Islamic Studies 59:4 (2020) pp.

477–494 477

Cognitive Restructuring of Psychology: The Case

for a Vertical and Horizontal Integrated, Embedded
Curriculum Model for Islamic Psychology
G. HUSSEIN RASSOOL*

Abstract
The article presents a vertical and horizontal integrated embedded curriculum
model of Islamic psychology through a descriptive and theoretical study
conceptualized by al-Faruqi’s and Berghout’s conceptual framework in the
Islamization of knowledge. The article demonstrates how an amalgam of this
framework offers useful resources in the development of undergraduate or post-
graduate courses in Islamic psychology. With the proliferation of Islamic
psychology and psychotherapy courses on a global scale, this article will provide a
stimulus to the further examination and development of conceptual and
curriculum models based on the tawḥīd paradigm in the Islamization of
psychology.

Keywords
curriculum model, Islamization of knowledge, psychology, Islamic
psychology.

Introduction
In the past decades, despite a growing literature on the rapprochement
between spirituality, religion, and psychology, there remains a formal
separation between them. Both psychology and religion focus on matters
of health and healthy behaviours, and existential concerns including
meaning and purpose of life. This formal separation is due, in part, to the
secularization of modern civilization, and the adoption of the Western
scientific paradigm in the discipline of psychology. Psychologists who
espouse the secularist approach perceive scientific epistemologies as not

*
Professor of Islamic Psychology, Riphah Institute of Clinical and Professional
Psychology, Riphah International University, Quaid-e-Azam Campus, Lahore, Pakistan.
478 G. HUSSEIN RASSOOL

only poles apart from the religious one but also more robust compared
to the latter. Contemporary secular psychology, devoid of its spiritual
dimension, has now lost its soul. Secular psychology has been promoted
on a global scale and its dominance has remained unchallenged in most
academic institutions in the developing world. Many Muslim
psychologists educated in mostly Western universities or even in their
own countries have remained in a secular, cross-culturally invalid
“psychological bubble.” They have been acculturated in the psychology
of the Western-oriented paradigm and follow blindly their “Master’s
Voice.” Some Muslim scholars and psychologists have now realized that
psychology as a discipline, based on secular, reductionist framework, is
not congruent with Islamic beliefs and practices and fails to meet the
holistic needs of Muslim patients. Malik Badri, in his classical work
Dilemma of Muslim Psychologists criticized this blind imitation of Western,
non-Islamic ideas and practices among Muslim psychologists.1 Rasjid
Skinner pointed out that Muslim psychologists “have also experienced a
dissonance between what they have been taught from ‘Western’
tradition and their own sense of what is right and real—but without
being able to articulate precisely where the dissonance lies.”2
The question debated by academics and clinicians is how best to
conceptualize Islamic psychology and integrate the Islamic perspective
of psychology with the broader discipline of psychology. Above all, there
is a need to develop a theoretical framework for an Islamic psychology
based on the tawḥīd paradigm, and a conceptual framework for the
educational development of Islamic psychology.3 The lack of an
educational conceptual framework in Islamic psychology and
psychotherapy has inhibited the integration of Islamic psychology and
Islamic sciences in the undergraduate and postgraduate psychology
programmes in Muslim universities.
In the context of this article, it is worth pointing out that evolution
of the process of the Islamization of psychology would not have gathered

1
Malik Badri, The Dilemma of Muslim Psychologists (London: MWH London, 1979).
2
Rasjid Skinner, “Traditions, Paradigms and Basic Concepts in Islamic Psychology,”
Journal of Religion and Health 58, no. 4 (2019): 1087–94.
3
Amber Haque et al., “Integrating Islamic Traditions in Modern Psychology: Research
Trends in Last Ten Years,” Journal of Muslim Mental Health 10, no. 1 (2016): 75–100; Carrie
York Al-Karam, “Islamic Psychology: Towards a 21st Century Definition and Conceptual
Framework,” Journal of Islamic Ethics 2, nos. 1–2 (2018): 97–109; Abdullah Rothman and
Adrian Coyle, “Toward a Framework for Islamic Psychology and Psychotherapy: An
Islamic Model of the Soul,” Journal of Religion and Health 5 (2018): 1731–44; Skinner,
“Traditions, Paradigms and Basic Concepts in Islamic Psychology,” 1087–94.
COGNITIVE RESTRUCTURING OF PSYCHOLOGY 479

pace without the movement of the Islamization of knowledge.4 The

concept of Islamization of knowledge refers to the “recasting knowledge
according to Islamic tenets,” and the “Integration of Islamic revealed
knowledge and the human sciences.” It also aims to “fashion out an
Islamic paradigm of knowledge based on the Islamic world view.”5 The
inferences that can be made from the above explanation indicate a
paradigm shift in the contents of knowledge in psychology or any other
discipline of social sciences, that is, integrating Islamic sciences and
worldview with classical and contemporary knowledge of psychology.
Both evidence-based psychological knowledge and Islamic intellectual
tradition are maintained. For psychology, the process of desecularization
has begun and efforts are being made to reconstruct psychology based
on an Islamic epistemological paradigm. However, there is a dearth of an
educational conceptual framework for the Islamization of psychology.
The aim of this article is to examine the concept of Islamic psychology
and propose a conceptual framework for the Islamization of psychology.
A vertical and horizontal integrated, embedded curriculum model for
the development of Islamic psychology is examined.

Concept of Islamic Psychology

In the last decade, there has been encouraging evidence in the literature
of the contributions of early Islamic scholars to psychology and of the
limited tentative development of conceptual and theoretical framework
of Islamic psychology, psychotherapy and counselling, and the
integration of Islamic traditions in counselling therapeutic practice. 6

4
Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas, Islam and Secularism (Kuala Lumpur: Muslim Youth
Movement of Malaysia, 1978), 41; Ismail al-Faruqi, “Islamization of Knowledge:
Problems, Principles and Prospective,” in Proceedings & Selected Papers of the Second
Conference on Islamization of Knowledge, 1402 AH/1982 AD (Herndon, VA: International
Institute of Islamic Thought, 1982), 13, 48; Ibrahim Ragab, “On the Methodology of
Islamizing the Social Sciences,” Intellectual Discourse 7, no. 1 (1999): 27–52; Rosnani
Hashim and Imron Rossidy, “Islamization of Knowledge: A Comparative Analysis of the
Conceptions of Al-Attas and Al-Faruqi,” Intellectual Discourse 8, no. 1 (2000): 22.
5
Al-Faruqi, “Islamization of Knowledge,” 48; Ragab, “On the Methodology of Islamizing
the Social Sciences,” 33; Yahaya Musa Yusuf, “Seyyed Hossein Nasr on Islamisation of
knowledge,” International Journal of Islamic Thoughts 4, no. 2 (2015): 69.
6
Sameera Ahmed and Mona Amer, Counseling Muslims: Handbook of Mental Health Issues
and Interventions (New York: Routledge, 2012); al-Karam, “Islamic Psychology”; Malik
Badri, Abū Zayd al-Balkhī’s Sustenance of the Soul: The Cognitive Behavior Therapy of a Ninth
Century Physician (London: International Institute of Islamic Thought, 2013); Badri,
“Emotional Blasting Therapy: A Psychotherapeutic Technique Invented by Early
Muslim Physicians,” paper presented at “Developing Synergies between Islam and
Science & Technology for Mankind’s Benefit,” Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 2014; Manijeh
480 G. HUSSEIN RASSOOL

There is already a divergence of opinions of what Islamic psychology and

Islamic psychotherapy and counselling constitute. The academic usage
of the concept of Islamic psychology differs from clinician perceptions of
what Islamic psychology is or proposes to be. Although contemporary
Islamic psychology is still in its infancy, it has already espoused different
schools of thought, differences of which rest on ideological, theological,
theoretical, and methodological grounds. The author has identified the
emergence of three schools of thought in the conception of Islamic
psychology: the Orientalist group with minimalist Islamic traditions
embedded within their framework; the Integrationist group with a
mixture of orthodox psychology, Sufi ideologies and practice with
minimalist Islamic traditions; and the Tawḥīd Paradigm based on the
Qur’ān and sunnah. These orientations are reflected in educational and
clinical practices.
Muslim academics and clinicians in the field of psychology have
ascribed several labels and terminologies to the conception of Islamic
psychology. Carrie Y. al-Karam, in her comprehensive review of the
literature on an explanation of Islamic psychology, identified a number
of themes.7 These include “Islamic psychology” as found in the works of
classical Muslim scholars such as al-Balkhī, Ibn Sīnā, al-Ghazālī, al-
Fārābī, and al-Rāzī, “Islam and psychology movement,” “Islamic
psychology and Sufism,” “psychology from an Islamic perspective,”
“psychology with a little bit of Islam,” and “psychology as practiced by
Muslim psychologists.” The purpose of these partial descriptions is to
highlight that there is a variety of meanings implicit in those labels. The
findings of a content analysis of the keywords that emerge from a
variety of definitions from several sources show the following themes:
psychology relates to the soul; psychology is based on Islamic texts and
addresses morality, behaviour, and mental processes; psychology is the
study of individuals with complete submission to God; and psychology is
the analysis of behavioural patterns using Islamic paradigms.8 These are

Daneshpour, Family Therapy with Muslims (New York: Routledge, 2016); Amber Haque,
“Psychology from Islamic Perspective: Contributions of Early Muslim Scholars and
Challenges to Contemporary Muslim Psychologists,” Journal of Religion and Health 43, no.
4 (2004): 357–77; Haque and Khairol Masuan, “Religious Psychology in Malaysia,”
International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 12, no. 4 (2002): 277–89; Paul Kaplick and
Rasjid Skinner, “The Evolving Islam and Psychology Movement,” European Psychologist
22, no. 3 (2017): 198–204; G. Hussein Rassool, Islamic Counselling: An Introduction to Theory
and Practice (London: Routledge, 2016).
7
Al-Karam, “Islamic Psychology,” 100.
8
A. A. Vahab, An Introduction to Islamic Psychology (New Delhi: Institute of Objective
Studies, 1996).
COGNITIVE RESTRUCTURING OF PSYCHOLOGY 481

some of the elements available in the literature that relates specifically

to defining and explaining Islamic psychology.
Although there is no single standard definition, if one examines the
many definitions that have been proposed, there are some similarities
between the definitions. In some cases, different definitions, suitably
interpreted, say the same thing but in different words. It would be
meaningful to examine a few of the significant key definitions available
in the literature. One of the classical definitions, and the best definition
so far, is that by Aisha Utz in her book Psychology from an Islamic
Perspective. Utz defined Islamic psychology as “the study of the soul; the
ensuing behavioral, emotional, and mental processes; and both the seen
and unseen aspects that influence these elements.”9 This definition has
the physical, psychological, and metaphysical elements. From an Islamic
perspective, it is the soul, the basic element in life, that is the prime
mover for the psychological, behavioural, and spiritual processes of the
human. According to Utz, “The human psyche is not purely
psychological; its essence is spiritual and metaphysical.”10 However, this
definition has been criticized by secular Muslim psychologists on the
grounds that it deals with the soul or the unseen aspects that influence
behaviours and experiences. The current scientific paradigm with its
secular approach fails to recognise this spiritual dimension of life. It is
based on the notion of the existence of humans as independent of their
Creator and research that focuses on only the physical facets of humans,
totally ignoring or denying the spiritual and unseen elements. The
philosopher Thomas Kuhn suggested that psychology is, in a pre-
paradigmatic state, lacking the agreement on facts found in mature
sciences such as chemistry and physics and that scientific truth cannot
be established solely by objective criteria but defined by a consensus of
the psychology community.11 In the conceptualization of Islamic
psychology, aspects of both the seen and unseen worlds may influence
behaviours and experiences. This definition focuses both on the Western
and Islamic perspectives without denying the contributions of modern
psychology and evidence-based practice.
The second definition is from Alias Azizi. He defined Islamic
psychology as “the scientific study of manifestation of the soul in the

9
Aisha Utz, Psychology from the Islamic Perspective (Riyadh: International Islamic
Publishing House, 2011), 34.
10
Ibid., 36.
11
Thomas Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (Chicago: University of Chicago
Press, 1970).
482 G. HUSSEIN RASSOOL

form of behaviour and mental process.”12 Like Utz’s definition, Alizi’s

definition also has the dual components of using scientific
methodologies (Qur’ānic sciences and the scientific method) and also the
inclusion of the soul. According to Alizi, the “definition will make
Muslim psychologists use soul as the general framework in interpreting
psychological data (behaviour and mental processes) instead of the
limited approach of biological, psychodynamic, behavioural, humanistic,
and cognitive perspectives in psychology.”13
In contrast, al-Karam based her definition on the “Multilevel
Interdisciplinary Paradigm” (MIP).14 She defined Islamic psychology as
“an interdisciplinary science where psychology sub-disciplines and/or
related disciplines engage scientifically about a particular topic and at a
particular level with various Islamic sects, sources, sciences, and/or
schools of thought using a variety of methodological tools.”15 In doing so,
it incorporates all the disciplines of psychology and their application to
all Islamic sects, despite cultural and religious differences under the
umbrella of Islamic psychology. Though this is a comprehensive
definition, the main concern is its fuzziness in contents and approach.
The definition focuses on “one-size-fits-all” and reads more like the
principles of Islamic psychology rather a definition. The author’s own
definition is like that of Utz and Alizi, that is, Islamic psychology is
defined as the study of the soul, behaviour, mental processes, and
experiences according to the established principles of psychology and
Islamic sciences. In this definition, both Islamic epistemology (the
presence of the rūḥ, nafs, qalb, ‘aql) and empirical investigations are
included. This definition will be used in the context of this article.

Curriculum Approaches in the Education of Islamic Psychology

Currently, there is limited literature on approaches in the development
of an educational framework for programmes in Islamic psychology and
psychotherapy. By hacking several educational programmes published
on websites in Islamic psychology and psychotherapy,16 the author of

12
Alias Alizi, “How Can We Redefine Psychology Islamically yet still Acceptable by the
Scientific Community?” (2017), https://psychologyiium.wixsite.com/website/post
/2016/05/09/this-is-your-second-post-1.
13
Ibid.
14
Al-Karam, “Islamic Psychology”; Robert Emmons and Raymond Paloutzian, “The
Psychology of Religion,” Annual Review of Psychology 54 (2003): 377–402.
15
Al-Karam, “Islamic Psychology,” 101–02.
16
Alif Institute, https://alif-institute.org/, accessed March 28, 2020; al-Balagh Academy,
https://www.albalaghacademy.com/, accessed March 28, 2020; al-Karam Institute,
COGNITIVE RESTRUCTURING OF PSYCHOLOGY 483

this article has identified three approaches to curriculum development

that have been labelled as the “Sprinkle” approach, the “Bolt-on”
approach, and the “Integrated or Embedded” approach.
The “Sprinkle” approach is based on the principle of randomizing
Islamic contents within the curriculum. This is due to the constraints
imposed by external validation and accrediting non-Islamic bodies or
professional organizations. Within this framework, Islamic knowledge is
spread throughout the courses. An examination of the aims or learning
outcomes does not explicitly show the integration of Islamic sciences or
psychology in the curriculum contents of the programmes. This means
that Islamic psychology or sciences are interposed at a random basis
throughout the educational programme. The “Bolt-on” approach is
employed in the institutions where knowledge about Islamic psychology
and sciences is developed independently of the core discipline and,
generally, added at the end of the course programme or module.
Another variation of this approach is to teach Islamic psychology and
sciences in parallel with secular modern psychology. In this context,
there is a lack of integration and Islamic psychology and sciences are not
embedded in the educational programmes. A third approach identified
in the Islamization of psychology is the “Embedded or Integrated”
approach to curriculum development. This approach seeks to break
down the barriers of the traditional curriculum in psychology based on
segmentation and isolation of Islamic sciences and psychology from an
Islamic perspective. This approach is employed in institutions where
subjects are taught through a range of themes, disciplines, and various
mechanisms of delivery, as opposed to studying subjects in isolation like
the “Sprinkle” and “Bolt-on” approaches.

Proposed Conceptual Educational Framework

The proposed framework for the integration of Islamic psychology
within educational programmes is an amalgam of Ismail al-Faruqi’s five
principles of Islam and Abdelaziz Berghout’s model of learning.17 Al-

https://alkaraminstitute.org/graduateschool/, accessed March 28, 2020; Cambridge

Muslim College, accessed March 28, 2020, https://cambridgemuslimcollege.ac.uk/event
/islamic-approaches-to-psychology-psychotherapy-2/; International Association of
Islamic Psychology, https://www.islamicpsychology.org/education, 9, accessed March
28, 2020.
17
Al-Faruqi, “Islamization of Knowledge”; Abdelaziz Berghout, “Values and Education
within the Framework of Islamisation of Knowledge,” in Islamisation, Ethics and Values in
Science and Technology, ed. Suleyman Aremu Muyibi et al. [Please, recheck the name of
484 G. HUSSEIN RASSOOL

faruqi’s framework, which is based on five principles of Islam, is

presented in figure one. These include oneness of God; unity of creation;
unity of truth; unity of life; and unity of human. According to al-Faruqi,
scholars who are responsible for the development of the Islamization
process need to be expert in modern sciences and Islamic knowledge of
those fields.18 The scholars should demonstrate the relevance of Islam to
modern disciplines and compare and relate Islamic values and ethics
with modern social sciences. The above characteristics were later
formulated into a 12-point framework.19 This framework is a guideline
for Muslim intellectuals and students in the field of Islamization of
knowledge.

Islamization
of
Knowledge
Islamization
of
Psychology

Scholars
Islamization
Process

Figure 1: Al-Faruqi’s framework for Islamization of knowledge

In contrast, Berghout focused on a model of learning approach to

enhance the process of Islamization within tertiary education and its
evaluation (see figure two). His system model includes an input, process,
output, and feedback. In the input phase, “the Islamic worldview and
values, Islamic environments, Islamic curriculum and Islamic guidelines,
policies and principles of learning are integrated.”20 The process includes
the integration of the Islamic worldview, leading to appropriate learning

the editor. Berghout elsewhere mentions the editor as Waleed Fekry Faris et al.] (Kuala
Lumpur: International Islamic University of Malaysia Press, 2011), 3–15.
18
al-Faruqi, “Islamization of Knowledge,” 13–64.
19
See ibid.; AbdulHamid AbuSulayman, Islamization of Knowledge: General Principles and
Work Plan (Herndon, VA: International Institute of Islamic Thought, 1989).
20
Berghout, “Values and Education,” 24.
COGNITIVE RESTRUCTURING OF PSYCHOLOGY 485

and teaching activities. The output should reflect the Islamic perspective
in the form of Islamized individuals, research outputs, services, and
Islamized products.21

Figure 2: Berghout’s model of Islamization

Feedback is a part of the evaluation of teaching and learning activities

and interdependent aspects of the educative process. This involves the
monitoring, implementation, and evaluation of the Islamization
programme to determine the effectiveness of teaching methodologies,
learning activities, instructional materials, and other elements affecting
the teaching-learning process. It has been suggested that Berghout’s
Islamization of science framework focuses on three domains of
educational taxonomy: cognitive, affective, and psychomotor skills.22 The
main focus of the educational taxonomy is on the affective domain
because Berghout maintains that “from an Islamic perspective, the
question of affective domain and values is crucial ion not only the
learning process and knowledge creation and dissemination, but in the
development of the well-being and personality of the teacher and
learner as well.”23 This means that teaching of ethical and moral values is
accorded significant importance.

21
Ibid.
22
Rehaf Anas Madani, “Islamization of Science,” International Journal of Islamic Thought 9,
no. 1 (2016): 51–63.
23
Abdelaziz Berghout, “Enhancing Affective Domain in Training Science Based
Teachers: Towards an Islamic Approach,” Revelation and Science 2, no. 2 (2012): 87.
486 G. HUSSEIN RASSOOL

The purpose of the proposed framework is to identify the

connections between the two approaches and how these connections
help in the development of effective educational programmes and
courses. The proposed conceptual education framework identifies core
components and the interrelationships between these components. This
is presented in figure three. The philosophy of education projected by al-
Faruqi was constructed on the worldview of tawḥīd rooted in Islamic
vision of reality and truth. The Tawḥīd Paradigm takes its name from the
core Islamic concept of tawḥīd (unicity of God, the doctrine of God’s
incomparability). Al-Faruqi suggests that the Tawḥīd Paradigm manifests
the readiness and willingness to fulfil the divine trust (al-amānah) and
obligatory duties (al-farā’iḍ) that are accompanied by the divine guidance
and human unique capability.24 What al-Faruqi was proposing is to have

Al-Faruqi’s Framework: Bergout’s Framework: Input,

Principles of Islam Process, Output, Feedback
Approaches
to Education

Continuing Curriculum
Professional Mapping and
Development Development

Islamization
of
Psychology

Evaluation/ Teaching and

Quality Learning
Resources in
Assurance
Islamic
Psychology

Implementation
of Islamic
Psychology
Curriculum

a holistic approach to the development of educational programmes that

seeks to integrate the fundamental elements of revealed knowledge with
those of scientific knowledge.
Figure 3: The proposed educational conceptual framework for the Islamization
of Psychology

24
Al-Faruqi, “Islamization of Knowledge,” 5; Qur’ān 11:6 and 39:41.
COGNITIVE RESTRUCTURING OF PSYCHOLOGY 487

Berghout’s approach provides a holistic view of the stages in the

Islamization of knowledge. His approach synthesizes the different stages
of organizational, policy, and educational development and converges
them into an adaptive and dynamic entity. However, this model has
some limitations. It is theoretical in approach, and in practice, there are
external constraints that may inhibit the inter-dependence of the
different stages. It may also not be applicable to diverse, heterogeneous,
educational institutions in Muslim countries. Despite its limitations, it is
a useful tool in the development, integration, implementation, and
evaluation of the Islamization of psychology.

A Vertical and Horizontal Integrated, Embedded Curriculum Model

of Islamic Psychology
In the proposed framework, al-Faruqi’s approach to the Islamization of
knowledge has been utilized as the guiding, philosophical principles,
whereas Berghout’s approach to education forms the basis of the
organizational and curriculum development. In addition, the proposed
model attempts to show how to integrate Islamic psychology and Islamic
sciences in the undergraduate and postgraduate psychology curriculum.
The proposed model is a vertically and horizontally integrated,
embedded curriculum in the Islamization of psychology. Shoemaker
defines an integrated curriculum as “education that is organized in such
a way that it cuts across subject-matter lines, bringing together various
aspects of the curriculum into meaningful association to focus upon
broad areas of study. It views learning and teaching in a holistic way and
reflects the real world, which is interactive.”25 According to Shafii, “The
task of integration is by no means an eclectic mixing of classical Islamic
and modern Western knowledge, but rather a systematic reorientation
and restructuring of the entire field of human knowledge in accordance
with a new set of criteria and categories, derived from, and based on
[the] Islamic worldview.”26
The vertical and horizontal integration model is presented in figure
four. The two dimensions of the model are the horizontal and vertical
integration. These two dimensions are key aspects in curriculum design
and development. According to Daniel, “Vertical organization (sequence,
continuity-deepening of knowledge) deals with the longitudinal
arrangement of the design components. Horizontal organization (scope,

25
Betty Shoemaker, “Integrative Education: A Curriculum for the Twenty-First
Century,” Oregon School Study Council Bulletin 33, no. 2 (1989): 10.
26
Mohammad Shafii, Freedom from the Self: Sufism Meditation and Psychotherapy (New
York: Human Sciences Press, 1985), 6.
488 G. HUSSEIN RASSOOL

integration-widening of knowledge) deals with the side-by-side

arrangement of the components in the curriculum.”27 In this model, the
horizontal axis includes integration and scope.

Horizontal Axis
Integration
The horizontal integration refers to the relations among various
contents, topics, and themes involving all domains of knowledge. That is
both evidence-based knowledge, the classical and contemporary work of
Islamic scholars, and knowledge based on the Qur’ān and ḥadīths.
Horizontal integration may also mean the integration of basic concepts
from one discipline into another. For example, in studying health
psychology, certain basic themes such as diabetes, cardiovascular
disease, hypertension, obesity, Prophetic medicine, health and fasting in
Ramaḍān, bio-psychosocial and spiritual benefits of fasting,
physiological and psychological changes during the fast, nutrition,
dealing with anger and stress from an Islamic perspective, etc., may be
included. In this context, several disciplines are involved including
anatomy, physiology, endocrinology, health, disease, psychology, and
Islamic studies (Arabic language, Islamic theology, Islamic law, Prophetic
traditions, biography of the Prophet (peace be on him), Islamic
civilization, etiquettes of seeking knowledge, etc.). In the case for
biological bases of behaviour course, themes that may be included are,
for example, the Islamic contribution to biological psychology, Islamic
epistemology,28 evolution from an Islamic perspective, the role of the
soul in nature, determinants of human behaviours, bio-ethics from an
Islamic perspective, hearing as a gift,29 the creation of hearing in the
foetus before sight,30 hearing as a means of constant linking with the
outside world,31 hearing as a blessing and as a responsibility, and the
study of how Qur’ānic recitation affects the brain.32

27
Evelyn Daniel, “INLS 242: Curriculum Issues and the School Library Media Specialist,”
Syllabus from the University of North Carolina, 2014, https://ils.unc.edu/daniel/242
/CurrNotes.html, accessed September 15, 2019.
28
Mehdi Ha’iri Yazdi, The Principles of Epistemology in Islamic Philosophy: Knowledge by
Presence (New York: SUNY Press, 1992).
29
Qur’ān 23:78.
30
Ibid., 76:2.
31
Ibid., 18:11.
32
Irmawati et al., “The Effect of Listening to the Recitation of Qur’an (Murottal Ar-
Rahman Surah) on the Level of Anxiety of Pregnant Women in Siti Fatimah Maternal
and Child Hospital,” Enfermería Clínica 30, no. 2 (2020): 238-42.
COGNITIVE RESTRUCTURING OF PSYCHOLOGY 489

SEQUENCE

● Qur’ān and Sunnah

● Classical and Contemporary
Integration Islamic Scholars
● Evidence-Based Knowledge

● Psychology Sub Disciplines

Scope ● Islamic Sciences
CONTINUITY

Figure 4: Vertical and horizontal integration model

Scope
This dimension focuses on the breadth and depth of the curriculum
content. The horizontal curriculum integrates knowledge across
different classes or sub-disciplines of psychology. These disciplines or
sub-disciplines include life-span development, child psychology, social
psychology, biological bases of behaviour, cognitive psychology,
abnormal psychology, history and philosophy of Islamic psychology,
psychology of religion, health psychology, Islamic philosophy, Islamic
sciences, Islamic ethics, etc. In addition, the psychological works of
prominent classical (including al-Kindī, Ibn Miskawayh, Ibn Rushd, al-
Fārābī, al-Rāzī, al-Balkhī, Ibn Sīnā, al-Ghazālī, Ibn Taymiyyah, and Ibn al-
Qayyim) and contemporary scholars would be integrated in the
curriculum. Knowledge of the scope of the curriculum assists in the
selection of methodology of teaching and learning experiences. Islamic
studies, the work of classical and contemporary Muslim scholars, and
evidence-based knowledge are taught as they are all equally valid and
admissible for utilization in the science of human psychology (p.19). Commented [A1]: This refers to what?

Vertical Axis
The vertical integration has been referred to as the “organization of
contents according to the sequence and continuity of learning within a
490 G. HUSSEIN RASSOOL

given knowledge domain or subject over time.”33 What is important in

this axis is the role of sequence and continuity in the design,
organization, and development of the curriculum elements. In the
vertical integration, the educational contents tend to be organized
regarding the sequence and continuity of learning and teaching
processes. The identification of the sequence of the learning experiences
is a building block for the transmission from basic to more advanced
knowledge (cognitive), and skills (psychomotor). For example, in an
undergraduate course in Islamic psychology, an “Introduction to
Psychology” and “Introduction to Islamic Psychology” courses are a
prerequisite for subsequent more advanced courses in Islamic
psychology. Both courses will introduce the fundamental principles of
psychology and Islamic psychology and the major subjects of
psychological inquiry. In relation to the skills domain of the educational
programme, vertical integration relates to the process of actively
involving the undergraduate students in the development of skills. For
example, in an Islamic counselling course, the development of the
counsellor has most often been a matter of individual and personal
development. This means moving on a progression from novice to
advanced beginner, competent, proficient, and expert or an advanced
practitioner (vertical skills development). This vertical skills
development refers to training trainee counsellors to handle increased
responsibilities. In a vertical curriculum, what is learned during the
“novice” phase prepares the trainee counsellor students for the next
phase. In this approach, basic skills and knowledge are both developed
and reinforced as other more micro-skills elements are introduced in the
educational programme. According to this perspective, the process of
curriculum organization represents an effort to enhance the scope,
integration, sequence, and continuity of the Islamic psychology and
counselling curriculum.
Some examples of applying the vertically and horizontally
integrated curriculum’s model are presented in table one. Theories and
approaches of contemporary, secular psychology and evidence-based
clinical practice are also taught within the programme. This is what is
meant by the Islamization of psychology or teaching psychology from an
Islamic perspective.

33
“Vertical and Horizontal Articulation (of the Curriculum,” ibe.unesco.org/en
/glossary-curriculum-terminology/v/vertical-and-horisontal-articulation-curriculum).
COGNITIVE RESTRUCTURING OF PSYCHOLOGY 491

MODULES SUBJECTS CONTENTS

HISTORY AND The Qur’ān, The Qur’ān and psychology; soul, nafs, ego;
PHILOSOPHY Sunnah, and psychology of human nature: fiṭrah;
OF ISLAMIC Psychology development of man with positive and
PSYCHOLOGY superior characteristics; role of the heart in
Islamic psychology; Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyyah;
personality development of positive
character and manners; psychological
characteristics; life span development;
negative human behaviours; human life cycle
and the beginning of life development;
cognitive aspects of psychology in the
Qur’ān; stages of cognitive development
PSYCHOLOGY Alcohol History of alcohol in islam; alcohol and
OF ADDICTIVE Islamic perspective; verses of the Qur’ān;
BEHAVIOURS Prophetic traditions; alcohol metabolism;
foetal alcohol syndrome (FAS), screening and
assessment; pharmacological and non-
pharmacological interventions; alcohol and
harm-reduction; spiritual interventions in
the management and treatment of alcohol
use disorder
Addiction Qur’ān 4:43, 2:219, 5:90–91; spirituality and
and Islam: addiction; models of addiction in Islam;
The Disease addiction as crime model; addiction as
and Its Cure spiritual disease; when does the spiritual
heart become corrupt?; spiritual disease
model; Islamic millah: a model in practice
Badri’s model of addiction; war on drugs;
psycho-spiritual interventions; the spiritual
enhancement drug addiction rehabilitation
programme (SEDAR); A 12-step guide to fight
pornography addiction; prayers and
supplications; seeking refuge in prayer
CLIENT- Core The Islamic approach to therapy; goals in
CENTRED Conditions: Islamic therapy; the Prophet as a counsellor;
THERAPY An Islamic the Prophet’s counselling characteristics; the
Perspective Prophet’s attitude towards counselling;
Prophetic character; counselling in the
Qur’ān; client-centred therapy (CCT) and
stages of self in Islam; congruence;
unconditional positive regard; empathy; the
concept of self; self-actualization; CCT and
Islamic counselling; combining CCT and
Islamic counselling
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MODELS AND The Islamic Islamic perspective; diversity in the Qur’ān;

APPROACHES Approach to discrimination; cultural conceptualizations
TO DISABILITY Disability and misconceptions; embarrassment and
justification; the ummah’s response; rights
and duties (Qur’ān 4:5-6, 127); right of
protection (Qur’ān 49:11, 24:61); social rights;
rights of treatment and rehabilitation; right
of education; marital rights (Qur’ān 30:21);
Prophetic traditions
Application Islam’s perspective on disability; application
of the of Islamic perspectives; family and
Islamic community perspectives on health and
Approach disability; the concept and treatment of
disability in Islam; attitudes and beliefs;
labelling, stigma, and superstition; barriers
for muslims in the west; acquired versus
lifelong disabilities; overview of muslim
culture and its impact on persons; the
concept of independence and collectivism
within the culture; family structure and the
role of the family in health care and
rehabilitation; the role of community;
important holidays; fulfilling Islamic
obligations
Table 1: Examples of applying the vertically and horizontally integrated,
embedded curriculum model

Contemporary Islamic Psychology: Challenges and Solutions

On a global level, many educational institutions face enormous challenge
of integrating Islamic sciences in undergraduate, postgraduate, and
professional development courses. Another challenge is the conceptual
or theoretical framework of contemporary Islamic psychology. There is
still a problem with the way Islamic psychology is defined, interpreted,
and implemented. However, many definitions have been proposed, each
with their own strengths and weaknesses. The operative definition of
Islamic psychology should be validated among Muslim psychologists,
both academics and clinicians, across the heterogeneity of the Muslim
ummah. Whether this goal is realistic or not remains a contentious issue
at the national and global levels.
In most countries, due to institutional and professional regulations
in psychology, counselling, and psychotherapy courses, educational
institutions are constrained in integrating Islamic psychology in their
COGNITIVE RESTRUCTURING OF PSYCHOLOGY 493

curriculum. Perhaps that is the rationale behind adopting the “Sprinkle”

or “Bolt-on” approaches in their curriculum. Whereas it is practical,
Muslim psychology teachers must inform their students that there are
alternatives in the psychology of understanding human behaviours and
experiences. An alternative to the modification of undergraduate and
postgraduate psychology courses in psychology departments of
academic institutions is to offer more elective courses in Islamic
psychology and psychotherapy.
Against this background, we are faced with other challenges to
overcome. Muslim psychology teachers are generally trained to teach
sub-disciplines of secular psychology, and Islamic sciences and
psychology do not come “naturally.” Most Muslim teachers, no matter
how religious they are in their personal lives, have not been adequately
prepared to integrate or teach Islamic sciences and psychology. In fact,
some may even explicitly reject such inclusion because of their secular
attitudes, or the mixing of psychology based on the Western scientific
paradigm with Islamic ethical values. There is also the possibility of
Muslim psychologists having a deficit in “ethical intelligence” which is
based on taqwā (God conscious) and itqān (pursue of excellence). It has
been suggested that “the Muslim psychologist as a therapist or
counsellor is a reflection of taqwā and Itqān, which also means focusing
on briefer approaches of therapeutic interventions based on Islamic
principles [Islamically modified Cognitive Behaviour Therapy or
Traditional Islamically Integrated Therapy, Islamic Psychotherapy Model
Practice, Islamic Spiritual Interventions etc.]. This creates goodwill in
the light of Islamic values, which is more profitable to the Islamic
therapist, and rejects commercializing the sanctity of this healing
profession.”34
A case can be made that Muslim psychologists in Islamic academic
institutions should also have some grounding in Islamic sciences.
However, making sense of Islamic sciences and psychology requires
some basic understanding of the Qur’ān, Prophetic traditions, Islamic
theology, biography of the Prophet (peace be on him), Qur’ānic exegesis,
and Islamic jurisprudence. The lack of continuing professional
development in these fields of knowledge negatively impacts on
instruction, curriculum development, and interdisciplinary teacher

34
This concept is coined by Professor Anis Ahmad. “Ethical Intelligence” is based on the
Islamic concepts of what is permissible (ḥalāl) and what is prohibited (ḥarām) and solely
based on the Qur’ān and sunnah. The lecture on “Psychology: An Islamic Approach” was
delivered at the Workshop on “Islamic Psychology Curriculum Development,” February
10–13, 2020, Riphah International University, Quaid-e-Azam Campus, Lahore, Pakistan.
494 G. HUSSEIN RASSOOL

collaboration in Islamic Psychology. The need for Muslim psychologists

to be adequately prepared in Islamic sciences is beyond dispute.
Another set of challenges is the resistance and the negative attitude
of Muslim psychologists towards the inclusion of Islamic ethical values
in psychology. Perhaps this is due to role adequacy and role legitimacy
of Muslim psychologists rather than Islamic psychology per se. It is
plausible that both role adequacy and role legitimacy may constitute
important predictors of their willingness to engage in the development
and teaching of Islamic psychology. However, contextual factors,
organizational support, and the lack of clear policies to embrace Islamic
sciences and Islamic psychology in the social sciences and humanities
can also play a role in this resistance. In addition, if there is no sense of
urgency and low expectations within an organizational culture, this may
inhibit the emergence of Islamic psychology as a discipline.

Conclusion
The concept of the Islamization of psychology has been referred to as
the shifting of the Western paradigm of psychology to the integration
and teaching of psychology from an Islamic perspective evidence-based
practice, Islamic sciences, and ethical norms. The task of psychology
departments in Muslim institutions, despite the diversity in psychology
curriculum, should focus on a systematically planned approach to the
Islamization of psychology. The nature of Islamization of psychology is
an evolutionary process and the changes to be made at undergraduate
and postgraduate psychology curriculum would require several phases
in its implementation. Beyond the adoption of the principles of vertical
and horizontal integrated embedded curriculum, there is a need for
significant planning in subject mapping and in the development of core
themes in Islamic psychology. The emphasis should be on having a
natural inclusion of Islamic psychology and sciences to be taught
alongside contemporary psychology. There are many challenges in the
implementation of Islamic ethical values in psychology. These include an
acceptable operational definition of Islamic psychology, a refinement of
a conceptual or theoretical model based on consensus, overcoming the
resistance and the negative attitude of Muslim psychologists, the urgent
need for the preparation of Muslim psychologists, and overcoming
institutional and professional constraints placed on academic
establishments. Unless there is a sense of collective action to enact
change, the status quo will prevail. Ultimately, the challenges remained
with policymakers, educationalists, academics, Islamic scholars, and
clinicians. The solutions remain with all of us.