Stephen Billett - Guided Learning at Work

Journal of Workplace Learning
Guided learning at work

Stephen Billett
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Stephen Billett, (2000),"Guided learning at work", Journal of Workplace Learning, Vol. 12 Iss 7 pp. 272 - 285
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Introduction
Guided learning at
There is growing interest in making
work workplaces effective learning environments.
In turn, this interest demands a clearer
Stephen Billett understanding of the contributions of these
environments and how learning within them
might be best realised. This paper reports the
findings of an investigation to determine
whether guided workplace learning can assist
the development of skills and knowledge
required for workplace performance. Previous
The author work proposes that participation in everyday
Stephen Billett is a Senior Lecturer at Griffith University, work activities makes significant contributions
Brisbane, Australia. to the development of individuals' vocational
knowledge (Billett, 1993, 1994a, 1994b,
Keywords 1996; Harris et al., 1996; Harris and Volet,
1997).
Workplace learning, Coaching, Mentoring,
Engagement in authentic workplace
Curriculum development
activities, and the direct and indirect guidance
available in everyday participation in the
Abstract
workplaces, were identified as the bases of
Reports and discusses the findings of an investigation that these contributions. It was concluded from
examined the efficacy of guided learning in the these studies that engagement in everyday
workplace. The investigation comprised the trialing of activities in the workplace provides ongoing
guided learning strategies and an analysis of the learning access to goal-directed activities and support
occurring in five workplaces over a period of six months. that are instrumental in assisting individuals
The guided learning strategies selected for investigation constructing or learning new work-related
were questioning dialogues, the use of diagrams and knowledge as well as the strengthening of that
analogies within an approach to workplace learning learning (Billett, 1999).
emphasising modelling and coaching. Throughout the Also, the contributions of a workplace's
investigation, critical incident interviews were conducted physical environment provide important
to identify the contributions to learning that had occurred clues, cues and models that assist individuals'
during these periods, including those provided by the thinking and acting and hence their learning
guided learning. As anticipated, it was found that and understanding. Moreover, other workers
participation in everyday work activities (the learning are used as models for performance (albeit in
curriculum) was most valued and reported as making different ways) and as source of how work
effective contributions to learning in the workplace. tasks should proceed through observations
However, there was also correlation between reports of and more direct interactions. Together, it
the frequency of guided learning interactions and their
seems, these contributions arising from
efficacy in resolving novel workplace tasks, and therefore
participation in everyday work activities assist
learning. It is postulated that some of these learning
developing the knowledge required for work
outcomes could not have been secured by everyday
performance. Such conclusions are supported
participation in the workplace alone. Further, factors
by recent theorising (e.g. Hutchins, 1993;
associated with the readiness of enterprise and those
Resnick et al., 1997) which suggests that
within it were identified as influencing the likely
knowing (the bases of our thinking, acting
effectiveness of guided learning at work.
Research assistance was ably provided by Kerrie
Electronic access Scott and Andrew McCann from the Wodonga
Institute of TAFE. Thanks to the enterprises and
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is individuals in those enterprises who made this
available at research project possible, to the National Research
http://www.emerald-library.com and Evaluation Committee of ANTA who funded
this study; also, the comments of the two
Journal of Workplace Learning anonymous reviewers were helpful in refining this
Volume 12 . Number 7 . 2000 . pp. 272±285 paper and posing questions that will guide further
# MCB University Press . ISSN 1366-5626 inquiry.
272
Guided learning at work Journal of Workplace Learning
Stephen Billett Volume 12 . Number 7 . 2000 . 272±285
and learning) is distributed across social with a failure profile first, before engaging in a
environments, such as workplaces. Therefore, more complete procedure which requires
learning is not only ongoing in our everyday dismantling significant components of the
thinking and acting, it is mediated by the planes. Equally, Orr (1987, cited in Raizen,
circumstances in which individuals act. 1991) reports how ``war stories'' ± the means
However, the learning accessed through by which they have identified, diagnosed and
participation at work alone may not be repaired photocopier problems ± are
sufficient for developing the requirements for accumulated by experienced photocopy
expertise at work. It was found in these repair technicians as a basis to proceed with
studies that not all the learning arising from their work. These are then used to prepare
workplace experiences was appropriate, as novice technicians. As heuristics are
shortcuts and aspects of inappropriate developed through work practice and over
practices (e.g. dangerous or potentially time, they likely require a more experienced
limiting procedures) were being learnt. Also, co-worker to model their use, explain their
it was consistently reported that some of the purpose and assist novices with their use.
conceptual knowledge required for workplace Conversely, as noted, there are also
performance, particularly that associated with outcomes from learning through everyday
understanding the bases for work tasks, was practice that to be need guarded against.
not being developed. This kind of knowledge Individuals may learn concepts or procedures
is often opaque, hidden or of a kind not that have shortcomings or could even be
readily accessible in the workplace (Billett, dangerous (e.g. inappropriate shortcuts)
1994a, 1994b; Billett and Rose, 1999). (Billett, 1994a, 1994b; Harris et al., 1996;
Importantly, this kind of conceptual Harris and Volet, 1997). Consequently,
knowledge is increasingly being required for beyond needing to assist making knowledge
workplace tasks where technological accessible and mediating the development of
applications are prevalent (Berryman, 1993) understanding and procedures, there is also a
or where workers are separated from the need to monitor learning in the workplace to
physical tools and interactions that avoid learning through work activities that is
traditionally have comprised work (Zuboff, inappropriate or even dangerous. These
1988), thereby making understanding more requirements imply that guidance by a more
remote. Examples of this understanding experienced or expert co-worker is needed to
include the way complex systems operate or mediate what is learnt through engagement in
factors that permit an understanding of everyday work practice.
phenomena such as force, hygiene, electrical Rogoff's (1995) concept of guided learning
current, etc. These types of understanding proposes an approach that both complements
also permit individuals to innovate and adapt and supplements the contributions to
within their domains of activity (Greeno, learning through everyday activities in the
1989), such as in their vocational practice. workplace. The use of selected strategies used
However, this kind of knowledge may be within a guided learning approach could
difficult to learn without direct guidance that support and monitor the development of the
enables it to be made accessible and knowledge of workplace learners by making
comprehensible to learners. Similarly, the accessible and guiding the development of the
development of the procedural capacity to kinds of conceptual knowledge that would
successfully complete workplace tasks can otherwise remain hidden, yet are salient for
also be aided by the direct guidance of more effective work practice. As foreshadowed, this
experienced co-workers. Referred to as type of knowledge is necessary for
heuristics or ``tricks of the trade'', these adaptability ± dealing with non-routine
procedures provide some certainty of success problems such as transferring knowledge
with vocational tasks. These heuristics evolve from one situation to another (Greeno, 1989;
through practice over time and are effective Groen and Patel, 1988; Stevenson, 1994).
tools for workplace performance. For As well as having benefits for individuals, in
instance, Gott (1989) refers to strategies terms of enhancing their vocational practice
adopted by avionics technicians in the US Air and its scope of applications, this kind of
Force who fault-find strategically by checking transferable knowledge is required to enable
the easiest to access components and those enterprises to respond to new demands and
273
challenges such as the ever-changing nature The sociocultural perspective also

of work tasks and dealing with new accentuates learning through problem
problems. Often employers' reluctance to solving in goal-directed activities. However,
develop further the skills of their workforce is it specifically acknowledges the contributions
premised on concerns of facilitating their of a more `èxperienced other'' in assisting
employees' mobility ± of assisting them learners' development (Rogoff, 1995;
taking those skills to another employer. Vygotsky, 1978). Within both these
However, this view overlooks the need for constructivist perspectives, learners are
any workforce to be able to respond to the viewed as active constructors of knowledge,
emerging demands. This outcome is unlikely albeit requiring some direction and
to be achieved by a workforce that lacks monitoring from those who are more
robust procedures and understandings that experienced. However, given the central role
can be applied to the evolving, and that individuals play as meaning makers in
sometimes unpredictable, requirements of these constructive perspectives, it is
vocational practice (Berryman, 1993). A rich necessary to accentuate the role played by
base of transferable knowledge, including individuals' interest (Tobias, 1994) or
conceptual knowledge, in a workplace dispositions (Perkins et al., 1993), as well as
provides at least one sound basis for the values that constitute communities of
enterprises' survival and growth. practice (Wenger, 1998) such as the
Using these premises, guided learning was particular workplace in which the problem
adopted as an organising principle for solving occurs in the context of goal-directed
workplace learning interventions that can activities.
complement and extend the other These personal and social values guide and
contributions to learning vocational direct individuals' focus in and their
knowledge in the workplace. Guided learning persistence with thinking, acting and learning
here refers to a more experienced co-worker (Perkins et al., 1993). Therefore, these
(the mentor) using techniques and strategies tendencies and the social mores in the
to guide and monitor the development of the workplace will likely contribute to how and
knowledge of those who are less skilful (the in what ways individuals engage in goal-
mentees). This approach places the onus on directed activity at work, and as a
the learner to engage in the thinking and consequence what vocational knowledge
acting required for rich learning. That is, the they construct about work.
learners are encouraged and pressed into So in sum, the proposition appraised in the
knowledge constructing and reinforcing investigation was whether guided learning,
activities by the more experienced co-worker. through the mediation of the construction of
Such an emphasis is consonant with knowledge through expert guidance, offers
propositions about learning within cognitive the kind of interventions capable of
and sociocultural constructivist perspectives. complementing and extending the
The engagement in problem solving contributions to learning for work provided
activities is central to the cognitive by engagement in activities in workplaces.
perspective's account of how individuals'
cognitive structures are extended and
reinforced (Anderson, 1993). The kinds of Research design and procedures
problem-solving individuals engage in extend
along a continuum of routine (frequently A review of the recent literature on
encountered and familiar) to non-routine (new mentoring, expertise and the social and
or infrequently encountered), with the degree cultural contributions to knowledge
of routineness being individual dependent. construction was used to identify the
That is, the routine task for one individual may requirements for guided learning in the
be non-routine to another. The more non- workplace. From this, a view about guided
routine the activity, the more likely it will lead learning was shaped, including approaches to
to new learning. More routine activities will workplace mentoring and the identification
provide learning through reinforcement that of particular learning strategies was
strengthen the organisation of existing developed using relevant literature (e.g.
knowledge and enhances the confidence with Collins et al., 1989; LeFevre et al., 1993; Pea,
means of proceeding with tasks. 1993; Smith et al., 1993). The selection of
274
strategies was premised on the predicted four workplace sites (one of which was in
ability to: the pilot investigation) and involved 17
. maximise the potential of the workplace mentors and 24 mentees. Differences in
as a learning environment, including functions, products/services and
redressing the shortcomings identified organisational structures comprised the
earlier; and scope of the selected enterprises. They
. the ability to be used as part of everyday consisted of:
activities in the workplace. . a food processing company;
. a public sector agency associated with
These requirements were held to be salient:
social service provisions;
given that earlier work had consistently . a textile manufacturing company;
identified the contributions of everyday . a recently corporatised power
activities in knowledge construction through
distribution company; and
engagement in authentic workplace activities. . a small retail business.
More than just convenient and authentic sites
for learning, workplaces make active In each enterprise, the program of trialing
contributions to learning the knowledge guided learning was of six months duration.
required for work. Therefore, interventions Each of these enterprises had quite distinct
need to be embedded in everyday activities, organisational structures and goals, and
wherever possible, to engage the full range of different levels of readiness to participate in
workplace contributions. Moreover, it is less guided learning in the workplace.
likely that interventions which are separate In overview, the research procedures
from work practice would be adopted in sought to gather grounded data about how
workplaces, given the press on directly selected workplace learners (mentees) had
productive activities. learnt over the six-month period. The
The strategies selected for investigation procedures also aimed to identify the sources
were: of that learning and, in particular, the role of
. questioning dialogues; the guided learning strategies had played in
. diagrams; that development. Throughout the six-month
. analogies, which were to be deployed period, regular interventions in the form of
within a guided approach to workplace interviews using ``critical incidents'' were
learning emphasising; conducted. These aimed to identify the
. modelling; and sources of learning and associations between
. coaching. the approaches and strategies used and the
The first three were selected on their learning that had occurred during that period.
predicted ability to access and secure
conceptual knowledge that might otherwise
remain inaccessible (LeFevre et al., 1993; Preparation of mentors ±
Pea, 1993; Smith et al., 1993). The latter two train-the-mentor program
were selected for their potential to develop
procedures as well as conceptual knowledge The participating enterprises nominated
required for the workplace (Collins et al., individuals for the guided learning role and
1989). also mentees who would be guided by them.
The enterprises were requested to select
learning guides using a set of selection
Procedures criteria (e.g. expertise in the work area,
ability to interact, willingness to
The research design comprised two participate). ``Train-the-mentor
programs of staged inquiry across five workshops'' were conducted for all
workplaces. The first program was a pilot participating mentors. The workshops
investigation comprising two workplaces comprised an overview of the project's
with three mentors and four mentees. It was goals, an introduction to guided learning
used to ``de-bug'' the mentoring and and the selected approaches and strategies
strategy implementation and data-gathering and their use. In addition, each mentor was
methods. This second program, which given opportunities to consider how these
comprised the major investigation, included strategies might be applied in their work
275
area. Finally, opportunities were provided However, mentors also provided data about
to practice and develop the mentors' ability the efficacy of the guided learning approach
to use these strategies in the relative and the individual strategies.
security of the workshop setting. This data gathering involved researchers
The workshops were provided on making regular visits to the workplaces and,
occasions and in locations that meet the observing and interacting with workplace
participating enterprises' requirements for staff which often included others than those
staff release. Although planned to be of six directly involved in the project. Through
hours duration, the workshops were typically these interactions and regular interviews, the
only between three and four hours duration, researchers also gained insights into each
because of difficulties in gaining the release enterprise and identified factors influencing
of enterprise staff. At the workshops, it the implementation of guided learning
became evident that the prior knowledge of processes. Prior to the commencement of
the project, its aims and the requirements of their involvement in the project, both
the mentors were far from uniform across the mentors and mentees were informed that the
selected mentors. In extreme cases, the strategies and approaches were under trial,
participants arriving at the train-the-mentor rather than themselves. The procedures for
workshops were uncertain of and suspicious gathering data are described in the following.
about the basis on which they had been
selected for this role by their enterprise. This
was despite prior meetings between the Critical incident interviews
researchers and the enterprises and detailed
information about the project and its As already noted, a key purpose for the
requirements being forwarded to each investigation procedures was to identify
participating enterprise. sources of learning over the six-month
Follow-up visits and other contacts were period, including links between learning and
made by the researchers to help the mentors guided learning interactions. Interviews using
develop the capacity to conduct their ``critical incident'' techniques were
mentoring activities in the workplaces, conducted with the mentees at
throughout the six-month period. There approximately monthly intervals throughout
were differences in the kinds of support the program. The approach adopted was
required and degree by which support was modelled on an earlier investigation (Billett,
requested. These ranged from refresher 1994a) which used similar procedures to
demonstrations to inquiries about using elicit data grounded in actual workplace
strategies in more elaborate combinations problem-solving incidents. Interviews were
than had been demonstrated at the selected as a data-gathering strategy. Given
workshop. Typically, the kinds of support the nature of the work activities, the need to
were directly related to the readiness of gather data over a long period of time and
individuals in conducting the guided over a number of workplaces, methods such
learning. Those who had had experience with as participant-observation were deemed
workplace-based learning were more likely to impractical. However, as the validity of self-
want to refine and extend their approach reported data is often questioned, the critical
further, whereas those from workplaces that incident technique was adopted to ground
lacked such traditions were more likely to responses in particular events and situations.
want assistance to use the strategies. It is held that verbal data have greater validity
Throughout the six-month period, data when founded in actual events and changes
were elicited from the mentees and mentors in behaviour (Ericsson and Simon, 1984).
at their workplaces. The key emphasis in the The critical incident approach also provides a
data gathering was on the mentees and their basis to relate learning to the target work
learning, through the use of grounded data tasks and problems in the workplace, as the
gathering techniques. This emphasis is incidents are embedded in actual workplace
consistent with an examination of learning performances.
from the constructivist perspectives. It aims Accordingly, critical incidents were used
to account for the range of contributions to to help the mentees to recall and consider
the learners' development that extend three kinds of workplace learning incidents.
beyond those provided by the mentors. This approach not only grounded the data
276
in actual workplace incidents, but also how it could be improved, as well as

focuses the data on problem solving tasks predictions about future use. In sum, these
that were likely to be generative of new data gathering methods aimed to provide
knowledge. These were, first, ``high grounded and validated data from which
moments'' where they had achieved a conclusions could be drawn about the
workplace goal, second, ``problem- mentees' learning and the contributions of
situations'' (how they had responded to the selected strategies to that learning.
workplace problems) and, third, ``low
moments'' (when things had not gone as
anticipated in the workplace). Findings
Having recounted these events, the
participants rated the effectiveness of the The focus of the analysis of the findings
contributions of the guided learning presented here is on the contributions to
strategies, and indirect contributions to learning across the five workplaces. There
learning furnished by the workplace to were clear differences in the readiness and
resolve problems and who or what they contributions arising across these
required to resolve the problems comprising workplaces, and in the detail of the data
the ``low moments''. The contributions to about the efficacy of the guided learning
learning presented to the mentees after they approach and the individual strategies. These
had recounted the critical incidents included are referred to in detail in Billett et al. (1998)
those identified in earlier studies (support of and are referred to below briefly. However,
mentor, everyday work activities, observing here the attempt is to draw together the
and listening to mentor, observing and findings across the five sites in order to arrive
listening to others, the workplace and other at some general, albeit tentative, conclusions
workers) and those comprising the guided about learning at work and what role guided
learning approach. The aim was to learning might play in supplementing other
understand what had facilitated their contributions provided by the workplace.
learning as captured by incidents linked to
non-routine problem-solving.
This approach was repeated in each of the Learning at work
four interviews. An interview schedule was
used to display questions and capture ratings Overall, the findings suggest that everyday
of the perceived effectiveness of participation in work activities made the
contributions to their learning by rating their strongest identifiable contribution to the
efficacy between 1 (low) and 5 (high) in each mentees' learning. This was expected. Earlier
of the four critical incident interviews. Also, work has demonstrated the strength of
during each of these interviews, the mentees contributions to learning the knowledge
were asked how frequently each of the required for work through everyday
interventions had been used in the workplace activities (Billett, 1994a, 1996)
intervening period. even when compared with interventions that
aimed to ``formalise'' workplace learning
(Billett, 1994b). The strategies selected for
Final interviews with mentees and this investigation were intended to
mentors complement and augment the contributions
to learning afforded by everyday participation
At the end of the six-month period of trialing in the workplace. The data derived from the
in each enterprise, the mentees were asked critical incident interviews (see Table I)
open questions about their perceptions of the suggest that, as with earlier studies, everyday
guided learning process. Separately, the participation in the workplace is identified as
mentors were also asked a more exhaustive contributing to the development of much of
set of questions to gather perceptions about the learning required for workplace
the mentoring processes' utility. The mentors performance. However, associations between
provided data about their perceptions of the strategy use and the development of the
overall effectiveness of the guided learning mentees' knowledge were also identified.
approach, and then about the efficacy of each (A synthesis of these data is presented in
strategy, in terms of its strengths, weaknesses Table I.)
277
Table I Mentees' responses to critical incidents
Utility of learning curriculuma Utility of strategy and frequency of use
Subject Mentor support Activities O and L mentor O and L others Workplace Other workers Questioning Coaching Analogies Diagrams Modelling
Guided learning at work

A1 3 8 1 4 7 2 0 ± w1 m3 0 0 0 0
Stephen Billett
A2 7 11 9 9 6 7 7 ± d2 w2 6 ± d1 w2 m1 3 ± w2 m1 1 3 ± w3 m1
A3 10 12 11 2 8 8 9 ± m1 w3 10 ± d2 w2 6 ± w1 m3 8 ± m4 11 ± d4
A4 10 10 7 5 9 7 9 ± d3 w1 10 ± d4 7 ± w3 d1 1 ± w4 9 ± w1 d2 m1
A5 11 12 8 7 9 7 10 ± d4 6 ± w2 m1 d1 2 ± m2 1 ± m1 w1 1 ± m2 w1
A6 9 10 6 11 10 8 7 ± d3 w1 9 ± d1 w1 2 ± w3 m1 2 ± w1 m2 7 ± w3 m1
B7 7 11 3 2 8 5 3 ± w4 3 ± w3 1 ± 0 ± w1 m1 1 ± w3
B8 7 12 6 10 8 12 7 ± d2 w2 4 ± m1 6 ± w1 m1 0 ± 5 ± m2
B10 5 4 3 7 4 5 6 ± m1 w1 d1 2 ± m1 w2 3 ± m1 w1 d1 1 ± m1 w2 5 ± w2
C11 2 8 2 8 7 9 2 2 2 0 0
278
D16 8 9 8 5 6 4 5 ± d2 w2 6 ± d2 w2 1 ± w1 m3 2 ± w1 m3 8 ± w4
E17 5 6 1 6 4 6 3 ± m3 w1 3 ± m2 2 ±m3 2 ± 2 ± m4
E18 4 6 3 4 1 3 0 ± w1 2 ± m2 0 ± 1 ± 1 ± w1 m2
E19 3 2 4 6 1 4 0 ± d1 2w m1 1 ± m2 w1 0 ± 1 ± m3 0 ± m2
Volume 12 . Number 7 . 2000 . 272±285

E20 8 4 4 8 7 8 4 ± m2 4 ± m2 3 ± 4 ± m1 d1 4 ± m2
Journal of Workplace Learning

E21 4 10 4 8 8 8 4 ± m1 3 ± m3 0 ± 1 ± w1 1 ± m2
E22 2 7 1 4 6 6 1 ± m1 1 ± m1 0 ± 0 ± m2 0 ± m1
E23 3 5 5 4 3 4 4 ± w3 d2 2 ± m2 w2 0 ± 0 ± 3 ± w2 m2
E24 10 9 9 10 4 8 7 ± d3 8 ± d1 w2 5 ± 0 ± 5 ± d1 w1
E25 7 10 7 11 5 8 8 ± d4 6 ± d3 w1 3 ± w1 m2 0 ± m2 2 ± d2 w1
E26 3 7 3 7 4 6 1 ± w2 2 ± w3 0 ± 0 ± w1 3 ± w3 d1
E27 2 5 2 5 4 6 1 ± d1 w1 m1 2 ± w2 m1 2 ± w1 m1 2 ± 2 ± w3
Notes: Subject B10 ± only three interviews were conducted; no subject B9 existed; subjects C12, C13, C14, C15 were omitted as the data sets were incomplete; aBillett (1996); Lave (1990)
Source: Billet et al. (1998)
In Table I, data for each mentee were during the critical incident interviews there
tabulated to aggregate the responses across were eight instances, out of a possible 12,
the four critical incident interviews. The left- where everyday workplace activities assisted
hand column indicates the subject (mentee). this person with solving a problem at work.
The columns to the right are divided into two Along with the workplace (seven frequencies
broad headings that categorise two classes of of 3, 4 or 5) these contributions were
contributions to learning (utility of the reported as being of greatest utility in
``learning curriculum'' and utility of selected responding to workplace tasks. The subject
strategy and frequency of use). These also rated questioning, coaching by mentors,
headings are used to categorise the analogies, diagram and modeling with zero
contributions of responses to everyday frequencies of 3, 4 or 5. Observing and
participation in the workplace and those of listening to the mentor was rated once with 3,
the selected strategies. The aggregation of 4 or 5. In terms of frequency, A1 claimed
each mentee's responses ± under `ùtility of that, of the strategies deployed by the
the learning curriculum'' ± refer to the mentor, questioning was used at least weekly
contributions of support of mentor, everyday (w), initially, and then subsequently to at
work activities, observing and listening to least monthly (m).
mentor, observing and listening to others, The contributions to securing workplace

The workplace and other workers as knowledge of everyday experiences in the
identified in earlier work (Billett, 1994a, workplace, categorised collectively as the
1994b, 1996; Billett and Rose, 1999). ``learning curriculum'' were rated higher than
Similarly, under the heading `ùtility of the selected guided learning approaches.
strategy and frequency of use'' are data Everyday activities, observing and listening to
reported in terms of the contributions of others and the workplace were all rated
questioning, coaching, analogies, diagrams consistently highly, as in the previous study.
and modelling, about which data on the The support of the mentor also rated well.
frequency of their use are also reported. In However, there were consistent
this table only the frequency of those associations between the frequency of
responses rated 3, 4 and 5 for each mentee strategy use and perceptions of the utility of
(those perceived to have moderate to high those strategies in resolving workplace
levels of usefulness) were aggregated. Aids problems. Put plainly, when the strategies
rated 1 and 2 (of little or no use) were set were used frequently, they were reported to
aside to tighten the data set and cluster those be of great utility through the critical incident
ratings reporting high efficacy. The sum of interviews. Modelling and coaching were
the frequencies where mentees rated an aid 3, rated quite positively. Of the guided learning
4 or 5 is reported across each row for each aid strategies selected for trialling, questioning
to learning. The maximum frequency is 12 was reported most frequently used and of
(three incidents in four interviews). Also, to high efficacy. Diagrams and analogies were
ease analysis, the two highest and lowest used less frequently and were less valued.
frequencies reported by each subject have Analogies were found to be difficult for
been highlighted in different ways to assist in mentors as they required spontaneity with
discerning patterns of high and low their use. For instance, one mentee reported
frequency. The two highest scores for each their mentor straining to find an appropriate
subject are in bold tye (e.g. 10, 9) and the analogy for a particular situation. These
two lowest underlined (e.g. 0, 1). findings also suggest that some mentors
The frequency for strategy use is indicated could more readily use some strategies than
by ``d'' (at least once a day), ``w'' (at least others and some had a wider perceived utility
once a week), and ``m'' (at least once a than others. Importantly, some mentors
month) in the columns reporting the efficacy predicted their ongoing use of these strategies
of each strategy. The number of times that beyond the trial period.
the frequencies were reported is shown The pattern of associations between the
alongside the lower case letter indicating frequency of use and efficacy in terms of
daily, weekly or monthly use. So, for contributions to learning through workplace
example, subject A1 reported the problems is evident in Tables II and III. In
contributions of everyday workplace activities Table II, data on frequency of strategy use in
(eight frequencies of either 3, 4 or 5). That is, Table I has been aggregated to provide a
279
Table II Reported frequency of strategy use and utility

Strategy use Frequency Mean of reported strategy utility Mode of reported strategy utility
At least daily 27 6.4 7
At least weekly 34 2.9 2
At least monthly 20 3.1 4
Table III Reported frequency of `àt least daily'' and utility

Reported numbers at `àt least daily'' Frequency Mean Mode
Once (d1) 11 4.9 3
Twice (d2) 8 6.2 7
Three times (d3) 4 7.3 7
Four times (d4) 4 9.8 10
further use of the quantitative analysis. In the of goal-directed activities, being conducted in
left-hand column are categorises of frequency environments that are authentic in terms of
of strategy use. In the adjacent rows are the application of the work-related
reported the number of times (frequency) knowledge are of kinds that cannot be
that strategies were reported as being used sourced elsewhere.
either `àt least daily'', `àt least weekly'' or `àt In sum, the data in Table I indicate the
least monthly'' and then the mean (average) reported sources of learning associated with
of the reported utility and the mode of the workplace tasks and problems over six-
utility. What these data indicate is that the month periods across five workplaces. These
more frequent the use of the strategies (e.g. at data and analysis rate highly the
least daily) the higher their utility is reported contributions of everyday experiences ± the
and the more likely they are to be individually learning curriculum ± and also depict an
rated higher. association between the frequency of strategy
The patterning depicted in Table III takes use and reported utility as depicted in
this case further by depicting how the data on Tables II and III.
the reported frequency of `àt least daily'' use
are correlated with reported utility. The data
show that where strategies were used `àt least Mentors' perceptions of guided
daily'' more frequently (i.e. up to four times) learning
there was likely to be a higher rating of their
utility in terms of average and likelihood of At the end of the six-month period, the
high rating. The number of responses here is mentors were asked in what ways had the
small, but the pattern identified in the larger mentoring process had been useful, not
data set is maintained. That is probably satisfactory and what improvements are
because the strategies are seen as required. The mentors' responses are
contributing directly to workplace problems summarised in Table IV. Table IV has three
of the kind required for the development of columns that are aligned to the questions
new knowledge in learners. about the utility, limitations and suggested
Therefore, these data suggest that the improvements for the mentoring approach.
guided learning at work may be making an In Table IV, the mentors are identified by
identifiable contribution to learning, through those they mentored, their mentee(s). For
its augmentation of the activities and example, the reference to A1 in this table is
guidance that are accessible in the workplace. not the mentee but A1's mentor. Where the
This contribution can be linked to mentor has two mentees, the mentor is
conceptual development that was identified identified by placing a hyphen to link the
through the use of concept maps in this mentees (e.g. E26-27).
study. There was a pattern of association The utility of the mentoring arrangements
between conceptual development as depicted were held to include those associated with
in the concept maps and the reported efficacy structuring or ``formalising'' a learning
of guided learning in the workplace (Billett process that already occurs `ìnformally''.
et al., 1998). Importantly, this combination This was seen as having benefits for both the
280
Table IV Mentors' perception of the mentoring process

Utility Limitation Improvements
Assisted with inducting Mainly used for induction Appropriateness of timing and
employees to workplace (A1) purposes (A1) selection of those involved
Precipitated conscious, structured and Thorough preparation and specific (A1)
reflective approach to mentoring focus on application for mentors' Reinforcement of and follow-up
(A2, A3, A4, A5, B8-10) area of work (A3) with strategies (A2, A5)
Provision of a wider range of Found it hard to change to using More flexibility with strategies
strategies (A6, B7) techniques (A5, B7, B8-10) and resources (A3)
Provision of learning experiences for Feedback and monitoring Provision of a structured
both mentor and mentee (C11, C12) required for mentors (A6) checklist for tasks (A6)
Provided an opportunity to structure Remoteness inhibited use of Locating mentor and mentees
learning of mentee (D16) strategies and access to expertise in same physical environment
Provided an opportunity to motivate (B7, C12) (B7)
mentees (E17-19) Separation from mentee (D16) Should become part of job ±
Pressed mentee into thinking for Time was not the best ± not job descriptions (C11)
herself and mentor to reflect on busy period (E17-19) Thorough preparation and
work practice (E23, E24, E25) Too busy ± unprepared (E23) tighter focusing of preparation
Provides other sources of advice Uncooperative mentees (E26-27) (E17-19)
for mentees (E26-27) Mentees ill at ease with process Have time available to do
(E23) tasks (E20-22)
Source: Billett et al. (1998)
mentors and mentees. For the mentors, it enterprise, being in the same location but on
pressed the need for some formalisation and different shifts or separation by many
structure, presented an opportunity to reflect kilometres and, hence, infrequent
on practice and furnished a vehicle to interact opportunities for face-to-face meetings. In
with workers for the purposes of their addition, the timing and selection of
development (e.g. induction). For the individuals for mentoring programs was held
mentors, the process is seen as engaging them as a key determinant for some mentors.
in knowledge constructing activities, Timing related to particular periods in
advancing discretion to mentees, structuring production processes, induction of new
experiences for them, addressing motivational employees or coincidence with important
issues and assisting them to another source of changes. Considering the factor of proximity
advice. So, the perceived utility of the in mentoring, it is noteworthy that a number
mentoring program was mainly focused on of the mentors at Site A share the same
the learning and the development of both the physical environment and probably have the
mentors and the mentees. The need for a opportunity to meet and discuss their
thorough preparation, monitoring for the mentoring activities. This situation probably
mentors and feedback on their performance furnishes a form of peer mentoring which is
emerged as a key concern. This was evident in analogous to the ``learning curriculum''
not only gaining competence in the use of the referred to earlier.
approaches but also changing from other Each of the strategies was valued in
approaches on which the mentors currently particular ways by the mentors. Questioning
rely. Equally, the lack of initial involvement was valued as a means to engage learners
with mentees in such a program was seen as directly, to get them to do the thinking, to
detrimental to the mentoring process and its encourage a consideration of options and also
outcomes in some work sites. This situation as a means to ascertain what the mentees
led to some of the mentees being ill at ease or know. Analogies allowed comparison to be
not trusting the process. The mentees also made and were perceived to be useful for
raised these concerns in their feedback. explaining complex ideas. Diagrams were
Another key limitation was physical held to be generative of strong mental images,
separation of the mentor and mentee. This assist in explaining complex concepts and
separation included being in different offices, developing understanding. Developing
working in different parts of plant or the rapport with learners, observation of
281
performance, helping to understand task was generative of new knowledge, much of it is

reported as being achieved through strengthening what is already known.
modelling. Coaching was perceived as Equally, the learning may not be robust or
helping to monitor learners' development transferable, or even desirable. Nevertheless,
and assist in their development. Limitations through undertaking workplace activities,
of these strategies were associated with their workers constantly engage in goal-directed
ease of use and how their use could be activities that are sources of knowledge
integrated into work activities (Billett et al., construction. Whether these activities are of
1998). In these ways the mentors have a routine or non-routine kind will determine
provided perceptions of both the general whether individuals' work-related
utility of a guided approach to learning and knowledge is strengthened or extended
the specific strategies. further.
As identified earlier, and reinforced in this
investigation, other and more experienced
Discussion workers can provide guidance in securing
the required workplace goals either directly
Contributions of everyday activities at or indirectly, as does the workplace itself.
work Indirect guidance can be simply through

The findings reinforce earlier claims that observing other completed jobs or listening
participating in everyday activities in the to and observing the activities of others or
workplace is a rich source of learning the comprehending the required standards for
knowledge required for completing work performance (Lave, 1990). It seems that this
tasks. Reported under the category of the guidance, while not directly intentional, in
``learning curriculum'', the data from the instructional sense, nevertheless
learners in all five workplaces consistently contributes directly to development of
emphasised the contributions of engagement vocational knowledge required for
in everyday activities, and the direct and performance in those circumstances in
indirect guidance furnished by social and which it was engaged. However, there were
physical sources within the workplace. Over identified contributions provided by the
all subjects and sites, the contributions direct guidance trialed in the investigation.
scoring the four highest frequencies of
measures of utility in resolving workplace Guided learning at work
tasks were: everyday work activities (187), Beyond the contributions of everyday
observing and listening to others (151), activities, the guided learning strategies
other workers (144) and the workplace selected for this investigation were used to
(136). The effectiveness of these supplement learning through everyday work
components of the ``learning curriculum'' practice. These strategies are not as readily
(Billett, 1996; Lave, 1990) appears to be available or as easy to sustain as the kind of
found in its ongoing, ubiquitous and contributions referred to above collectively
multi-fold contributions. These as the ``learning curriculum''. Nevertheless,
contributions are ubiquitous in workplaces the data indicate that the selected strategies
and exist in ways and at levels that are made contributions to learning. In
probably impossible to replicate through conjunction with everyday activities, the use
instructional interventions or interludes, as of the selected strategies in the workplace
they comprise contributions to learning that appears to improve the prospect of the
are embedded in the workplace and in the development of the kinds of knowledge
conduct of work tasks. Taking a required for workplace performance. Both
constructivist perspective, learning is not mentors and mentees reported that the
separable from thinking and acting. strategies make particular kinds of
Overcoming disequilibrium (Piaget, 1968) contributions. This is most evident in those
and the search for viability (von Glasersfeld, work sites and those individual instances
1987) are not restricted to intentional where the mentors sustained their efforts
learning within an educational institution or and frequency of interventions. Frequency
training room, they are part of everyday of strategy use is also associated with
conscious experiences. It seems that as we development of conceptual knowledge.
think and act we learn. Not all the learning is Evidence from concept maps and data on
282
strategy use indicated associations between learning. They were the mentors that
their use and conceptual development. combined the strategies and extended their
However, the use of the different strategies use. This work area provided the firmest
was more valued by some mentors in some evidence of the persistence in use and their
situations, than others and in other situations. utility. Conversely, in another workplace,
To strengthen understandings about the there was limited readiness for the mentoring
contributions of the selected strategies role and considerable reservation by some
requires further data to be able to analyse mentors about the task, and suspicion by a
each problem scenario in terms of its number of the mentees. For example,
conceptual complexity and difficulty to be questioning was perceived by some in this
learnt. workplace as being an interrogation to
The persistence with some guided learning determine what the mentees did not know,
strategies by mentors over the six-month rather than as a means to assist learning.
period was associated with strong perceptions Nevertheless, one mentor in this workplace
of their utility. It seems unlikely that mentors persisted with the guided learning and was
would have persisted with their use, or acknowledge by his mentees as having made a
learners acknowledge their contributions, considerable contribution to their learning
unless both perceived the utility of these (see E24/25 in Table I). The outcomes for
approaches. The perception of utility was these mentees included an enhancing belief in
supported in other data from the mentors' their ability to continue to learn and develop
predictions about their future use. themselves further. So a key outcome was
improved self-efficacy for these learners.
Individual and organisational influences Conversely, at the workplace previously
on workplace learning mentioned that had a history of workplace
The level of strategy utilisation differed across learning, one mentee (A1) was highly
the five workplaces and was far from reluctant to engage with his mentor (who was
maximum in all of them. It was reported in also a peer), despite the best and
the final interviews that a range of factors conscientious efforts of the mentor. This led
influenced strategy use. These included the
to difficulties in the relationship and the
preparedness of the workers selected as
corresponding low frequency of strategy use
guides ± their readiness ± and the
and reported low level outcome (see Billett
organisational structures that inhibited or
et al., 1998).
assisted this development. Each workplace
The act of engagement in workplace
had different goals, procedures, requirements
activities is associated with ongoing and
for work performance, and a readiness to
constant learning through everyday problem
participate in guided learning. The
solving, supported and guided by
importance of the quality of the workplace
contributions from the workplace. This
environment that is conducive to these kinds
engagement actively mediates between what
of interactions is reinforced in this study.
Overall, it seems the readiness of the the learners currently know with what they
enterprise and its workforces to participate in encounter through engagement in workplace
these kinds of work experiences is the crucial tasks. So it seems there is rich
basis for securing the kinds of outcomes interdependence between individuals'
desired by workers and enterprises alike. This existing knowledge is variously made
readiness is founded in organisational factors vulnerable, transformed or strengthened by
(e.g. security of employment, openness, trust, these engagements. This interdependence is
existence of expertise) and individuals' (both also energised or de-energised by individuals'
mentors' and mentees') willingness to engage interest and commitment to the knowledge to
in the effortful process of constructing new be learnt (Tobias, 1994), as evidenced by
knowledge and developing new ways of whether assimilation or accommodation
knowing. For example, in one workplace (Piaget, 1968) results from such
(mentees A2-A6) there was an existing engagements. Vocational practice is likely to
practice of structured workplace training. be a strong source of interest when embedded
Here, most of the mentors felt confident in individuals' vocational identity. For
about their task and collectively were instance, whether they engage in learning in a
reported as engaging their mentees in guided concerted and effortful way.
283
Therefore, beyond the contributions freely From this study and earlier work, some
provided in the workplace and those bases to advance a workplace curriculum or
interventions enacted to enhance learning, pedagogy of the workplace are identifiable in
i.e. the guided learning strategies, individuals' terms of the integration of everyday learning
interests will determine how they engage and experiences and guided learning strategy use.
direct their energies, and persist in goal- The shape and development of that pedagogy
directed activities and the quality of the are likely to be a product of the unique
learning that results. So there is a crucial requirements and needs of each workplace. It
interdependence between the contributions seems that the readiness of the organisation
afforded by the social practice of work and and its workers encompass key factors that
individuals' existing knowledge that will determine the shape and form of such
incorporates their disposition towards learning arrangements, including their level
particular kinds of learning. Therefore, issues of sophistication and scope of the intended
of organisational and individual readiness outcomes. So although the evidence provided
may well be the basis to explore further by the investigation about the contributions
improving the outcomes of workplace of everyday participation and guided learning
learning. assists working towards refining workplaces
as learning environments, their potency will

be premised on the factors at the workplace
Conclusion level. It is these that will likely determine how
workplace learning will proceed and the
To conclude, findings from this investigation quality of its outcomes.
support earlier studies by re-emphasising the
contributions of engagement in goal-direct
workplace activities, and the direct and
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Stephen Billett - Guided Learning at Work

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Journal of Workplace Learning

Guided learning at work

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challenges such as the ever-changing nature The sociocultural perspective also

in actual workplace incidents, but also how it could be improved, as well as

Guided learning at work

Volume 12 . Number 7 . 2000 . 272±285

Journal of Workplace Learning

mentor, observing and listening to others, The contributions to securing workplace

Table II Reported frequency of strategy use and utility

Table III Reported frequency of ``at least daily'' and utility

Table IV Mentors' perception of the mentoring process

performance, helping to understand task was generative of new knowledge, much of it is

work Indirect guidance can be simply through

as learning environments, their potency will

Smith, E.L., Theron, D. and Anderson, C.W. (1993),

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