The Role of Social Foundations

in Preparing Teachers for

Culturally Relevant Practice

By Ann Marie Ryan

The 2003 National Assessment of placed in special education. In 1998, while low teacher expectations and intensify an
Educational Progress fourth grade reading representing only 17% of the total school already disturbing picture of over-repre-
results indicate that while 75% of white enrollment, African American children sentation in special education and low
children across the nation read at or above accounted for 33% of those labeled men- student achievement in general education
a basic level—partial mastery of knowl- tally retarded (Losen & Orfield, 2002, p. settings.
edge and skills required for grade level xvi). In a qualitative study of the special Addressing the issue of teachers’ low
work—only 40% of African American and education referral process in a particular expectations of students of color and those
44% of Latino fourth graders do (National district, Harry, Klingner, Sturges, and in poverty poses significant challenges to
Center for Education Statistics, 2003a). Moore (2002) found that teachers referred teacher education. The growing body of
Results were similarly discouraging for children seen as behavior problems and research focused on this issue documents
children from low-income families of whom oftentimes blamed that behavior on what ways teachers can make a real difference
45% scored at or above a basic level, while they perceived to be dysfunctional fami- in the educational lives of children. Lad-
76% of those not eligible for free/reduced- lies (p. 78). son-Billings’ (1992; 1994; 1995) and others
price school lunches scored at or above a In this process, teachers often made demonstrate that teachers can work with
basic level (National Center for Education “implicit or explicit references to ethnic- students to challenge socio-economic in-
Statistics, 2003b). ity, culture, and/or socioeconomic status equities, succeed academically, and retain
The entrenched social inequities of the families” in explaining the reasons pride in their cultural backgrounds.
responsible for this crisis of access and for students’ behavior (Harry, Klingner, Based on a review of literature about
equity in education are historically rooted Sturges & Moore, 2002, p. 79). Many pre- preparing culturally competent teachers,
in broad social and institutional issues service teachers hold similar beliefs about this article argues that social foundations
that influence the pedagogical practices students of color and those in poverty. courses, especially courses in the history
of schools and teachers. They play a sig- Bondy and Ross (1998) found that these and sociology of education, are critical
nificant role in shaping teacher beliefs, misguided beliefs contribute to a notion for teacher candidates to understand the
teacher attitudes, and teacher expectations that many African American children power of racial, ethnic, and socio-economic
of students of color and those in poverty require special education. inequities and the relationship of these
and how they should be taught. These myths held by teacher candi- factors to the pedagogical practices of
To leave these socialized beliefs un- dates include believing that poor African schools and teachers in order for teachers
examined can produce devastating con- American students fail because their to engage in culturally relevant practice.
sequences, as evidenced by the over-rep- parents do not care about their education;
resentation of African American children that they are unmotivated and uncoopera- Culturally Relevant Pedagogy
tive; and that they have grown up with
few literacy experiences (Bondy & Ross, Much of the literature addressing the
Ann Marie Ryan is an assistant professor 1998, pp. 243-246). These notions, derived challenges of preparing teachers for teach-
with the School of Education from social stereotypes of African Ameri- ing students of color and those in poverty is
at Loyola University Chicago, Chicago, Illinois. cans and low-income families, perpetuate increasingly focused on culturally relevant

MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION
10
pedagogy.1 Ladson-Billings (1992) defines different backgrounds and life experiences courses complicates and sophisticates
culturally relevant pedagogy as that which from their own. This demographic reality teachers’ understandings, resulting in less
empowers students intellectually, socially, makes it necessary for teacher preparation paternalistic and more authentic engage-
emotionally, and politically by using cul- programs to better prepare their teacher ments with students. It allows teachers
tural referents to impart knowledge, skills, candidates for the diversity of students to see that they are socially constructed
and attitudes (p. 382). She argues that it they will teach. beings and that schools and classrooms
urges collective action grounded in cultural Exploring the connections between are microcosms of larger societies. This
understandings, experiences, and ways of racial and ethnic identities and pedagogy elevates critical elements of culturally
knowing the world. Culturally relevant is essential for all teachers, since teachers relevant pedagogy—high expectations,
teachers treat students as competent and and students belong to a host of micro- scaffolding, and parent involvement—to
provide instructional scaffolding so that cultures (Gollnick, 1992). Zeichner (1996) more than educational buzzwords with
students can use what they know to access argues that even if efforts to recruit and predictable and measured outcomes.
what they need to know (Ladson-Billings, retain students of color in teacher prepara- Teacher candidates become aware that
1994, pp. 123-124). tion programs are successful and there is their expectations of students are affected
Shujaa (1995) asserts that the in- an increase in their number, the need to by the ways they have been socialized as
tent of culturally relevant pedagogy is bridge cultural knowledge and pedagogy is individuals and as teachers. This then al-
to increase student achievement, to help still of great importance (p. 133). This also lows them to appreciate that their ability
students develop the skills to achieve holds true for teachers who share a signifi- to scaffold students’ learning is dependent
economic self-sufficiency, and to develop cant part of their cultural background with on a deep understanding of their students,
citizenship skills based on a realistic and students. beyond what they have come to know
thorough understanding of the political It cannot be assumed that teachers through socialized and filtered means.
system (p. 200). Mehan, Lintz, Okamoto, can easily translate cultural knowledge Effective teachers of students of color
and Wills (1995) argue that when cultur- into culturally relevant pedagogy (Mon- and students in poverty have an aware-
ally sensitive teaching is not accompanied tecinos, 1994, p. 41). Although a teacher ness of the social construction of their
by an academically rigorous curriculum, may share many cultural aspects with his identities and those of their students and
minority students will most likely not or her students, including racial or ethnic what those identities represent in broader
benefit from it (p. 141). background, other differences, such as so- social contexts.2 These teachers are aware
Therefore, culturally relevant pedago- cio-economic status, can create challenges that identity is shaped by cultural experi-
gy works to assist students from marginal- for teachers. Hence all teachers need to ences and that both the individual and the
ized communities by focusing on academic become aware of the many cultures they cultures they represent have an impact on
achievement toward political and economic are a part of and how it might affect their teaching and learning. This becomes espe-
access. This requires teachers who possess teaching and their students’ learning. cially poignant in the case of white middle
in-depth knowledge of students, subject and upper class teachers, where there is
matter, pedagogy and the social implica- Making Race a need for them to recognize what they
tions of education. symbolize. Their whiteness, along with the
and Class Matter
power and privilege it embodies, will be a
Implications Teachers holding high expectations, defining characteristic in a classroom.
scaffolding from home to school, and in- These teachers will need to understand
for Teacher Preparation
volving parents and community members issues of representation and how their
The complex and substantive de- in schools are essential to increasing teach- whiteness shapes the way they see students
mands of culturally relevant pedagogy ers’ effectiveness with students of color and of color and those in poverty. Consequently,
pose urgent challenges to teacher prepara- those in poverty (Villegas, 1991; Zeichner, not only do teachers need to be competent
tion programs, especially since the demo- 1996). However, an increased emphasis on in their subject matter and teaching meth-
graphic reality is one of an increasingly the importance of teachers having a clear odologies, but they also need to address the
diverse student population and a consid- sense of their own cultural identities and personal and social realties of race and class
erably homogeneous teaching population. their relationship to teachers’ understand- and their pedagogical implications. This
In 1999, 63% of all elementary and high ing of socio-economic inequities is evident will require middle and upper class white
school students were white; however, in in recent literature (Villegas & Lucas, teachers to acknowledge that social systems
that same year one out of every five el- 2002, pp. 27-35). and specifically schools are inequitable and
ementary and high school students had Thus, successful teaching of students that in many cases they have personally
one foreign-born parent (Jamieson, Curry, of diverse backgrounds calls for teachers benefited from this inequity.
& Martinez, 2001). who understand relationships between ra- There is powerful evidence demon-
The demographic background of teach- cial and ethnic identity and pedagogy and strating how social class shapes school-
ers in the same year was 84% white and are aware of how schools can perpetuate ing and how teachers play a role in this
16% minority (Hoffman, 2003). This trend socio-economic inequities. These elements process. In a review of literature on social
shows little sign of changing since the are critical in preparing teacher candidates class and schooling, Knapp and Woolverton
majority of students enrolled in teacher to effectively teach students of color and (1995) assert that teachers’ social-class
education programs continue to be white. those in poverty. identification is critical to understand-
In the fall of 2001, white students repre- Addressing relationships of race, ing how they see themselves as teachers
sented 78% of all those enrolled in teacher ethnicity, and pedagogy and issues of socio- and how they understand their students.
education programs (American Association economic inequity and schooling connect This conclusion is supported by Shujaa’s
of Colleges for Teacher Education, 2002). the more personal and social dimensions (1995) study of several initiatives in U.S.
As a result, teachers are more frequently of teaching. An examination of these im- school districts to integrate African and/or
being asked to teach students who have portant dimensions in social foundations African American content into the curricu-

SPRING 2006
11
lum to make instruction more culturally work against perpetuating these practices teacher candidates would examine histori-
relevant for African American students. and policies (pp. 52-53). Effective teachers cally how such beliefs came to be and what
Shujaa (1995) contends that in order of students in poverty believe that regard- forces were at work in shaping those beliefs.
to support culturally relevant teaching, less of the life conditions their students Examining the expanded access to formal
professional development must be directed face, they as teachers bear the primary schooling for African Americans as a result
toward enabling teachers to focus on their responsibility for sparking their students’ of the Civil War and Reconstruction Era and
conceptions of themselves and others, their desire to learn (Haberman, 1995, p. 53). the limitations to that access in the late
cultural knowledge, and their classrooms’ A strong sense of efficacy on the part of nineteenth century as a result of Jim Crow
social structure. Shujaa (1995) further a teacher is vital to the academic achieve- laws and the “separate but equal” Supreme
argues that culturally relevant pedagogy ment of students. The belief that one has Court decision in the 1892 case of Plessy v.
is more than an infusion of content; it re- or can acquire the skills and resources to Ferguson are critical in this process.
quires teachers to recognize who they are teach a child regardless of race or class is Alongside that, the study of move-
racially, culturally, and economically as an essential quality that includes relying on ments in the early-twentieth century that
individuals and how they have learned to personal and professional experiences, as led to the introduction of IQ testing fur-
view others who are racially, culturally, and well as students, parents, and communities ther complicates students’ understanding
economically different from themselves in as resources for teaching. Teachers need to of how racial stereotypes combined with
order to effectively implement culturally demonstrate that they believe all students institutional barriers resulted in grave
relevant pedagogy. are capable of learning and that they be- misconceptions of African Americans and
lieve they are capable of making a difference in particular the intellectual potential of
Culturally Relevant Teachers in the educational lives of children.3 African American children. The rigorous
examination of such equity issues over
Recent research on effective teachers Building a Foundation time has the potential to challenge the
of students of color and those in poverty validity of current beliefs and perhaps
illustrates that teachers can make a dif-
for Culturally Relevant Pedagogy
dispel dangerous myths.
ference and assist in increasing their Prospective teachers’ beliefs have a Through historical and sociological
students’ academic achievement. Ladson- great impact on their attitudes and behav- inquiries into education, teacher candi-
Billings (1992) found that those teachers iors towards culturally different students; dates have the opportunity to raise their
most successful with African American therefore teacher educators need to make awareness of past and current social
students, encouraging children to choose beliefs an important feature of preparation inequities and the role of schools and
academic excellence and maintain their programs and legitimate sources of inquiry teachers in perpetuating and resisting
cultural identity, are aware of the position (Sia & Mosher, 1994, p. 2). Courses in social them. While teacher candidates may as-
of African Americans in society and how it foundations provide opportunities for such sume access to universal public schooling
affects expectations of students (p. 389). examinations and can scaffold teacher is a given, courses in the social founda-
These teachers are concerned about candidates from their own experiences tions allow them to examine the gradual
the inequities in society and schooling. and beliefs to complex understandings of and oftentimes reluctant move toward
They see their role as helping students educational access and equity. this reality by focusing on the evolution
become aware of these inequities and use Teacher candidates need to be famil- of public schooling and the educational
pedagogy that is liberating, rather than iar with the critical discourses of social experiences of diverse groups at various
maintaining the status quo, by explicitly foundations, examining the historical points in the history of the United States.
teaching students how to gain social and and sociological aspects of education, to Teacher candidates begin to distinguish
political access (Ladson-Billings 1992, p. heighten their awareness of their socializa- between historical and contemporary per-
388). From additional research on success- tion and foster an understanding of how spectives on access to schooling and come
ful teachers of African American students, instructional methods are shaped by these to understand the efforts that led to wider
Ladson-Billings (1994) found that these forces. Teacher education can sometimes be educational access and the challenges
teachers encourage individual achieve- a series of isolated courses rather than a that remain in providing educational
ment and help students develop a broader program reflecting the integrated nature equity for all.
socio-political consciousness allowing them of teaching, lacking explicit connections These types of understandings are
to critique cultural norms, values, and between the social contexts of schooling, critical in preparing teacher candidates
institutions that produce and maintain the actual content taught, and the methods to practice culturally relevant pedagogy
socio-economic inequities (p. 118). used to teach that content. Social founda- and begin to address the long-standing
Villegas (1991) found that although tions courses can provide an integrated crisis of achievement for students of color
successful teachers of culturally diverse experience where content is wedded to and those in poverty. Addressing this
students are aware of the institutional the practice of teaching in such a way that crisis requires a considerable amount of
obstacles that many of their students face, students can see how individual and social flexibility and sophistication on the part
they do not adopt a pessimistic outlook issues have real implications for everyday of teachers. It calls for a strong sense of
toward their students’ ability to achieve pedagogical practice. self, an awareness of how broader social
(p.18). On the contrary many of these History of American education cours- and historical issues affect teaching and
teachers explicitly work with students to es, a common requirement in teacher learning, a thorough understanding of
understand these obstacles and acquire education programs, often focus on under- subject matter and pedagogy, and a com-
strategies to deal with them. standing how education has been shaped mitment to learning from students and
According to Haberman (1995), suc- by broader historical, political, economic, their communities. Such a complex out-
cessful teachers of students in poverty regional, and social forces. In the case of come can only be met with a concerted and
see how education, schools, and teachers the over-representation of African Ameri- coordinated effort by social foundations
contribute to the failure of students and cans in special education described earlier, and teacher preparation faculty.

MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION
12
 Notes (pp. 71-92). Cambridge, MA: Civil Rights Researchers Association (AERA), San Diego,
Project at Harvard University, Harvard CA. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service
1
For examples on how to prepare cultur- Education Press. No. ED420629)
ally responsive teachers and how to integrate Hoffman, C.M. (2003). Mini-digest of education Montecinos, C. (1994). Teachers of color and
culturally responsive pedagogy into teacher statistics, 2002 (NCES 2003-061). Wash- multiculturalism. Equity and Excellence in
preparation programs see Gay, 2000; Villegas ington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Education, 27(3), 34-42.
and Lucas, 2002. National Center for Education Statistics. National Center for Education Statistics.
2
The importance of teacher self-efficacy Jamieson, A., Curry, A., & Martinez, G. (2001). (2003a). National assessment of educational
is examined in Banks and McGee Banks, 1995; School enrollment in the United States— so- progress 2003. Washington, DC: U.S. Depart-
Bondy and Ross, 1998; Canella and Reiff, 1994; cial and economic characteristics of students, ment of Education. Retrieved April 25, 2005,
Haberman, 1995; Ladson-Billings, 1992, 1995; October 1999 (P20-533). Washington, DC: from http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/
Kailin, 1994; Lawrence and Tatum, 1997; U.S. Department of Commerce, Economics reading/results2003/natachieve-re-g4.asp.
Mazzei, 1997; Montecinos, 1994. and Statistics Administration, U.S. Census National Center for Education Statistics.
3
This is especially important given that Bureau. (2003b). National assessment of educational
studies have shown how powerful social class is Kailin, J. (1994). Antiracist staff development progress 2003. Washington, DC: U.S. Depart-
in determining the types of education children for teachers: Considerations of race, class, ment of Education. Retrieved April 25, 2005,
are provided. Metz (1998) studied the affects of and gender. Teaching and Teacher Education, from http://www.nces.ed.gov/nationsreport-
social class on five high schools from different 10(2), 169-184. card/reading/results2003/natachieve-lunch-
classes in 1985 and again in 1995 and found Kleinfeld, J. (1998). The use of case studies in gr4.asp.
that “… even where classes were task-oriented, preparing teachers for cultural diversity. Shujaa, M. (1995). Cultural self meets cultural
the level of discourse and the kind of discourse Theory Into Practice, 37(2), 140-147. other in the African American experience:
was noticeably more advanced the higher one Knapp, M.S. & Woolverton, S. (1995) “Social Teachers’ responses to a curriculum con-
went in SES among these schools” (p. 28). Anyon class and schooling,” In J. A. Banks & C. A. tent reform. Theory Into Practice, 34(5),
(1981) found, “… that even in an elementary McGee Banks (eds.), Handbook of research on 194-201.
school context, where there is a fairly ‘stan- multicultural education (pp. 548-569). New Sia, A. & Mosher, D. (1994, February). Percep-
dardized’ curriculum, social stratification of York: Macmillan Publishing. tion of multicultural concepts by pre-service
knowledge is possible” (pp. 3-4). Ladson-Billings, G. (1992). Liberatory con- teachers in two institutions. Paper presented
sequences of literacy: A case of culturally at the 74th Annual Meeting of the Asso-
References relevant instruction for African American
students. Journal of Negro Education, 61(3),
ciation of Teacher Educators, Atlanta, GA.
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.
American Association of Colleges for Teacher 378-391. ED367603)
Education. (2002). Professional education Ladson-Billings, G. (1994). The Dreamkeepers: Villegas, A. M. (1991). Culturally responsive
data system (PEDS) report. Washington, Successful teachers of African American pedagogy for the 1990’s and beyond. (Trends
DC: AACTE. Retrieved April 25, 2005, from children. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. and Issues Paper No. 6). Washington, DC:
http://www.aacte.org/programs/multicultur- Ladson-Billings, G. (1995). But that’s just good ERIC Clearinghouse on Teacher Education.
al/enrollment_ethnicity_yr89-91-95.htm. teaching: The case for culturally relevant ped- (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.
Anyon, J. (1981). Social class and school knowl- agogy. Theory Into Practice, 34(3), 159-165. ED339698)
edge. Curriculum Inquiry, 11(1), 3-42. Lawrence, S., & Tatum, B. D. (1997). Teachers Villegas, A.M. & Lucas, T. (2002). Educating
Banks, C. McGee, & Banks J. (1995). Equity in transition: the impact of antiracist profes- culturally responsive teachers: A coherent
pedagogy: An essential component of mul- sional development on classroom practice. approach. Albany, NY: State University of
ticultural education. Theory Into Practice, Teachers College Record, 99(1), 162-178. New York Press.
34(3), 152-158. Losen, D.J., & Orfield, G. (2002). Racial inequity Zeichner, K. (1996). Educating teachers for cul-
Bondy, E., & Ross, D. (1998). Confronting myths in special education. Cambridge, MA: Civil tural diversity. In K. Zeichner, S. Melnick, &
about teaching black children: A challenge Rights Project at Harvard University, Har- M. L. Gomez, (Eds.), Currents of reform in
for teacher educators. Teacher Education and vard Education Press. pre-service teacher education (pp. 133-175).
Special Education, 21(4), 241-254. Mazzei, L. (1997, March). Making our white New York: Teachers College Press.
Cannella, G., & Reiff, J. (1994). Teacher prepara- selves intelligible to ourselves: Implications
tion for diversity. Equity and Excellence in for teacher education. Paper presented at
Education, 27(3), 28-33. the Annual Meeting of the American Edu-
Gay, G. (2000). Culturally responsive teaching: cational Research Association, Chicago, IL.
Theory, research, & practice. New York: (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.
Teachers College Press. ED410215).
Gollnick, D. (1992). Understanding the dynam- Mehan, H., Lintz, A., Okamoto, D., & Wills, J.S.
ics of race, class, and gender. In M. Dilworth (1995). Ethnographic studies of multicul-
(Ed.), Diversity in teacher education: New tural education in classrooms and schools.
expectations (pp. 63-72). San Francisco: In J. A. Banks & C. A. McGee Banks (Eds.),
Jossey-Bass. Handbook of research on multicultural edu-
Haberman, M. (1995). Star teachers of children in cation (pp. 129-144). New York: Macmillan
poverty. West Lafayette, IN: Kappa Delta Pi. Publishing.
Harry, B., Klingner, J.K., Sturges, K.M., & Metz, M.H. (1998, April). Veiled inequalities:
Moore, R.F. (2002). Of rocks and soft places: The hidden effects of community social
Using qualitative methods to investigate class on high school teachers’ perspectives
disproportionality. In D.J. Losen & G. Orfield and practices. Paper presented at the An-
(Eds.), Racial inequity in special education nual Meeting of the American Educational

SPRING 2006
13