E-ISSN: 2502-0633, P-ISSN: 2502-4647

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DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.30659/ijibe.5.2.100-112

HALAL CERTIFICATION OF INSECT-BASED FOOD: A

CRITIQUE

Ahmad Labeeb Tajudeen*

*Corresponding Author
College of Islamic Studies, Islamic University of Minnesota, 5620 Smetana Dr, Minnetonka, MN 55343, United States,
[email protected]

Abstract: In 2013, the United Nations began to campaign for insect consumption as an alternative rich source
of high-quality protein and minerals, to thwart the predicted global food shortage and to reduce greenhouse
emission. Consequently, entomophagy (or insect consumption) began to receive stronger impetus, and the
global edible insect market is estimated to reach US$1.2 billion by 2023. However, while more insects are
increasingly becoming parts of processed foods globally, halal certification bodies do not hold a unified stand on
the „halalness‟ of insects and their extracts. The aim of this paper was to juxtapose the views of the scholars of
the four Sunni Madhabs (schools of Islamic Canon law) on insect consumption, and drew on the Qur‟an
linguistics theories and Islamic maxims in the construction of the theoretical framework for this research.
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) was adopted as research methodology which guides the whole research
process, while content analysis remains the central research method. The result includes relevant factors that
must be considered when certifying insect-based gastronomic items as Halal. The novelty and contribution of
this paper lies in exposing the cultural milieu that informed the verdicts of the classical scholars on insect
consumption, which later became the harbinger for the controversies among the contemporary halal certification
bodies. The main practical implication of this study is that it paves way for a unified Islamic stand with regards
to halal certification of insect-based food items. The limitation of the study is that it is confined to the major four
schools of Islamic canon law only.

Keywords: Insect-consumption, insect-based food, halal certification, halalan-tayyiban, Islamic classical

scholars.

Received Revised Accepted Published

July 27, 2020 September 25, 2020 September 26, 2020 September 30, 2020

INTRODUCTION
Since prehistoric time, insect consumption (or entomophagy) has been a human
tradition. Recent archaeological shreds of evidence have proved that humans were
entomophagous in the ancient time in various parts of the world, including some parts of the
USA, Canada and Mexico (Dobermann, et al, 2017; Jongema, 2015; Kouřimská and
Adámková, 2016; Lesnik, 2014; McGrew, 2014; Shockley, et al, 2018; Sutton 1995;
Reckhaus, 2017; Raubenheimer and Rothman 2011; Van Huis et al., 2013; Vantomme, 2015;
Yen, 2009, 2015). However, the progress made in the domestication of animals and
advancement in animal production which make animals easier and faster to get, hunting for
animals, and, by extension, edible insects as means of food was becoming infamous in the
modern time (Shockley, et al, 2018). This advancement notwithstanding, insect consumption
remains part and parcel of food culture of many human races around the world. In 2013, the
United Nations‟ Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) published a report on insect
consumption caused it to gain global popularity and unprecedented trans-cultural acceptance.
In its report, FAO submitted that insects are rich sources of high-quality protein and minerals,
and that insect consumption is an efficient way to thwart the predicted global food shortage

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and to ameliorate greenhouse emission (Durst et al, 2010; Van Huis et al, 2013). In 2015, and
for the first time in modern time, insect consumption was becoming popular in some
European countries. The Netherlands and Belgium currently both permit the sale of foods
containing certain processed insect species (Bureau Risicobeoordeling & Onderzoeks
programmering, 2014; Ngonlong, Bergen, & Onderzoeksprogrammering, 2014; Ngonlong,
Bergen, and Keppens, 2014 as cited by House, 2016, footnote p. 1). Currently, insect
consumption has become an acceptable food culture in about one hundred and thirteen (113)
countries in the world. Subsequently, the insect-based food market had begun to grow
tremendously, and several food industries have begun to tap into the market which is
estimated to worth 1.2 billion U.S. dollars by 2023 (Statista, 2018).

Statement of the Problem

Research has shown that there exists an interplay between religion and consumerism
(Karner and Aldridge, 2004; ZickVarul, 2008), and that religion is one of the major factors
that determine consumer‟s choice (e.g. Collins, et al, 2009; Dindyal, and Dindyal, 2003;
Feeley-Harnik, 1995; Freidenreich, 2011; Just, 2007; Moira, et al, 2017; Patience, 2016).
There are several studies that have examined the acceptability of insect consumption in the
Western countries and other various places (Barennes, et al, 2015; Hartmann and Siegrist,
2017; Megido, et al, 2016; Orsi, et al, 2019). As for the Muslims, their acceptability across
the world is hinged strongly on the religious rules which guide halal food certification bodies.
However, the books of Fiqh (Islamic Canon law) contain diversely opposing views on insect
consumption. This ununified stand has impacted the contemporary scholars and certification
bodies. For instance, there are two opposing views on the halalness of Carmine (or E-120)
which is an insect extract and used as a food dye in some spices and flavor. In addition, some
of the arguments raised by some writers on this subject matter have not been well-grounded
in rigorous analysis; they are mere narrations of opinions without a juristic analysis. With this
dearth in the literature, the future of the insect market and the Muslim‟s perception on insect
consumption are obscured to the international food industry and key players in Halal food
industries.
The thrust of this paper is to elucidate on the juristic opinions on insect consumption, as
documented in the books of Islamic canon law. This elucidation would serve as a theoretical
framework to pinpoint some practical issues that surround the halal certification of insect-
based food. The novelty of this paper lies in paving way for a unified Islamic stand vis-à-vis
insect consumption, which is being popularized by the United Nation‟s agency recently. This
would allow halal certification bodies to stay aloof of controversies among the classical
scholars which may not be feasible in this era of globalized and trans boundary food
production. It would also expose various non-Islamist stakeholders in food production
industries and researchers, to some pending issues that must be addressed in order to enhance
the quality of fatwaa (Islamic verdicts) on insect consumption.

LITERATURE REVIEW
Entomophagy and Halal Food Industry

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The halal food market is so huge than to be ignored by the insect-food industry.
According to the International Market Analysis Research and Consulting (IMARC) Group
report titled “Halal Food Market: Global Industry Trends, Share, Size, Growth, Opportunity
and Forecast 2018-2023” it revealed that the global halal food market reached a value of
US$1.4 trillion in 2017. The report projected market value to reach US$2.6 trillion by 2023,
exhibiting a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of more than 11 percent during the period
between 2018 to 2023. With the growing number of Muslims in the world, and with the
continued agitation for healthier and trusted food products, the Halal food market has
emerged as one of the most profitable and influential markets in the contemporary business
world.
On the other hand, the various reasons advanced as convincing exigencies that are
beyond the cultural milieu (e.g. see: Van Huis et al, 2013) require that Halal certification
bodies take a clear, unified and an unshakable stand towards edible insect consumption.
Notably, nutrition and environmental benefits have been the most paramount benefits stressed
by advocates of edible insect consumption. Ronald Taylor (1975), as cited by vane-Wright
(1991) was perhaps one of the relatively earlier researchers who carried out a comparative
nutritional value of edible insects. In a book titled: “Insects in Human Nutrition” Taylor
(1975) collated data on food values for a range of insects, comparing their protein, fat,
carbohydrate, mineral, vitamin and calorific values with those for beef, lamb, pork, chicken,
fish, milk, and eggs. Taylor (1975) found out that insects contain a lot of protein, some being
leaner than trimmed beef with fewer fat calories. The amino-acid composition, although not
ideal (tending to be low in methionine, cysteine, and tryptophan), is easily balanced by the
addition of suitable plant protein, such as corn gluten. Insects contain calcium, iron, other
minerals, and some vitamins, notably riboflavin (Vane-Wright, 1991 p.1). These results were
corroborated and reconfirmed by a relatively more recent study. Kouřimská and Adámková,
(2016) cited Rumpold and Schlüter (2013) and concluded that the Nutrient Value Score of
crickets, palm weevil larvae and mealworm was significantly healthier than in the case of
beef and chicken and none of the six tested insects were statistically less healthy than meat.
Most edible insects provide sufficient energy and protein intake in the human diet, as well as
meeting the amino acid requirements. This justifies the assertion of Vane-Wright, (1991) who
concluded that insect protein could substitute for almost all vertebrate protein (p.4).
According to Kouřimská, and Adámková (2016), insects also have a high content of mono
and polyunsaturated fatty acids; they are rich in trace elements such as copper, iron,
magnesium, manganese, phosphorus, selenium and zinc, as well as vitamins like riboflavin,
pantothenic acid, biotin, and folic acid in some cases (Kouřimská, &Adámková, 2016 p. 23).
In the work of Hartmann and Siegrist (2017), they concluded that insects have lower
concentrations of cholesterols alongside favourable n-3/n-6 fatty acids ration (p. 31).
According to the International Centre of Insects Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE), several
essential amino acids, especially lysine, threonine, and methionine, which are limited in
cereal and legume-based diets, are present in adequate quantities in edible insects. Compared
to conventional sources, edible insects are rich in zinc. For instance, while 100 g of beef
contains only 12.5 mg of zinc; the same amount of palm weevils contains 26.5 mg
(https://www.entomofago.eu/en/2018/07/02/edible-insects-as-food-in-africa/).

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In recent time, the halal logo has gone beyond an indication of religious permissibility,
to become a symbol of clean, hygienic, humane, and trusted food products that is well sought
after by Muslims and non-Muslims alike (Golnaz et al, 2010; Hussain, et al, 2016; Krishnan,
et al, 2017; Mathew, 2014; Muhammad, 2007; Wibowo, 2016; Wilkins, et al, 2019; Yunos,
2018). It would, therefore, be an antithesis to halal paradigm to ignore the various benefits of
insect-consumption, without a rigorous and convincing scholarly prove. In addition, as it is
prohibited in Islam to consume non-halal substances, it is a more grievous sin to prohibit
things without an Islamic valid evidence. As we shall see later, the Qur‟an frowns at those
who prohibits food or provision that is Tayyib (good, nutritious, healthy) without a tangible
justification and call them transgressors.
Further, the general dietary base rule in Islam states that: “All foods are considered
halal until proven to be haram”. In this regard, where there are opposing views on insect
consumption, there is a need for a critical examination of the scholars‟ opinions to analyse the
evidences put forward, to uncover the validity of each opinion.

Insect Consumption in Islam

Insect Consumption in Arabian Culture
Prior to the advent of Islam in Arabia, Arabs were well accustomed to locust
consumption as a favourite food. Locust was so significant to Arabs that they consider it as
both food and medicine fused in one, hence the Arabic adage: “When locusts appear, throw
away all the medicines”. An Arab would hail his wife for preparing locust delicacies. They
equally consume locust eggs which they consider to be special eggs that quenches appetite
for meat.
The gastronomic importance of locust to Arabs was perhaps responsible for Arabs
detail knowledge about different stages of locust metamorphosis. When it first hatched, they
call it (Qummus), and call it (Ad-dabaa) when it began to grow wings but cannot fly, and
(Khayfaan) when it first flies and (Katfaan) when it flies and balances its wing. They equally
ascribe a different name to their grouping and gathering. In love of locust, they name their
male children „Jundub‟ the name of a male locust, and „jaradah‟; name of a female locust for
their female children.
When Islam came to Arabia, locust was further sanctioned as halal where the Holy
Prophet Muhammad (peace upon him) was reported to have said: “There are two dead
(animals) that are permitted to us (to consume without slaughter); the fish and the locusts”
(Ibn Majah, Chapters on Hunting, Hadith No.3218). Further, it is narrated in Sahih Bukhari
(Volume 7, Book 67, Number 403) on the authority of Abdullah Ibn Abi Awfa who said:
“We participated in six or seven Ghazawat (expeditions, battles) with the Prophet, and we
used to consume locusts (the Holy Prophet)”. This point to entomophagy that has been
accustomed to, in all the battles that span, at least, through nine years, during the lifetime of
the prophet of Islam in Madinah. Locust consumption is not limited to the time of exigency at
war, Ibn Majah narrated from Anas ibn Malik that the wives of the Prophet (peace and
blessings of Allah be upon him) used to gift each other trays of locusts.” (Chapters on
Hunting, Hadith No. 3220). This hadith further confirms that the locust being consumed was
in large quantity. Abdullah the son of „Umar (the second successor of the prophet of Islam of

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Allah) narrated that his father „Umar was asked one day about locust, and he said: I wish we
could have a scuttle (full) of it so that we could eat from it. Abdullah then remarked: He
(„Umar) loves locust so much.
All of these narrations and many more have established convincingly that insect
consumption is part of Arab tradition. Up till the present time, locust consumption is a
traditional food in Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Yemen, Libya, and some other Arabian countries.
Locust business is more lucrative in Saudi Arabia and Yemen, the two major Arab ancestral
origins, where life locust is sold in sacks, at around US$40.0 per kilogram, more expensive
than meat.

Classical Muslim Scholars’ opinions on Insect Consumption

There is consensus among scholars of the four Sunni Madhabs (schools of Islamic
canon law) that locust, a type of insect, is halal for consumption. This consensus is inevitable,
as there are clear-cut hadith (Prophet‟s sayings and traditions) that supports locust
consumption. However, the fuqahaa‟ (Islamic jurists) differ on other types of insects. This
difference arises, due to the fact that all of the hadith narrations on the permissibility of
insects have centred on locust alone, and silent on other insects. Summarily, two out of the
four Sunni schools of Islamic canon law hold two extremely opposing opinions, while the
remaining two took a middle course with slight differences. However, all the four Sunni
Schools agree that insects that grow out of food, such as food worms, are halal and
permissible (Yasin, 2007 pp. 364-379).
Before we venture into detail of the scholars‟ opinions, there is a terminological
ambiguity in the classical books of Islamic canon law that must be clarified. The word
hashrah popularly translated as an insect is used in the fiqh (Islamic canon law) literature for
a meaning broader than insect (see for review: Yasin, 2007, pp. 32-35). When the word
hashrah (plural: hasharaat) is mentioned in the book of Fiqh, it refers sometimes to insects,
rodents (such as hyrax, rats, mouse, hedgehog, etc) and reptiles (such as lizards, wall gecko,
snakes, etc). It is, therefore, pertinent that a researcher studies the scholarly verdicts and
opinions on hasharaat (plural of hasharah) on a case-to-case basis. In the following
paragraphs, we shall stick to the word hasharaat in discussing the views and opinions of the
four Sunni schools.
The Hanafi School, which has the majority of followers in the Islamic world,
amounting to forty-five percent (45%) of the Muslim population (Schleifer, 2019), consider
all types of hasharaat (including insects) as haram, and food containing insect is prohibited.
They based their argument on a verse of the Holy Qur‟an (e.g. Surah A‟raf vs 157) that
prohibits the consumption of khabeeth (malice, malignant and filthy thing). The Hanafi
consider hasharaat (including insects) to be filthy and malignant, and are abhorrent that a
normal person would be disgusted with them (Yasin, 2007).
The Maliki School, on the other hand, holds a divergent and an extremely opposite
view to the view of the Hanafi school. The Maliki School, with followers amounting to
fifteen percent (15%) of the Muslims in the world (ibid), adjudicates that all types of hashraat
are halal, except the ones that are harmful to health or disgusted by the people. They based
their opinion on some verses of the Qur‟an (e.g. al-Ma'idah vs 93) that permit the

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consumption of all that is on the earth except the ones that are made prohibited by Shariah or
harmful to health. Since there is no clear-cut evidence as to the prohibition of all hashraat
including insects, any edible insect that is nutritious, non-harmful and acceptable by people is
considered halal. However, the Maliki school recommended that rodents and reptiles should
be slaughtered, and edible insects should not be consumed (put into the mouth) alive, it must
be killed either by plucking off the head, roasting or other permissible means, and invoke the
name Allah (Bismillah) on it while causing it to die (Al-Baji, Vol. 3, page 129).
As for the Shafi‟i school that command eighteen percent (18%) of Muslims in the
world, and the Hanbali school whose followers amount to two percent (2%) of the Muslim
population in the world, they both adopt a selective approach, not generic like Hanafi and
Maliki, but both schools differ from one another in some of the categories of hasharat is halal.
For instance, the Shafi‟i ruled that hedgehog is halal while the Hanbali consider it to be
haram. However, both schools regard all insects, except locust, as khabeeth (filthy), and
therefore not halal.
Summarily, whereas there is consensus among all the scholars of Islam on the
prohibition of anything that is khabeeth, there is no consensus among them on the labelling of
some hasharat including insects as khabeeth. It is equally clear that the basis of argument and
divergencies among scholars of all the four Sunni Schools on insect consumption is hinged
on whether the insect is khabeeth (malignant and filthy thing) or tayyib (good, nutritious,
acceptable by people). While the majority of scholars opined that insect is khabeeth, the
Malik school does not regard it as khabeeth except the one that is harmful to human health,
and the ones that are culturally unacceptable.

METHOD
This paper adopts Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) as a research methodology to solve the
problem of this research. This methodology is suitable for this research as it usually used for
studying written language in relation to its social context (see for review: Wodak and Meyer,
2009). In this research, CDA was used to contextualize the classical juristic opinions on
insect consumption within the socio-cultural framework of the Islamic Jurists. Qualitative
Content analysis remains the central research method which draws largely on literature
review.

DISCUSSION
Analysis here would be premised on the general Islamic law that guides food
consumption as contained in the following verses of the Qur‟an: “O you who believe! Do not
make unlawful the tayyibat (all that is good as regards foods, things, deeds, beliefs, persons)
which Allah has made lawful to you, and do not transgress. Verily, Allah does not like the
transgressors. And eat of the things that are Halalan-Tayyiban (lawful and good) which Allah
has provided for you, and fear Allah in whom you believe” (Surah Ma‟idah vs 87-88).
According to the Qur‟an linguistics, when a verse of the Qur‟an is opened with the
sentence “Yaa Ayuhal-ladheena aamanu” meaning: „O you who believe‟, as in the verse 87
above, such verse is likely to contain legal responsibility rules, which may either be a
compulsion rule (obligatory to do, or forbidden to do), or non-compulsion rules

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(recommended, reprehensible or neutral). However, the last sentence of the verse 87 that
reads: “Verily, Allah does not like the transgressors” is a clear indication that the rule here is
compulsion ones. In other words, it is a punishable sin for a Muslim to prohibit whatever that
is Halal and Tayyib. Consequently, any prohibition of food substance must be substantiated
with a valid evidence that would prove it not to be halal and not tayyib.
Having said that, it should be noted that no Madhab out of the four Sunni schools
presents a direct or clear-cut verse of the Qur‟an or narration from hadith that prohibits insect
consumption. Therefore, to adjudicate the halalness of insects other than locust would be a
matter of Ijtihad (legal reasoning, deductions, and inferences) which allows further research.
It should be remembered here that when there are divergently opposing opinions based on
Ijtihad, the right opinion would be judged based on the quality of its arguments, not by
counting the numbers of those who hold such opinion; qualitative approach precedes
quantitative approach in Islamic epistemology and theory of evidence. What follows is that
the choice of opinion on insect consumption between the Jumhur (majority) or the Maliki
school would be based on whether on or not insect is tayyib as the opposite of khabeeth.
To do this, we need to define what is tayyib, a component of Halalan-Tayyiban which is the
regulatory conceptual framework laid down by the Qur‟an, and used by halal certification
bodies for halal certification of food items which are not clearly stipulated in the Qur‟an or
the Hadith (prophetic sayings and tradition).

Halalan-Tayyiban as an ethical regulatory conceptual framework

Literature abounds on the topic of Halalan-Tayyiban, explaining what the duo means in
halal consumption parlance (see for review: Pusparini & Setiaji, 2019; Omar et al, 2013;
Halim & Salleh, 2012; Zainuddin and Shariff, 2016). However, most of the studies did not
attempt an in-depth study of the underlying principles and implications. For instance, the
majority of the previous studies have reduced Halalan Tayyiban to a mere concept rather than
a comprehensive conceptual framework where the two sacrosanct components have mutual
interrelationship. While a comprehensive study of the two words „Halalan‟ and „Tayyiban‟ as
an Islamic terminology is beyond the scope of this paper, we shall discuss, in the following
paragraphs, albeit briefly, the meaning of tayyib as the opposite of khabeeth from Qur‟an
linguistics perspective.
The Qur'an emphatically enjoins and commands mankind, including Muslims, to
consume what is halal (Islamically permissible) as well as tayyib (good and acceptable,
hygienically and spiritually wholesome). These two components are mutually sacrosanct in
conceptualizing halal food consumption. As it will be clearer later, the word tayyib is broader
in meaning than halal and is key in determining what is halal.
To elucidate, the word tayyib, according to the theory of „Perfect Semantic Matching‟
of the Qur‟an language, should be regarded as a unique word which perfectly convey the
intended meaning and cannot be replaced with another word that may be used
interchangeably with it in the general Arabic usage, such as 'tahir'. In Arabic etymology, the
word tayyib is derived from the root word 'taaba' which means 'to be good', 'to be delicious',
'to be pure', 'to be acceptable', and 'to be clean and uncontaminated' (Tajudeen and
Abdurahman, 2019). In the Qur‟an usage, tayyib refers to the opposite of khabeeth (impure,

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adulterated and contaminated) which applies to both human and non-human

entities. Tayyib shares the same meaning with the word 'tahir' which also mean „to be pure‟
and free from contaminant, but tayyib is broader in meaning in the sense that it refers to a
purity that enhances a substance's (or a human being's) ability to fulfill the demanded quality
and actualize the end result (Mustafawy, n.d. vol. 7, p. 182).
Further, the word „taaba’ has an affective dimension. Unlike „tahir‟ which is more
objective as it only refers to meeting the purity standard, the word “tayyib” is subjective as it
takes into consideration individual views towards an object in question. In other words, what
may be “tayyib” in the view of someone may not be “tayyib” in the view of another. This is
evident in various verses of the Qur‟an where „taaba’ or “tayyib” appears, such as in the
choice of a woman to marry and gifts a wife offers her husband. In those contexts, tayyib
connotes individual taste and self-willingness (see for instance Surah Nisa‟ verses 2-4).
From the foregoing, we may conclude and define tayyib as something that is ' good' and
„acceptable' in accordance with the laid down standard or norms. In dietary parlance,
a tayyib food is the one that is capable of providing the body with the required nutrients, suits
the taste in accordance with the cultural norms, and is safe for both mundane and Islamic
spiritual health (Tajudeen &Abdurahman, 2019). Therefore, any insect that is confirmed to be
nutritious, safe for human health and culturally acceptable has met the qualities of a tayyib
food, which then qualifies it to be halal. In the following paragraphs, we shall take a relook
into the opinions of the Fuqahah (Islamic jurists) based on this definition of tayyib.

Analyzing the opinions of the Fuqahah (Islamic jurists)

To start with, the consensus of scholars on the halalness of locust which is also an
insect is convincing evidence that negates the generic opinion of the Hanafi School that
considers insect family as khabeeth or not tayyib. In addition, the plethora of evidence that
proves that some edible insects are nutritious, medicinal and are favourite foods of many
races around the world, further counter the arguments of those who consider all insects as
being “disgusted which no normal people would like to consume”. It can be equally argued
that locust that remains Arabs‟ favourite food till the present time, and ruled permissible in
Islam, is equally a disgusted insect to some other races in the world who are also insect eaters
but do not consume locust (e.g. the Yoruba in the West Africa). In the absence of a clear-cut
evidence that prohibits insect consumption, it may perhaps be said that locust, as an insect, is
ruled halal due to its acceptability in the Arabian culture as we have detailed earlier, and that
some of the fuqaha considered other insects that are not consumed by Arabs as khabeeth,
because they are disgusted in Arabian culture. We can, therefore, conclude that the opinions
of the fuqahaa' are arguably based on a subjective analysis which is informed by the limited
information available to them on the subject matter.
In the Islamic jurisprudence, subjective opinions of the fuqahaa’ on food is informed
„solely‟ by their culture such opinions are bound to change in accordance with space and
times (for detail review see: Ibn Al-Qayyim, 2009, Vol. 3). Therefore, foods that are
prohibited by fuqahaa’ based on cultural grounds, such prohibition is not binding on all
Muslims, with different custom or culture that accept such food. This is evident in narration,
in Sahih Bukhari (Volume 7, Book 65, Number 312), where Khalid bin Walid said: "A

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roasted dabb (mastigure, a kind of wild lizard) was brought to the Holy Prophet (peace be
upon him). When he stretched his hand towards it to eat it, they said to him, "It is a
mastigure." So; he withdrew his hand. Khalid asked, "Is it unlawful to eat?" the Prophet said,
"No, but it is not found in the land of my people and that is why I do not like eating it." So,
Khalid started eating (it) while Allah's Apostle was looking at him”.
It can be inferred from this narration that if we arguably accept the opinion that insect
family is disgusted, this opinion is subjective and relative as there are Muslims whose culture
allows consumption of certain insect and do not consider it disgusted. This makes the opinion
that permits insect consumption to be preferred and more acceptable. The opinion is
supported by the Islamic general principle on food consumption that says: “All foods items
are halal except it is established with valid evidence that it is haram”, as well as the
universality of the Islamic message and law which transcends races, tribes, and nations.
Therefore, what should be the major concern in certifying an insect as halal are the
nutritional qualities and safety for human health, while the choice to consume it is left to an
individual‟s culture and taste. It is enough to mention the insect used in the food in the table
of ingredients, for a consumer to make a choice. As for the safety, it is a general rule in Islam
to consume what is hygienic and safe for human health (Surah Baqarah vs 196). Therefore,
before an insect could be considered as tayyib, it is must be established with clear evidence
that it is safe for human consumption. Based on this, there are many issues that need to be
further addressed with regards to halal labelling of insect-based food. For instance, a risk
analysis by European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) in the year 2015, and cited by Bußlereta
al (2016) emphasized that there are numerous uncertainties and knowledge gaps regarding the
use of insects and products thereof as food and feed. According to Hartmann and Siegrist
(2017), the use of insects as food or fodder on large scale requires research on the
technological treatment and processing methods and on toxicological, microbial and hygienic
safety as well as possible allergenic potential (p. 31). Despite the abundance of studies that
show that insects could make valuable economic and nutritional contributions to the food or
feed systems, there are no clear regulations in place to bring insects into such supply systems.
Future research needs to examine how the nutritional value of insects can be managed
systematically, establish clear processing and storage methodology, define rearing practices
and implement regulations with regard to food and feed safety (Dobermann, et al, 2017).

CONCLUSION
Insect consumption is not totally alien or prohibited in Islam, and condemnation of all
insects as Haram without an exception, is a technical error and fallacy of generalization. This
is evident in the consensus of the four Sunni schools that locust and food worms that grow
out of it are halal. However, there is no consensus among them on other edible insects. Based
on juristic analysis, the opinion which allows insect consumption with some conditions, is
considered more evident and preponderant. However, one of the major requirements that
must be looked into before certifying an insect-based food product as halal is the results of
risk analysis as well as the nutritional quality of each and every insect that is being marketed.
It is then left to the consumer to choose such food item, as a matter individual acceptability,
but such food item should not be denied halal certification.

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Recommendation for Future Research

More researches should be done to fill the existing knowledge gap, regarding
toxicological, microbial, hygienic safety and possible allergenic potential of edible insects. It
has been argued that some insects contain some scientifically unwanted substances which
may not be useful or suitable for human consumption. In this regard, Halal food research
needs to play an active role in the on-going research on the edible insect, by bringing to the
fore the Islamic requirements which may include other Islamically unwanted substances that
may be contained in some insects. This will lead to the lists of insects that could be certified
as halal.
Now that global entomophagy is driving people towards mass production of edible
insects, it is pertinent for halal certification bodies to be proactive in laying down rules that
would govern the process of insect farming, regulations on permitted feed and its safety
based on the biochemical process that takes place in the insect thereafter, which may be
harmless to the insect metabolism but dangerous to human health.
With the ongoing campaign for insect consumption, a new treasure and huge market are
opening up for the Halal food industry, as a trusted and ethical food industry. Any active role
played by a Halal certification body would not only provide a clear path for the rising insect-
based food industries around the world but equally give it the recognition as a reliable body
which is keeping abreast of contemporary needs and discourse in the field, within the ambit
of Islamic red lines.

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