Gert A. Schultz - Edwin T. Engman (Eds.) when d& G8 100,72. Roa RIG Remote Sensing °” in Hydrology and Water Management With 184 figures and 22 tables d sy SpringerContents Preface... 0... cece eee eee ene nen n eet e rene reese eee ees Vv About the Editors...............0.0.:.::e cee eeeeeet erent eres VI FATT 0) oa IX Section I: Overview and Basic Principles ..............------- 1 Chapter 1 Introduction. ............--:0eeeeeeeee eee 3 Ld Introduction..........+ 23 1.2 Remote Sensing Defined.......... 3 13 The Nature of Remote Sensing Data.......- 4 14 Satellite Systems. ..........6 2 see eee eee ..6 1.4.1 Remote Sensing Platforms 6 1.4.2 Remote Sensing Sensors. . 29 1.4.3 Spatial Resolution ..........-+-+++++ereeeeere .. 10 1.4.4 Temporal Resolution ..........+++++e+eereeees . 12 1.5 Remote Sensing and Hydrology. .. 12 1.6 Structure of the Book. ...........6 sess cece eee et ener ee ee ee 13 Chapter 2 Physical Principles and Technical Aspects of Remote Sensing ............-.---2e essere reece 15 2.1 Introduction.........6250: eee eee e een eens 15 2.2 The Electromagnetic Spectrum and Radiation Laws .. . 15 2.3 Atmospheric Propagation ........+-+++++eereeerreeet «. 21 24 Reflection and Emission Characteristics of Natural Media... 26 2.5 Sensor Principles ......... 00002: 0e ee eeee eee e etter ec teee 30 2.6 Summary of Current and Future Earth Observation Missions .....-...--+0sser eer eeee eee 37 Chapter 3 Processing Remotely Sensed Data: Hardware and Software Considerations .............-.- 4l 3.1 Image Processing System Characteristics .......--.+-+++++ 41 3.1.1 The Central Processing Unit (CPU): Personal Computers, Workstations and Mainframes .........0+.-eseeeeere renee 41 3.1.2 Number of Analysts on a System and Mode of Operation ... 44 3.1.3 Serial versus Parallel Image Processing, Arithmetic Coprocessor, and Random Access Memory (RAM) ......++ 44 3.1.4 Operating System and Software Compilers .. .. 46 3.1.5 Mass Storage.......---..-++ + 47 3.1.6 Screen Display Resolution . 48XIV Contents 3.1.7 3.1.8 3.2 3.2.1 3.2.2 3.2.3 3.2.4 3.2.5 3.2.6 3.2.7 3.2.8 3.3 3.4 Chapter 4 41 4.2 4.2.1 4.2.2 42.3 43 4.3.1 4.3.2 4.3.3 4.3.4 43.5 4.3.6 44 Section II: Chapter 5 5.4 5.2 5.3 34 5.4.1 5.4.2 5.4.3 5.4.4 5.4.5 Screen Color Resolution Image Scanning (Digitization) Considerations. . Image Processing and GIS Software Requirement . 50 Preprocessing. . 52 Display and Enhancement....--.---- Remote Sensing Information Extraction . Photogrammetric Information Extraction .. Metadata and Image/Map Lineage Documentation . 54 Image and Map Cartographic Composition . 57 Geographic Information Systems (GIS) . . 57 Utilities Commercial and Publicly Available Digital Image Processing Systems Summary .....-0.-+-+-5- Integration of Remotely Sensed Data into Geographical Information Systems .........--..----1seereeeererrte 65 Introduction ....... os General Approach Raster and Vector Data Structures Current Approaches to the Integration. ....... Errors Associated with Geographical Processing Current Applications. ......-----++++see80e: Watershed Database Developmen Integrated Use of Elevation Data . . Land-use/Land-cover Change Detection 74 Modeling Watershed Rumoff......-.+-.-+-+--+++5+ 75 Monitoring and Modeling of Water Quality.....-- 716 77 Soil Erosion Monitoring. Future Perspectives. Remote Sensing Application to Hydrologic Monitoring and Modeling..............---------+- 83 Remote Sensing in Hydrological Modeling ........------ Introduction ........0.. 0022 e cece eee ee seen erent Remote Sensing in Operational Hydrologic Modeling Remote Sensing in Coupled Water-Energy Balance Modeling........-.--++-2++05+ .. 90 Remote Sensing Approach . + 92 Solar radiation..........-:ee seen .. 92 Downwelling longwave + 93 Precipitation........ «94 Air Temperature . - Surface Air Humidity. .Contents XV 5.5 Modeling Example: The Red River Arkansas Basin .....--- 96 5.6 Future Directions ......-.-.0eeeeeeeeceeeet eres rss n eee 97 Colour Plates of Chaps. 2-5 .......-..0se0seserererctens eres 103 Chapter 6 Precipitation ..........:0s0seeeereereeer eres s lil 6.1 Introduction.........2+.+eeeeeeereeeee eres .. Ld 6.2 General Approach .. 112 6.2.1 Ground-based radar . . . .. 112 6.2.2 Use of visible and infrared satellite data......-.---- .. 114 6.2.3 Use of passive microwave satellite data......-.-+5+ .. 4 6.2.4 Space-bome radar. . . . 1S 6.3 Current Techniques . . 115 6.3.1 Single polarisation radar measurements of rainfall. . . 115 6.3.2 Measurement of snowfall and hail. 118 6.3.3 Multi-parameter radar .. 120 6.3.4 Satellite cloud indexing and life history methods of rainfall estimation ........-.2eeeeeee . 121 6.3.5 Bispectral techniques 123 6.3.6 Passive microwave estimates of rainfall from spac 124 6.3.7 Sampling errors. .....----00++ reeset 126 6.4 The potential for improvement. .... . 127 6.4.1 Current performance levels. .. . 2.» 127 6.4.2 The future ....... 2.2. eee eeeeeeee teen errr ener 128 Chapter 7 Land-use and Catchment Characteristics .........----- 133 7A Introduction........-.-0ceeeeeer errr eeteer ert .-. 133 7.2 Land cover Mapping with Remote Sensing : 73 Vegetation Indices ......--+++--ss2e000+ 7.3.1 Simple Vegetation Indices 73.2 Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) .-.---+-- 138 7.3.3 Refined estimates .......-..-+s25ererretrrrtte ... 139 73.4 Multi-temporal Vegetation Index .... 14 Thematic Classification. .....- 741 Image Classification Methods . 74.2 Maximum Likelihood Classificatior TAB Discussion .........++-0eeee eee TAA Probability estimation refinements .. TAS Segmentation. ......---..+-++e80+ 746 Case study in the Pantanal Area, Brazil .. 150 75 Radar oc... c cece eee eee eee eee ee eee eee eee 152 Chapter 8 Evaporation.........-.0.seeeeecr eet eeeere see .. IST 8.1. Introduction... . .. 157 8.1.1 General.......0.ce eee renee neers .. 157 8.1.2 Remote sensing of land evaporation ....-.-++++++serret 158XVI Contents 8.2 8.2.1 8.2.2 8.3 8.3.1 8.3.2 8.3.3 8.3.4 8.3.5 8.3.6 8.4 Colour Plates of Chaps. 6-8 Chapter 10 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 10.7 10.8 Evaporation and radiometric variables .. Potential Evaporation Actual Evaporation........-..-. Remote Sensing of Land Evaporation: Applications and Modelling Approaches General . Linear relationships ‘between evaporation and land surface temperature [1] Improved linear relationships [2] 167 Relationships between evaporation, surface, temperature and spectral indices [3]........-. 2622 se eee eee eee eee ees 168 Soil Vegetation Atmosphere Transfer (SVAT) models [4]........ 6.02: c eee eee reer n eres 169 Integrated SVAT and Planetary Boundary Layer (PBL) improved observations and improved Pparameterizations ...... 0.2... c eee eee eet eens 171 Local maximum evaporation and land surface temperature {6] Improved observation of land surface variables [7] . Spatial variability . Applications... .. Current and Future Observations Summary and Conclusions Soil Moisture . Introduction .. . General Approach. Sensor-Target Interaction: Hydrologic Examples . 209 Future Microwave Remote Sensing of Soil Moisture....... 212 Remote Sensing of Surface Water .................-..- 217 Introduction . 217 218 220 Surface Water Detection . Lake and Reservoir Area Estimates . Wetlands........... 223 Lake Levels ........ 224 River Levels and Flows 226 Flood Extent. . 230 Conclusion . 233Chapter 11 11.1 11.2 11.2.1 14.2.2 11.2.3 11.2.4 11.2.5 11.3 11.3.1 11.3.2 ~ 11.3.3 11.4 11.4.1 11.4.2 11.4.3 11.4.4 Colour Plates of Chaps. 9-11 Chapter 12 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.4.1 12.4.2 12.4.3 12.4.4 12.5 Chapter 13 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 13.4.1 13.4.2 13.4.3 13.4.4 13.5 Chapter 14 14.1 14.2 Contents XVII Snow and Ice ........--.e eee ee eee este 239 Role of Snow and Ice........-- +--+ 2s errr w.. 239 General Approach .........--seeeeerecesereree treet 240 Gamma Radiation. ..........00essee renee reese erent 240 Visible Imagery ... w.. 242 Thermal Infrared. ........6..000e essere we. 244 Passive and Active Microwave .........+++eeseretrrrete 244 Related Applications .........-.-.--+seeererersr sr tetts 248 Current Applications ... 249 NOHRSC- Snow Cover and Snow Water Equivalent Products.........-.---sererersertrreetns 249 Canadian Prairie Snow Water Equivalent Mapping . ... 250 Snowmelt Runoff Forecast Operations......----+- . 252 Future Directions ..... bene ve» 255 Improved Resolution in the Passive ... 255 Improved Algorithms in the Passive Microwave . ... 256 Outlook for Radar Applications... . . 256 Integration of Various Data Types. 257 263 Soil Erosion . 271 Introduction........--.+45++ . 271 Basis for using Remote Sensing. .. 273 Applications ........+-+..++++ .. 274 Case Studies ........ 0.0 ee cece eer ee eee eeer .. 276 Photointerpretation/Photogrammetry .......--- .. 277 Model/GIS Inputs....... 06. 005.065 2 279 Spectral Properties .......... .. 280 Topographic Measurements .......--+-+--++55s00* .. 281 Future Directions .........6-0002eecee esters tre srs? 282 Water Quality ..........-..00..eeee ee eeere renee 287 Introduction. ..........20e0eeceeee eee renee ener .. 287 Basis for using Remote Sensing.....-.--+-+++++-+- -. 288 Application .... .- 290 Case Studies .. .. 291 Suspended Sediments .......-.--++seeeereercrtee .. 291 Chlorophyll..........-..2e0eeeere reser eres .. 294 Temperature .. 297 (05 ea .. 298 Future Directions ..........-00eeeeee reste renee seers 299 Groundwater .. 305 Introduction. . . 305 Conceptualization of the hydrogeology . . 306XVIII Contents 14.2.1. The three dimensional hydrogeologic situation .........--. 306 14.2.2. Groundwater surface.........-.--- : 14.2.3. Flow systems.........- 14.3 Aspects of water budgets... . 14.3.1 | Groundwater irrigation drafts 14.3.2 Recharge.........-.--20eeeee 14.4 Hard rock terrain and lineaments . .. : 14.5 Groundwater management and conclusions .. . . . . 321 14.6 Conclusions and future perspectives ......-.+--++++see eee 322 Section II: Water Management with the Aid of Remote Sensing Data...........-...--+-++-+-+- 327 Chapter 15 Introduction to and General Aspects of Water Management with the aid of Remote Sensing. .... 329 15.1 Introduction .......0 6.006: c eee ener eee nent eee - 329 15.2 Potential of remote sensing in water management 329 15.2.1 Surveying and mapping 330 15.2.2 Spatial analysis and regionalization. 332 15.2.3. Monitoring and forecasting 332 15.3 River basin planning with the aid of remote sensing .. 334 15.3.1 Introduction ....... 2.0... 2. eee e ee eee eee eee .. 334 15.3.2 Hydrologic monitoring & forecasting 334 15.3.3 Upstream-downstream interrelationships in river basins .... 335 15.4 Watershed management with the aid of remote sensing..... 338 15.4.1 Introduction ....... 00.6... cece e eee nee eee eee een n ences 338 15.4.2 Hydrologic photo-interpretation for watershed management ..........+-02 esse eee eee e eres 338 15.5 Small-scale water resource development and remote sensing - 340 15.5.1 Introduction 340 15.5.2 Runoff water harvesting with the aid of remote sensing. 340 15.5.3 Flood spreading and groundwater recharge ......--- 341 15.6 Irrigation water management and remote sensing . . . 341 15.7 Decision support systems for water management . 342 15.7.1 Introduction .............-.00 cece eect eee ee - 342 15.7.2 Expert and decision support systems Colour Plates of Chaps. 12-15. ........... 000s cee eee eee e eee enn eee 349 Chapter 16 Flood Forecasting and Control ... 357 16.1 Introduction . 16.2 General Approach. . 16.2.1 Modeling Philosophy16.2.2 16.2.3 16.2.4 16.3 16.3.1 16.3.2 16.3.3 16.3.4 . 16.3.5 16.4 16.5 Chapter 17 17.1 17.1.1 17.1.2 17.2 17.2.1 17.2.2 17.2.3 17.3 17.3.1 17.3.2 17.3.3 17.3.4 17.3.5 17.3.6 17.3.7 17.4 17.5 Chapter 18 18.1 18.2 18.2.1 18.2.2 * Remote Sensing Data Contents XIX Remote Sensing Data, Types and Acquisition. ......-+++-- 360 Determination of Hydro-meteorological Information from .-. 360 Transformation of Area Precipitation into a Real-time Forecast of a Runoff Hydrograph .....------- ++ 362 Real-time Flood Control with the Aid of Flood Forecasts Based on Remote Sensing Data ~ an Example . . Basic Principle . . Radar Rainfall Measurements in the Giinz River Catchment 367 Quantitative Precipitation Forecast (QPF).. -+. 368 Rainfall-Runoff-Model Application for Flood Forecasting... 368 Optimum Reservoir Operation Based on Forecast Flood 365 365 Hydrographs . 370 Flood Forecasting and Control in an Urban Environment .. 372 Future Perspectives .....--.-0-se0eeeereeeerreereress es 375 Irrigation and Drainage Introduction Current non-remote sensing approaches and limitations .... 378 Reviews of remote sensing applications in irrigation and drainage... 2.0 ceecec eee eee e eee ene eee eee es 379 General Approach Applications versus Observables and Algorithms. Theory and conceptual approach......- Examples of applications Current Applications ... . General. .........eee cece eee ee eee High resolution mapping of irrigated lands Crop water requirements — Visible and Near Infrared . Crop water stress — Thermal Infrared . Catchment hydrology......---.--- Detection of saline areas . . Irrigation management. ..... Current and future observations Future Directions and Potential Computation of Hydrological Data for Design of Water Projects in Ungauged River Basins . 401 Introduction. . . General Approac sees MODULI: Satellite system, data processing. ...-.---++-++ 403 MODUL IL; Assessment of the monthly area precipitation on the basis of multi-temporal satellite imagery .....------ 406XX ~~ Contents 18.2.3. MODUL III: Estimation of runoff values . 18.3 Application. 18.3.1 Study area and data used 18.3.2 Assessment of the monthly area precipitation with the aid of multi-temporal B2-Meteosat satellite imagery .......... 411 18.3.3. Rainfall ~ Runoff Model 18.4 Further Applications 18.5 Summary and Discussion. Chapter 19 Detection of Land Cover Change Tendencies and their Effect on Water Management 19.1 General Remarks. 19.2 Hydrological Modelling and Land Cover Change. . 19.3 A Case Study: Land Use Change Detection by Remote Sensing in the Sauer River Basin, Western Europe. . . - 424 19.4 Summary Colour Plates of Chaps. 16-19.....0... 0.00.0... ccc cece cece eee eee es 435 Section IV: Future Perspectives. ...................0.00.00000 443 Chapter 20 Future Perspectives 20.1 Introduction ...............2... -. 445 20.2 Status of Hydrologic Research and Modeling . «. 446 20.3 Water Management... ........ 000.0... eee e eee neces 448 20.4 Data Issues in Hydrology and Water Resources Management ...............---.0+. 449 20.5 Intensive Field Campaigns ...... -. 452 20.6 Existing Sensors and Platforms....... +. 453 20.7 Planned and Proposed Sensors and Platforms 454 20.8 Remote Sensing and Future Needs in Hydrology .......... 456 Appendix 20.1 Existing and Future Remote Sensing Satellites and Sensors Relevant to Hydrological Applications ......... 458 Appendix 20.2 Specification for Sensors Listed in Appendix 20.1....... 461 List of Acronyms |... 2.20.20. 02.0. e cece cece cece eee ene tenet benees 471 . 4753 Processing Remotely Sensed Data: Hardware and Software Considerations 45 [ose Open Raster Layer Dialog nell b. Fig. 3.2. The ERDAS Imagine graphical user interface consists of point-and-click icons (a) that are used to select various types of image processing and GIS analysis in the Imagine viewer interface (b)