Lab 1: Naming Plants and Using Keys

Introduction
Plants consider alive because they have some characteristics like; they based on the
properties of energy and matter for their structure and function. They use their
environment to obtain energy and materials from the environment. They change
conditions by making controlled responses to adapt. They can reproduce and grow
based on the contained in DNA. Plants can provide us with a wide variety of
beneficial situations and also have negative effect. Taxonomies were based on the
development of a natural system of classification, organisms that are closely related
classified together. The new classification is based on the evolutionary relationships.
Theophrastus, a student of Plato and Aristotle, ‘wrote extensively about plants
around 300 B.C.E. he recognized flowering and non flowering plants, and the
differences in sexuality. He described about 500 species including Asparagus,
Narcissus, and Daucus. Pliny the elder, a lawyer wrote a text called natural history to
described 600+ species and their medical uses. Gaspard Bauhin established the idea
of a genus, however the current system that been used was established by Carl
Linnaeus he had over 180 students who traveled the world learning to identify and
classify biological organisms. Linnaeus created a large number of genera and placed
every species into one genus or another. He also added the species name (specific
epithet), creating what is called a binomial classification system. Kingdom plantae is
currently divided into 10 phyla. Plants can be classified to nonvascular plants,
vascular seedless, and vascular seed plants. Vascular seed plants can be classified to
dicot and monocot. The binomial name can be written by refer to dandelion for
instance Taraxacum officinale L, the L refers to the author. The name of species not
static over time, it can be changed specially the genes, however the species name
cannot change. In this lab student will be able to identify plant and name them,
drawing plant and their parts, and classify plant based on the plant characteristics
using the dichotomous key.

Exercise A: Naming Plants and Using Keys

Pre-lab Assignment
Before coming to lab carefully read the perspective section of this lab, and then complete
the pre-lab assignment on page 11.

Goals of Lab Exercise

In this lab students will develop some skills in identifying and name plant parts, and also
develop skills in making scientific plates and drawing of the various parts and structures of
plants. Students will develop some skills in classifying plants, develop observational skills to
identify various plant characteristics, and develop the skills to use a dichotomous key to
classification plants.
Introduction

In this lab, student will have the chance to learn some of the terminology used to
define plants and their structures. Plants are quite unique compared to other organisms
and because of their relatively simple design characteristics, they have only three basic
tissues variations on this simple design is altered to form the various types and kinds of
plants.
In this lab students will be able to identifying and name the plant parts, and draw the
various parts and structures of plants. Student should be able to classify the plant and
identify various characteristics by using the dichotomous key.

Materials for this exercise

In this lab students will use Flora of the PNW by Hitchcock & Cronquist, Plant Identification
Terminology by Harris, and Various Plant Specimens. Students will also use Campbell Text (at least 1 per
table), Compound Light & Dissecting Microscope, and lab notebook.

Notebook Assignment
Using a sharp pencil and clean sheets of paper in your lab notebook, examine the various plant
specimens, find the structures from the power point slides on the specimens, and make clearly
labeled drawings of the basic anatomical and structural features of the plants using your eyes,
hand held lens, or dissecting scope. What items are associated with a good figure? That is a
correct figure number, Title, descriptive sentence, and a scale plus magnification if applicable.

Result
In this lab two kinds of plants are observed. The classification is best on the physical
traits on plants like the leaves structures and color, roots types, stems if it is woody
or not, the shape of the flowers and the colors, and the position of the ovary if it is
superior or inferior, all these information can be used to identify the binomial for the
plants, the dichromate key can be used to follow the information and find the
scientific name for species. In this lab two samples are used, first on is Lilium
candidum L: with six colored or patterned petaloid tepals (undifferentiated petals
and sepals) arranged in two whorls, six stamens and a superior ovary. The leaves are
linear in shape, with their veins usually arranged parallel to the edges, single and
arranged alternating on the stem, or in a rosette at the base. Most species are grown
from bulbs, although some have rhizomes. (See picture 1)
The other sample has family name Lamiaceae, and the scientific name is Lamium 
purpureum. They have five petals and the sepals are fused into a cup they have purple
color, and superior ovary. This plant have two leaves per node alone the stem and
the arrange opposite and it has teeth blade leafs. (See picture 2)

Laboratory 2: Plant Identification and Classification

Perspective
Linnaeus was the naturalist in an eighteenth century; he was responsible for
creating the system of scientific names that is used today for both plants and
animals. He could not classify all kingdoms because at that time he did not know
about Bacteria and other small organism since there was no microscope. He
assigned a two parts name called a binomial, first part is genus and the other is
species. The binomial should start with capitalized genus and italics or underlined
both (genus and species).
These phyla are Hepatophyta (liverworts), Bryophyta (mosses), Anthocerophyta (hornworts),
Lycophyta (club mosses), Pterophyta (ferns and horsetails), Coniferophyta (conifers),
Cycadophyta (cycads), Ginkogophyta (ginkgos), Gnetophyta (mormon tea), and Anthophyta
(flowering plants and trees). The physical traits include the shape of the plants leaves, the type
of stem the plant produces (herbaceous or woody), the presence or absence of root or vascular
systems, and the tissues types (dermal, ground, or vascular) found within the plant. The
reproductive strategies revolve around what is known as the alteration of generation where for
part of the life cycle the plant is called a gametophyte and for the other part it is called a
sporophyte.
Plants growth requirements such as needs for inorganic minerals, water volumes, and sun
exposure would also be used to classify plants. What binds plants together are common physical
characteristics’: multi-cellular bodies, chlorophylls as the primary pigment, cellulose as the
primary molecule of a cell wall, and reproduce by alteration of generation strategy.
Today people use not only physical traits, but also other criteria such as chemical make-up, DNA
similarities, breeding habits, and/or behavioral habits to classify the organisms. The techniques
of classification are continually adapted and being re-evaluated as new technology makes
scientists aware of different aspects of the relatedness of specimens. In this lab student will be
able to classify different given plant by notice some of physical traits and classify them using the
dichotomous key. Students will by able to find the family and scientific name for the plants

Exercise A: Classification of Selected Plant Species

Pre-lab Assignment
Before coming to lab carefully read the Perspective and the Introduction on Plant
Classification, and then complete the pre-lab assignment on page 15.

Goals of Lab Exercise

In this lab, students will develop some skills in classifying plants, develop observational
skills to identify various plant characteristics, and develop the skills to use a dichotomous key to
classification plants.

Introduction
In this lab, students will have the opportunity to classify three plants specie based on
criteria found in textbooks. This lab will give the opportunity to use designed
classification schemes and develop skills that are needed to classify plants in the wild.
In this lab student will be able to classify different given plant by notice some of physical traits
and classify them using the dichotomous key. Students will by able to find the family and
scientific name for the plants
Materials for this exercise
In this lab students will use flora of the PNW by Hitchcock and cronquist, campbell text,
plant identification terminology by Harris, and compound light and dissecting
microscope. Student’s will used various plants specimens and lab notebook.

Plant # 1 Family lamiaceae

Genus, species, authority Lamium purpureum L. – purple deadnettle

List and draw some of the characteristics of this family (i.e. characteristics
from the dichotomous key that helped you identify the plant) in your lab notebook:
Page 18 28 b, 29 b, 32 a, 33 b, 38 b, page 34 18 b superior overy for champer in
ovray lower petal color, page 16 7b 9b 10b Number of sepals, petals or tepals:
there are five petals, sepals, or tepals in the flower
Fusion of sepals and petals:
the petals or the sepals are fused into a cup
Pag 18 25a 26 b 27b petal fuse form tube
blue to purple
pink to red
Leaf type: the leaves are simple (i.e., lobed or unlobed but not separated into
leaflets)
Leaf arrangement
opposite: there are two leaves per node along the stem
Leaf blade edges: the edge of the leaf blade has teeth
Flower symmetry: there is only one way to evenly divide the flower is radial
symmetrical.

Plant # 2 Family Portulaceae

Genus, species, authority: Montia sibiria. Howell

List and draw some of the characteristics of this family (i.e. characteristics from the
dichotomous key that helped you identify the plant) in your lab notebook:
Habitat: terrestrial
Flower petal color: pink to red, and white
Leaf type: the leaves are simple (i.e., lobed or unlobed but not separated into
leaflets)
Leaf arrangement: opposite: there are two leaves per node along the stem
Leaf blade edges: the edge of the leaf blade is entire (has no teeth or lobes)
Flower symmetry: there are two or more ways to evenly divide the flower (the
flower is radially symmetrical)
Number of sepals, petals: there are five petals, sepals, or tepals in the flower

The have 2 sepel and white purple flower (petals are 5) in XIVa , subgroup 11b,and 14 a,
leaves are reticulate opposite portulaceae family

Plant # 3
Family: Adoxaceae

Genus, species, authority: Sambucus s-canadensis L

List and draw some of the characteristics of this family (i.e. characteristics from
the dichotomous key that helped you identify the plant) in your lab notebook:  

The leaves are arranged in opposite pairs and the type is a compound, pinnate with
five to nine leaflets, and reticular veins. The flower has white color has four pedals
and inferior ovary.
.

Analysis
In this lab students use the physical trait to classify the plants in their family and
find the scientific name (genus and species), The classification is best on the physical
traits on plants like the leaves structures and color, roots types, stems if it is woody
or not, the shape of the flowers and the colors, and the position of the ovary if it is
superior or inferior, all these information can be used to identify the binomial for the
plants, the dichromate key can be used to follow the information and find the
scientific name for species they dichotomous key is used as a guide. Three samples
are been used in this lab. Sample A has family name Lamiaceae and (genus and
species) is Purpureum lamium. This plant has five sepals, superior overy, four
champer in ovary the petal is fuse form tube. Leaves type are simple (lobed or
unlobed but not separated into leaflets), Leaf arrangement is opposite and there are
two leaves per node along the stem
Leaf blade edges are the edge of the leaf blade is entire (has no teeth or lobes)
There are two or more ways to evenly divide the flower (the flower is
radially symmetrical). (See picture A)
Sample B has the family name Portulaceae, and scientific name is Montia sibiria.
Howell. This plant has two sepals, purple flower with four pedals, the leaves are
reticulate and opposite. (See picture B)
Sample C has family name adoxaceae, the scientific name is Sambucus S
Canadensis.L.
The leaves are arranged in opposite pairs and the type is a compound, pinnate with
five to nine leaflets, and reticular veins. The flower has white color has four pedals
and inferior ovary. (See picture C)

Laboratory 3: Plant Diversity I  Nonvascular

and Seedless Vascular Plants

Introduction
The major factor in determining the trends in diversity was the plant diversity. The
evolutionists believe that the plants originated from the kingdom of Protista
specifically green alga. Green alga share some of characteristic with both water and
land based plants. Green Alga and plant have chlorophylls as primary photosynthetic
pigment, their cell wall made of cellulose, and store glucose as starch. Scientists
estimate the period of move plant from water to land about 475 mya. Plants face
many problem when they move to the land; UV radiation, obtain and prevent loss
water, the effect of microbial and parasite, and others. Plants show many adaptions
when they move to the land; all land plant follow the alteration of generation
reproductive strategy, they have saprophyte diploid cells (2n) and gametophyte
haploid (n), in mosses the gametophyte is dominant but in ferns and gymnosperm
and angiosperm sporophyte is dominant. Reducing the size of gametophyte is
advantage for plant because gametophyte is haploid cell so less affected by
environment comparing that with gametophyte. Plants also form roots instead of
rudimentary green alga to obtain water and mineral, used cuticle to prevent lose
water, stomata to control the water loses. They also adept to environment by
overcome the gravity by use the lignin that give support and protection to the stem
and help plant to stand. Plants continue to show adaption so the start first to
develop the walled spores so they can survive in harsh environment, and the
develop seed to keep the embryo with food supplied to keep in save place until the
time at good conditions so they start to make roots, stem and leaf and grow by
mitosis.

Exercise A: Nonvascular Plants

Goals of Lab Exercise

In this lab students will understand the characteristics of all plants that bind them
together, identify the structures that define a nonvascular plant, and understand the
reproductive cyclic habits of the nonvascular plants.

Introduction

Bryophytes the plant that is exist now is similar to the dwelling plants, which they don’t
have vascular tubes, or rudimentary to carry their body fluids. These plants don’t have
true roots of leafs. They rely on facilitated diffusion to transport the sugars that they make
from cell to cell. They also use simple diffusion to transport water and mineral from soil
to plant and that is required small size and simple structure. Therefore these plants
required moist and humidity in order to survive and reproduce since thy also have
flagellated sperms produce by Antheridia (male gametophyte), they required moist
environment in order to move to fertilize eggs in archegonia which is the female
gametophyte. There are three kinds of plant, mosses (Bryophyta), liverworts
(Hepatophyta), and hornworts (Anthocerophyta).
In this lab students will observe the adaption that this plant show in order to live on
land for example the dominant generation of gametophyte the type and shape of
roots, the size of environment and the structure of archegonia and antheridia, and
the small size of these kinds of plants that don’t have vascular system.

Materials for this exercise

In this lab, students will use Flora of the PNW by Hitchcock & Cronquist, Plant Identification Terminology
by Harris, Various Plant Specimens, Lab Notebook, Compound Light and Dissecting Microscope, Campbell
Text (1 per table), Various Bryophyta Slides, and Various Hepatophyta slides.

1. Answer the following questions about liverworts in your lab notebook.

A. Are the spores produced by the moss sporophyte formed by mitosis or meiosis?
Are they haploid or diploid? Explain?

Spores in the sporangia produced by meiosis because sporangium that has is

diploid (2n) cells that is divide by meiosis to produce haploid spores (n).

B. Do the spores belong to the gametophyte or sporophyte generation? Explain?

Spores produce by sporophyte when sporangium produce haploid spores by
meiosis.
C. Are the gametes haploid or diploid? Are they produced by meiosis or mitosis?
Explain?
Gametes are haploid cell produce by gametophyte when archegonia and antheridia
divide by mitosis to form gametes.

D. Is the dominant generation for the Bryophytes the gametophyte or the

sporophyte? Explain?
Gametophyte in bryophytes is dominant that form the plant like mosses that we can
see.

E. Can you suggest any ecological roles for bryophytes? (Hint: the answer is not: “no”)
Yes, the convenient environment is the moist area because the bryophytes has
flagellated sperm so they rely on water in fertilization, also the plant has no vascular
tissue so the depend on the simple diffusion to move water and minerals so they
need to be in the moist area. Therefore, they need moist environment to live in so
can reproduce. Some environment may be good place for ferns to live in like rain
forest, and close to the water in shaded area.

Plants?
They have gametophyte dominants, they have small size because they transport water and
minerals by simple diffusion, they have flagellated sperm, they have no vascular, and
they rely on water in fertilization.

A. Is the plant you observed the gametophyte or the sporophyte? Explain?

Gametophyte because it is in the group of bryophyte so the dominant generation
is the gametophyte so the generation that we can see.
B. Are the gemmae responsible for asexual or sexual reproduction? Explain?

There is specific structure peculiar to certain liverwort species. That's the cupule in
which you may be able to find gemmae, and in each cupule you can see little bumps,
like green eggs in green nests. The bumps are gemmae. Liverworts do have sexual
reproduction, but some of them also reproduce asexually (vegetatively), with no sex
involved.

C. Why are these plants, like most Bryophytes, restricted to moist habitats, and why
are they always small?

These plants have flagellated sperm so they rely on water in fertilization (help
sperms move). They have small body size because they don’t have vascular
system so they rely on simple diffusion to transport water and minerals so the
small size is required.

D. Complete the table below in your lab notebook relating the features of bryophytes
to their success in the land environment.

Table 1: primitive and advanced features for bryophytes

Primitive Features Advanced Features
1- The have pigment to do Cuticles, multicellular
photosynthesis. gametangia, Primitive features
include their non-vascular
2- Alternation of generation
system, and motile sperms. The 
3- Apical meristem
development of gametangia provided
4- Walled spores further protection specifically for 
gametes. They have rhizoid root
which is so tiny and simple and also
they have small size because the used
simple diffusion to transport water to
the plant parts.
 

Whisk Fern and Horsetail Questions:

A. Are there any leaves on the whisk fern? No On the horsetails?__yes____
B. Are sporangia present on the whisk fern? ___yes___ On the horsetails?
__yes_____
C. Are the spores in the sporangia produced by mitosis or meiosis? Explain?
 Spores in the sporangia produced by meiosis because sporangium that has is diploid
(2n) sporocyte cells that is divide by meiosis to produce haploid spores (n).

D. Are the sporangia haploid or diploid? Explain? Think about which generation
produces them.
Sporangia are diploid (2n) that is produced by the fertilization of sperm and eggs in
the archegonia (female gametophyte) to produce diploid zygote (2n) that will
develop to embryo by mitosis and produce sporophyte that is diploid (2n).

E. Once dispersed will these spores produce the gametophyte or sporophyte

generation? Explain?
The spores are produced by sporophyte when the sporangiums have cells (2n) that
can divide by meiosis to produce the haploid cell (n) spores, the spores then under
mitosis can produce gametophyte (n).

Disscusion
Bryophyte show simple structure and small size plant since they don’t have
vascular system, they rely on simple diffusion to transport water, and minerals and
food form soil to plant and vice versa. Pterophyta has simple vascular system so they
can transport water, food, and minerals form/ to plant. Bryophyte and Pterophyta
both have flagellated sperm so they rely on water to transport sperms; therefore
they prefer the moist habitat.
(See table 1)
They dominant generation in mosses is gametophyte and they have rhizoid. (See
picture )

Exercise B: Seedless Vascular Plants

Goals of Lab Exercise

In this lab, students will understand the characteristics of all plants that bind them
together, identify the structures that define a seedless vascular plant, and understand the
reproductive cyclic habits of the seedless vascular plants.
Introduction

Plant vascular tissue shows more adaption in environment especially during the
Carboniferous period they are similar to the amphibians. They grow close to water
because the need it for fertilization and also because they have unprotected and free
living embryos. When the swamps dried up these plants died out and decayed into the
fossil fuels, some of these plants live in the northwest area because of the moist habitat
and more rain especially in the Pacific Northwest.
There are three groups of plants called club mosses (Lycophyta), ferns (Pterophyta),
and the horsetails (Sphenophyta). These plants have vascular, xylem to move water
mineral from the soil up to the plant parts and phloem to move cars from the leafs
where they are created to other plants parts, plants can use the vascular tissue to
transport amino acids, lipids and vitamins. These plants different from the
bryophytes by having sporophyte as a dominant form that is independent from the
gametophyte form, and these plants have flagellated sperm that required moist
environment. In this lab students will be able to see the development pattern in this
group of plants that help them to live on land and adapt better than bryophyte by
having the vascular system that help this plant to move food water and mineral from
the roots to shoots and vice versa. Also students will be able to see the sporophyte as
dominant generation in these plants. This group of plants also has the spores that
are stick to the leave.

Materials for this exercise

Students will use Flora of the PNW by Hitchcock & Cronquist, Plant Identification Terminology by
Harris
Various Plant Specimens, Campbell text one per table, Compound Light & Dissecting Microscope, and lab
notebook.
Answer question:

Fern Questions:
A. Are the spores produced by the fern sporophyte formed by mitosis or meiosis?
Explain?
The spores produce by meiosis, the sporophyte that is diploid that form after
fertilized the egg and sperm in archegonia (female gametophyte) the sporophyte has
(diploid cell 2n) that produce the haploid spores (n) by meiosis.

B. Do the spores belong to the gametophyte or sporophyte generation? Explain?

Sporophyte generation can produce spores by meiosis and this spores can divide by
mitosis to form gametophyte with is haploid (n) generation.

C. Are the gametes produced by meiosis or mitosis? Explain?

 Gametes produce by gametophyte that has two kinds of haploid cell (n) antheridia
and archegonia these cell will produce gametes by mitosis.

D. Are the archegonia and antheridia haploid or diploid? Explain? Think about which
generation produces them.
Both archegonia and antheridia are haploid because the produce by gametophyte
with is haploid generation (n).

E. Is the dominant generation for the fern the gametophyte or sporophyte? Explain?
Sporophyte is the dominant generation in fern because it has bigger structure
vascular plant that can live better in environment. And they also live longer and we
can see them more often comparing with gametophyte that will be not clearly visible
and will die after the sporophyte start grow.

Can you suggest any ecological role for ferns?

Ferns has flagellated sperm so they need moist environment to live in so can
reproduce. Some environment may be good place for ferns to live in like rain forest,
and close to the water in shaded area.

F. Describe how each of the following contributed to the success (if any) of land plants:
gametangium, cuticle, rhizoid, motile sperm, and vascular issue.

G-
Gametangium: can produce gamete by mitosis and provide good place for embryo
to grow support the embryo with food.

Cuticle: prevent desiccation of plant and also protect the plants from pathogen
(parasite).

Rhizoid: help plants to absorb water and mineral from the soil.
Motile sperm: can move to fertilize the egg in archegonia because plants cannot
move.

Vascular tissue: transport water, minerals, vitamins, lipid, carbohydrate, nucleic acid,
amino acid from shoot to the root of plant and vice versa.

Discussion
 Ferns and they show more adaption in environment the dominant generation is
the sporophyte, the size of this plant is bigger comparing with the mosses because
they have vascular system so the can transport water, minerals, and food form the
soil to plant and vice versa. Ferns has spores that are located on the surface of leaves
they have rudiment instead of roots. Whisk ferns don’t have real roots or leafs.
These groups have different shape and size based on their environment, and they do
not have seeds they have just embryo that is protect by the female gametophyte and
they will divide by mitosis to produce sporophyte.
The sporophyte in Pterophyta is dominant whereas The gametophyte is small
and separated female gametophyte (archegonia) and male gametophyte
( antheridia). (See picture L )
Pterophyta has flagellated sperm so they rely on water to transport sperms;
therefore they prefer the moist habitat. (See picture ).

Analysis
In this lab group of Bryophyte, Hepatophyta and Pterophyta is absorved to
identify the plant based on their structure and physical trait. Students observe how
these plants show adaption in environment and how they develop to live better on
land, and also what is the different between the bryophyte and ferns. There are two
samples plant from Bryophyte A is mosses and 2A is marchantia. They share some
characteristic with other group like the pigment for photosynthesis, walled spores,
alternation of generation and apical meristem. However, Bryophyte show simple
structure and small size plant since they don’t have vascular system, they rely on
simple diffusion to transport water, minerals and food form soil to plant and vice
versa. Pterophyta has simple vascular system so they can transport water, food,
mineral form/ to plant. Bryophyte and Pterophyta both have flagellated sperm so
they rely on water to transport sperms; therefore they prefer the moist habitat.
(See table 1)
They dominant generation in mosses is gametophyte and they have rhizoid. (See
picture )
Sample B is ferns and they show more adaption in environment the dominant
generation is the sporophyte, the size of this plant is bigger comparing with the
mosses because they have vascular system so the can transport water, minerals, and
food form the soil to plant and vice versa. Ferns has spores that are located on the
surface of leaves they have rudiment instead of roots. Whisk ferns don’t have real
roots or leafs. These groups have different shape and size based on their
environment, and they do not have seeds they have just embryo that is protect by
the female gametophyte and they will divide by mitosis to produce sporophyte.
The sporophyte in Pterophyta is dominant whereas The gametophyte is small
and separated female gametophyte (archegonia) and male gametophyte
( antheridia). (See picture L )
 Pterophyta has flagellated sperm so they rely on water to transport sperms;
therefore they prefer the moist habitat. (See picture ).
Simple c family of caprifoliaceae, name is sambucus racemosa L, they have
woody stem and double compound leaves that have reticulated veins, which is
vascular and flowring plant.
Laboratory 4: Plant Diversity II  Vascular Seed
Plants

Introduction
They plant start to develop when they move the land, new species plants are
adapted to live in more warming and drying environment. They develop the leaf,
root, and vascular systems. They provide seeds more protection for the embryos
from desiccation by having impermeable seed coats. This adaption allowed for the
diversification of the seed bearing plants that are dominate in the kingdom plantae
called gymnosperms and flowering plants called the angiosperms.

Exercise A: Gymnosperms

Goals of Lab Exercise

Students in this lab will be able to understand the characteristics of all plants that bind them
together, identify the structures that define gymnosperms, and understand the
reproductive cyclic habits of the gymnosperms.

Introduction

Gymnosperms, which are called naked seed plants, they have many names
evergreens, conifers and others. In the late Paleozoic Era the landscape continues to
become drier and more arid, and to overcome this change these plants developed and
internal fertilization process via a pollen grain and shelled seed containing a nutrient sack
to cover the developing embryo. They also don’t rely on water to fertilize eggs they based
on the wind to transport pollens. Gymnosperms show most probably adapting from the
vascular seed plants; today they used to provide a number of products that is used in
industries. Gymnosperms are divided into four divisions Coniferiohyta (confiers),
Ginkophyta (ginkos), Cycadophyta (cycads), and Gnetophyta (Mormon tea).
Students in this lab will be able to see the development pattern for this goroup of
plants comparing with the bryophyte such as seeds vascular tissue, type of roots,
shape of leaves, and the pollen that contain sperm that help plant rely on wind
instead of water to do fertilization.

Materials for this exercise

In this lab students will use Flora of the PNW by Hitchcock & Cronquist, Plant Identification Terminology
by Harris, Various Plant Specimens, Campbell text one per table, Compound Light Microscope, Dissecting
Microscope, and lab notebook.
Notebook Assignment 1:  Gymnosperm Study – Coniferophyta
1. Complete Table 1 (next page) in your lab notebook using your textbook and other
lab texts.
2. Examine microscope slides of the life cycle of a pine along with the other slides of
pine
structures and make labeled sketches in your lab notebook.
3. Review the structures and processes observed and then label the pine life cycle
Figure 1 in
you lab notebook. Using colored pencils or pens to indicate if structures are haploid or
diploid and circle the processes of mitosis & meiosis.
4. Answer questions on gymnosperms, A through H below, in your lab notebook.

Division Examples Description/Characteristics

pines, cedars,  They bear cones instead of fruits, and 
their seeds do not have a shell­like 
Coniferophyta hemlocks,  outer coating like flowering plants. 
cypress, juniper,  Division is made up of 
larches, firs,  mostly evergreen trees and 
spruces, and  shrubs. These plants tend to 
yews. (cone- be tough and can survive in 
bearing trees) stressful environments. All
conifers are woody plants and many
form very large trees. Dominate forests
of the N. hemisphere
Most are evergreen
Needle-shaped Megaphyll leaves to
reduce water loss during drought

 ginkgo tree (Ginko Deciduous trees bearing distinctive fan-

Ginkophyta biloba) shaped leaves. Branches with numerous
spur shoots that bear the reproductive
structures. Stems with extensive
secondary growth producing
considerable secondary xylem.
separate male and female trees. tree
grows to 30 m.
  Queen sago or the queen They typically have a stout and woody
Cycadophyta sago palm (ligneous) trunk with a crown of large,
hard and stiff, evergreen leaves. They
usually have pinnate leaves. The
individual plants are either all male or
all female (dioecious). Cycads vary in
size from having trunks only a few
centimeters to several meters tall.

Welwitschia characteristics of the phylum

Gnetophyta  (Tree tumbo), tropical  Gnetophyta include the presence
trees. of both tracheids and vessels in
their xylem tissue, a unique
fertilization feature in which a
tube grows from the eggs to unite
with pollen tubes, and being the
only division of gymnosperms that
undergo double fertilization.
Geophyte plants include trees,
shrubs, or stumpy, turnip-like
growth forms with simple leaves.

Table 1 Gymnosperm Comparisons This table shows the characteristics of the various Gymnosperm
divisions.

Gymnosperm Questions:
A. What are the key characteristics shared by all gymnosperms?

gymnosperms lack bright and bold flowers and petals. Gymnosperms

do not produce fruits and, therefore, do not contain seeds encased in
fruits, which is a characteristic shared by most other kinds of plants
and flowers. Gymnosperms were the first plants known to botanists to
contain seeds and are often said to have naked seeds. The seeds of
gymnosperms are so-called because they lack flowers and typically
develop on the surface of plants' reproductive structures rather than
growing inside within ovaries. Therefore these trees rely on winds in
pollination. Gymnosperms trees have large crowns of leaves and thick
trunks, and several types of forest-dwelling woody plants.
Gymnosperms are found throughout the world in many climates,
including northern latitudes, low-lying plains and deserts, and even in
tropical jungles.
 B. What is the ecological role of conifers in forest systems?
Conifers are the primary producers, producing food by means of
photosynthesis in their needle-like leaves. Conifers also provide homes for
many other animals, many of which nest in them. Finally, when the
needles fall to the forest floor, they decay and become part of the soil

C. What economically important products are provided by conifers?

Conifers are also very important economically because they provide wood and wood
products that are used to make buildings, furniture, and paper. Before petroleum
conifer was widely used. Source of many important organic chemicals used to make
paint and other finishes, solvents, and oils used by industry.

D. What is the function of the wings on the pollen grain?

Gymnosperms rely on wind for pollination therefor the shape of pollen grain with
wings help them to carry by wind easily (easy transport).

E. Why is the wind-dispersed pollen an important phenomenon in the evolution of

plants?

So that can help these plants to reproduce with out help of water and can life in
different environments.

F. Are microspores and megaspores produced by mitosis or meiosis?

Microspores and megaspores are haploid (n) that are produced by meiosis.

G. Can you think of at least two ways in which pine seeds are dispersed?

Blowing in the wind, seeds can be dispersed by the wind, but their ‘wings’ also
contain pockets of air, that enable them to float on the water and root further
downstream. The seeds have small hooks that adhere to animal fur and bird
feathers, allowing them to be carried to new sites. Humans also play a part in this
process: we have carried seeds far beyond their normal range on clothes and shoes.

H. One of the major trends in plant evolution is the reduction in the size of the
gametophytes. Describe the male and female gametophyte of gymnosperms, being
sure to describe their location.

*In gymnosperms, a leafy green sporophyte generates cones containing male and
female gametophytes; female cones are bigger than male cones and are located
higher up in the tree.
*A male cone contains microsporophylls where male gametophytes (pollen) are
produced and are later carried by wind to female gametophytes.
*The megaspore mother cell in the female cone divides by meiosis to produce
four haploid megaspores; one of the megaspores divides to form the female
gametophyte.
*The male gametophyte lands on the female cone, forming a pollen tube through
which the generative cell travels to meet the female gametophyte.
*One of the two sperm cells released by the generative cell fuses with the egg,
forming a diploid zygote that divides to form the embryo.
*Unlike angiosperms, ovaries are absent in gymnosperms, double fertilization does
not take place, male and female gametophytes are present on cones rather than
flowers, and wind (not animals) drives pollination.

Discussion

Gymnosperms called naked seed because seeds do not covered by fruit like
angiosperms. They have leaves that are needle like structure so they can reduce the
water loses. They can grow very high and have woody stems; they can be used as a good
source for wood. (See table 1)
Gymenosperm has sprophyte which is the dopoloid structure that is dominant and that
will produce microspore and megaspores by meiosis that are haploid that can produce
sperms and eggs for fertilization the zygote which is diploid will produce the
gametophyte by mitosis. See picture

Exercise B: Angiosperms

Goals of Lab Exercise

In this lab students will be able to understand the characteristics of all plants that bind them
together, identify the structures that define an angiosperm, and understand the reproductive
cyclic habits of the angiosperms.

Introduction
Angiosperms (flowering plants) are very dominant across the globe. These plants can
provide food human and animals eat for nutrition. These plants have the coloring flower to
attract the pollinator. The flower consists of these parts receptacle, pedicel, and whorls.
Receptacle where the flower is borne, whorls consist of corolla and calyx, andocium, and
gymencium. Calyx is the collection of sepal, whereas corolla is the collection of petal. Andocium
is the collection of the male reproductive (stamens), stamens consist of anther which is the sac
of pollens that attached to filament. Female reproductive is pistil that consist of three parts
stigma where the pollen attached and that connected to tube called style that end up with ovary
that contain the ovule where the eggs produce. Beneath consist of calyx and corolla. In this lab
students will observe the change in this group of plant that help them to adapted to their
environment like the flower, seeds and more developed vascular tissue. Students can see the
different shape of leaves, roots and (the size color and shape of flower).

Materials for this exercise

In this lab student will use Flora of the PNW by Hitchcock & Cronquist, Plant Identification Terminology
by Harris, Various Plant Specimens, Campbell text one per table, Compound Light Microscope, Dissecting
Microscope, and Lab Notebook.

Flower #
Features 10 honey 9 holodiscus 24 bleeding 25 14
sacaar heart
# of petals 6 5 4 4 7
# of sepals 2 2 5

Parts Septal Sepal N

absent
Color Orange White Purple White with Purple
purple
Scent (y/n) N y Y N Y

Nectar y y Y N Y
(y/n)
 Shape of Tuble flower Round shape Fused petals Separate Heart
corolla with fused and not over and like heart from each shape
(tubular, petal lop shape other and
star, etc.) contain
every petal
contain
two parts
at the top
Special 1- Leaves 1- They 1- purple 1- Soft Leaves are
features opposit have color leaves and compoun
(landing e opposit flower opposite d
platform, 2- Flower e leaves 2- fused 2- one
guidelines, fused in 2- flower petal flower Spikes on
nectar the is 3- The every the stem
spur, etc.) recapet compou shape pedical
er part nd of Inferior
3- They every leaves ovary
have pedical is
have 2 reticula Pedical
superio
flower te and has one
r ovary
3- Inferior opposit flower
4- Stamen
ovary e leaves with
attache strong
d to the odor
internal Leaves
surface that close
of the to the
petal flower are
bigger in
size

Predicted Hummingbird, Insect, wind, Hummingbird, Insect, Moth,

pollinator wind butterfly, bee wind wind wind

Table 4 Angiosperm Structures. This table shows the characteristics of various Angiosperm examples

Fruit # Fruit Type Dispersal Method

18 Lime/ Aggregate Fruit/ Animal can eat the fruit and dispose the seeds
Hesperidium/ berry (egestion), human can disperse seeds by spread
with leather rind them in the soil

17 Apple Fleshy/pome Human can spread them or animals can eat fruit and
dispose seed (egestion)
20 Grape, Compound Fruits/ Human can spread them or animals can eat fruit and
 berry (more than one ovary) dispose seed (egestion)
12 Fleshy fruit/ coconut/ Human can spread them or animals can eat fruit and
dry drupe dispose seed (egestion), Coconuts are well known for
their ability to float on water to reach land where
they can germinate, because of the size and shape of
the seeds.

22 Dry fruit/ Legume/ peanut Human can spread them, these seeds also can attach
to the fur of the animals and disperse, or birds can
move them to different places by their peaks.
19 Tomato / red berry Human can spread them or animals can eat fruit and
dispose seed (egestion), seed also can use water
because the shape of the seeds that gives them
ability to float in water.

16 onion is vegetable Storge Leaves that we eat and they have short
stem close to the roots. Human can spread them
or animals can eat fruit and dispose seed
(egestion), seed also can use water because the
shape of the seeds that gives them ability to float
in water.
15 broccoli is vegetable Broccoli has large flower heads, usually green in
color, arranged in a tree-like structure branching
out from a thick, edible stalk. The mass of flower
heads is surrounded by leaves.

#11- Walnut/ dry drupe Squirrel, Water plays a minimal role in seed
dispersal specially during the floating. the wind
does help ripened nuts to fall to the ground so
animals or water can carry them away from the
parents tree.

#12- Family: Umbelliferae

Scientific name: Carum carvi. L The seeds of a plant of the parsley family, used
Common name is (caraway)/ fruit oil. for flavoring and as a source of oil. Wind can
transport seeds because they are not so heavy
in weight. Water can do so, animals can
transport them by attached to the fur of
animals, or can they eat the seeds and dispose
them as waste. Human can help to disperse
seed by collect them and grow them in different
places.

#14 family name : Apiaceae, scintifice

name: Coriandrum sativum .L The seeds of a plant of the parsley family, used
for flavoring and as a source of oil. Wind can
The fruit( dry fruit) is a globular, transport seeds because they are not so heavy
dry schizocarp 3–5 mm in weight. Water can do so, animals can
transport them by attached to the fur of
animals, or can they eat the seeds and dispose
them as waste. Human can help to disperse
 seed by collect them and grow them in different
places.

The seeds of a plant of the parsley family, used

# 13- sunflower seed (Helianthus)/  for flavoring and as a source of oil. Wind can
transport seeds because they are not so heavy
Multiple Fruit(Composite Head) in weight. Water can do so, animals can
transport them by attached to the fur of
animals, or can they eat the seeds and dispose
them as waste. Human can help to disperse
seed by collect them and grow them in different
places.

Questions:
A. How might dry fruits be dispersed? How about fleshy fruits?

In general, dry fruits are adapted for dispersal by expulsion, wind, and by attaching
to the fur or feathers of animals, for example, dries to the point where it pops open,
releasing the seeds. The “wings” of maple seeds or the “parachutes” of dandelions
carry them in the wind away from the parent plant. People and pets may even have
carried seeds away from plants that bear fruit as burrs.
In other hand, animals can disperse fleshy fruits by ingesting the fruit and distribute
them in their wastes, small seeds eaten by small animals like birds and squirrels,
whereas the big seeds eaten by big animals. Some fleshy fruits, such as coconuts, are
adapted to float in water.

B. Describe the characteristics of an achene, drupe, and berry.

A Drupe is a single fleshy fruit with a hard stone, which contains the single seed,
example coconut.

Achene Very small, one-seeded fruit usually produced in clusters. At maturity the
pericarp is dry and free from the internal seed, except at the placental
attachment.
Berry Entire pericarp is fleshy, although skin is sometimes tough; may be one or many
seeded example tomato, grape

C. Identify the function of each of the following structures found in seed plants:

Pollen grain: male gametophyte that have sperms and inside it and shall that is
called sporopollenin provide protection for sperms.

Microsporangium: which contain the microspore that produce sperms by mitosis

and also involve producing food for embryo.

Flower: reproductive organ that contain usually the female and male
reproductive parts and have calyx and corolla, they have nectar, variety of colors
and odder to attract pollinator so they can help to transport gamete and fertilize
egg.
Pistil: is the female reproductive part that contains three parts, stigma, style and
ovary, provide internal fertilization.

Seed: structure that form in ovule after fertilization to protect embryo and
provide food.
Seed have seed coat, which outer shall for more protection, seeds consider
evolutionary trait for plants, which can force the fluctuation in environment and
protect the embryo.
Fruit: the ripen ovary and other structures that ripen with it, fruits help seed to
disposal when they are eaten by animals.
Endosperm: structure that form after fertilization which is produce by fertilize
two polar nuclei with one sperm to produce endosperm that supply embryo with
food.

D. Plants have evolved a number of characteristics that attract animals and ensure
pollination, but what are the benefits to animals in this relationship?
The benefits to animals to get food, human use them as a medicine.

E. Why is internal fertilization essential for true terrestrial living?

Internal fertilization protects the fertilized egg or embryo from predation and
harsh environments, which results in higher survival rates than can occur with
external fertilization. Internal fertilization has the advantage of protecting the
fertilized egg from dehydration on land. The embryo is isolated within the female,
which limits predation on the young. Internal fertilization also enhances the
fertilization of eggs by a specific male. Even though fewer offspring are produced
through this method, their survival rate is higher than that for external fertilization.

Features Bryophyta Pterophyta Gymnophyta Anthophyta

Gametophyte or Gametophyte Sporophyte Sporophyte Sporophyte
Sporophyte
dominant
Vascular tissue No tissue Tissue Tissue Tissue
Seed No No Yes Yes
Fruit No No No Yes
Water fertilization Yes Yes No No
Pollen grain No No Yes Yes
Homosporous or heterosporous homosporous heterosporas heterosporous
Heterosporous
Examples Mosses Fern Confer Rose, apple tree
Table 6 Plant Comparison. This table compares the structures of plants from the plant phyla from lab 2
and 3.

Applying Your Knowledge:

1. How have gymnosperm ovules evolved to withstand desiccation and herbivorous

animals?
Each scale of a seed cone has two ovules surrounded by an integument 
and with an opening at one end to force the desiccation; ovules in female
cone, which is hard woody structure animals cannot eat so the ovules 
will be in safe place. 
2. Your neighbor’s vegetable garden is being attacked by Japanese beetles, so she
dusts her garden with an insecticide. Now, to her dismay, she realizes that the
beans and squash are no longer producing. Explain to your neighbor the
relationship among flowers, fruits (vegetables, in the gardening language), and
insects.
 Flowering plant (angiosperm) depend on insect to transport pollens that has
sperms to the stigma in the female reproductive organ to fertilize the egg and
produce fruit and seeds, if insect is eliminated so fruit and seeds will be less likely
to produce in this garden.

Discussion

Angiosperm has sporophyte which is the diploid structure that is dominant and that will
produce microspore and megaspores by meiosis that are haploid that can produce
sperms and eggs for fertilization the zygote which is diploid will produce the
gametophyte by mitosis. The special thing about the angiosperm they have double
fertilization so two sperm can pass through the pollen tube form stigma to the ovary to
fertilize the egg and produce embryo and the other sperm will fertilize the two polar
nuclei to produce endosperm that is food supply for embryo that is more advantage so
the embryo can be provide with food for longer time comparing with gymnosperm.
(See picture).
Analysis
In this lab two different kinds of plants are observed gymnosperms and angiosperms.
The physical characteristics for each plant are seen and how they show the evolutionary
adaption in their environment by having developed vascular tissues, they have xylem
and phloem to transport minerals, water, and food. They developed also roots that they
can grow deep in the soil for more water absorption. These plants do not have
flagellated sperms instead they have pollen grain which is more productive structure
that contain sperms inside it therefor these plant rely on different strategies in
pollination instead of water, this advantage can help these plants to grow and reproduce
in different environments. They have different size and shape for pollens that can help to
carry by winds or hutched by animals. Gymnosperms called naked seed because seeds
do not covered by fruit like angiosperms. They have leaves that are needle like structure
so they can reduce the water loses. They can grow very high and have woody stems;
they can be used as a good source for wood. (See table 1)
Gymenosperm has sprophyte which is the dopoloid structure that is dominant and that
will produce microspore and megaspores by meiosis that are haploid that can produce
sperms and eggs for fertilization the zygote which is diploid will produce the
gametophyte by mitosis. See picture
Angiosperm considers more development plants. They have flower which is reproductive
organ and that give them some advantages like the internal fertilization, which is more
likely for eggs to be fertilized with sperm. Produce fruit that form by ripen of ovary and
other structures that ripen with it, these fruit that have seeds inside it so that can help to
disperse the seeds and provide food for animals that consume them. There is diffenent
kinds of fruit dry and fleshy that is produce by angiosperms. (See table 5)
These plants have flower that can be in different shapes and colors to attract the insect
that can help in pollination. They have also odor, and nectar that help also to attract
animals. (See table 4)
The gametophyte is small in size that helps to produce sperm and pollen tube in sperm in
male and eggs and food in female. See picture
Angiosperm has sporophyte which is the diploid structure that is dominant and that will
produce microspore and megaspores by meiosis that are haploid that can produce
sperms and eggs for fertilization the zygote which is diploid will produce the
gametophyte by mitosis. The special thing about the angiosperm they have double
fertilization so two sperm can pass through the pollen tube form stigma to the ovary to
fertilize the egg and produce embryo and the other sperm will fertilize the two polar
nuclei to produce endosperm that is food supply for embryo that is more advantage so
the embryo can be provide with food for longer time comparing with gymnosperm.
(See picture).