j 3) 3
Modulus 0.3420, arguments 24.58◦ , However, from equations (2) and (3):
144.58◦ and 264.58◦
8. For a transmission line, the characteristic θ2 θ4
1− + − · · · = cos θ
impedance Z 0 and the propagation coefficient 2! 4!
γ are given by:

R + j ωL θ3 θ5
Z0 = and and θ− + − · · · = sinθ
G + j ωC 3! 5!

γ= [(R + j ωL)(G + j ωC)]

Thus e jθ = cos θ + j sinθ (4)
Given R = 25 , L =5 × 10−3 H,
G = 80 ×10−6 siemens, C = 0.04 × 10−6 F
and ω = 2000 π rad/s, determine, in polar Writing −θ for θ in equation (4), gives:
Z 0 = 390.2∠ −10.43◦ ,
form, Z 0 and γ . e j (−θ) = cos(−θ) + j sin(−θ)
γ = 0.1029∠61.92◦

However, cos(−θ) = cos θ and sin(−θ) = −sin θ

21.4 The exponential form of a Thus e −jθ = cos θ − j sinθ (5)

complex number
The polar form of a complex number z is:
Certain mathematical functions may be expressed as z =r(cos θ + j sin θ). But, from equation (4),
power series (for example, by Maclaurin’s series—see cos θ + j sin θ = e jθ .
Chapter 8), three examples being:
Therefore z = re jθ
x2 x3 x4 x5 When a complex number is written in this way, it is said
(i) ex = 1 + x + + + + +··· (1)
2! 3! 4! 5! to be expressed in exponential form.
x3 x5 x7 There are therefore three ways of expressing a com-
(ii) sin x = x − + − +··· (2)
3! 5! 7! plex number:
x2 x4 x6 1. z =(a + j b), called Cartesian or rectangu-
(iii) cos x = 1 − + − +··· (3)
2! 4! 6! lar form,
Replacing x in equation (1) by the imaginary number
2. z =r(cos θ + j sinθ) or r∠θ, called polar form, and
j θ gives:
( j θ)2 ( j θ)3 ( j θ)4 ( j θ)5 3. z =re j θ called exponential form.
e j θ = 1+ j θ + + + + +· · ·
2! 3! 4! 5! The exponential form is obtained from the polar form.
π
j 2θ 2 j 3θ 3 j 4θ 4 j 5θ 5 For example, 4∠30◦ becomes 4e j 6 in exponential
= 1+ jθ + + + + +···
2! 3! 4! 5! form. (Note that in re j θ , θ must be in radians.)
 De Moivre’s theorem 229

Problem 6. Change (3 − j 4) into (a) polar form, (a) Thus if z =4e j 1.3 then ln z = ln(4e j1.3 )
(b) exponential form. = ln 4 + j1.3
(or 1.386 + j1.300) in Cartesian form.
(a) (3 − j 4) = 5∠−53.13◦ or 5∠−0.927 (b) (1.386 + j 1.300) =1.90∠43.17◦ or 1.90∠0.753
in polar form in polar form.
(b) (3 − j 4) = 5∠−0.927 = 5e−j0.927
in exponential form Problem 11. Given z = 3e1− j , find ln z in polar
form.
Problem 7. Convert 7.2e j 1.5 into rectangular
If z = 3e1− j , then
form.
ln z = ln(3e1− j )
7.2e j 1.5 = 7.2∠1.5 rad(= 7.2∠85.94◦ ) in polar form = ln 3 + ln e1− j

= 7.2 cos 1.5 + j 7.2 sin1.5 = ln 3 + 1 − j

= (0.509 + j 7.182) in rectangular form = (1 + ln 3) − j

= 2.0986 − j 1.0000
π
Problem 8. Express z = 2e1+ j 3 in Cartesian = 2.325∠−25.48◦ or 2.325∠−0.445
form.

π Problem 12. Determine, in polar form, ln (3 + j 4).

z = (2e1 ) e j 3 by the laws of indices
π ln(3 + j 4) = ln[5∠0.927] = ln[5e j 0.927]
= (2e1 )∠ (or 2e∠60◦ )in polar form
3 = ln 5 + ln(e j 0.927 )
π π
= 2e cos + j sin = ln 5 + j 0.927
3 3
= 1.609 + j 0.927
= (2.718 + j4.708) in Cartesian form
= 1.857∠29.95◦ or 1.857∠0.523

Problem 9. Change 6e2− j3 into (a + j b) form.

Now try the following exercise
6e2− j3 = (6e2 )(e− j 3 ) by the laws of indices
= 6e2 ∠−3 rad (or 6e2 ∠−171.890 ) Exercise 92 Further problems on the
in polar form exponential form of complex numbers
= 6e2 [cos (−3) + j sin (−3)] 1. Change (5 + j 3) into exponential form.
[5.83e j 0.54 ]
= (−43.89 − j6.26) in (a + jb) form
2. Convert (−2.5 + j 4.2) into exponential form.
[4.89e j 2.11 ]
Problem 10. If z = 4e j 1.3 , determine ln z (a) in
Cartesian form, and (b) in polar form. 3. Change 3.6e j2 into cartesian form.
[−1.50 + j 3.27]
π
If z = re j θ then ln z = ln(re j θ ) 4. Express 2e3+ j 6 in (a + j b) form.
[34.79 + j 20.09]
= lnr + ln e jθ
i.e. ln z = lnr + j θ, 5. Convert 1.7e1.2− j 2.5 into rectangular form.
[−4.52 − j 3.38]
by the laws of logarithms
230 Higher Engineering Mathematics

6. If z = 7e j 2.1 , determine ln z (a) in Cartesian 9. When displaced electrons oscillate about an

form, and (b) in polar form. equilibrium position the displacement x is
 
(a) ln 7 + j 2.1 given by the equation:
(b) 2.86∠47.18◦ or
√
2.86∠0.82 ht (4m f −h 2 )
− 2m + j 2m−a t
x = Ae
7. Given z =4e1.5− j 2 , determine ln z in polar
form. [3.51∠−34.72◦ or 3.51∠−0.61] Determine the real part of x in terms of t ,
8. Determine in polar form (a) ln (2 + j 5) assuming (4m f − h 2 ) is positive.
ht
√
(b) ln (−4 − j 3) (4m f −h 2 )
  Ae− 2m cos t
(a) 2.06∠35.26◦or 2m −a
 2.06∠0.615 
 
(b) 4.11∠66.96◦ or
4.11∠1.17