Process control

Automatic Process control

PROCESS
Process as used in the terms process control and process industry, refers to the methods of changing or refining raw

materials to create end products. The raw materials, which either pass through or remain in a liquid, gaseous, or

slurry (a mix of solids and liquids) state during the process, are transferred, measured, mixed, heated or cooled,

filtered, stored, or handled in some other way to produce the end product.

Process industries include the chemical industry, the oil and gas industry, the food and beverage industry, the

pharmaceutical industry, the water treatment industry, and the power industry.

PROCESS CONTROL

Process control refers to the methods that are used to control process variables when manufacturing a product. For

example, factors such as the proportion of one ingredient to another, the temperature of the materials, how well

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the ingredients are mixed, and the pressure under which the materials are held can significantly impact the quality

of an end product.

Control TASKS
Control loops in the process control industry work in the same way, requiring three tasks to occur:

 Measurement

 Comparison

 Adjustment

PROCESS VARIABLE
A process variable is a condition of the process fluid (a liquid or gas) that can change the manufacturing process in
some way. In the example of you sitting by the fire, the process variable was temperature. Common process
variables include:
 Pressure
 Flow
 Level
 Temperature
 Density
 pH (acidity or alkalinity)

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 Mass
 Conductivity

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Controller Algorithms

There are two main types of controllers are:

Discrete controllers

Continuous controllers

DISCRETE CONTROLLERS
Discrete controllers are controllers that have only two modes or positions: on and off. A common example of a

discrete controller is a home hot water heater

CONTINUOUS CONTROLLERS
Controllers automatically compare the value of the PV (process variable) to the SP (set point) to determine if an

error exists. If there is an error, the controller adjusts its output according to the parameters that have been set in

the controller.

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Controller Gain
Gain (proportional constant) is defined simply as the change in output divided by the change in input. In general, any change

in control input (disturbance) cause change in control output to adjust the system. If change is high system will be unstable

system

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Let us take example of cooling system for control the reactor temperature: The proportionality constant is Kc. and a

small change in the temperature of the inlet stream occurs (disturbance):

The top plot shows the case for no control (Kc = 0), which is called the open loop, or the normal dynamic

response of the process by itself.

As Kc increases, several effects can be noted. First, the reactor temperature responds faster and faster. and

the maximum deviation in the reactor temperature becomes smaller

As the gain is increased further, eventually a point is reached where the reactor temperature oscillates

indefinitely, which is undesirable. This point is called the stability limit, where Kc =Ku, Ku is the ultimate

controller gain.

Increasing Kc further causes the magnitude of the oscillations to increase, with the result that the control

valve will cycle between full open and closed.

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PID control

Controller action (response) with respect to disturbance error (E) is governed by three main attitudes or modes:

1- Proportional mode

2- Integral mode

3- Derivative mode

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Proportional Integral mode Derivative mode

Present Past Future

Response is Response is proportional to Response is proportional to
proportional to the error integration (record derivative of the applied
error magnitude the previous error) disturbance (expect the system
response of error)
Gain: Kp (normal Gain: KI Gain: Kd
gain: output/input)
U= Kc e +KI ʃ (e.dt) U= Kc e +KI ʃ (e.dt)+ Kd dy/dt

Quick response – (PI) Lower offset – No damping – lowest offset-

high offset increase damping not eefective for fast sysyem

Where U = controller output or controlled variable

e= y-y* (actual value of controlled variable – set point R)

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Effect of PID modes

In the figure

The system is disturbed by a step input for the loading variable

(Ex: increase the inlet temperature for cooling system from 50 – 55 oC)

Time response: time required to reach to 63% of its steady state value.

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Notes

 Integral mode reduce only the offset but cause damping (oscillation), should be

used for systems that oscillation or speed does not have a great effect

 Derivative mode is applied for large and slow system, where the system does not

respond to a small change in control output [Ex: large level tank – heat exchanger

(slow system)]

 Derivative mode detects the slope process variable diagram (PV) and detects the

future change, hence; apply a large change from the controller where the system

could respond to it.

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 PID control tuning

It means the selection of optimum values for Kc, KI, Kd which yield a fast response,

lower offset, lower damping.

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* Servo and regulator control modes

Servo control mode

Means that change in system is due to set point change by the operator due to special

needs or design change

Regulator control mode

means that set point is fixed and the control output regulate itself to recover an

applied disturbance.

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* The 3 main needs for control system

1. Suppressing the influence of external disturbances

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2. Ensure stability of a chemical process

Unstable system stable system

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3. Optimizing the performance of a chemical Process

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Design Elements of a Control System

1- Define control objectives.

At the beginning the control objectives are defined qualitatively then quantitatively.

What was the control objective in the example of the stirred tank heater???

2- Select Measurements.

“What variables should we measure in order to monitor the operational performance of

the plant?”

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It is evident that we would like to monitor directly the variables that represent our

control objectives and this is done whenever possible. Such measurements are called

„primary measurements’.

Sometimes the control objectives are not measurable quantities.

In such a case we measure other variables which can be easily measured (secondary

measurements). Then a mathematical relation is developed between the unmeasured

output and the secondary measurement.

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3- Select manipulated variables

“What are the manipulated variables (among the available input variables that can be

easily adjusted) to be used to control a chemical process)”

4- Select the control configuration

“The information structure that is used to connect the available measurements to the

available manipulated variables”

Ex: Feedback – Feedforward – Cascade- Infrential. etc

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5- Design the controller

“How is the information from the measurements used to adjust values of the

manipulated variables? “

Ex: P or PI or PID

The controller is the active element that receives the information from the

measurements and takes appropriate control action to adjust the values of the

manipulated variables.

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Hardware Elements of a Control System

a- The chemical process

b- The measuring instruments or sensors

c- Transducers and transmitters

D-Transmission Lines

e- Controller

f- Final Control Element

g- Actuators

g-Recording Elements

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PRIMARY ELEMENTS/SENSORS
In all cases, some kind of instrument is measuring changes in the
process and reporting a process variable measurement. Primary
elements are devices that cause some change in their property with
changes in process fluid conditions that can then be measured. For
example, when a conductive fluid passes through the magnetic field in
a magnetic flow tube, the fluid generates a voltage that is directly
proportional to the velocity of the process fluid.
Ex: -Thermocouples - Orifice plates
_ Pitot tubes - Venturi tubes - Magnetic flow tubes
- Pressure sens ing diaphragms, strain gauges, capacitance cells
_ Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs)

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Thermocouple

A Strain gauge (sometimes refered to as a Strain gage) is a sensor whose

resistance varies with applied force; It converts force, pressure, tension,
weight, etc., into a change in electrical resistance which can then be
measured. When external forces are applied to a stationary object, stress
and strain are the result.

Magnetic flow tubes

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TRANSDUCERS AND transmitters

A transducer (special type of sensors) is a device that translates a
mechanical signal into an electrical signal (volt).

The electrical resistance of the connecting cable can cause significant

errors if the cable is long.

For example, inside a capacitance pressure device, a transducer

converts changes in pressure into a proportional change in
capacitance.

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TRANSMITTERS
A transmitter is a device that converts a reading from a sensor or
transducer into a standard signal (current vary from 4 mA to 20
mA) and transmits that signal to a monitor or controller.

Transmitter types include:

Pressure transmitters - Flow transmitters - Temperature transmitters - Level
transmitters - Analytic (O2 [oxygen], CO [carbon monoxide], and pH transmitters

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Process
Variable
Sensor Transducer
(T, P, Flow rate) (Thermocouple – pitot tube Mechanical signal
(Electric output sensor)
(Expansion – magnetic field
Electric Signal

(Volt)
Electric signal

(Current)
Controller
Transmitter

Monitor

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SIGNALS
There are three kinds of signals that exist for the process industry to transmit the
process variable measurement from the instrument to a centralized control system.
1. Pneumatic signal
2. Analog signal
3. Digital signal

Pneumatic Signals
Pneumatic signals are signals produced by changing the air pressure in a signal pipe in
proportion to the measured change in a process variable.

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Analog Signals
The most common standard electrical signal is the 4–20 mA current
signal. With this signal, a transmitter sends a small current through a
set of wires. The current signal is a kind of gauge in which 4 mA
represents the lowest possible measurement, or zero, and 20 mA
represents the highest possible measurement.

Digital Signals
Digital signals are the most recent addition to process control signal
technology. It depends on 0/1 program codes.

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A converter
is a device that converts one type of signal into another type of
signal. For example, a converter may convert current into voltage or
an analog signal into a digital signal. In process control, a converter
used to convert a 4–20 mA current signal into a 3–15 psig
pneumatic signal (commonly used by valve actuators) is called a
current-to-pressure converter.

1. Pneumatic signal 1. Pneumatic signal

2. Analog signal 2. Analog signal
Converter
3. Digital signal 3. Digital signal

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CORRECTING ELEMENTS/FINAL CONTROL ELEMENTS

The part of the control system that acts to change the manipulated variable.
In most cases, the final control element is a valve used to restrict or cut off
fluid flow, but pump motors, louvers (typically used to regulate air flow),
solenoids, and other devices can also be final control elements.

ACTUATORS
An actuator is the part of a final control device that causes a physical change
in the final control device when signaled to do so. The most common example
of an actuator is a valve actuator, which opens or closes a valve in response
to control signals from a controller.
Actuators are often powered pneumatically, hydraulically, or electrically.

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See: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XAItnsUcES0

Actuator types

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ISA Symbology and Identification letter

SYMBOLS
In a P&ID, a circle represents individual measurement instruments, such as
transmitters, sensors, and detectors

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A square with a circle inside represents instruments that both display

measurement readings and perform some control function

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Ordinary Controllers connected to PCs

Controller by using PLCs

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Final control elements representation

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IDENTIFICATION LETTERS and TAG NUMBERS

For example, “FIC” on an instrument tag

represents a Flow Indicating Controller. “PT”
represents a pressure transmitter

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The following is PFD diagram and the nextcontrol
Process is P&ID (piping and instrumentation diagram)

to know the difference between both types of design sheets

List of streams

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P&ID sheet – all details of control instrumentations

45 with Tag Numbers are included, type of trans. line

No mention for streams details or names of components like the previous PFD
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Control configuration
1- Feedback control
2- Feed forward control
3- Ratio control
4- Inferential control
5- Cascade Control

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1- Feedback control
A feedback loop measures a process variable and sends the measurement to a
controller for comparison to setpoint. If the process variable is not at setpoint, control
action is taken to return the process variable to setpoint.

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Flow control Flow control

Level
Control
(bottom of distillation
Pressure column)
control

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Level
Control
(top of distillation
column)

Temp. control

Compsition
Control
(blending system)

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1- Feedforward control

 Feedforward control is a control system that anticipates load disturbances and controls them

before they can impact the process variable.

 The designer must have a mathematical understanding of how the manipulated variables will

impact the process variable (efficient system model).

 The main problem is the designer should take in consideration all or the most effective

disturbance sources for the system

 The added complexity and expense of feedforward control may not be equal to the benefits of

increased control in the case of a variable that causes only a small load disturbance.

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Feedback control system Feedforward control system

Requires identification of all possible

It does not require identification and disturbances and their direct measurement
Advantage Disadvantage
measurement of any disturbance and it cannot deal with unmeasured
disturbance.
Sensitive to process parameters variations
It is insensitive to modeling errors and
Advantage and Requires good knowledge of the process Disadvantage
insensitive to parameter changes
model
It waits until the effect of the disturbances
Acts before the effect of a disturbance has
has been felt by the system, before control
Disadvantage been felt by the system. Advantage
action is taken.

It is unsatisfactory for slow processes or with

It is good for slow systems
significant dead time. Disadvantage Advantage

It may create instability in the closed-loop It does not introduce instability in the closed-
response Disadvantage loop response. Advantage

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Feedback, Feedforward strategies for different process variables

FLOW CONTROL LOOPS

 Fast loops that respond to changes quickly (Efficient for Feedback system).

 Therefore, flow control equipment must have fast sampling and response times. Because flow transmitters tend to be

rather sensitive devices, they can produce rapid fluctuations or noise in the control signal.

 To compensate for noise, many flow transmitters have a damping function that filters out noise.

 Sometimes, filters are added between the transmitter and the control system.

TEMPERATURE CONTROL LOOPS

 Because of the time required to change the temperature of a process fluid, temperature loops tend to be relatively slow.

 Feedforward control strategies are often used to increase the speed of the temperature loop response.

PRESSURE and Level CONTROL LOOPS

 The speed required in a pressure control loop may be dictated by the volume of the process fluid.

 Low volume systems may be controlled efficiently by a feedback system alone

 High-volume systems (e.g., large natural gas storage facilities) tend to change more slowly than low-volume systems

(Feedback + Feedforward)

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3- Ratio control
 It is special type of feedforward where two disturbance streams are measured and kept in a
fixed ratio by controlling only the flow rate of one of the two streams
 The stream which is not under control known as "Wild stream"

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Examples for ratio control

 Controlling the air to fuel ratio in burners (fuel is the wild stream according to source)

 Controlling the ratio between feed flowrate and steam in the reboiler

 Keep a constant reflux ratio in distillation column

 Controlling the ratio between liquid flow rate and vapor in absorber

 Controlling the acid – water ratio in acid dilution systems

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4- Cascade control

It is a control system in which a

secondary (slave) control loop is set up R

(Set point)
to control a variable that is a major

source of load disturbance for another

primary (master) control loop. The

controller of the primary loop

determines the setpoint of the summing

controller in the secondary loop

(The output from controller 1 is set

point to controller 2)

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Master control

Slave

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Feedback control (CSTR) Cascade control (CSTR)

Single loop (1 measured variables, 1 Manipulated) Multiple loops (2 measured variables, 1 Manipulated)

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5- Selective control system

In these systems, there are two or more controlling variables with one or manipulated

variable, the selective controller transfer the control action from one controlled variable to

another according to need.

a- Override control

In this case, there is ordinary controlled variable in steady state operation, in startup or

shutdown situations (unsteady state operation) some another variables should not exceed

certain upper or lower limits. This is done by using two switches (secondary controllers)

 High selector switch (HSS)

 Low selector switch (LSS)

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Ex(1): Protection of a boiler system (LSS)

At steady state, PC is the controller to adjust the outlet steam pressure

At unsteady state if the level is reduced under the coil level the (LSS) transfer the control action

to (LC) to increase the level

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Ex(2): Protection of a compressor system (HSS)

At steady state, FC is the controller to adjust the outlet air flow

At unsteady state if the increased to maximum (HSS) transfer the control action to (PC) to

decrease the pressure

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b- Auctioneering control system

It is a selective secondary controller which selects one different similar measured

variable at different locations and selects the highest value to provide it the main

controller to take an action

EX: Controlling the exothermic catalytic tubular reactor

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Modeling of Chemical Processes

To guarantee that the control system will satisfy the operational objectives we need a simple

description of how the process reacts to various inputs thus we need.

• In the control system arrangement, we measure value of disturbance and we anticipate what its

effect will be on the process output.

• In order to keep the output at the desired level we change the value of the manipulated variable

in order to eliminate the impact of the disturbance on the output. Thus we must know the

following 2 relations which are provided by a mathematical model.

Output = f1(disturbance)

Output = f2(manipulated variable)

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Laplace Transform
Any system model in control system is a time domain function [f(t)]

The process consists of many integrated units (storage tanks, reactors,

distillator… etc), each unit variables may be changed with time

System model F(t)

Ordinary differential equation (ODE)
Or partial differential equation(PDE)

- Non algebraic equations (hard to solve by ordinary methods

especially for multiple units system)
- Discontineous since it is associated with the integration limits

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Laplace transform is a special integration

It transform the time domain model (nonlinear – nonalgebric)

to S domain transfer function F(S) which is easy to solve

f(t) Process Model y(t)

Input F (t): ODE or PDE Output

Inverse Laplace
Laplace Transform
Transform

F̂(s) Transfer Function Ŷ (s)

G(S)

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Laplace Transform Table

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Propertied of Laplace Transform (same as integration problems)

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Simple examples on Laplace transform

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Solving of differential equations by Laplace Transform

This is the main target of Laplace transform by the following steps:

1- Find the Laplace of the differential equation as shown in table to get the

algebraic transfer function (S domain)

2- Get the inverse Laplace of the result to get the algebraic solution of the

differential equation in (t) domain

Inverse Laplace
d f(t) Laplace F(S) F (T)
d (t) Transform Transform

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Examples:

Solve the following ODE by using laplace

Y(s) = = -2/s3 + 3/s2 +y(0)/s (make inverse laplace) then

Y(t)=

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Example 2

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Example 3 (partial fraction)

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Note: general rule of partial fractions as follow

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Home work

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Important mathematical functions in process control

1- Step function (U(t))

Known as switch function or Heaviside function (Oliver Heaviside)

 The unit step function

u(t) = u(t-0), it means that the function has value = 0

when time is negative and started by one step from t = 0
and higher

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 Shifted unit step

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 Rectangular pulse function

Example

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Ramp function

Sine function

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Exercise
Write the following functions in terms of unit step function(s). Sketch each waveform.

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Example:

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Example

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Laplace Transforms of the Unit Step Function

The step function U(t) is not a value, it is introduced for any function as shifting for its
start or end. From table remember that:

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The following table from (Coughanowr) illustrates most important functions and its Laplace transformation

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Examples:

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Example 2

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RAMP Response.

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Example (step response)

A tank having a time constant of 1 min and a resistance of (1/9) ft/cfm is operating
at steady state with an inlet flow of 10 ft3 /min (or cfm). At time t = 0, the flow is
suddenly increased to 20 ft3/min. calculate the increasing in level after 90 sec.
Answer

At first prove the law to get the first order response of the tank level as shown above:

H(t) = A(1- e(-t/ɽ))

H(t) = (20-10)(1-e(-90/60)) = 7.7 ft

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Example on rectangle response

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Ask about the

impulse input

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A Mercury Thermometer (First order system)

Consider the mercury thermometer shown in where 2 is the temperature of its contents or its temperature indication and 1 is the
temperature of the surrounding medium). During an incremental time (d t) the heat flow to the mercury is given by:

dQ  UA(1   2 )dt
And the temperature of the mercury will increase by an increment (d 2) so that: dQ  wc p d 2
2
From Eqs.

d 2 UA 1
 (1   2 ) Fig. (2.4)
dt wc p
wc p d 2
Hence   2  1 or
UA dt

d 2
T   2  1
dt
wc p
Where T = = time constant
UA
(1/UA) = thermal resistance
wcp = thermal capacitance

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Example
A thermometer having a time constant of 0.1 min is at a steady-state, temperature of
90°F. At time t = 0, the thermometer is placed in a temperature bath maintained at
100°F. Determine the time needed for the thermometer to read 98°F.

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Example

A thermometer having first-order dynamics with a time constant of 1

minute is placed in a temperature bath at 100 of. After the thermometer

reaches steady-state it is suddenly placed in a bath at 110 of at t = 0 and

left there for 1 minute, after which it is immediately returned to the bath at

100 f.

a- Draw a sketch showing the variation of the thermometer reading with time.

b- Calculate the thermometer reading at t = 0.5min and at t = 2.0 min .

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A Shielded Thermometer

R1
R2 i
1
2

It is clear that the shielded thermometer response is characterized by a second-order

differential equation. If it is desired to express the thermometer-thermowell system in

terms of its equivalent non-interacting stages, the effective time constants of the

fictitious independent stages T’1 and T’2 would be such that: T1'T2'  T1T2 and

(T1'  T2' )  (T1  T2  R1C 2 )

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Degrees of freedom and number of controlled

and manipulated variables

 “The independent variables that must be specified in order to

define the process completely”

F=V-E

V= number of independent variables describing a process.

E= number of independent equations relating V variables.

 “In order to specify a process completely the number of degrees
of freedom should be zero”

F=0

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 Case 1: If F=0. In this case we say that the process is exactly

specified.

 Case 2: If F>0, In this case we say that the system is underspecified

by F equations (i.e. we need F additional equations).

 Case 3: If F<0. In this case we say that the system is over specified

by F equations.

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There are two sources that give additional equations

to reduce the number of degrees of freedom:

 External World: Values of certain input variables e.g. an input coming

from an upstream unit that feeds the process.

 Control systems: relationships between controlled outputs and

manipulated variables (feedback) or between manipulated
disturbances and manipulated inputs (feedforward).

Thus:

Number of variables that could be controlled=

F- number of externally specified inputs

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Example (1)
Stirred heater tank

Equations:

1- Mass balance [Fi-F= A (dh/dt)]

2- Heat Balance QFi + Qsteam – QF = Q.acc = MCp dT/dt

E=2 V=6[h,T, Fi, F,Ti, Q]

F=6-2= 4

In this case we need 4 additional relations to make the system

completely specified. These are provided from the following
considerations:-
 Fi and Ti are the main two disturbances for the heater and
they are both specified by the external world
F=4-2=2
 Acceptable operation of the tank requires that the liquid level
(h) and the liquid temperature (T) in tank heater may be
maintained at desired value.

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Example (2)
Flash Drum

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Home Work
Derive the degree of freedom (DOF) for the following system and draw the possible control
scheme(s) based on DOF calculations

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Block diagram of closed and multiple loop systems [Canonica Form]

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Remember:
 To apply the rule of closed loop it should be in its CANONICAL FORM

 For branched multiple loops a balance should be made starting from X to Y around

each block and compartment. Do not make a balance on a node

 The denominator (‫ )المقام‬of the transfer function in canonical form

[1+GH], or for the more complex system (multiple and branched ) is called

the characteristics equation of the system

 The characteristics equation will be used later in identify if the system stable or not

according to the nature of its roots

 The following examples will illustrate the above rules

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Example (11.1-a pg. 235 – Coughanowr)

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Example (11.1-b pg. 235 – Coughanowr)

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Graphical block diagram reduction

How to make a reduction for block diagram to the canonical form

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Remember

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Example I

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Example II

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Homework

Pg 226 in textbook

- In this problems the transfer functions in form of S domain and

should be combined together

- Solve analytically and graphically

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System stability

Definition of stability: An unconstrained linear system is said to be stable if

the output response is bounded for all bounded inputs. Otherwise, it is said to
be unstable (BIBO).

Characteristic equation
Consider the general block diagram, which is discussed in the previous
chapter. Using block diagram algebra that was developed in the previous
chapter, we obtain

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The common denominator:

Is known as the Characteristics equation

- The roots (P) of this equation is named as (Poles)

A feedback control system is stable if all the roots of its

characteristic equation have negative real parts

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Routh Stability Criterion

The criterion of stability for closed-loop systems does not require calculation

of the actual values of the roots of the characteristic polynomial. It only

requires that we know if any root is to the right of the imaginary axis.

Routh Stability Criterion is an analytical technique for determining whether

any roots of the polynomial have positive real parts.

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The Routh Stability Criterion is based on a characteristic equation that has

the form:

First test: A necessary (but not sufficient) condition for stability is that all of the coefficients in the
characteristic equation must be positive. If any coefficient is negative or zero, the
system is unstable.

Second test: If all of the coefficients are positive, we can construct the following Routh array:

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Formation of Routh Array

Routh Stability Criterion: A necessary and

sufficient condition for all roots of the characteristic

equation to have negative real parts is that all of

the elements in the left column of the Routh array

are positive.

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Example 4

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To have a stable system, each element in the left column of the Routh array must

be positive. Element b1 will be positive if Kc > 7.41/0.588 = 12.6. Similarly, c1

will be positive if Kc > -1. Thus, we conclude that the system will be stable if

-1 < Kc < 12.6

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Answer

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 For the output C to be stable, we analyze the characteristic equation of the system
for the closed loop
 Note that The block of U is not involved in the closed loop characteristics equation

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time

time

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Bode Diagram:

 Bode plots are a very useful way to represent the gain and phase of a system as a function of

frequency. This is referred to as the frequency domain behavior of a system.

 The difficulty in representing the transfer function comes about because we need to plot a

complex number, H(s) or H(jω), as a function of frequency. Consider the transfer function

To show how the magnitude and phase vary we need two plots one for magnitude and
one for phase.

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Bode diagram Example

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