Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 20 (2013) 201–218
Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser
Possibility of electricity generation using PV solar plants in Serbia

Tomislav Pavlović a,n, Dragana Milosavljević a, Ivana Radonjić a, Lana Pantić a,
Aleksandar Radivojević b, Mila Pavlović c
a
University of Niš, Faculty of sciences and mathematics, Department of Physics, Višegradska 33, Niš 18 000, Serbia
b
University of Niš, Faculty of sciences and mathematics, Department of Geography, Višegradska 33, Niš 18 000, Serbia
c
University of Belgrade, Faculty of Geography, Studentski trg 3/3, Belgrade 11 000, Serbia
a r t i c l e i n f o abstract
Article history: The paper focuses on the possibilities of generating electrical energy by means of PV solar plants of
Received 29 July 2011 1 MW in Serbia. Further on basic physical characteristics of solar cells made of monocryistalline silicon,
Received in revised form CdTe and CIS solar cells and a description of the fixed PV solar plants, one-axis and dual-axis tracking
24 November 2012
PV solar plants are given. The paper proceeds to tackle the legislative frame concerning renewable
Accepted 26 November 2012
Available online 3 January 2013
sources of energy and the current state of the use of PV systems in Serbia, climate conditions and
energy potential of the renewable sources in Serbia. Apart from PVGIS solar map of Serbia real
Keywords: meteorological data for 17 towns in Serbia are given. Based on PVGIS program, geographycal position
Solar energy and the results of PVGIS calculation of the yearly average values of the optimal panel inclination, solar
Solar cells
irradiation on the horizontal, vertical and optimally inclined plane, ratio of diffuse to global solar
Fixed PV solar plants
irradiation and linke turbidity for some cities in Serbia are given. Total for year sum of global irradiation
Tracking PV solar plants
Climate conditions in Serbia per square meter received by the modules of the fixed PV solar plants, optimally inclined one-axis and
Legislative in Serbia dual-axis tracking PV solar plants of 1 MW and total for year electricity production of different types of
PV solar plant of 1 MW for 23 cities in Serbia obtained by PVGIS are given. Comparison of total for year
electricity production of different types of PV solar plant of 1 MW with monocrystaline silicon, CdTe
and CIS solar modules, respective, for 23 cities in Serbia is given. Calculations performed by PVGIS
program have shown that irrespectable of the type of PV solar plants, most electrical energy in Serbia
can be generated by means of PV solar plants with CdTe solar cells. Some practical data and
considerations given in this paper can be used by a customer or company keen to invest in the PV
sector in Serbia.
& 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
2. An overview of photovoltaic conversion of solar radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
2.1. Solar cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
2.1.1. Solar cells of monocrystalline silicon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
2.1.2. CdTe solar cells. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
2.1.3. CIS solar cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
2.2. PV solar plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
2.2.1. Fixed PV solar plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
2.2.2. One-axis tracking PV solar plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
2.2.3. Dual-axis tracking PV solar plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
3. Perspective of photovoltaic conversion in Serbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
3.1. Legislative in Serbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
3.2. Photovoltaic in Serbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
3.3. PV power engineering in some Serbia’s neighbours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
3.3.1. Republic of Srpska (Bosnia and Herzegovina) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
n
Corresponding author. Tel.: þ38 118 225483; fax: þ38 118 533014.
E-mail address: [email protected] (T. Pavlović).
1364-0321/$ - see front matter & 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2012.11.070
202 T. Pavlović et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 20 (2013) 201–218
3.3.2. The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYR Macedonia) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

3.3.3. Bulgaria. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
3.3.4. Croatia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
3.3.5. Albania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
4. Climatic conditions in Serbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
4.1. Continental (Panonic) climate in Serbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
4.2. Moderate-continental (mountain) climate in Serbia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
4.3. Meteorological data of some cities in Serbia in the period from 1961 to 2010 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
4.4. Solar irradiation in Serbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
4.5. Energy potential of the renewable sources of energy in the Republic of Serbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
5. PVGIS and solar maps for the territory of Serbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
6. Results and discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
6.1. Solar irradiation in Serbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
6.2. Electricity production of different types of PV solar plants of 1 MW in 23 cities in Serbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
7. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Acknowledgement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
1. Introduction of the solar cells, city authorities and funds are planning and
realizing all major projects thus gaining necessary experiences,
Today life is organized primarily using non-renewable sources mobilizing the public focus and reducing the cost of electrical
of energy–energy of the fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas) and energy.
nuclear energy. Enormous consumption of energy due to the Most representative latest photovoltaics solar industries are
alarming increase in population on the Earth leads to the critical leading world oil and other hi-tech companies—BP Amoco, Shell,
reduction of the reserves of the fossil fuels energy sources and Kyocera, Mitsubishi, Sanyo and Sharp.
accompaning degradation of the environment and alarming Only ten years ago it was expected to utilize two most
dependance and poverty of the countries that lack this type promising applications of photovoltaic systems within the sector
of fuels. of big several MW power plants connected to the distribution
Renewable energy comprises the energy of Sun, wind, water, grid, or in the form of application in ten million house solar
geothermal energy, biomass, biogas, etc. The main aim of the systems in the developing countries. However, current market is
research, development and use of renewable sources of energy dominated by the urban (residential) photovoltaic systems
in the world today is a preservation of the existing ecological connected with the electro-distribution grid.
balance and its reinstallment in the areas where it was dis- Studies of the European photovoltaic industry association
turbed. Survive and develop humankind needs to establish (EPIA) and Greenpeace organization foresee that half of 207 GW
ecological balance and implement fast transition from the non- capacity in 2020 will be the systems connected to the electro-
renewable to renewable sources of energy. From the outbreak of distribution grid out of which 80% will be installed in residential
the energy crisis in 1973 more attention has been devoted to the buildings.
use of solar cells for the production of electrical energy. Increas- Photovoltaic industry is increasingly represented in the
ing number of countries is installing photovoltaic solar power national energy strategies of the large number of countries.
plants. The main reason for this is that the use of solar energy Japanese Ministry of economy, commerce and industry (METI) is
contributes to more efficient use of the countries own potentials planning to install photovoltaic systems power of 5 GW until
in generating electrical and thermal energy, reduction of ‘‘the 2020, and until 2030 these capacities are planned to grow to
greenhouse‘‘ emission, reduction of importing and use of the 82.8 GW. It is also expected to reduce the price of the 3 kW
fossil fuels, development of the local industry and new job system from 3 $/W to 1.5 $/W, in the same period.
openings [1–3]. From 1995 and on American industry of photovoltaic systems
Solar photovoltaic technology earlier used mainly in the space shows annual growth of 30% and the total installed capacities
programs or in remote locations and was marginalized and exotic. reach up to 350 MW.
Recently it has been gaining grounds beoming a basic technology Large multinational companies organize special branches for
for the production and distribution of the electrical energy in solar photovoltaic systems (BP, Shell, etc). On the other hand,
urban areas with the potential to become, in terms of costs, groups that are concerned with the preservation of the environ-
equally competitive to the costs of energy generated and ment such as the Greenpeace are actively promoting the use of
distributed by the conventional technologies. photovoltaic systems with the aim of their higher market demand
Starting from 1990 and on industry of photovoltaic conversion and reduction of prices.
of solar irradiation shows constant annual economical growth of Nowadays for the production of electrical energy one uses
over 20%, and from 1997 over 33% annually. In 2000 total solar cells of monocrystalline, policrystalline, amorfous silicon,
installed capacities worldwide have surpassed 1000 MW, and in CdTe, CIS and solar cells made of other thin layer materials. Solar
developing countries have overreached more than million house- cells manufacturing prices are worldwide decreasing. In 2008
holds which are using eletrical energy generated by means of the solar cells were sold at the price of 3.5 h/Wp, and in 2010 at 1.5 h/
photovoltaic systems. Photovoltaic power is the strongest grow- Wp [4–6].
ing of all technologies examined so far, with recent annual growth Further on physical characteristics of solar cells and PV solar
rates of around 40%. plants, perspective of photovoltaic conversion in Serbia, climate
Overgrowing number of companies and organizations is taking conditions in Serbia and results of electrical energy production
active part in the promotion, development and the production of calculations generated by the fixed, one-axis tracking and dual-
photovoltaic devices and systems. Companies producing and dis- axis tracking PV solar plants of 1 MW with monocrystalline
tributing electrical energy in cooperation with the manufactureres silicon, CdTe and CIS solar cells in 23 cities of Serbia are given.
T. Pavlović et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 20 (2013) 201–218 203
2. An overview of photovoltaic conversion of solar radiation 0.8–0.9 mm. Maximum of spectral sensitivity of the monocrystal-
line silicon solar cell does not coincide with the maximum of
Photovoltaic conversion of the sun irradiation implies conver- spectral distribution of sun irradiation. Commercial monocrystal-
sion of the energy of solar irradiation into the electrical energy. line silicon solar cells have the efficiency of 15%, and laboratory
Photovoltaic conversion of the solar irradiation takes place in ones around 24% [7,9–13].
solar cells which are made of semiconducting materials, are of
simple construction, do not have movable parts, do not pollute 2.1.2. CdTe solar cells
the environment and display long shelf life [7,8]. Cross section for a cadmium telluride solar cell is shown in
Fig. 2. A layer of cadmium sulphide is deposited from solution
2.1. Solar cells onto a glass sheet coated with a transparent conducting layer of
thin oxide. This is followed by the deposition of the main
Solar cell is composed of p and n semiconductors where due to cadmium telluride cell by variety of techniques including close-
the absorption of sun irradiation in p–n junction pairs of electron– spaced sublimation, vapor transport, chemical spraying, or elec-
hole occur. Under the influence of sun irradiation solar cell in troplating [7,9–13].
electrical circuit represents the source of direct current (DC) [7,8]. CdTe solar cells have been used as low cost, high efficiency,
thin-film photovoltaic applications since 1970. With the forbid-
2.1.1. Solar cells of monocrystalline silicon den zone width of 1.5 eV and the coefficient of absorption
For the production of monocrystalline silicon solar cells a 105 cm 1, which means that a layer thickness of a few micro-
silicon is used which is next to oxigen the most represented meters is sufficient to absorb 90% of the incident photons, CdTe
element in the earth’s crust (27.6%). Silicon belongs to the group is almost an ideal material for solar cells manufacturing.
IV of the period system of elements, is easy obtained and CdTe solar cell is sensitive in the wavelength of 0.3–0.95 mm
processed, is not toxic and does not build vironmentally harmful. and maximum of its sensitivity is in the wavelength range of 0.7–
In contemporary electronic industry silicon is the main semicon- 0.8 mm. Laboratory CdTe cells have the efficiency of 16%, and
ducting element. Electronic components made of silicon are commercial ones around 8%. Great toxicity of tellure and its
stabile on temperatures up to 200 1C. limited natural reserves diminish the prospective development
Semiconducting silicon is polycristalline. For it to be converted and application of these cells [7,9–13].
into monocristalline it is needed to melt it at 1400 1C in Czochralski
process, or by method of float zone to convert it into monocrystal- 2.1.3. CIS solar cells
line. Atoms of monocrystalline silicon are connected mutually by The materials based on CuInSe2 that are of interest for
covalent bonds into surface centered crucible. Monocrystallin photovoltaic applications include several elements from groups
silicon is black, non-transparent, very shiny, hard and weak I, III and VI in the periodic table. CIS is an abbreviation for general
conductor for electricity. With some additional substances mono- chalcopyrite films of copper indium selenide (CuInSe2) [9–13].
crystalline silicon becomes a good conductor of electric current. CIS technology is a star performer in the laboratory with 19.5%
Solar cell composed of monocrystalline silicon has front elec- efficiency demonstrated for small cells, but has proved difficult to
trode, antireflection layer, n-layer, p–n bond, p-layer and back commercialize. Unlike other thin-film technologies, which are
electrode (Fig. 1). In order to obtain semiconductor of n-type silicon deposited onto a glass substrate, CIS technology generally
is doped with phosphorous, and to obtain semiconductor of p-type
silicon is doped with boron. Thickness of p-layer is 300 mm, and of
n-layer 0.2 mm. For antireflection layer one uses materials with
refraction index of 1.5-2. These materials comprise SiO, SiO2, TiO,
TiO2 Ta2O3, etc. Depending on the antireflection layer material one
can manufacture monocrystalline solar cells of different colours.
Metal contacts are formed by vacuum vaporing of the corresponding
materials on Si plate. For this purposes one usually uses Ti/Pd/Ag
coating [7,9–13].
Monocrystalline silicon solar cell is sensible to wavelengths of
0.4–1.1 mm and maximum of its sensitivity is within the range of
Fig. 2. Schematic cross section of solar cell made of cadmium telluride [12].
Fig. 3. Schematic cross section of solar cell made of cupper–indium–diselenide

Fig. 1. Schematic cross section of solar cell made of monocrystalline silicon. (CIS) [12].
involves deposition onto a glass substrate as shown in Fig. 3. detailed change of the system parameters, recording of the events
An additional glass top-cover is then laminated to the cell/ after the failure, monitoring of the meteorological parameters, etc.
substrate combination. Present designs require a thin layer of PV solar plants in accordance with the power distribution
CdS deposited from solution. Considerable effort is being directed systems legal regulations use transformers by means of which
to replacing this layer due to the issues associated with the use of solar energy generated by PV solar plant is given to the power
cadmium, as previously noted. However, a long-term issue with grid [3,13,15,16].
CIS technology is one of available resources. All known reserves of Practice shows that the energy efficiency of PV solar plant
indium would only produce enough solar cells to provide a annually decreases from 0.5% to 1%. Lifetime of PV modules
capacity equal to all present wind generators. depends on the solar cell technology used as well. For mono-
CuInSe2 with its optical absorption coefficient exceeding crystalline and polycrystalline silicon solar cells most manufac-
3 104 cm 1 at wavelengths below 1000 nm, and its direct band turers give a warranty of 10/90 and 25/80 which means: a 10-
gap being between 0.95 eV and 1.2 eV, is good material for solar year warranty that the module will operate at above 90% of
cells. CIS solar cell is sensitive in the wavelength of 0.4–1.3 mm nominal power and up to 25 years above 80%. The practical
and maximum of its sensitivity is within the wavelength range of lifetime of the silicon-made PV modules is expected to be at least
0.7–0.8 mm. 30 years [3,17].
Commercial CIS solar cells have the efficiency of 8% efficiency. PV solar plants represent environmentally clean source of
However, manufacturing costs of CIS solar cells at present are energy. PV solar plant components (solar modules, inverters,
high when compared to silicon solar cells but continuing work is monitoring system, conductors, etc) are manufactured by cutting
leading to more cost-effective production processes [9–13]. edge, environmentally friendly technologies. PV solar plants
Comparison of monocrystalline silicon, CdTe and CIS solar cells operate noiseless, do not emit harmful substances and do not
with their advantages and disadvantages is shown in Table 1 [11]. emit harmful electromagnet radiation into the environment. PV
Prices of solar cells since 2008 to 2012 year are given in solar plant recycling is also environmentally friendly. For 1 kWh
Table 2 [14]. of PV solar plant generated electrical energy emission of 0.568 kg
CO2 into the atmosphere is reduced [3,18].
The diurnal and seasonal movement of earth affects the
2.2. PV solar plants radiation intensity on the solar systems. Sun-trackers move the
solar systems to compensate for these motions, keeping the best
PV solar plant denotes a plant using solar cells to convert solar orientation relative to the sun. Although using sun-tracker is not
irradiation into the electrical energy. PV solar plant consists of essential, its use can boost the collected energy by 10–100% in
solar modules, inverter converting DC into AC and transformer different periods of time and geographical conditions. However, it
giving the generated power into the grid net. PV solar plant is is not recommended to use tracking system for small solar panels
fully automatized and monitored by the applicable software. because of high energy losses in the driving systems. It is found
PV solar plants mostly use solar modules made of monocrystal- that the power consumption by tracking device is 2–3% of the
line and polycrystalline silicon and rarely modules made of thin increased energy [19].
film materials such as amorphous silicon, CdTe and CIS (Copper– Practice showed that the yearly optimal tilt-angle of a vertical-
Indium–Diselenide, CuInSe2). Efficiency of the monocrystalline axis tracked solar panel for maximizing the annual energy
silicon solar cells is 15%, of polycrystalline silicon is around 12%, collection was almost linearly proportional to the site latitude,
of amorphous silicon is around 5% and CdTe and CIS is around 8%. and the corresponding maximum annual collectible radiation on
Monocrystalline and polycrystalline silicon solar modules are such tracked panel was about 96% of solar radiation annually
more suitable for the areas with predominantly direct sun collected by a dual-axis tracked panel. Compared to the
radiation, while solar modules of thin film are more suitable for traditional fixed south-facing solar panel inclined at the optimal
the areas with predominantly diffuse sun radiation [3,13,15,16]. tilt-angle, the annual collectible radiation due to the use of the
Inverter is a device which converts DC generated by PV solar vertical-axis sun-tracking was increased by 28% in the areas with
plants of 12 V or 24 V into three phase AD of 220 V. Depending on abundant solar resources and increased by 16% in the areas with
the design inverter efficiency is up to 97%. When choosing poor solar resources [20].
inverter it is to bear in mind the output voltage of the solar Depending on climate conditions of given location fixed PV
modules array, power of the solar modules array, grid net solar plants, one-axis and dual-axis tracking PV solar plants are
parameters, managing type of the PV solar plant, etc. PV solar
plants can use larger number of the inverters of smaller power or Table 2
one or two invertors of greater power [3,8,13,15,16]. Prices of solar cells since 2008 to 2012 year.
PV solar plant monitoring system comprises central measuring–
control unit for the surveillance of the working regime. Monitoring Early 2008 Early 2009 2009 2010 2012
system uses sensors and softwares to obtain the following data: daily, 3.5 h/Wp 2.2 h/Wp 1.8–2.2 h/Wp 1.5 h/Wp 1 h/Wp
monthly and yearly production of the electricity, reduction of CO2,
Table 1
Comparison between monocrystalline silicon, CdTe and CIS solar cells with their advantages and disadvantages.
Material Thickness Efficiency Colour Features
Monocrystalline silicon 0.3 mm 15–18% Dark blue, black with AR coating, Lengthy production procedure, wafer sawing necessary. Best
(c-Si) solar cells grey without AR coating researched solar cell material—highest power/area ratio
Cadmium Telluride 0.008 mmþ 3 mm 6–9% Dark green, Black Poisonous raw materials, significant decrease in production costs
(CdTe) solar cell glass substrate (module) expected in the future
Copper–indium– 0.003 mmþ 3 mm 7.5–9.5% Black Limited Indium supply in nature. Significant decrease in production
diselenide (CIS)solar glass substrate (module) costs possible in the future.
cell
being installed worldwide. Fixed PV solar plants are used in the energy gains associated to one north–south axis tracking
regions with continental climate and tracking PV solar plants referenced to static surfaces, ranges from 18% to 25%, and from
are used in tropical regions [3,13,15–17]. 37% to 45% for the dual-axis tracker for reasonable ground cover
ratios [21].
2.2.1. Fixed PV solar plant Until December 2008 Spain installed 2382 MWp, Germany
Fixed PV solar plant denotes plant with solar modules 698 MWp, USA 260 MWp, Korea 100 MWp, Italy 70 MWp, Portu-
mounted on fixed metal supporters under optimal angle in gal 60 MWp and other countries 102 MWp PV solar plants.
relation to the horizontal surface and all are oriented towards Worldwide more fixed than tracking PV solar plants were
south. To install fixed PV solar plant of 1 MW it is necessary to installed [3].
provide around 20,000 m2.
Maintenance costs of the fixed PV solar plants are much lesser
3. Perspective of photovoltaic conversion in Serbia
than the maintenance costs of the tracking PV solar plants. Its
drawback is in that solar modules do not follow sun radiation so
3.1. Legislative in Serbia
that on the yearly level one does not gain optimal amount of the
electricity [3,13,15–17].
The European Energy Law will have great impact on Serbia and
its renewable energy sector. The Energy Community is extending
2.2.2. One-axis tracking PV solar plant the European Union internal energy market to Southeast Europe
One-axis tracking PV solar plant denotes a plant where solar and beyond on the ground of legally binding treaty. Thus, Serbia,
modules installed under the optimal angle are adapted towards as a member of the Energy Community, has been committed to
the sun by revolving around the vertical axis during the day from implement the relevant EU regulations concerning the energy
the east towards the west, following the Sun’s azimuth angle from sector step-by step. Furthermore, the ability of Serbia to assume
sunrise to sunset. For solar modules revolving electromotors are the obligations of membership is evaluated on the basis of the
used using electrical energy from the batteries of the power grid. implementation of the EU Acquis. The energy sector has been
For the rotor revolving monitoring a centralized software system outlined by the European Commission as one of the fields where
is used. In case software system fails solar modules can be Serbia will have to undertake additional efforts to align with the
directed towards the sun manually. It is also possible to manually acquis in the medium term [22].
set the tilt of the solar modules in relation to the horizontal Law on Energy of the Republic of Serbia was issued on 24 July,
surface in steps from 51 from 01 to 451. One-axis tracking PV solar 2004. This law regulates: aims of the energy policy and ways of its
plant gives the shadow effect of solar modules situated on implementation, organizational and functioning patterns of the
neighbouring rotors so that for its installation it is necessary to energy market, conditions for timely and qualitative supply of
provide around 60 000 m2. Available literature reports the effi- consumers with the energy, and conditions for safe, reliable and
ciency of one-axis tracking PV solar plant is 20–25% larger than efficient production of energy, management of the systems of
the efficiency of the fixed PV solar plant. transfer, transport and distribution of energy and ensuring of
Instalation and maintenance costs of the one-axis tracking PV their flawless functioning and development, conditions and man-
solar plants are higher than the costs of the fixed PV solar plants. ners of energy actitivities implementation, conditions for enabling
Drawback of one-axis tracking PV solar plant is in that year round energy efficiency and environment protection, and finally, man-
there is no automatic adapting of the solar module tilt towards agement and monitoring of the enforcement and implementation
the sun [3,15,16–20]. of this law. This law rendered possible the establishment of the
Agency for energetics and the Agency for energy efficiency.
2.2.3. Dual-axis tracking PV solar plant Law on Energy uses the term renewable sources of energy to
Dual-axis tracking PV solar plant denotes a plant where the denote sources of energy that can be found in Nature and are
position of solar modules is adapted towards the sun by revolving renewed partially or completely, especially energy of water, wind,
around the vertical and horizontal axis. These PV solar plants non-accumulated sun energy, biomass, geothermal energy, etc.
follow the Sun’s azimuth angle from sunrise to sunset but, they Energy policy of the Republic of Serbia encompasses measures
also adjust the tilt angle to follow the minute-by-minute and and activities that are being taken to realize long term aims in the
seasonal changes in the Sun’s altitude angle. Solar modules are area of energy and especially of:
oriented towards the sun by means of the appropriate electro-
motors. Photo sensors mounted on the array send signals to a 1. Safe, qualitative and reliable supply of energy and energents.
controller that activates the motors, causing the array angles to 2. Balanced development of energy activities so as to provide
change as the Sun’s altitude and azimuth angles change during necessary quantity of energy and energents to satisfy the
the day. Efficiency of the dual-axis tracking PV solar plant is needs of the energy and energents consumers.
25–30% bigger than the efficiency of the fixed PV solar plant. 3. To provide conditions for the improvement of the energy
For the installation and function of dual-axis tracking PV solar efficiency and implementation of energy activities and energy
plant a substantially bigger surface is necessary than for the fixed consumption.
PV solar plant. 4. To provide for the conditions to stimulate the use of renewable
Instalation and maintenance costs of the dual-axis tracking PV sources of energy and combined production of the electrical
solar plants are higher than the costs of the one-axis tracking and and thermal energy.
fixed PV solar plants [3,15–20]. 5. To improve and protect the environment, etc.
When designing a large PV solar plant it is very important to Energy policy is implemented through the enforcement of the
optimize energy yield and occupation of land. The paper [21] Strategy of the development of energy in the Republic of Serbia,
gives original simulation tool with the appropriate models to strategy implementation program and energy balance.
calculate the energy yield for different PV solar trackers with a flat Production of electrical energy encompasses production in
PV module grid-connected system. Based on this the relationship hydroelectric power plants, thermo power plants, electro power
between the yearly average gains and land occupation has been plants, electro power plants–thermal power plants and electro
analyzed for several tracking strategies and it has been found that power plants on renewable sources of energy or waste.
Privileged producers of electrical energy are manufacturers suggested. The existing RES-related legislation, however, is imprecise
who in their production process of electrical energy use renew- and incomplete. Numerous bylaws, technical standards and guide-
able sources of energy or waste, manufacturers who produce lines are still vague. The key RES-related documents are inconsistent,
electrical energy in electro power plants that are according to the they lack clarity and are insufficiently decisive when implementing
Law on energy considered to be small scale electro power plants specific measures of the incentives for production of RES-based
and manufacturers who produce simultaneously electrical and energy [27].
thermal energy if they meet the criteria of the energy efficiency. The analysis of the renewable energy production sector in
Preconditions on terms of gaining this special status of the Serbia is given in the paper [28] Producing energy from renewable
privileged manufacturer of the electrical energy and criteria for sources in Serbia is in its initial phase, therefore this paper points
the assessment of the fulfilment of these conditions were issued towards the basic assumptions, potentials and institutional
by the Government of the Republic of Serbia on 3 September, framework for the development of this activity in Serbia. As a
2009. Congruent to this Act legal entity or the entrepreneur can final conclusion the paper states that completely unused poten-
attain the privileged manufacturer status if the electro power tials for the production of energy from renewable sources,
plant in the production process on a yearly basis uses at least 90% together with adequately set institutional framework, would
renewable sources of energy and the rest goes to fossil fuel create great possibilities for foreign investments [28].
or waste. Opportunities and challenges for a sustainable energy policy in
Act on incentive measures for the production of electrical SE Europe: SE European Energy Community Treaty is given in the
energy by use of the renewable sources of energy and by paper [29]. In this paper author has tried to systematize the role
combined production of electrical and thermal energy was issued of energy sector in South Eastern (SE) Europe in the context of the
by the Government of Serbia on 20 November, 2009. This Act European energy policy process. This paper raises awareness of
closely prescribes incentive measures for the production of the the environmental requirements which have been set, of renew-
electrical energy by use of the renewable sources of energy, its able energy and its implementation, at the same time pointing
purchase and it defines energy objects to produce electrical out that the response in SE Europe has been at a low level [29].
energy from the renewable sources. It also determines the Perspectives of sustainable development in the countries of
content of the agreement on the purchase of the electrical energy Southeastern Europe are given in the paper [30]. Countries of SE
under incentive measures, etc. Europe are at the very beginning of planning of their development
The right to the incentive measures defined by this Act for the in accordance with theoretical concept of sustainable develop-
electrical energy produced in plants which use solar energy is ment. Sustainable development is defined as the basic imperative
limited to the total installed power of (in these plants) up to and the only model of development in a longer period of time.
5 MW. According to this Act 1 kWh of the electrical energy Special attention needs to be given to the intensive monitoring of
produced by solar power plant in the interval of 12 years upon indicators of economic and ecological subsystems. The research
agreement signing is to be paid to the manufacturer at the price of showed, among other things, fragile relationship of values of
23 eurocents. Connecting of the solar power plants or small scale indicators of economic and ecological subsystems, by which any
plants installed on private houses to the grid is regulated by the change in the values of one indicator consequently leads to the
legislative of the EPS of the Republic of Serbia. Law on Energy changes in the final result [30].
issued on 1st August, 2011 clearly defines Incentive measures for Kyoto Protocol implementation in Serbia as precognition of
the use of the renewable sources in power generation and sustainable energetic and economic development is given in the
subsidized power producers which is stated in the Official Gazette paper [31]. The paper gived reasons for low energy efficiency
of the Republic of Serbia, no. 27/2011. typical for the Serbian economy, which is based on the outdated
Republic of Serbia has in 2006 ratified the agreement on the and dirty technologies. The comparison of selected economic
foundation of energy community between EU and Albania, indicators and indicators of energy efficiency in both Serbia and
Bulgaria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Former Yugoslov the European Union points out the benefits of the Kyoto Protocol
Republic of Macedonia, Montenegro, Romania and Interim implementation due to the growth of competitiveness in the
Mission of United Nations on Kosova. global market. Energy efficiency, which is actually a question of
In September 2008 European Parliament has adopted a set of competitiveness of each economy, can finance itself through the
regulations on the climate changes that aims at ensuring reduc- mechanisms of the Kyoto Protocol by selling excess emissions
tion of greenhouse effect gas emission of 20%, improvement of resulting from the improved energy efficiency [31].
energy efficiency of 20% and participation of the renewable
sources of energy of 20% in total energy consumption in EU- until
2020 as compared to 1990. Republic of Serbia has accepted the 3.2. Photovoltaic in Serbia
Instructions of the EU on the renewable sources of energy and is
putting all efforts to implement it. Although on most of the territory of Serbia the number of
Republic of Serbia has on 26 January, 2009 become a member sunny days is significantly higher than in many European coun-
and the founder of the International Agency for Renewable Energy tries (over 2000 h), high costs of solar irradiation modules and the
(IRENA) [23–26]. accompanying equipment hinder more intensive use of this
Renewable energy policy in the Republic of Serbia is elaborated renewable energy source and it will depend primarily on the
on the paper [27]. The aim of the paper [27] is to give insight into the social incentives for the establishment and implementation of the
goals, instruments and planned measures of the Serbian Government national Renewable Energy Sources Program. According to the
in the field of renewable energy sources (RES). The method is based available data use of solar energy is currently almost negligible.
on an overview and analysis of adopted laws and regulations and Production of solar energy, based on the sun potentials in Serbia,
other official documents. The results have revealed that progress has can be considered as attractive for potential investors, but it
been made in this field in recent years. Midterm targets for the requires significant initial investments as well as purchasing
proportion of energy from RES in overall energy consumption have foreign equipment, which makes it much less attractive compared
been defined; feed-in-tariffs have been adopted; legislative and to production of energy from other RES. Production of RES energy
socio-economic barriers of increased exploitation of RES have been is one of the most successful ways for Serbia, as well as for other
analyzed and measures and activities for their resolution have been countries who signed it, to comply with the Kyoto protocol
requests and achieve adequate stage of sustainable development the renewable sources of energy by 2020. Besides, the book
[28]. mentions that near Čajetina a PV solar plant of 10 MWp that
Perspectives and assessments of solar PV power engineering in would generate annually 14,710 MWh will be installed thus
the Republic of Serbia are given in the paper [17]. The paper [17] providing 2.8% of electrical energy for that area [14]. Foundation
gives a review of some key issues and prospects related to solar was laid for the construction of PV solar plant in Čajetina on 27
photovoltaic (PV) power engineering in the Republic of Serbia. June in 2011. Currently three PV solar plants in Serbia are under
Solar PV energy sector in the Republic of Serbia is poorly construction: in Čajetina, in Merdare near the town Kursumlija, a
developed despite a very good geographical position of Serbia fixed PV solar plant of 2 MW and in the town of Leskovac a dual-
and recent introduction of feed-in-tariffs (FITs) by the Serbian axis tracking PV solar plant of 950 kWp [3,25].
Government. Apart from that the paper presents the results of the
electricity generation calculations for the fixed and tracking PV
3.3. PV power engineering in some Serbia’s neighbours
solar plants by means of PVGIS software in 20 towns in Serbia.
The paper concludes that insufficient awareness of the opportu-
The paper [33] analyses energy efficiency in Serbia. The
nities of solar PV produced electricity may be an obstacle which
analysis has been done on the basis of energy intensity indicators
can significantly limit and delay its use in the Republic of Serbia.
for Serbia and the neighboring countries, and some other coun-
At the moment solar PV technology is not implemented in the
tries and regions. It relates to the period of ten years and is
Serbian RES sector and initiatives to take some firm steps in this
directed to the consideration of required interventions regarding
direction are expected [17].
the change of the National Energy Efficiency Policy. Regardless of
The possibilites of the photovoltaic electricity production of a
constant attempts to improve and increase energy efficiency and
grid-connected urban house in Serbia are given in the paper [32].
to expand utilization of renewable energy sources it seems that
The paper gives the results of the calculation of the electricity
accomplished results are still very modest. The analysis of several
revenue during entire life of a two-floor house in Belgrade, Serbia
energy indicators and their changes in the midterm period
and investment in PV panels (currently available on Serbian
confirms this statement.
market) integrated in its entire envelope. It discussed current
In this section are given solar potential and renewable energy
degree of the economic viability of this solution and suggested
policy of Serbia’s neighbouring countries.
subventions needed to support the solar electricity production
either by feed-in tariffs or other financial instruments [32].
Solar collectors and other devices for thermal conversion of 3.3.1. Republic of Srpska (Bosnia and Herzegovina)
sun radiation are produced in Serbia. Serbia is not a manufacturer Bosnia and Herzegovina can be considered as more favourable
of solar cells and other equipment for the photovoltaic conversion locations in Europe with solar irradiation on horizontal surface of
of sun radiation [1–3]. 1240 kWh/m2 in the north of the country, and up to 1600 kWh/m2
In Serbia one uses solar irradiation mainly for the heating of in the south. The paper [34] claims that Bosnia and Herzegovina has
water and rarely for the electricity generation. Up to now following on average 1840.9 h of sun annually, while in the south, this number
on-grid PV solar systems are installed in Serbia: on the elementary reaches 2352.5 h. The theoretical potential for Bosnia and Herzego-
school Dušan Jerković in Ruma (3 kWp, 2004.), in the Monastery vina is estimated to be around 74.65 PWh, while the technical
Dević, near the town Pirot (15 kWp, 2010.), in the middle school in potential is about 1903 TWh, both of which are substantially more
Varvarin (5 kWp, 2010, Netinvest Co.), in the electro-technical school than the energy needs of the country [34–36].
Rade Končar in Belgrade (5 kWp, 2010, Netinvest Co.), in the high Solar Energy sector has not developed, yet. Electricity supplies
technical school Mihajlo Pupin in Kula (5 kWp, 2010, Netinvest Co.), in Bosnia and Herzegovina are essentially based on coal-fired
on the Faculty of Technical Sciences in Novi Sad (8 kWp, 2011.), on steam turbine power stations and the exploitation of hydropower.
the Faculty of Electrical Engineering in Niš (1.2 kW, 2011, Alfatec In Bosnia and Herzegovina generally, and the Republic of Srpska
Co.), on the Faculty of Sciences and Mathematics in Niš (2 kWp, particularly, rare are the examples of the use of the PV systems
2012, Alfatec Co.), on the private house in village Blace (10.44 kWp, and there are scarce papers and PV systems studies. In Bosnia and
2012, Netinvest Co.), on the private company in Leskovac (30 kWp, Herzegovina and the Republic of Srpska up to date not one PV
2012, Alfatec Co.), on the private company in Čačak (55 kWp, 2012, solar plant has been installed. Currently, the use of grid connected
Electrowat Co.), in two private houses in village Merosina of 10 kWp PV systems in Bosnia and Herzegovina comes down to isolated
and 20 kWp (2012, Telephone Engineering Co.), in Zaječar (10 kWp, cases installed in public buildings (orphanage, schools y) with
2011, Telephone Engineering Co.), in village Čortanovci (10 kWp, demonstration and training purposes. In 2005 the PV installed
2012, Telephone Engineering Co.), in Čačak (5 kWp, 2012, Telephone capacity was estimated at o1% of total energy supply in Bosnia
Engineering Co.), in Zemun (2.5 kWp, 2012, Telephone Engineering and Herzegovina by the Commission of the European Commu-
Co.). PV solar plants in Varvarin, Belgrade and Kula were installed nities Research Directorate. Due to a relatively high cost related to
thanks to the donations of the Government of Spain and through the the photovoltaics up to this moment the existing facilities are
Agency for the Energy Efficiency in Belgrade within the Project carried out with the support from grants and international
Development of the installations for the promotion and use of solar projects [35].
energy in Serbia [3]. Up to now more than 200 off-grid PV systems One of the first PV systems in Bosnia and Herzegovina was
power of 50 W–4 kW are installed in Serbia. Recently, in Serbia installed and put into service as part of the project financed by the
there is an increased use of PV systems for traffic lights and other government of Spain; the system has a total power of 0.32 kW
traffic signalization. and is used as the energy source for the irrigation system in
In recently published book of the Electric Power Industry of Popovo Polje, located in Canton K7 and the Republic of Srpska.
Serbia entitled The White Book of the Electric Power Industry of One of the first PV installations in the Republic of Srpska is being
Serbia one can find legislature of the EU referring to the renewable fitted on the roof of an orphanage in Trebinje. The installation is
sources of energy, use of renewable energy in Serbia legal frame- also intended to be used for the training purposes for the local
work and the possibilities of the use of the renewable sources of electrical trade. In November 2011 a fixed PV solar plant of 2 kWp
energy in Serbia. The book cites the guidelines of the EU envisa- with solar modules made of monocrystalline silicon was installed
ging reducing the greenhouse gas levels by 20%, to reduce energy on the roof at the Academy of Sciences and Arts of the Republic of
consumption by 20% and to provide 20% of needed energy from Srpska in Banja Luka.
In the Republic of Srpska following feed-in tariffs (FITs) are in original price 46 eurocents/kWh for the installed capacity up
effect: to 50 kW and
41 eurocents/kWh for the installed capacity greater than
1. 1 kWh electricity generated by PV plants power up to 50 kWp 50 kW.
is payed 0.285 h;
2. 1 kWh electricity generated by PV plants power from 50 kWp In the meantime, these tariffs were changed and currently are:
to 500 kWp is payed 0.245 h and 30 eurocents/kWh for the installed capacity up to 50 kW and 26
3. 1 kWh electricity generated by PV plants power over 500 kWp eurocents/kWh for the installed capacity of 51–1000 kW [37,38].
is payed 0.205 h [35].
3.3.3. Bulgaria
Solar resource theoretical potential is the solar energy on the
3.3.2. The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYR Macedonia)
earth surface that is expressed as the average kilowatt-hours (kWh)
The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYR Macedonia)
of thermal energy incident on a square metre of horizontal area. This
has better sunny conditions than Serbia with as many as 280 sunny
is given in daily, monthly or annual averages to obtain the
days a year [17]. Geographic position and climate in the country
theoretical or total energy available. The Institute of Hydrology
offer very good perspective for the utilization of solar energy. Annual
and Meteorology (IHM) of the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences (BAS)
average value for daily irradiation varies from 3.4 kWh/m2 in the
has sunshine hour data from 45 sites covering 30 years and actual
northern part of the country (Skopje) to 4.2 kWh/m2 in the southern
solar radiation (SR) measurements from 5 to 6 stations. The results
part (Bitola). Total annual solar insolation varies from 1250 kWh/m2
from the analysis of this data using a correlation relating solar
in the northern part up to a maximum of 1530 kW h/m2 in the
irradiation to sunshine hours show that the country falls into three
south-western part leading to annual solar insolation of 1385 kWh/
solar regions:
m2. Climate characteristics—high solar irradiation intensity as well
as its duration, temperature and humidity enable favorable pre-
I. region—SRo1 450 kWh/m2/year (41% of land area);
conditions for development of solar energy [37].
II. region—SR: 1 450–1 500 kWh/m2/year (52% of land area) and
Solar energy is used at symbolic level for water heating in
III. region—SR4 1 500 kWh/m2/year (7% of land area) [39].
households. The immense solar energy potential with 2000–2400
sunny hours during the year and generation potential of around
10 GWh per year can satisfy at least 75–80% of the annual needs The paper [17] cites that Bulgaria has similar sunny conditions
for space and sanitary hot water heating. Currently its usage is to Serbia (more favourable in its Black Sea region), but pays 40.5
limited to water heating. In Macedonia there are only 7.5 m2 solar eurocents/kWh for PV systems up to 5 kW and 37.2 eurocents/
panels on every 1000 people, or 15,000 m2 of installed solar kWh for PV systems 45 kW and r10 MW and solar PV power
panels. At the end of 2006 the total collector area in operation engineering is booming in this neighbouring country. PV system
in Macedonia was 17,118 m2. For example, in Cyprus this area projects are financed with reduced interest loans from the
was 811,538 m2 while in Germany it was 1160,400 m2. Out of Bulgarian Government, the European Bank for Reconstruction
500,000 households in Macedonia only 2500–3000 are using solar and Development (EBRD), the Bulgarian Government and the
systems for water heating. This represents only 0.5% of the total EU. In November 2008 the duration of FIT payments for PV
market for solar panels. systems was changed from 12 to 25 years. As an additional
Apart from the advantages of solar energy for a country like example of good RES policy, Bulgaria wind energy capacity
Macedonia, situated on the south of Europe, poor with domestic jumped over 300 MW by the end of 2009.
energy resources but with long-term tradition of theoretical and
experimental research in the field of photovoltaic systems, practical 3.3.4. Croatia
application of these systems is still limited to few pilot-installations The geographical location of Croatia provides very good con-
in telecommunication facilities and street lighting in several muni- ditions for the use of solar energy. In the southern part of Croatia,
cipalities. The first grid-connected solar PV power plant started to where the Mediterranean climate prevails, these conditions are
work in July 2010, near its capital Skopje, with installed power of even more favourable than in the rest of country. The duration of
250 kW, and an investment price of about 1 million h [17,37]. mean annual insolation over the southern Croatian (Adriatic)
There is no particular law related to RES development or use in coast is more than 2500 h while in Dubrovnik and on some
the FYR Macedonia. FYR Macedonia follows actively the acts brought islands it even exceeds 2700 h. The Croatia solar energy potential
by the European Union in the RES area and at the same time is best described by the comparison with the European average.
prepares the national legislation harmonized with the EU regula- The Croatian southern coast has about the same average solar
tions. The Ministry of Economy of the FYR Macedonia is the irradiation per day (5.1 kWh/m2/day) as southern Europe. This is
institution responsible for the preparation of energy legislation about 20% more than for the Croatian northern coastal region. For
(The Energy Law (Official Gazette, No. 65, 2007), Strategy for the the continental Croatia the average value is 3.8 kWh/m2/day
usage of RES, Strategy for energy efficiency). The Energy Agency of which is about 20% more than in Central Europe. Clearly, irra-
the FYR Macedonia (EARM) supports the implementation of the diated solar energy in southern Croatia is up to 75% higher than in
Government energy policy by preparing energy strategies, develop- central and northern Europe and it is only smaller than in the
ing plans and programs, with a special emphasis on the use of the most southern parts of Spain, Portugal or Greece. The technical PV
renewable energy sources (RES) and energy efficiency (EE) [38]. potential in Croatia is difficult to estimate without specific policy
In order to encourage investment in photovoltaic systems assumptions as it is directly proportional to the land and roof area
Energy Regulatory Commission (ERC) has recently adopted designated for this purposes [40].
preferential tariffs for sale of electricity produced and supplied Recently, development of national legislations environment
by photovoltaic systems. With these tariffs investment in photo- for renewable energy sources is adopted in accordance with the
voltaic systems will become much more cost-efficient, but their European framework regarding the use of renewable energy
implementation requires elimination of technical, administrative sources within the EU. Act on incentive measures for the produc-
and legal barriers. Energy Regulatory Commission established the tion of electrical energy by use of the renewable sources of energy
following feedin tariffs for electricity produced by PV systems: and by combined production of electrical and thermal energy was
issued by the Government of Croatia on 22 March, 2007. Act for 4. Climatic conditions in Serbia
the electrical energy produced in plants that use solar energy is
limited to the total installed power of up to 1 MW. In Croatia Serbia is located between 411460 4000 and 461110 2500 of the
following feed-in tariffs (FITs) are in effect: north latitude and 181060 and 231010 of the east longitude
[43–45]. Serbia belongs to the continental climate regions which
1. 1 kWh electricity generated by PV solar plants power up to can be divided into the continental climate in the Panonic low-
10 kWp is payed 0.45 h; lands, moderate-continental climate in lower parts of the moun-
2. 1 kWh electricity generated by PV solar plants power from tain region and the mountain climate on high mountains.
10 kWp to 30 kWp is payed 0.397 h and Relief substantially influences the climate of Serbia. Parallel to
3. 1 kWh electricity generated by PV solar plants power over the coast of the Adriatic Sea spreads the range of the Dinars
30 kWp is payed 0.278 h. mountains of the Montenegro which prevents more intensive
encroachment of the air masses from the Adriatic Sea towards the
areas of Serbia. From the other side the territory of Serbia is
3.3.5. Albania through the Panonic lowlands widely exposed to the climate
In Albania average solar radiation is 1500 kWh/m2 per year influences from the north and east. Along the valleys of Kolubara,
and maximal radiation is 2200 kWh/m2 per year [41]. Velika and Južna Morava the air masses float to the north-south
Based on a survey of world solar energy resources financed by and vice versa. The climate of Serbia is heavily influenced by air
the World Energy Council 2007, Albania receives solar radiation of masses of certain physical characteristics. The biggest influence is
more than 1500 kWh/m2/yr, within a range of 1185 kWh/m2/yr to exerted by the air masses formed over Siberia, Artic, Atlantic
1 690 kWh/m2/yr. The average of daily solar radiation can change Ocean, African land and the Mediterranean. Over these areas a
from a minimum of 3.2 kWh/m2 in the northeast up to a field of high air pressure is formed. On the territory of Serbia often
maximum of 4.6 kWh/m2 in the south-west. The average daily cold air from the Siberia penetrates and rarely from the Artics
solar radiation of the whole country is near 4.1 kWh/m2, which [43–45].
can be considered as a good solar energy regime. Most areas of
Albania benefit more than 2200 h of sunshine per year while the 4.1. Continental (Panonic) climate in Serbia
average for the whole country is about 2400 h. The Western part
receives more than 2500 h of sunshine per year. Fier has a record North part of Serbia comprises vast Panonic area which is wide
of 2850 h. The number of the solar days in Albania has an average open and exposed to the climate influences coming from the
of 240–260 days annually with a maximum of 280–300 days north and the east. The Panonic lowlands show continental
annually in the south-west part. The potential of solar thermal is climate which encompasses Vojvodina and its edge up to 800 m
not merely determined by irradiation characteristics but also by of height. Continental climate is characterised by excessively hot
the availability of roof space and orientation and inclination of the summers with insufficient humidity. Winters are long and harsh
roof, the collector and storage as well [41,42]. and autumns and springs are mild and short. Average annual air
The paper [38] claims that, in general, renewable energy data temperatures in the Panonic area are increasing from the west
for Albania are limited. Presently, there have been no regulatory towards the east and from the north to the south. Sombor at the
incentives identified for the development of renewable energy farthest west has average annual temperature of 11.1 1C, and Jaša
projects. Albania lacks legislation in the field of renewable energy Tomić on the east has 14.4 1C. Average annual temperature of
sources as well as energy conservation. However, the Albanian Palić on the farthest north is 10.6 1C, and of Belgrade on the south
Government has indicated awareness of this situation and is is 11.6 1C. The hottest month in the Panonic area is July. However,
preparing an Energy Law as well as an Energy Efficiency Law. the whole area of the Panonic lowlands exhibits certain differ-
Government Decree No. 424/June 2003 approves the National ences. From the west towards the east summer temperatures
Energy Strategy until 2015. According to this decree, the Ministry increase. For example, average July temperature in Sombor
of Industry and Energy and the National Agency for Energy are (Bačka) is 21.2 1C, and in Vršac (Banat) is 23.3 1C. The highest
appointed to update this strategy every two years. Energy Policy summer temperatures can reach 35 1C and even 44.3 1C (Stari
Law has a special focus on promoting the energy efficiency and Bečej), and in deserts they rise even up to 60 1C. Winter in Panonic
energy conservation, creating an Energy Efficiency Fund, energy area is extremely cold. The lowest winter temperatures are on the
efficiency labeling, and promoting energy audit schemes. Envir- east of the region in Banat and Bačka, while it is somewhat hotter
onmental Protection Law No. 7664/January 1993 provides environ the edge of the Panonic basen. January is the coldest month
onmental impact assessment and protection schemes in Albania. with the average temperature of 1.9 1C on Palić and 0.3 1C in
This Environmental Protection Law completely revises the envir- Smederevo. Precipitations in the area of the Panonic lowlands are
onmental protection schemes and measures practiced in the insufficient and unevenly distributed over the year. Also the
country until recently. According to this Law the control over territorial distribution of precipitation differs. The lowest annual
the sources and causes of pollution shall be exercised by the rate of precipitation is to be found on the whole Panonic area in
Ministry of Health and the National Environmental Agency (NEA), Vojvodina. On average, Banat and Bačka annualy have precipita-
upon the request of any of the parties affected [38]. tions of around 500–600 mm, and in some years this is below
The PV technology is not still used in Albania and with a very 400 mm. Therefore, this area is often affected by draught. Starting
high probability will not be used even in the near future, because from the central parts of the Panonic lowlands towards the south,
of the high prices which are not affordable for the private sector west and east precipitation rises. Area near Vršac has annual
and households. Feed in tariffs for the electricity produced by PV precipitation of 600–800 mm. Towards the south precipitation is
systems, which might support the development of the PV market slowly increasing so Požarevac has annual precipitation of
do not exist so it is very unlikely that in the near future this type 609 mm and Smederevo of 650 mm [43,44].
of technology will be broadly implemented. The development of
the concentrated solar power is not mentioned at all either in the 4.2. Moderate-continental (mountain) climate in Serbia
strategy or in any other government documents, but as for the PV,
for the same reasons it is not going to be relevant resource in the Moderate-continental climate is dominant in the mountain
near future [41,42]. range of Serbia of 800–1400 m altitude. It is characterized by
moderate hot summers, autumns longer and hotter than springs 4.3. Meteorological data of some cities in Serbia in the period from
and cold winters. Mountain climate prevails in the range over 1961 to 2010
1400 m of latitude. On the territory of Serbia it is most present
on the mountains Šar-planina, Prokletija, Kopaonik, Stara pla- Yearly average values of the meteorological data of some cities
nina, etc. This climate type is characterized by long, cold and in Serbia in the period from 1961 to 2010 are given in Table 3
snowy winters and short and chilly summers. [44].
In high lime fields and the valleys of the Mountain area of Table 3 is formed on the basis of meteorological data of the
Serbia climate ranges from the moderate-continental to the Republic Hydrometeorological Institute of Serbia for the period
mountain one. Due to the temperature inversion winters are 1961 to 2010. Unfortunately for Požarevac, Čačak, Nova Varoš,
there harsher. Summers in lime fields are pleasant and in higher Kosovska Mitrovica, akovica i Prizren there are no continuous
ones even chilly. Extremely hot weather during summer is rear data for the given period.
and lasts short. In confined and wind proof valleys in Serbia a Data in Table 3 reveal that
real Župna (term derived from the places names) climate
prevails. These valleys are in summer and winter hotter than 1. yearly sunshine duration ranges from 1604.9 h (Užice) to
their surroundings. Average monthly and annual air tempera- 2084.1 h (Pirot);
tures in Mountain region of Serbia are decreasing with the 2. yearly average temperature ranges from 10.17 1C (Kuršumlija)
higher latitude and altitude. The lowest average monthly and to 12.22 1C (Belgrade);
annual air temperatures in Serbia are on Šar Planina, Stara 3. yearly precipitation ranges from 409.2 mm (Novi Pazar) to
Planina and Kopaonik. 783.2 mm (Valjevo);
Mountain region of Serbia is characterized by the Župna 4. yearly humidity ranges from 68.50% (Beograd) to 77.33%
variant of the moderate-continental climate. This variant of the (Užice);
moderate-continental climate is typical for the Aleksandrovac, 5. yearly average overcast ranges from 51.17% (Negotin) to
Metohija and Vranje valleys. Župna variant occurs as a con- 60.83% (Novi Pazar) and
sequence of bigger protection of the afore mentioned valleys 6. average daily sunshine duration for the afore mentioned cities
from the penetration of cold air from the north. The mountain is 5.4 h.
area of Serbia is characterized by the temperature inversions.
High valleys and lime fields in the Mountain region during
winter are colder than their surroundings especially at night
when the nearby mountains give away cold air which lakes 4.4. Solar irradiation in Serbia
up in the valleys and lime fields and stays there longer.
Cloudiness in the Mountain region is from 55% to 60% annually. Average solar irradiation on the territory of the Republic of
Sunshine duration in the Mountain region of Serbia is 1500– Serbia ranges from 1.1 kWh/m2/day on the north to 1.7 kWh/m2/
2000 h annually. Such a small span of sunshine duration is a day on the south during January, and from 5.9 kWh/m2/day to
consequence of high cloudiness, especially in winter time. 6.6 kWh/m2/day during July. On a yearly basis average value of
Sunshine duration span is the smallest on the mountains. On the global solar irradiation for the territory of the Republic of
Tara sunshine duration is 1700 h annually or 4.9 h a day. On Serbia ranges from 1200 kWh/m2/year in the Northwest Serbia to
Kopaonik annual sunshine duration is 1741 h or 5 h a day. 1550 kWh/m2/year in Southeast Serbia, while in the middle part
Precipitation in the Mountain region is high. On average it totals to around 1400 kWh/m2/year. Due to this fact Serbia
Mountain region has 1700 mm of precipitation annually exhibits favourable conditions for the use of solar energy and its
[43,44]. conversion into the thermal and electrical energy [23,24,46].
Table 3
Yearly average values of the meteorological data of some cities in Serbia in the period from 1961 to 2010.
Serbian cities Sunshine duration (h) Temperature (1C) Precipitation (mm) Humidity (%) Overcast (%)
Subotica 2112.9 10.75 550.9 69.73 54.33

Sombor 2050.1 10.86 592.7 73.75 55.58
Novi Sad 2062.4 11.18 613.3 71.28 52.67
Vršac 2060.0 11.64 660.8 70.14 52.67
Beograd 2073.2 12.22 692.5 68.50 54.00
Negotin 2083.5 11.47 632.8 70.28 51.17
Požarevac – – – – –
Valjevo 1957.9 11.15 783.2 74.38 58.42
Kragujevac 1988.6 10.99 646.3 73.36 55.50
Užice 1604.9 10.23 757.5 77.33 53.75
Zaječar 2014.1 10.70 597.3 73.25 56.67
Čačak – – – – –
Kruševac 1777.8 11.03 636.3 76.5 54.67
Nova Varoš – – – – –
Niš 1956.3 11.64 591.4 70.15 55.42
Kuršumlija 1776.0 10.17 639.2 76.68 52.00
Novi Pazar 1948.0 12.18 409.2 76.75 60.83
Pirot 2084.1 10.78 595.6 74.99 54.5
Leskovac 2002.0 10.49 618.0 76.75 55.58
Kosovska Mitrovica – – – – –
Vranje 2075.8 10.97 600.5 70.9 55.42
akovica – – – – –
Prizren – – – – –
fast web applications enable an easy estimation of the PV

electricity generation potential for selected specific locations in
Europe [3,17,47–50].
In order to calculate electricity generated by the fixed PV solar
plants, one-axis and dual-axis tracking PV solar plants today
PVGIS software packages easily found on the Intenet are used
[47,50]. These programmes can produce the following data:
average daily, monthly and yearly values of the solar irradiation
taken on square meter of the horizontal surface or the surface
tilted under certain angle in relation to the horizontal surface,
change in the optimal tilting angle of the solar modules during
the year, relation of global and diffused sun radiation, average
daily temperature, and daily, monthly and yearly electricity
generated by the fixed PV solar plants, one-axis and dual-axis
tracking PV solar plants, etc. A tipical PVGIS value for the
Fig. 4. Participation of some renewable sources of energy in the overall potential performance ratio (PV system losses) of PV solar plants with
of Serbia [23,24]. modules from monocrystalline and policrystalline silicon is taken
to be 0.75 [3,17,47].
4.5. Energy potential of the renewable sources of energy in the In this paper PVGIS-3 is used. The PVGIS-3 data set is based on
Republic of Serbia measurements made on the ground in the period 1981–1990 which
are then interpolated between points to get radiation values at any
Tehnically, usable energy potential of the renewable sources of point. A new version PVGIS-CMSAF has been recently introduced
energy in the Republic of Serbia is significant and estimated to which uses the new databases for the solar radiation data provided
over 4.3 million of tones of the equivalent oil (tn) annually—out by the Climate Monitoring Satellite Application Facility (CMSAF)
of which around 2.7 million of tonnes of equivalent oil annually is from the period 1998–2010. According to the possible wrong
to be used in biomass, 0.6 million of tonnes of equivalent oil terrestrial measurements and to the fact that the amount of solar
annually in unused hydropotential, 0.2 million tonnes of equiva- radiation has increased over Europe in the last 30 years, calculations
lent oil annually is in the existing geothermal sources, 0.2 million with new PVGIS-CMSAF give higher values than with the older
of tonnes of equivalent oil annually is in energy of wind and 0.6 PVGIS-3. For the territory of Serbia PVGIS-CMSAF gives up to 5%
million of tonnes of equivalent oil annually in the use of solar higher values for the solar irradiation data [3,17,47].
irradiation. Participation of some renewable sources of energy in This programme gives a map which when appears activates
the overall potential of Serbia is shown in Fig. 4 [23,24]. the programme, spots the location of the PV solar plant to be,
sorts out the type of solar cells and inputs the power and type of
PV solar plant (fixed, one-axis and dual-axis tracking PV solar
5. PVGIS and solar maps for the territory of Serbia plants) [3,17,47].
Yearly sum of total solar irradiation incident on optimally
Quantity of sun radiation intake on the surface of earth is inclined south-oriented PV modules in kWh/m2 for the territory
influenced by numerous factors such as: geografical latitude of of Serbia obtained by PVGIS is given in Fig. 5.
the given place, season of the year, part of the day, purity of the It is clear from Fig. 5 that average solar irradiation is not
atmosphere, cloudiness, orientation and surface inclination, etc. dependent on geographical latitude only. There are regional
These data are very important because of their use in calculations differences in global solar irradiation due to terrain features and
of the cost effectiveness of equipment using sun radiation. Very climatic conditions.
reliable data can be found in data basis PVGIS-a (Photovoltaic Comparison of available annual quantities of the energy of the
Geographical Information System) [3,17,47,48]. global sun radiation on the horizontal surface, on the territory of
PVGIS (Photovoltaic Geographical Information System –PVGIS & Eur- Germany and Serbia is given in Fig. 6. Average values of the energy of
opean Communities, 2001–2008) is a part of the SOLAREC action aimed global radiation on the territory of Germany is around 1000 kWh/m2
at contributing to the implementation of renewable energy in the EU. whereas for Serbia that value is around 1400 kWh/m2. In Serbia sun
SOLAREC is an internally funded project on PV solar energy for the 7th energy evenly increases from northwest to southeast, while in
Framework Programme PVGIS has been developed at the JRC (Joint germany the situation is more complex. The least values are not on
Research Centre) of the European Commission within its Renewable the north but in the central part of the country due to increased
Energies Unit since 2001 as a research GIS oriented tool for the turbidity of the atmosphere (linke turbidity) [46].
performance assessment of solar PV systems in European geographical
regions. From the very start of its functioning PVGIS was envisaged to be
locally used, however access to the PVGIS database and estimations was 6. Results and discussion
drawn as open system access for professionals and the general European
public as well by means of the web-based interactive applications. PVGIS This section gives the results obtained by the study of the solar
provides data for the analysis of the technical, environmental and socio- irradiation and electricity generated by optimally inclined fixed
economic factors of solar PV electricity generation in Europe and PV solar plants, optimally inclined one-axis and dual-axis tracking
supports systems for EU countries solar energy decision-making. PV solar plants of 1 MW with monocrystalline silicon, CdTe and
PVGIS methodology comprises solar radiation data, PV module CIS solar modules in 23 cities of Serbia, processed by the PVGIS
surface inclination and orientation and shadowing effect of the software [47].
local terrain features (e.g., when the direct irradiation component
is shadowed by the mountains), thus PVGIS represents immensely 6.1. Solar irradiation in Serbia
important PV implementation assessment tool that estimates
dynamics of correlations between solar radiation, climate, atmo- Geographical position and the results of PVGIS calculation of
sphere, the earth’s surface and the PV technology used. Several the yearly average values of the optimal panel inclination, solar
irradiation on the horizontal, vertical and optimally inclined 3. yearly average of the solar irradiation on vertical plane ranges
plane, ratio of diffuse to global solar irradiation and linke from 2530 Wh/m2 (Sombor) to 3010 Wh/m2 (akovica);
turbidity for some cities in Serbia are shown in Table 4. 4. yearly average of the solar irradiation on optimally inclined
Table 4 shows that plane ranges from 3810 Wh/m2 (Sombor) to 4580 Wh/m2
(akovica);
1. yearly average of the optimal panel inclination ranges from 5. yearly average of the ratio diffuse to global solar irradiation
321 (Negotin, Zaječar, Pirot) to 351 (Novi Pazar, Vršac, ranges from 0.43 (akovica, Prizren) to 0.51 (Pirot) and
Beograd); 6. yearly average of the linke turbidity ranges from 2.4 (Zaječar)
2. yearly average of the solar irradiation on horizontal plane ranges to 3.7 (Subotica, Sombor).
from 3370 Wh/m2 (Sombor) to 4000 Wh/m2 (akovica);
Total for year sum of global irradiation per square meter

received by the modules of the given PV system (optimally
inclined fixed PV solar plants, optimally inclined one-axis and
dual-axis tracking PV solar plants) of 1 MW in some cities in
Serbia obtained by PVGIS is shown in Table 5.
Table 5 shows that
1. Total for year sum of global irradiation per square meter

received by the optimally inclined fixed PV solar plants of
1 MW ranges from 1390 kWh/m2 (Sombor) to 1670 kWh/m2
(akovica);
received by the optimally inclined one-axis tracking PV solar
plants of 1 MW ranges from 1750 kWh/m2 (Sombor) to
2170 kWh/m2 (akovica);
received by the dual-axis tracking PV solar plants of 1 MW
ranges from 1790 kWh/m2 (Sombor) do 2230 kWh/m2
(akovica);
4. In Sombor optimally inclined one-axis tracking PV solar plants
of 1 MW intake 25.9% more solar irradiation compared to
optimally inclined fixed PV solar plant of 1 MW, and dual-axis
tracking PV solar plants of 1 MW intake 28.78% more solar
irradiation compared to optimally inclined fixed PV solar plant
of 1 MW and dual-axis tracking PV solar plants of 1 MW intake
2.29% more solar irradiation compared to optimally inclined
one-axis tracking PV solar plants of 1 MW and
5. In akovica optimally inclined one-axis tracking PV solar
plants of 1 MW intake 29.94% more solar irradiation than
optimally inclined fixed PV solar plant of 1 MW, dual-axis
Fig. 5. Yearly sum of total solar irradiation incident on optimally inclined south- tracking PV solar plants of 1 MW intake 33.54% more solar
oriented PV modules in kWh/m2 for the territory of Serbia. Adapted for Serbia radiation than optimally inclined fixed PV solar plant of 1 MW
from PVGIS & European Communities, 2001–2008, http://re.ec.europa.eu/pvgis/. and dual-axis tracking PV solar plants of 1 MW intake 2.77%
Fig. 6. Comparison of available annual quantities of the energy of the global sun radiation on the horizontal surface on the territory of Germany and Serbia [46].
Table 4
Geographycal position and the results of PVGIS calculation of the yearly average values of the optimal panel inclination, solar irradiation on the horizontal, vertical and
optimally inclined plane, ratio of diffuse to global solar irradiation and linke turbidity for some cities in Serbia.
Some cities in North latitude Optimal panel Solar irradiation (in Wh/m2/year) Annual irradiation Ratio of diffuse Linke
Serbia and east longitude inclination (1) deficit due to shadowing (horizontal): 0–2.0% to global turbidity( )
solar
On horizontal On vertical On optimally inclined irradiation ( )
plane plane plane
Subotica 46140 2300 North, 34 3430 2620 3910 0.49 3.7

191380 3600 East
Sombor 451460 3000 North, 34 3370 2530 3810 0.50 3.7
19160 5800 East
Novi Sad 451140 3800 North, 34 3550 2690 4040 0.49 3.0
191500 2800 East
Vršac 45160 4400 North, 211180 800 35 3640 2790 4170 0.47 2.7
East
Beograd 441470 3600 North, 35 3620 2750 4130 0.47 2.8
201270 2300 East
Negotin 441140 1400 North, 32 3560 2600 3990 0.48 2.6
221340 5600 East
Požarevac 441360 5000 North, 34 3640 2750 4150 0,47 2.7
211100 1400 East
Valjevo 441160 700 North, 191530 600 34 3650 2780 4170 0.47 3.1
East
Kragujevac 44100 3100 North, 34 3710 2790 4210 0.47 2.7
201550 2400 East
Užice 431540 3500 North, 34 3700 2790 4210 0.47 3.0
191440 1200 East
Zaječar 431530 5200 North, 32 3640 2640 4070 0.49 2.4
221150 2900 East
Čačak 431530 900 North, 201210 700 34 3750 2850 4290 0.46 2.8
East
Kruševac 431350 300 North, 211190 800 33 3770 2790 4260 0.47 2.5
East
Nova Varoš 431270 2400 North, 33 3730 2750 4230 0.46 2.9
191480 3000 East
Niš 431180 4700 North, 33 3700 2690 4140 0.48 2.5
211530 500 East
Kuršumlija 43180 4200 North, 34 3800 2840 4310 0.47 2.5
211160 3900 East
Novi Pazar 43170 5900 North, 201310 100 35 3890 2990 4470 0.46 2.7
East
Pirot 43190 4000 North, 32 3590 2590 4000 0.51 2.5
221350 5500 East
Leskovac 43100 200 North, 211560 4200 33 3740 2720 4190 0.48 2.5
East
Kosovska 421520 3300 North, 34 3890 2940 4440 0.45 2.7
Mitrovica 201510 4600 East
Vranje 421330 2500 North, 33 3670 2680 4120 0.48 3.3
211560 2200 East
akovica 421220 2900 North, 34 4000 3010 4580 0.43 3.3
201260 400 East
Prizren 421120 2900 North, 34 3970 2950 4520 0.43 3.4
201430 1200 East
more solar irradiation than optimally inclined one-axis track- 1170 MWh (Sombor) to 1390 MWh (akovica) and with CIS solar
ing PV solar plants of 1 MW. modules it ranges from 1070 MWh (Sombor) to 1290 MWh
(akovica);
6.2. Electricity production of different types of PV solar plants of 3. Total for year electricity production by the optimally inclined
1 MW in 23 cities in Serbia one-axis tracking PV solar plants of 1 MW with solar modules
of monocrystalline silicon ranges from 1330 MWh (Sombor) to
Total for year electricity production of different types of PV 1650 MWh (akovica), with CdTe solar modules it ranges
solar plants of 1 MW in some cities in Serbia obtained by PVGIS is from 1460 MWh (Sombor) to 1800 MWh (akovica) and with
shown in Table 6. CIS solar modules it ranges from 1360 MWh (Sombor) to
Table 6 shows that 1680 MWh (akovica) and
4. Total for year electricity production by the dual-axis tracking
1. Irrespectable of the type of PV solar plants most electrical PV solar plants of 1 MW with solar modules of monocrystalline
energy is generated if CdTe solar cells are used; silicon ranges from 1360 MWh (Sombor) to 1680 MWh
2. Total for year electricity production by the optimally inclined (akovica), with CdTe solar modules it ranges from
fixed PV solar plants of 1 MW with solar modules of mono- 1490 MWh (Sombor) to 1840 MWh (akovica) and with CIS
crystalline silicon ranges from 1050 MWh (Sombor) to 1260 solar modules it ranges from 1390 MWh (Sombor) to
MWh (akovica), with CdTe solar modules it ranges from 1720 MWh (akovica).
Table 5
Total for year sum of global irradiation per square meter received by the modules of the given PV system (optimally inclined fixed PV solar plants, optimally inclined
one-axis and dual-axis tracking PV solar plants) of 1 MW in some cities in Serbia obtained by PVGIS.
No. Some Total for year sum of global irradiation per Total for year sum of global irradiation per Total for year sum of global irradiation per
cities in square meter received by the optimally square meter received by the optimally inclined square meter received by the modules of
Serbia inclined modules of the fixed pv solar plant modules of the one –axis tracking pv solar plant the dual –axis tracking pv solar plant of
of 1 MW (kWh/m2/year) of 1 MW (kWh/m2/year) 1 MW (kWh/m2/year)
1. Subotica 1430 1800 1840

2. Sombor 1390 1750 1790
3. Novi Sad 1470 1890 1930
4. Vršac 1520 1980 2030
5. Beograd 1510 1950 2000
6. Negotin 1460 1900 1940
7. Požarevac 1510 1970 2020
8. Valjevo 1520 1950 2000
9. Kragujevac 1540 2000 2060
10. Užice 1540 1960 2010
11. Zaječar 1490 1940 1990
12. Čačak 1490 1940 1990
13. Kruševac 1550 2040 2090
14. Nova 1540 1900 1950
Varoš
15. Niš 1510 1970 2020
16. Kuršumlija 1570 2040 2100
17. Novi Pazar 1630 2110 2170
18. Pirot 1460 1860 1900
19. Leskovac 1530 1990 2040
20. Kosovska 1620 2110 2170
Mitrovica
21. Vranje 1500 1900 1950
22. akovica 1670 2170 2230
23. Prizren 1650 2110 2170
Estimated losses in PV solar plants of 1 MW in some cities in 2. In akovica by means of dual-axis tracking PV solar plant of
Serbia obtained by PVGIS are shown in Table 7. 1 MW with CdTe solar modules 32.38% more electrical energy
Comparison of total for year electricity production of different is generated than by optimally inclined fixed PV solar plant of
types of PV solar plants with monocrystaline silicon solar mod- 1 MW with CdTe solar modules and 2.23% more electrical
ules of 1 MW in some cities in Serbia is shown in Fig. 7. energy is generated than by optimally inclined one-axis
Fig. 7 shows that tracking PV solar plants of 1 MW with CdTe solar modules.
1. In Sombor by means of dual-axis tracking PV solar plant of 1 MW

with solar modules of monocrystalline silicon 29.53% more Comparison of total for year electricity production of different
electrical energy is generated compared to optimally inclined types of PV solar plants with CIS solar modules of 1 MW in some
fixed PV solar plant of 1 MW with solar modules of monocrystal- cities in Serbia is shown in Fig. 9.
line silicon and 2.26% more electrical energy is generated than in Fig. 9 shows that
case of optimally inclined one-axis tracking PV solar plants of
1 MW with solar modules of monocrystalline silicon and 1. In Sombor by means of dual-axis tracking PV solar plant of
2. In akovica by means of dual-axis tracking PV solar plant of 1 MW with CIS solar modules 29.91% more electrical energy is
1 MW with solar modules of monocrystalline silicon 33.34% generated than by optimally inclined fixed PV solar plant of
more electrical energy is generated compared to optimally 1 MW with CIS solar modules and 2.21% more electrical energy
inclined fixed PV solar plant of 1 MW with solar modules of is generated than by optimally inclined one-axis tracking PV
monocrystalline silicon and 1.82% more electrical energy is solar plants of 1 MW with CIS solar modules and
generated than by means of optimally inclined one-axis 2. In akovica by means of dual-axis tracking PV solar plant of
tracking PV solar plants of 1 MW with solar modules of 1 MW with CIS solar modules 33.34% more electrical energy is
monocrystalline silicon. generated than by optimally inclined fixed PV solar plant of
1 MW with CIS solar modules and 2.38% more electrical energy
Comparison of total for year electricity production of different is generated than by optimally inclined one-axis tracking PV
types of PV solar plants with CdTe solar modules of 1 MW in some solar plants of 1 MW with CIS solar modules.
cities in Serbia is shown in Fig. 8.
Fig. 8 shows that
7. Conclusion
1. In Sombor by means of dual-axis tracking PV solar plant of
1 MW with CdTe solar modules 27.35% more electrical energy In the light of all afore mentioned one can conclude that
is generated than in case of optimally inclined fixed PV solar nowadays worldwide PV solar plants mainly use solar cells made
plant of 1 MW with CdTe solar modules and 2.06% more of monocrystalline, policrystalline and amorfous silicon, CdTe and
electrical energy in comparison to optimally inclined one- CIS solar cells. Based on climate and other conditions fixed, one-
axis tracking PV solar plants of 1 MW with CdTe solar axis, and dual-axis tracking PV solar plants are installed world-
modules and wide. Although Serbia has very favourable climate and legal
Table 6
Total for year electricity production of different types of PV solar plant of 1 MW in some cities in Serbia.
No. Some cities in Total for year electricity production of Total for year electricity production of Total for year electricity production of dual
Serbia optimally inclined fixed pv solar plant of optimally inclined one –axis tracking pv –axis tracking pv solar plant of 1 MW
1 MW (MWh) solar plant of 1 MW (MWh) (MWh)
c-Si solar CdTe solar CIS solar c-Si solar CdTe solar CIS solar c-Si solar CdTe solar CIS solar
modules modules modules modules modules modules modules modules modules
1. Subotica 1080 1200 1100 1380 1510 1400 1400 1540 1430
2. Sombor 1050 1170 1070 1330 1460 1360 1360 1490 1390
3. Novi Sad 1110 1230 1130 1430 1560 1460 1460 1590 1490
4. Vršac 1140 1260 1160 1490 1630 1520 1520 1660 1560
5. Beograd 1130 1250 1150 1470 1610 1500 1500 1640 1540
6. Negotin 1090 1210 1110 1420 1550 1450 1450 1580 1490
7. Požarevac 1130 1250 1160 1480 1620 1520 1520 1660 1550
8. Valjevo 1150 1270 1170 1480 1610 1510 1510 1650 1550
9. Kragujevac 1150 1270 1180 1510 1650 1540 1540 1680 1580
10. Užice 1170 1280 1190 1490 1620 1530 1530 1650 1560
11. Zaječar 1110 1230 1130 1450 1580 1480 1480 1610 1520
12. Čačak 1130 1300 1200 1480 1680 1570 1520 1720 1610
13. Kruševac 1160 1280 1180 1530 1670 1560 1560 1700 1600
14. Nova Varoš 1170 1290 1200 1440 1570 1480 1470 1600 1510
15. Niš 1130 1250 1150 1470 1610 1510 1500 1640 1540
16. Kuršumlija 1180 1300 1210 1540 1680 1580 1580 1710 1610
17. Novi Pazar 1240 1360 1260 1600 1740 1640 1640 1780 1680
18. Pirot 1090 1200 1110 1390 1510 1420 1410 1540 1450
19. Leskovac 1140 1260 1170 1490 1630 1530 1520 1660 1560
20. Kosovska 1220 1350 1250 1600 1730 1630 1630 1770 1670
Mitrovica
21. Vranje 1140 1250 1160 1440 1570 1480 1470 1600 1510
22. akovica 1260 1390 1290 1650 1800 1680 1680 1840 1720
23. Prizren 1240 1380 1270 1600 1750 1630 1630 1790 1670
Fig. 7. Comparison of total for year electricity production of different types of PV solar plants with monocrystaline silicon solar modules of 1 MW in some cities in Serbia.
conditions for the installation and use of PV solar plants rare are (8 kWp, 2011.), on the Faculty of Electrical Engineering in Niš
the examples of the use of PV solar plants for the generation of (1.2 kW, 2011), on the Faculty of Sciences and Mathematics in Niš
electrical energy in private households and state objects. First on- (2 kWp, 2012), on the private house in village Blace (10.44 kWp,
grid PV solar plant of 3 kWp in Serbia was installed in 2004 on the 2012), on the private company in Leskovac (30 kWp, 2012), on the
roof of the elementary school Dušan Jerković in Ruma. Three on- private company in Čačak (55 kWp, 2012), in two private houses
grid PV solar plants of 5 kWp were installed in 2010 on high in village Merosina of 10 kWp and 20 kWp (2012), in Zaječar
schools in Belgrade, Kula and Varvarin. Afore mentioned PV solar (10 kWp, 2011), in village Čortanovci (10 kWp, 2012), in Čačak
plants are used for demonstrational and educational purposes. (5 kWp, 2012), in Zemun (2.5 kWp, 2012). Currently three PV
Besides, up to now following on-grid PV solar systems are solar plants in Serbia are under construction: in Čajetina, a fixed
installed in Serbia: in the Monastery Dević, near the town Pirot PV solar plant of 10 MW, in Merdare near the town Kursumlija, a
(15 kWp, 2010), on the Faculty of Technical Sciences in Novi Sad fixed PV solar plant of 2 MW and in the town of Leskovac a dual-
Fig. 8. Comparison of total for year electricity production of different types of PV solar plants with CdTe solar modules of 1 MW in some cities in Serbia.
Fig. 9. Comparison of total for year electricity production of different types of PV solar plants with CIS solar modules of 1 MW in some cities in Serbia.
axis tracking PV solar plant of 950 kWp. Up to now more than 200 monocrystalline silicon ranges from 1050 MWh (Sombor) to
off-grid PV systems power of 50 W–4 kW are installed in Serbia. 1260 MWh (akovica), with CdTe solar modules ranges from
Recently, in Serbia there is an increased use of PV systems for 1170 MWh (Sombor) to 1390 MWh (akovica) and with CIS solar
traffic lights and other traffic signalization. modules it ranges from 1070 MWh (Sombor) to 1290 MWh
Application of PVGIS program in 23 towns in Serbia shows (akovica).
that yearly average of the optimal panel inclination ranges from Total for year electricity production by the optimally inclined
321 to 351; total for year sum of global irradiation per square one-axis tracking PV solar plants of 1 MW with solar modules of
meter received by the optimally inclined fixed PV solar plants of monocrystalline silicon ranges from 1330 MWh (Sombor) to
1 MW ranges from 1390 kWh (Sombor) to 1670 kWh 1650 MWh (akovica), with CdTe solar modules it ranges from
(akovica); total for year sum of global irradiation per square 1460 MWh (Sombor) to 1800 MWh (akovica) and with CIS solar
meter received by the optimally inclined one-axis tracking PV modules it ranges from 1360 MWh (Sombor) to 1680 MWh
solar plants of 1 MW ranges from 1750 kWh (Sombor) to (akovica).
2170 kWh (akovica); total for year sum of global irradiation Total for year electricity production by the dual-axis tracking
per square meter received by the dual-axis tracking PV solar PV solar plants of 1 MW with solar modules of monocrystalline
plants of 1 MW ranges from 1790 kWh (Sombor) to 2230 kWh silicon ranges from 1360 MWh (Sombor) to 1680 MWh
(akovica). (akovica), with CdTe solar modules it ranges from 1490 MWh
Total for year electricity production by the optimally inclined (Sombor) to 1840 MWh (akovica) and with CIS solar modules it
fixed PV solar plants of 1 MW with solar modules of ranges from 1390 MWh (Sombor) to 1720 MWh (akovica).
Table 7
Esstimated losses in PV solar plants of 1 MW in some cities in Serbia obtained by PVGIS [34].
Some cities Estimated losses due to temperature (using Estimated loss due to angular reflectance effects Other losses (cables, inverter etc.): Combined PV system losses on:
in Serbia local ambient temperature) on: on:
T. Pavlović et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 20 (2013) 201–218

c-Si solar CdTe solar CIS solar c-Si solar CdTe solar CIS solar c-Si solar CdTe solar CIS solar c-Si solar CdTe solar CIS solar
modules (%) modules (%) modules (%) modules (%) modules (%) modules (%) modules (%) modules (%) modules (%) modules (%) modules (%) modules (%)
Subotica 9.0 0.3 7.5 2.8 2.8 2.8 14 14 14 23.9 16.2 22.7
Sombor 9.1 0.3 7.6 2.9 2.9 2.9 14 14 14 24.0 16.2 22.8
Novi Sad 9.7 0.3 8.1 2.9 2.9 2.9 14 14 14 24.5 16.7 23.2
Vršac 9.9 0.7 8.2 2.9 2.9 2.9 14 14 14 24.7 17.0 23.3
Beograd 9.9 0.6 8.2 2.9 2.9 2.8 14 14 14 24.7 16.9 23.3
Negotin 10.2 0.9 8.6 3.0 3.0 3.0 14 14 14 25.1 17.3 23.7
Požarevac 10.0 0.7 8.3 2.9 2.9 2.9 14 14 14 24.8 17.1 23.4
Valjevo 9.3 0.3 7.7 2.8 2.8 2.8 14 14 14 24.2 16.7 22.9
Kragujevac 9.8 0.7 8.2 2.9 2.9 2.9 14 14 14 24.7 17.1 23.3
Užice 8.7 0.2 6.9 2.8 2.8 2.8 14 14 14 23.6 16.5 22.2
Zaječar 10.5 1.2 8.8 3.0 3.0 3.0 14 14 14 25.3 17.5 23.9
Čačak 8.8 0.6 8.0 3.0 2.8 2.8 14 14 14 23.9 17.0 23.1
Kruševac 10.2 1.0 8.5 2.9 2.9 2.9 14 14 14 25.0 17.4 23.6
Nova Varoš 9.0 0.3 6.9 2.7 2.7 2.7 14 14 14 23.8 16.5 22.1
Niš 10.3 1.0 8.5 2.9 2.9 2.9 14 14 14 25.1 17.4 23.7
Kuršumlija 9.6 0.8 7.9 2.9 2.9 2.9 14 14 14 24.5 17.2 23.1
Novi Pazar 8.9 0.5 7.3 2.8 2.8 2.8 14 14 14 23.8 16.9 22.5
Pirot 10.0 1.0 8.4 3.0 3.0 3.0 14 14 14 25.0 17.4 23.6
Leskovac 10.2 1.0 8.5 3.0 3.0 3.0 14 14 14 25.0 17.4 23.6
Kosovska 9.4 0.8 7.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 14 14 14 24.3 17.1 22.9
Mitrovica
Vranje 9.1 0.2 7.5 2.9 2.9 2.9 14 14 14 24.0 16.7 22.7
akovica 9.5 0.4 7.9 2.7 2.7 2.7 14 14 14 24.3 16.7 22.9
Prizren 9.7 0.4 8.0 2.7 2.7 2.7 14 14 14 24.4 16.6 23.0
217
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 20 (2013) 201–218

Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

Possibility of electricity generation using PV solar plants in Serbia

3.3.2. The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYR Macedonia) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

Fig. 3. Schematic cross section of solar cell made of cupper–indium–diselenide

Material Thickness Efﬁciency Colour Features

Subotica 2112.9 10.75 550.9 69.73 54.33

fast web applications enable an easy estimation of the PV

Total for year sum of global irradiation per square meter

1. Total for year sum of global irradiation per square meter

Subotica 46140 2300 North, 34 3430 2620 3910 0.49 3.7

1. Subotica 1430 1800 1840

1. In Sombor by means of dual-axis tracking PV solar plant of 1 MW

T. Pavlović et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 20 (2013) 201–218

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