Open Ended Lab

Problem Statement:
Members in torsion are encountered in many engineering applications. The most common
application is provided by transmission shafts, which are used to transmit power from one
point to another. For example, the metal used in vehicle drive trains experiences a complex
combined loading when in use, with torsion being the main component. An engineer trying to
design a more fuel-efficient vehicle may need to change some parameters of the driveshaft
(e.g. material, modulus, weight etc) in order to reduce vehicle weight and make it more
efficient. Torsional testing can help the engineer identify an appropriate material that will
possess the required torsional strength while also contributing to the goal of light weighting.
The torsion apparatus is available in the Mechanics of Materials lab at Mechanical
Engineering Department, WEC which lets us control different variables depending on what
you want to measure. You are required to carry out the following tasks on this apparatus
keeping in view the previous practices in the lab.

Theory:

Torsion:
In the field of solid mechanics, torsion is the twisting of an object due to an
applied torque. Torsion is expressed in either the Pascal (Pa), an SI unit for new tons per
square meter, or in pounds per square inch (psi) while torque is expressed in Newton
meters (N·m) or foot-pound force (ft-lb) In sections perpendicular to the torque axis, the
resultant shear stress in this section is perpendicular to the radius.

Formula:
In non-circular cross-sections, twisting is accompanied by a distortion called warping, in
which transverse sections do not remain plane.[1] For shafts of uniform cross-section
unrestrained against warping, the torsion is:

JT JT
T= τ= Gφ
r l

Where.

 T is the applied torque or moment of torsion in Nm.

  JT is the torsion constant for the section. For circular rods, and tubes with constant
wall thickness, it is equal to the polar moment of inertia of the section, but for other
shapes, or split sections, it can be much less. For more accuracy, finite element
analysis (FEA) is the best method. Other calculation methods include membrane
analogy and shear flow approximation. [2]
 r is the perpendicular distance between the rotational axis and the farthest point in the
section (at the outer surface).
 ℓ is the length of the object to or over which the torque is being applied.
 φ (phi) is the angle of twist in radians.
 G is the shear modulus, also called the modulus of rigidity, and is usually given
in gigapascals (GPa), lbf/in2 (psi), or lbf/ft2 or in ISO units N/mm2.
 The product JTG is called the torsional rigidity wT.

Shaft:
A shaft is a rotating machine element, usually circular in cross section, which is used
to transmit power from one part to another, or from a machine which produces power to a
machine which absorbs power.

Types:
They are mainly classified into two types.

 Transmission shafts are used to transmit power between the source and the machine
absorbing power; e.g. counter shafts and line shafts.
 Machine shafts are the integral part of the machine itself; e.g. crankshaft.

Transmission Shaft:
The transmission is a sophisticated mechanism permitting a car to function at different speeds
while allowing the engine to give its best performance within the rpm range.
Transmission shafts receive and transmit power to the output system and wheels. Cold
extrusion is considered one of the best manufacturing processes for the production of
automotive transmission shafts. It reduces machining needs because of the near-net shape
that can be obtained. 

Set forge supply the automotive industry with the following types of high-quality
automotive transmission shafts: 
 Input Shaft
 Output Shaft
 Hollow Shaft

Applications of shaft:
Rotationally symmetrical parts are used in the construction of motor vehicles
(especially in engines and transmissions), in the watch- and clock making industry,
and in other branches of industry. Where relatively simply structured components
manufactured by turning or grinding operations were formerly used, today
increasingly complex contours are produced through a combination of manufacturing
processes. High requirements for quality standards necessitate in-process quality
control.

One typical example of this is the production control of camshafts and crankshafts for
motor vehicle engines where a variety of different measuring tasks are combined. In
order to perform a complete measurement in a single clamping action, a multisensory
coordinate measuring machine is required. Due to the close run-out tolerances of the
seats of the rolling bearings, maximum precision is necessary. All diameters,
undercuts, grooves and run-out tolerances can be measured without contacting the
work piece using the image processing sensor. A measuring probing system or laser
distance sensor is suitable for measuring the form, and measurements of axial run-out
can be performed with tactile probes. This also applies to the measurement of cooling
bores in the shaft.

The manufacture of different shafts in the same production line requires an extremely
flexible measuring machine. Modules for measuring recurrent geometric features such
as the cam contour, the bearing concentricity, the width of land, etc. are combined to
form a single parameter program. The user can thus line up the individual modules of
the measurement plan to match the design of the shaft and enter the corresponding
parameters. Time-consuming, detailed programming of large numbers of individual
features can thus be omitted. The results are displayed both graphically and
numerically in a form suitable to the user’s needs.

Precision shafts like the ones used in clocks and watches are measured together with
their corresponding gearwheels and threads. Parametric programs are also used for
this purpose. The high precision of the machines used to perform measurements like
these enables the inspection of diameter tolerances of only several micrometers.

Design Methodology of Drive Shaft

Drive shaft is the most important component to any power transmission application. A drive
shaft, also known as a propeller shaft .It is a mechanical part that transmits the torque
generated by a vehicle's engine into usable motive force to propel the vehicle. The overall
objective of this paper is to analyze design methodology of drive shaft for power
transmission applications. Design parameters were considered with the objective of
minimizing the weight of drive shaft. The design methodology also showed significant
potential improvement in the
Performance of drive shaft. In this paper we are try to explain and analyze the of propeller
shaft design with input parameters like type of vehicle,engine,gear box Specifications,
tyrosine, application of vehicle, desired life expectancy, vehicle aggregate layout etc.
DESIGN METHODOLOGY

Functional Requirement:
Four basic functions that the driveline is excepted to satisfy are:
 Torque transmission:
The driveline in an application must be capable of transmitting the maximum torque
developed by the drive train. The torque loads can be applied steadily under static or
rotating conditions.
 Rotation as per the speed range of selected application:
Depending on the application the driveline may be required to rotate through a
relatively large speed range, which can vary zero to engine maximum speed.
 Capable of operating at fixed or varying angles:
The universal joints of the driveline must be capable of operating through the required
range of angles at varying torque loads and operating speeds without causing
objectionable disturbances.
 Shaft length changes:
The driveshaft length changes during operation of a typical automotive vehicle are
due to the extreme of suspension travel ranging from full jounce to full rebound
positions, as well as rear axle carrier nose wind up and wind down.

DESIGN STEP
Universal joint design:

 Joint phasing arrangement

 Torsional excitation limit
 Secondary couple excitation limit

Tube selection:

 Maximum applied torque& speed

 Driveshaft length
 Design of cross Trunnion and bearing configuration of joint
  Design of yoke, spline and axial motion devices
 Design of shaft support bearing
 Balancing
 Control of drive train disturbances
Different driveline efficiency equation means direct savings in electric
vehicles:
Regeneration strategies in hybrid and electric vehicles can have an impact on the driveline
requirements. There are two key questions. How much energy can be harvested from the
street and how much of that can the driveline really return to the battery? Electric drivelines
don’t just transfer power from the differential to the wheel – they also transmit the negative
torque that enables the motor to recharge the battery. How much and how often vehicles use
this two-directional torque flow is important. In standard drive cycles, around 30% of the
energy transmitted to the wheel can return to the side shaft on its way back to the battery. But
in city driving cycles or hilly country roads, there is a significant amount of additional
loading. GKN Automotive researchers test vehicles have measured 50-60%.

Theory vs reality:

In theory every positive torque has an equivalent negative torque that enables the motor to
regenerate energy. But that’s not what happens in reality. Regeneration depends on different
parameters: the interaction with the mechanical brake system, the efficiency of the electric
drive system and the inverter and battery infrastructure are all factors. Some brake blending
is necessary for an effective and comfortable hand-over between mechanical brake and
recuperation brake. Regeneration is also a question of vehicle stability. With rear-wheel drive
layouts over-braking the rear axle can make the vehicle unstable. And finally, there is the
battery. Even if the motor could receive 100% of the brake energy, the battery simply could
not absorb all of it.

Battery cost savings:

For combustion engines, efficiency improvements mean CO2 reductions that prevent
penalties. But making a powertrain 1% more efficient does not translate into a 1% reduction
in fuel consumption. It is less – and the savings vary according to the driving cycle, the
power demand and the drivetrain’s friction losses. The model is different with electric drive
systems. The side shaft not only transfers the power from the engine to the wheel; it also
helps recharge the battery during brake energy regeneration. When GKN Automotive designs
a side shaft that is 1% more efficient, in some driving situations it can reduce energy
consumption by much more than 1%. And the pay-off is in battery cost savings, not CO2
penalties. More efficient drive shafts can mean a smaller battery. In some applications the
latest CV joints can reduce side shaft losses by 0.5%. With a 60kWh battery pack costing in
the region of 9,000 euros, the potential saving for the automakers is €45-50.