IMAGE FUTURE

Lev Manovich

January 2006 version

Abstract:

Today the techniques of traditional animation, cinematography, and computer graphics

1
For the larger part of the twentieth century, different areas of commercial moving image
culture maintained their distinct production methods and distinct aesthetics. Films and
cartoons were produced completely differently and it was easy to tell their visual
languages apart. Today the situation is different. Computerization of all areas of moving
image production created a common pool of techniques, which can be used regardless
of whether one is creating motion graphics for television, a narrative feature, an
animated feature, or a music video. The ability to composite many layers of imagery
with varied transparency, to place still and moving elements within a shared 3D virtual
space and then move a virtual camera through this space, to apply simulated motion
blur and depth of field effect, to change over time any visual parameter of a frame – all
these can now be equally applied to any images regardless of whether they were
captured via a lens-based recording, drawn by hand, created with 3D software, etc.
The existence of this common vocabulary of computer-based techniques does
not mean that all films now look the same. What it means, however, is that while most
live action films and animated features do look quite distinct today, this is the result of a
deliberate choices rather than the inevitable consequence of differences in production
methods and technology. At the same time, outside of the realm of live action films and
animation features, the aesthetics of moving image culture has dramatically changed
during the 1990s.
What happened can be summarized in the following way. Around middle of the
1990s, the simulated physical media for moving and still image production
(cinematography, animation, graphic design, typography), new computer media (3D
animation), and new computer techniques (compositing, multiple levels of transparency)
started to interact within a single computing environment – either a personal computer
or a relatively inexpensive graphics workstation affordable for small companies and
even individuals. The result was the emergence of a new hybrid aesthetics that quickly
became the norm. Today this aesthetics is at work in practically all short moving image
forms: TV advertising and TV graphics, music videos, short animations, broadcast
graphics, film titles, music videos, Web splash pages. It also defines a new field of

2
media production – motion graphics – but it is important to note that the hybrid
aesthetics is not confined to this field but can be found at work everywhere else.
This aesthetics exists in endless variations but its logic is the same: juxtaposition
of previously distinct visual languages of different media within the same sequence and,
quite often, within same frame. Hand-drawn elements, photographic cutouts, video, type,
3D elements are not simply placed next to each but interweaved together. The resulting
visual language is a hybrid. It can be also called a metalangauge as it combines the
languages of design, typography, cell animation, 3D computer animation, painting, and
cinematography.
Along with special effects features, the hybrid (or meta) aesthetics of a great
majority of short moving images sequences which surround us today is the most visible
effect of computerization of moving image production. In this case animation frequently
appears as one element of a sequence or even a single frame. But this is just one, more
obvious, role of animation in contemporary post-digital visual landscape. In this article I
will discuss its other role: as a generalized technique that can be applied to any images,
including film and video. Here, animation functions not as a medium but as a set of
general-purpose techniques – used together with other techniques in the common pool
of options available to a filmmaker/designer.
I have chosen a particular example for my discussion that I think will illustrate
well this new role of animation. It is a relatively new method of combining live action and
CG. Called “Universal Capture” (U-cap) by their creators, it was first systematically used
on a large scale by ESC Entertainment in Matrix 2 and Matrix 3 films from The Matrix
trilogy. I will discuss how this method is different from the now standard and older
techniques of integrating live action and computer graphics elements. Universal Capture
also creates visual hybrids – but they are quite different from the hybrids found in
motion graphics and other short moving image forms today. In the case of Universal
Capture, different types of imagery are not mixed together but rather fused to create a
new kind of image. This image combines “the best” qualities of two types of imagery
that we normally understand as being ontologically the opposites: live action recording
and 3D computer animation. I will suggest that such image hybrids are likely to play a

3
large role in future visual culture while the place of “pure” images that are not fused or
mixed with anything is likely to diminish.

Uneven Development

What kinds of images would dominate visual culture a number of decades from now?
Would they still be similar to the typical image that surrounds us today – photographs
that are digitally manipulated and often combined with various graphical elements and
type? Or would future images be completely different? Would photographic code fade
away in favor of something else?
There are good reasons to assume that the future images would be photograph-
like. Like a virus, a photograph turned out to be an incredibly resilient representational
code: it survived waves of technological change, including computerization of all stages
of cultural production and distribution. The reason for this persistence of photographic
code lies in its flexibility: photographs can be easily mixed with all other visual forms -
drawings, 2D and 3D designs, line diagrams, and type. As a result, while photographs
truly dominate contemporary visual culture, most of them are not pure photographs but
various mutations and hybrids: photographs which went through various filters and
manual adjustments to achieve a more stylized look, a more flat graphic look, more
saturated color, etc.; photographs mixed with design and type elements; photographs
which are not limited to the part of the spectrum visible to a human eye (nigh vision, x-
ray); simulated photographs done with 3D computer graphics; and so on. Therefore,
while we can say that today we live in a “photographic culture,” we also need to start
reading the word “photographic” in a new way. “Photographic” today is really photo-
GRAPHIC, the photo providing only an initial layer for the overall graphical mix. (In the
area of moving images, the term “motion graphics” captures perfectly the same
development: the subordination of live action cinematography to the graphic code.)
One way is which change happens in nature, society, and culture is inside out.
The internal structure changes first, and this change affects the visible skin only later.
For instance, according to Marxist theory of historical development, infrastructure (i.e.,

4
mode of production in a given society – also called “base”) changes well before
superstructure (ideology and culture in this society). In a different example, think of
technology design in the twentieth century: typically a new type of machine was at first
fitted within old, familiar skin: for instance, early twentieth century cars emulated the
form of horse carriage. The familiar McLuhan’s idea that the new media first emulates
old media is another example of this type of change. In this case, a new mode of media
production, so to speak, is first used to support old structure of media organization,
before the new structure emerges. For instance, first typesets book were designed to
emulate hand-written books; cinema first emulated theatre; and so on.
This concept of uneven development can be useful in thinking about the changes
in contemporary visual culture. Since this process started fifty years ago,
computerization of photography (and cinematography) has by now completely changed
the internal structure of a photographic image. Yet its “skin,” i.e. the way a typical
photograph looks, still largely remains the same. It is therefore possible that at some
point in the future the “skin” of an image would also become completely different, but
this did not happen yet. So we can say at present our visual culture is characterized by
a new computer “base” and old photographic “superstructure.”
The Matrix films provide us with a very rich set of examples perfect for thinking
further about these issues. The trilogy is an allegory about how its visual universe is
constructed. That is, the films tell us about The Matrix, the virtual universe which is
maintained by computers – and of course, visually the images of The Matrix which we
the viewers see in the films were all indeed assembled with the help of software (the
animators sometimes used Maya but mostly relied on custom written programs). So
there is a perfect symmetry between us, the viewers of a film, and the people who live
inside The Matrix – except while the computers running The Matrix are capable of doing
it in real time, most scenes in each of The Matrix films took months and even years to
put together. (So The Matrix can be also interpreted as the futuristic vision of computer
games at a point in a future when it would become possible to render The Matrix-style
visual effects in real time.)
The key to the visual universe of The Matrix is the new set of computer graphic
techniques that over the years were developed by a number of people both in academia

5
and in the special effects industry including Georgi Borshukov and John Gaeta. 1 Their
inventors coined a number of names for these techniques: “virtual cinema,” “virtual
human,” “virtual cinematography,” “universal capture.” Together, these techniques
represent a true milestone in the history of computer-driven special effects. They take to
their logical conclusion the developments of the 1990s such as motion capture, and
simultaneously open a new stage. We can say that with The Matrix, the old “base” of
photography has finally been completely replaced by a new computer-driven one. What
remains to be seen is how the “superstructure” of a photographic image – what it
represents and how – will change to accommodate this “base.”

Reality Simulation versus Reality Sampling

Before proceeding, I should note that not all of special effects in The Matrix rely on
Universal Capture and, of course, other Hollywood films already use some of the same
strategies. However, in this text I decided to focus on the use of this process in the
Matrix because Universal Capture was actually developed for the second and third films
of the trilogy. And while the complete credits for everybody involved in developing the
process would run for a number of lines, in this text I will identify it with Gaeta. The
reason is not because, as a senior special effects supervisor for The Matrix Reloaded
and The Matrix Revolutions he got most publicity. More importantly, in contrast to many
others in the special effects industry, Gaeta has extensively reflected on the techniques
he and his colleagues have developed, presenting it as a new paradigm for cinema and
entertainment and coining useful terms and concepts for understanding it.
In order to understand better the significance of Gaeta’s method, lets briefly run
through the history of 3D photo-realistic image synthesis and its use in the film industry.
In 1963 Lawrence G. Roberts (who later in the 1960s became one of the key people
behind the development of Arpanet but at that time was a graduate student at MIT)
published a description of a computer algorithm to construct images in linear

1
For technical details of the method, see the publications of Georgi Borshukov:
www.virtualcinematography.org/publications.html.

6
perspective. These images represented the objects’ edges as lines; in contemporary
language of computer graphics they can be called “wire frames.” Approximately ten
years later computer scientists designed algorithms that allowed for the creation of
shaded images (so-called Gouraud shading and Phong shading, named after the
computer scientists who create the corresponding algorithms). From the middle of the
1970s to the end of the 1980s the field of 3D computer graphics went through rapid
development. Every year new fundamental techniques were created: transparency,
shadows, image mapping, bump texturing, particle system, compositing, ray tracing,
radiosity, and so on. 2 By the end of this creative and fruitful period in the history of the
field, it was possible to use combination of these techniques to synthesize images of
almost every subject that often were not easily distinguishable from traditional
cinematography.
All this research was based on one fundamental assumption: in order to re-
create an image of reality identical to the one captured by a film camera, we need to
systematically simulate the actual physics involved in construction of this image. This
means simulating the complex interactions between light sources, the properties of
different materials (cloth, metal, glass, etc.), and the properties of physical film cameras,
including all their limitations such as depth of field and motion blur. Since it was obvious
to computer scientists that if they exactly simulate all this physics, a computer would
take forever to calculate even a single image, they put their energy in inventing various
short cuts which would create sufficiently realistic images while involving fewer
calculation steps. So in fact each of the techniques for image synthesis I mentioned in
the previous paragraph is one such “hack” – a particular approximation of a particular
subset of all possible interactions between light sources, materials, and cameras.
This assumption also means that you are re-creating reality step-by-step, from
scratch. Every time you want to make a still image or an animation of some object or a
scene, the story of creation from The Bible is being replayed.
2
Although not everybody would agree with this analysis, I feel that after the end of 1980s the
field has significantly slowed down: on the other hand, all key techniques which can be used to
create photorealistic 3D images have been already discovered; on the other hand, rapid
development of computer hardware in the 1990s meant that computer scientists no longer had
to develop new techniques to make the rendering faster, since the already developed algorithms
would now run fast enough.

7
 (I imagine God creating Universe by going through the numerous menus of a
professional 3D modeling, animation, and rendering program such as Maya. First he
has to make all the geometry: manipulating splines, extruding contours, adding
bevels…Next for every object and creature he has to choose the material properties:
specular color, transparency level, image, bump and reflexion maps, and so on. He
finishes one set of parameters, wipes his forehead, and starts working on the next set.
Now on defining the lights: again, dozens of menu options need to be selected. He
renders the scene, looks at the result, and admires his creation. But he is far from being
done: the universe he has in mind is not a still image but an animation, which means
that the water has to flow, the grass and leaves have to move under the blow of the
wind, and all the creatures also have to move. He sights and opens another set of
menus where he has to define the parameters of algorithms that simulate the physics of
motion. And on, and on, and on. Finally the world itself is finished and it looks good; but
now God wants to create the Man so he can admire his creation. God sights again, and
takes from the shelf a particular Maya manuals from the complete set which occupies
the whole shelf…)
Of course we are in somewhat better position than God was. He was creating
everything for the first time, so he could not borrow things from anywhere. Therefore
everything had to be built and defined from scratch. But we are not creating a new
universe but instead visually simulating universe that already exists, i.e. physical reality.
Therefore computer scientists working on 3D computer graphics techniques have
realized early on that in addition to approximating the physics involved they can also
sometimes take another shortcut. Instead of defining something from scratch through
the algorithms, they can simply sample it from existing reality and incorporate these
samples in the construction process.
The examples of the application of this idea are the techniques of texture
mapping and bump mapping which were introduced already in the second part of the
1970s. With texture mapping, any 2D digital image – which can be a close-up of some
texture such as wood grain or bricks, but which can be also anything else, for instance a
logo, a photograph of a face or of clouds – is mathematically wrapped around a 3D
model. This is a very effective way to add visual richness of a real world to a virtual

8
scene. Bump texturing works similarly, but in this case the 2D image is used as a way to
quickly add complexity to the geometry itself. For instance, instead of having to
manually model all the little cracks and indentations which make up the 3D texture of a
concrete wall, an artist can simply take a photograph of an existing wall, convert into a
grayscale image, and then feed this image to the rendering algorithm. The algorithm
treats grayscale image as a depth map, i.e. the value of every pixel is being interpreted
as relative height of the surface. So in this example, light pixels become points on the
wall that are a little in front while dark pixels become points that are a little behind. The
result is enormous saving in the amount of time necessary to recreate a particular but
very important aspect of our physical reality: a slight and usually regular 3D texture
found in most natural and many human-made surfaces, from the bark of a tree to a
weaved cloth.
Other 3D computer graphics techniques based on the idea of sampling existing
reality include reflection mapping and 3D digitizing. Despite the fact that all these
techniques have been always widely used as soon as they were invented, many people
in the computer graphics field (as far as I can see) always felt that they were cheating.
Why? I think this feeling was there because the overall conceptual paradigm for creating
photorealistic computer graphics was to simulate everything from scratch through
algorithms. So if you had to use the techniques based on directly sampling reality, you
somehow felt that this was just temporary - because the appropriate algorithms were
not yet developed or because the machines were too slow. You also had this feeling
because once you started to manually sample reality and then tried to include these
samples in your perfect algorithmically defined image, things rarely would fit exactly
right, and painstaking manual adjustments were required. For instance, texture mapping
would work perfectly if applied to strait surface, but if the surface were curved, inevitable
distortion would occur.
Throughout the 1970s and 1980s the “reality simulation” paradigm and “reality
sampling” paradigms co-existed side-by-side. More precisely, as I suggested above,
sampling paradigm was “imbedded” within reality simulation paradigm. It was common
sense that the right way to create photorealistic images of reality is by simulating its
physics as precisely as one could. Sampling existing reality now and then and then

9
adding these samples to a virtual scene was a trick, a shortcut within overwise honest
game of simulation.

Building The Matrix

So far we looked at the paradigms of 3D computer graphics field without considering the
uses of the simulated images. So what happens if you want to incorporate photorealistic
images into a film? This introduces a new constraint. Not only every simulated image
has to be consistent internally, with the cast shadows corresponding to the light sources,
and so on, but now it also has to be consistent with the cinematography of a film. The
simulated universe and live action universe have to match perfectly (I am talking here
about the “normal” use of computer graphics in narrative films and not the hybrid
aesthetics of TV graphics, music videos, etc. which deliberately juxtaposes different
visual codes). As can be seen in retrospect, this new constraint eventually changed the
relationship between the two paradigms in favor of sampling paradigm. But this is only
visible now, after The Matrix films made the sampling paradigm the basis of its visual
universe. 3
At first, when filmmakers started to incorporate synthetic 3D images in films, this
did not have any effect on how computer scientists thought about computer graphics.
3D computer graphics for the first time briefly appeared in a feature film in 1980 in
Looker. Throughout the 1980s, a number of films were made which used computer
images but always only as a small element within the overall film narrative. (Released
in 1982, Tron can be compared to The Matrix since its narrative universe is situated
inside computer and created through computer graphics – but this was an exception.)
For instance, one of Star Track films contained a scene of a planet coming to life; it was
created using the very first particle system. But this was a single scene, and it had no
interaction with all other scenes in the film.

3
The terms “reality simulation” and “reality sampling” are made up by me for this text; the terms
“virtual cinema,” “virtual human,” “universal capture” and “virtual cinematography” come from
John Gaeta. The term “image based rendering” appeared already in the 1990s: see, for
instance,

10
 In the early 1990s the situation has started to change. With pioneering films such
as The Abyss (James Cameron, 1989), Terminator 2 (James Cameron, 1991), and
Jurassic Park (Steven Spielberg, 1993) computer generated characters became the key
protagonists of feature films. This meant that they would appear in dozens or even
hundreds of shots throughout a film, and that in most of these shots computer
characters would have to be integrated with real environments and human actors
captured via live action photography (called in the business “live plate.”) Examples are
the T-100 cyborg character in Terminator 2: Judgment Day, or dinosaurs in Jurassic
Park. These computer-generated characters are situated inside the live action universe
that is the result of sampling physical reality via 35 mm film camera. The simulated
world is located inside the captured world, and the two have to match perfectly.
As I pointed out in my The Language of New Media in the discussion of
compositing, perfectly aligning elements that come from different sources is one of
fundamental challenges of computer-based realism. Throughout the 1990s filmmakers
and special effects artists have dealt with this challenge using a variety of techniques
and methods. What Gaeta realised earlier than others is that the best way to align the
two universes of live action and 3D computer graphics was to build a single new
universe. 4
Rather than treating sampling reality as just one technique to be used along with
many other “proper” algorithmic techniques of image synthesis, Gaeta and his
colleagues turned it into the key foundation of Universal Capture process. The process
systematically takes physical reality apart and then systematically reassembles the
elements into a virtual computer-based representation. The result is a new kind of
image that has photographic/cinematographic appearance and level of detail yet
internally is structured in a completely different way.

4
Therefore, while the article in Wired which positioned Gaeta as a groundbreaking pioneer and
as a rebel working outside of Hollywood contained the typical journalistic exaggeration, it was
not that far from the truth. Steve Silberman, “Matrix 2,” Wired 11.05 (May 2003)
<http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/11.05/matrix2.html>

11
 Universal Capture was developed and refined over a three-year period from 2000
to 2003. 5 How does the process work? There are actually more stages and details
involved, but the basic procedure is the following. 6 An actor’s performance in ambient
lighting is recorded using five synchronized high-resolution video cameras.
“Performance” in this case includes everything an actor will say in a film and all possible
facial expressions. 7 (During the production the studio was capturing over 5 terabytes of
data each day.) Next special algorithms are used to track each pixel’s movement over
time at every frame. This information is combined with a 3D model of a neutral
expression of the actor created using cyberscan scanner. The result is an animated 3D
shape that accurately represents the geometry of the actor’s head as it changes during
a particular performance. The shape is mapped with color information extracted from
the captured video sequences. A separate very high resolution scan of the actor’s face
is used to create the map of small-scale surface details like pores and wrinkles, and this
map is also added to the model.
After all the data has been extracted, aligned, and combine, the result is what
Gaeta calls a “virtual human” - a highly accurate reconstruction of the captured
performance, now available as a 3D computer graphics data – with all the advantages
that come from having such representation. For instance, because actor’s performance
now exists as a 3D object in virtual space, the filmmaker can animate virtual camera
and “play” the reconstructed performance from an arbitrary angle. Similarly, the virtual
head can be also lighted in any way desirable. It can be also attached to a separately
constructed CG body. 8 For example, all the characters which appeared the Burly Brawl
scene in The Matrix 2 were created by combining the heads constructed via Universal
Capture done on the leading actors with CG bodies which used motion capture data

5
Georgi Borshukov, “Making of The Superpunch,” presentation at Imagina 2004, available at
www.virtualcinematography.org/publications/acrobat/Superpunch.pdf.
6
The details can be found in George Borshukov, Dan Piponi, Oystein Larsen, J.P.Lewis,
Christina Tempelaar-Lietz, “Universal Capture - Image-based Facial Animation for ‘The Matrix
Reloaded,’ SIGGRAPH 2003 Sketches and Applications Program, available at
http://www.virtualcinematography.org/publications/acrobat/UCap-s2003.pdf.
7
The method captures only the geometry and images of actor’s head; body movements are
recorded separately using motion capture.
8
Borshukov et al, “Universal Capture.”

12
from a different set of performers. Because all the characters along with the set were
computer generated, this allowed the directors of the scene to choreograph the virtual
camera, having it fly around the scene in a way not possible with real cameras on a real
physical set.
The process was appropriately named Total Capture because it captures all the
possible information from an object or a scene using a number of recording methods –
or at least, whatever is possible to capture using current technologies. Different
dimensions – color, 3D geometry, reflectivity and texture – are captured separately and
then put back together to create a more detailed and realistic representation.
Total Capture is significantly different from the commonly accepted methods
used to create computer-based special effects such as keyframe animation and
physically based modeling. In the first method, an animator specifies the key positions
of a 3D model, and the computer calculates in-between frames. With the second
method, all the animation is automatically created by software that simulates the
physics underlying the movement. (This method thus represents a particular instance of
“reality simulation” paradigm I already discussed.) For instance, to create a realistic
animation of moving creature, the programmers model its skeleton, muscles, and skin,
and specify the algorithms that simulate the actual physics involved. Often the two
methods are combined: for instance, physically based modeling can be used to animate
a running dinosaur while manual animation can be used for shots where the dinosaur
interacts with human characters.
In recent years, the most impressive achievement in physically based modeling
was the battle in The Lord of the Rings: Return of the King (Peter Jackson, 2003) which
involved tens of thousands of virtual soldiers all driven by Massive software. 9 Similar to
the Non-human Players (or bots) in computer games, each virtual soldier was given the
ability to “see” the terrain and other soldiers, a set of priorities and an independent
“brain,” i.e. a AI program which directs character’s actions based on the perceptual
inputs and priorities. But in contrast to games AI, Massive software does not have to run
in real time. Therefore it can create the scenes with tens and even hundreds of

9
See www.massivesoftware.com.

13
thousands realistically behaving agents (one commercial created with the help of
Massive software featured 146,000 virtual characters.)
Universal Capture method uses neither manual animation nor simulation of the
underlying physics. Instead, it directly samples physical reality, including color, texture
and the movement of the actors. Short sequences of the actor’s performances are
encoded as 3D computer animations; these animations form a library from which the
filmmakers can then draw as they compose a scene. The analogy with musical
sampling is obvious here. As Gaeta pointed out, his team never used manual animation
to try to tweak the motion of character’s face; however, just as a musician may do it,
they would often “hold” particular expression before going to the next one. 10 This
suggests another analogy - editing videotape. But this is a second-degree editing, so to
speak: instead of simply capturing segments of reality on video and then joining them
together, Gaeta’s method produces complete virtual recreations of particular
phenomena – self-contained micro-worlds – which can be then further edited and
embedded within a larger 3D simulated space.

Animation as an Idea

The brief overview of the methods of computer graphics that I presented above in order
to explain Universal Capture offers good examples of the multiplicity of ways in which
animation is used in contemporary moving image culture. If we consider this multiplicity,
it is possible to come to a conclusion that “animation” as a separate medium in fact
hardly exists anymore. At the same time, the general principles and techniques of
putting objects and images into motion developed in nineteenth and twentieth century
animation are used much more frequently now than before computerization. But they
are hardly ever used by themselves – usually they are combined with other techniques
drawn from live action cinematography and computer graphics.

10
John Gaeta, presentation during a workshop on the making of The Matrix, Art Futura 2003
festival, Barcelona, October 12, 2003.

14
 So where does animation start and end today? When you see a Disney animated
feature or a motion graphics short it is obvious that you are seeing “animation.”
Regardless of whether the process involves drawing images by hand or using 3D
software, the principle is the same: somebody created the drawings or 3D objects, set
keyframes and then created in-between positions. (Of course in the course of
commercial films, this is not one person but large teams.) The objects can be created in
multiple ways and inbetweening can be done manually or automatically by the software,
but this does not change the basic logic. The movement, or any other change over time,
is defined manually – usually via keyframes (but not always). In retrospect, the definition
of movement via keys probably was the essence of twentieth century animation. It was
used in traditional cell animation by Disney and others, for stop motion animation by
Starevich and Trnka, for the 3D animated shorts by Pixar, and it continues to be used
today in animated features that combine traditional cell method and 3D computer
animation. And while experimental animators such as Norman McLaren refused keys /
inbetweens system in favor of drawing each frame on film by hand without explicitly
defining the keys, this did not change the overall logic: the movement was created by
hand. Not surprisingly, most animation artists exploited this key feature of animation in
different ways, turning it into aesthetics: for instance, exaggerated squash and stretch in
Disney, or the discontinuous jumps between frames in McLaren.
What about other ways in which images and objects can be set into motion?
Consider for example the methods developed in computer graphics: physically based
modeling, particle systems, formal grammars, artificial life, and behavioral animation. In
all these methods, the animator does not directly create the movement. Instead it is
created by the software that uses some kind of mathematical model. For instance, in the
case of physically based modeling the animator may sets the parameters of a computer
model which simulates a physical force such as wind which will deform a piece of cloth
over a number of frames. Or, she may instruct the ball to drop on the floor, and let the
physics model control how the ball will bounce after it hits the floor. In the case of
particle systems used to model everything from fireworks, explosions, water and gas to
animal flocks and swarms, the animator only has to define initial conditions: a number of
particles, their speed, their lifespan, etc.

15
 In contrast to live action cinema, these computer graphics methods do not
capture real physical movement. Does it mean that they belong to animation? If we
accept that the defining feature of traditional animation was manual creation of
movement, the answer will be no. But things are not so simple. With all these methods,
the animator sets the initial parameters, runs the model, adjusts the parameters, and
repeats this production loop until she is satisfied with the result. So while the actual
movement is produced not by hand by a mathematical model, the animator maintains
significant control. In a way, the animator acts as a film director – only in this case she is
directing not the actors but the computer model until it produces a satisfactory
performance. Or we can also compare her to a film editor who is selecting among best
performances of the computer model.
James Blinn, a computer scientist responsible for creating many fundamental
techniques of computer graphics, once made an interesting analogy to explain the
difference between manual keyframing method and physically based modeling. 11 He
told the audience at a SIGGRAPH panel that the difference between the two methods is
analogous to the difference between painting and photography. In Blinn’s terms, an
animator who creates movement by manually defining keyframes and drawing
inbetween frames is like a painter who is observing the world and then making a
painting of it. The resemblance between a painting and the world depends on painter’s
skills, imagination and intentions. Whereas an animator who uses physically based
modeling is like a photographer who captures the world as it actually is. Blinn wanted to
emphasize that mathematical techniques can create a realistic simulation of movement
in the physical world and an animator only has to capture what is created by the
simulation. Although this analogy is useful, I think it is not completely accurate.
Obviously, the traditional photographer whom Blinn had in mind (i.e. before Photoshop)
chooses composition, contrast, depth of field, and many other parameters. Similarly, an
animator who is using physically based modeling also has control over a large number
of parameters and it depends on her skills and perseverance to make the model
produce a satisfying animation. Consider the following example from the related area of

11
I don’t remember the exact year of SIGGRAPH conference where Blinn has spoke but I think
it was end of the 1980s when physically based modeling was still a new concept.

16
software art, which uses some of the same mathematical methods. Casey Reas, an
artist who is well-know both for his Processing programming environment and his own
still images and animations, told me recently that he may spend only a couple of hours
writing a software program to create a new work – and then another two years working
with the different parameters of the same program and producing endless test images
until he is satisfied with the results. 12 So while at first physically based modeling
appears to be opposite of traditional animation in that the movement is created by a
computer, in fact it should be understood as a hybrid between animation and computer
simulation. While the animator no longer directly draws each phase of movement, she is
working with the parameters of the mathematical model that “draws” the actual
movement.
And what about Universal Capture method as used in The Matrix? Gaeta and his
colleagues also banished keyframing animation – but they did not used any
mathematical modes to automatically generate motion either. As we saw, their solution
was to capture the actual performances of an actor (i.e., movements of actor’s face),
and then reconstruct it as a 3D sequence. Together, these reconstructed sequences
form a library of facial expressions. The filmmaker can then draw from this library editing
together a sequence of expressions (but not interfering with any parameters of separate
sequences). It is important to stress that a 3D model has no muscles, or other controls
traditionally used in animating computer graphics faces - it is used “as is.”
Just as it is the case when animator employs mathematical models, this method
avoids drawing individual movements by hand. And yet, its logic is that of animation
rather than of cinema. The filmmaker chooses individual sequences of actors’
performances, edits them, blends them if necessary, and places them in a particular
order to create a scene. In short, the scene is actually constructed by hand even though
its components are not. So while in traditional animation the animator draws each frame
to create a short sequence (for instance, a character turning his head), here the
filmmaker “draws” on a higher level: manipulating whole sequences as opposed to their
individual frames.

12
Casey Reas, private communication, April 2005.

17
 To create final movie scenes, Universal Capture is combined with Virtual
Cinematography: staging the lighting, the positions and movement of a virtual camera
that is “filming” the virtual performances. What makes this Virtual Cinematography as
opposed to simply computer graphics? The reason is that the world as seen by a virtual
camera is different from a normal world of computer graphics. It consists from
reconstructions of the actual set and the actual performers created via Universal
Capture. The aim is to avoid more manual process usually used to create 3D models
and sets. Instead, the data about the physical world is captured and then used to create
a precise virtual replica.
Ultimately, ESC’s production method as used in Matrix is neither “pure”
animation, nor cinematography, nor traditional special effects, nor traditional CG. And
this is typical of moving image culture today. When the techniques drawn from these
different traditions are fused together in a computer environment, the result is not a sum
of components but a variety of hybrid methods such as Universal Capture. I believe that
this how different moving image techniques function now in general. After
computerization virtualized them – “extracting” them from their particular physical media
to turn into algorithms – they start interacting and creating hybrids. Which means that in
most cases, we will no longer find any of these techniques in their pure original state.
For instance, what does it mean when we see depth of field effect in motion
graphics, films and television programs which use neither live action footage nor
photorealistic 3D graphics but have a more stylized look? Originally an artifact of lens-
based recording, depth of field was simulated in a computer when the main goal of 3D
compute graphics field was to create maximum “photorealism,” i.e. synthetic scenes not
distinguishable from live action cinematography. 13 But once this technique became
available, moving image artists gradually realized that it can be used regardless of how
realistic or abstract the visual style is – as long as there is a suggestion of a 3D space.
Typography moving in perspective through an empty space; drawn 2D characters
positioned on different layers in a 3D space; a field of animated particles – any
composition can be put through the simulated depth of field.

13
For more on this process, see the chapter “Synthetic Realism and its Discontents” in The
Langauge of New Media.

18
 The fact that this effect is simulated and removed from its original physical media
means that a designer can manipulate it a variety of ways. The parameters which define
what part of the space is in focus can be independently animated, i.e. set to change
over time – because they are simply the numbers controlling the algorithm and not
something built into the optics of a physical lens. So while simulated depth of field can
be said to maintain the memory of the particular physical media (lens-based photo and
film recording) from which it came from, it became an essentially new technique which
functions as a “character” in its own right. It has the fluidity and versatility not available
previously. Its connection to the physical world is ambiguous at best. On the one hand,
it only makes sense to use depth of field if you are constructing a 3D space even if it is
defined in a minimal way by using only a few or even a single depth cue such as lines
converging towards the vanishing point or foreshortening. On the other hand, the
designer can be said to “draw” this effect in any way desirable. The axis controlling
depth of field does not need to be perpendicular to the image plane, the area in focus
can be anywhere in space, it can also quickly move around the space, etc.
Coming back to Universal Capture, it is worthwhile to quote Gaeta who himself is
very clear that what he and his colleagues have created is a new hybrid. In 2004
interview, he says: “If I had to define virtual cinema, I would say it is somewhere
between a live-action film and a computer-generated animated film. It is computer
generated, but it is derived from real world people, places and things.” 14 Although
Universal Capture offers a particularly striking example of such “somewhere between,”
most forms of moving image created today are similarly “somewhere between,” with
animation being one of the coordinate axises of this new space of hybridity.

“Universal Capture”: Reality Re-assembled

The method which came to be called “Universal Capture” combines the best of two
worlds: physical reality as captured by lens-based cameras, and synthetic 3D computer

14
Catherine Feeny, “The Matrix' Revealed: An Interview with John Gaeta,” VFXPro, May 9,
2004 < www.uemedia.net/CPC/vfxpro/article_7062.shtml>.

19
graphics. While it is possible to recreate the richness of the visible world through
manual painting and animation, as well as through various computer graphics
techniques (texture mapping, bump mapping, physical modeling, etc.), it is expensive in
terms of labor involved. Even with physically based modeling techniques endless
parameters have to be tweaked before the animation looks right. In contrast, capturing
visible reality through lens on film, tape, DVD-R, computer hard drive, or other media is
cheap: just point the camera and press “record” button.
The disadvantage of such recordings is that they lack flexibility demanded by
contemporary remix culture. This culture demands not self-contained aesthetic objects
or self-contained records of reality but smaller units - parts that can be easily changed
and combined with other parts in endless combinations. However, lens-based recording
process flattens the semantic structure of reality – i.e. the diffirent objects which occupy
distinct areas of a 3D physical space. It converts a space filled with discrete objects into
a flat field of image grains or pixels that do not carry any information of where they
came from (i.e., which objects they correspond to). Therefore, any kind of editing
operation – deleting objects, adding new ones, compositing, etc – becomes quite
difficult. Before anything can be done with an object in the image, it has to be manually
separated by creating a mask. And unless an image shows an object that is properly
lighted and shot against a special blue or green background, it is impossible to mask the
object precisely.
In contrast, 3D computer generated worlds have the exact flexibility one would
expect from media in information age. (It is not therefore accidental that 3D computer
graphics representation – along with hypertext and other new computer-based data
representation methods – was conceptualized in the same decade when the
transformation of advanced industrialized societies into information societies became
visible.) In a 3D computer generated worlds everything is discrete. The world consists
from a number of separate objects. Objects are defined by points described as XYZ
coordinates; other properties of objects such as color, transparency and reflectivity are
similarly described in terms of discrete numbers. This means that the semantics
structure of a scene is completely preserved and is easily accessible at any time. To
duplicate an object hundred times requires only a few mouse clicks or typing a short

20
command; similarly, all other properties of a world can be always easily changed. And
since each object itself consists from discrete components (flat polygons or surface
patches defined by splines), it is equally easy to change its 3D form by selecting and
manipulating its components. In addition, just as a sequence of genes contains the code
that is expanded into a complex organism, a compact description of a 3D world that
contains only the coordinates of the objects can be quickly transmitted through the
network, with the client computer reconstructing the full world (this is how online multi-
player computer games and simulators work).
Beginning in the late 1970s when James Blinn introduced texture mapping 15,
computer scientists, designers and animators were gradually expanding the range of
information that can be recorded in the real world and then incorporated into a computer
model. Until the early 1990s this information mostly involved the appearance of the
objects: color, texture, light effects. The next significant step was the development of
motion capture. During the first half of the 1990s it was quickly adopted in the movie
and game industries. Now computer synthesized worlds relied not only on sampling the
visual appearance of the real world but also on sampling of movements of animals and
humans in this world. Building on all these techniques, Gaeta’s method takes them to a
new stage: capturing just about everything that at present can be captured and then
reassembling the samples to create a digital (and thus completely malleable) recreation.
Put in a larger context, the resulting 2D / 3D hybrid representation perfectly fits with the
most progressive trends in contemporary culture which are all based on the idea of a
hybrid.

The New Hybrid

It is my strong feeling that the emerging “information aesthetics” (i.e., the new cultural
features specific to information society) has or will have a very different logic from what
modernism. The later was driven by a strong desire to erase the old - visible as much in
the avant-garde artists’ (particularly the futurists) statements that museums should be
burned, as well as in the dramatic destruction of all social and spiritual realities of many
15
J. F Blinn, "Simulation of Wrinkled Surfaces," Computer Graphics (August 1978): 286-92.

21
people in Russia after the 1917 revolution, and in other countries after they became
Soviet satellites after 1945. Culturally and ideologically, modernists wanted to start with
“tabula rasa,” radically distancing them from the past. It was only in the 1960s that this
move started to feel inappropriate, as manifested both in loosening of ideology in
communist countries and the beginnings of new post-modern sensibility in the West. To
quote the title of a famous book by Robert Venturi and et al (published in 1972, it was
the first systematic manifestation of new sensibility), Learning from Las Vegas meant
admitting that organically developing vernacular cultures involves bricolage and
hybridity, rather than purity seen for instance in “international style” which was still
practiced by architects world-wide at that time. Driven less by the desire to imitate
vernacular cultures and more by the new availability of previous cultural artifacts stored
on magnetic and soon digital media, in the 1980s commercial culture in the West
systematically replaced purity by stylistic heterogeneity. Finally, when Soviet Empire
collapsed, post-modernism has won world over.
Today we have a very real danger of being imprisoned by new “international style”
- something which we can “global international.” The cultural globalization, of which
cheap airline flights and Internet are two most visible carriers, erases certain cultural
specificity with the energy and speed impossible for modernism. Yet we also witness
today a different logic at work: the desire to creatively place together old and new –
local and transnational - in various combinations. It is this logic, for instance, which
made cities such as Barcelona (where I talked with John Gaeta in the context of Art
Futura 2003 festival which led to this article), such a “hip” and “in” place today. All over
Barcelona, architectural styles of many past centuries co-exist with new “cool” spaces of
bars, hotels, museums, and so on. Medieval meets multi-national, Gaudy meets Dolce
and Gabana, Mediterranean time meets Internet time. The result is the incredible sense
of energy which one feels physically just walking along the street. It is this hybrid energy,
which characterizes in my view the most interesting cultural phenomena today. 16 The
hybrid 2D / 3D image of The Matrix is one such hybrids.

16
Seen in this perspective, my earlier book The Language of New Media can be seen as a
systematic investigation of a particular slice of contemporary culture driven by this hybrid
aesthetics: the slice where the logic of digital networked computer intersects the numerous

22
 The historians of cinema often draw a contrast between the Lumières and Marey.
Along with a number of inventors in other countries all working independently from each
other, the Lumières created what we now know as cinema with its visual effect of
continuous motion based on the perceptual synthesis of discrete images. Earlier
Maybridge already developed a way to take successive photographs of a moving object
such as horse; eventually the Lumières and others figured out how to take enough
samples so when projected they perceptually fuse into continuous motion. Being a
scientist, Marey was driven by an opposite desire: not to create a seamless illusion of
the visible world but rather to be able to understand its structure by keeping subsequent
samples discrete. Since he wanted to be able to easily compare these samples, he
perfected a method where the subsequent images of moving objects were
superimposed within a single image, thus making the changes clearly visible.
The hybrid image of The Matrix in some ways can be understand as the
synthesis of these two approaches which for a hundred years ago remained in
opposition. Like the Lumières, Gaeta’s goal is to create a seamless illusion of
continuous motion. In the same time, like Marey, he also wants to be able to edit and
sequence the individual recordings.

In the beginning of this article I evoked the notion of uneven development, pointing that
often the inside structure (“infrastructure”) completely changes before the surface
(“superstructure”) catches up. What does this idea imply for the future of images and in
particular 2D / 3D hybrids as developed by Gaeta and others? As Gaeta pointed out in
2003, while his method can be used to make all kinds of images, so far it was used in
the service of realism as it is defined in cinema – i.e., anything the viewer will see has to
obey the laws of physics. 17 So in the case of The Matrix, its images still have traditional
“realistic” appearance while internally they are structured in a completely new way. In
short, we see the old “superstructure” which stills sits on top of “old” infrastructure. What

logics of already established cultural forms. Lev Manovich, The Language of New Media (The
MIT Press, 2001.)
17
John Gaeta, making of Matrix workshop.

23
kinds of images would we see then the superstructure” would finally catch up with the
infrastructure?
Of course, while the images of Hollywood special effects movies so far follow the
constraint of realism, i.e. obeying the laws of physics, they are also not exactly the
same as before. In order to sell movie tickets, DVDs, and all other merchandise, each
new special effects film tries to top the previous one showing something that nobody
has seen before. In The Matrix 1 it was “bullet time”; in The Matrix 2 it was the Burly
Brawl scene where dozens of identical clones fight Neo; in Matrix 3 it was the
Superpunch. 18 The fact that the image is constructed differently internally does allow for
all kinds of new effects; listening to Gaeta it is clear that for him the key advantage of
such image is the possibilities it offers for virtual cinematography. That is, if before
camera movement was limited to a small and well-defined set of moves – pan, dolly, roll
– now it can move in any trajectory imaginable for as long as the director wants. Gaeta
talks about the Burly Brawl scene in terms of virtual choreography: both choreographing
the intricate and long camera moves impossible in the real word and also all the bodies
participating in the flight (all of them are digital recreations assembled using Gaeta’s
method as described above).
According to Gaeta, creating this one scene took about three years. So while in
principle Gaeta’s method represents the most flexible way to recreate visible reality in a
computer so far, it will be years before this method is streamlined and standardized
enough for these advantages to become obvious. But when it happens, the artists will
have an extremely flexible hybrid medium at their disposal: completely virtualized
cinema. Rather than expecting that any of the present pure forms will dominate the
future of visual culture, I think this future belongs to such hybrids. In other words, the
future images would probably be still photographic – although only on the surface.
And what about animation? What will be its future? As I have tried to explain,
besides animated films proper and animated sequences used as a part of other moving
image projects, animation has become a set of principles and techniques which
animators, filmmakers and employ today to create new methods and new visual styles.
Therefore, I think that it is not worthwhile to ask if this or that visual style or method for
18
Borshukov, “Making of The Superpunch.”

24
creating moving images which emerged after computerization is “animation” or not. It is
more productive to say that most of these methods were born from animation and have
animation DNA – mixed with DNA from other media. I think that such a perspective
which considers “animation in an extended field” is a more productive way to think about
animation today, especially if we want our reflections to be relevant for everybody
concerned with contemporary visual and media cultures.

25