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AR2-,i1EF . V.

e eepsiowc
Technische flogaschaol
INHOUD
Delfi
AIAA /SNAKE ADVANCE MARINE VEHICLES MEETING, Norfolk, Virginia,
May 22-24, 1967.

67-346 Some special problems in surface


effect ships R.D. Waldo

67- 348 Captured air bubble (CAD) vehicle


progress report Allen G. Ford

67-349 Captured air bubble vehicle


stability tests Robert A. Wilsoh

67-350 Waterjet propulsion for high- L. Arcand


speed ships C.R. Comolli

67-351 The U.S. Navy hydrofoil


development program - A status
report William M. Ellsworth

67-352 On the prediction of the seakeeping


characteristics of hydrofoil ships I.A. Hirsch

67-353 Development of an autopilot for the


dolphin hydrofoil H.D. Ranzenhofer

67- 354 Eigh speed towed hydrofoil sleds R. Altmann

67-355 Adequate strength for small high


speed vessels Philip J. Danahy

67- 356 Advanced concepts in ocean


transport capability: the container,/
barge quandary Roy R. Moffett

67-357 PGM 84 class aluminium gunboat Bertel Lundgaard


machinery ani controls Harold M. Mathers

67- 358 United States Army shallow draft


boat program John F. Sargent
0111"11 11/4"11"01111"*""1""Imill.

-2-

67 - 359 Preliminary désign of a catamaran


submarine rescue ship (ASR) Herbert A. Meier

67-36o Aspects of performance avaluat ion


of waterjet propulsion systems and
a critical review of the state-
of - the - art John H. Brandau

67-361 Water jet propulsion D.N. Contractor


Virgil E. Johnson, Jr.

67 - 362 The water-augmented turbofan


engine - A new concept in marine W. Richard Davison
propulsion Thomas J. Sadowski

67-363 Electromagnetic propulsion for


cargo submarines S. Way

67-364 Life support for inner and outer


space vehicles similarities and Thomas V. Bolles
differences Harold Wallman

67- 365 The effects of single curvature


on stresses at reinforced circular
holes Peter van Dyke

67- 368 Selection and utilization of


batteries for deep submergence N. Kuska
vehic les J.A. Cronander

67-370 The deep ocean work boat (DOWB),


an advanced deep surmergence
vehicle Scott C. Daubin

67-371 A submarine design for work and


research beaver mark IV F.G. Archbold

67-372 Manned submersible development Kenneth R. Fitch


Raymond J. Munz
No. 61346

SOME SPECIAL PROBLEMS IN SURFACE EFFECT SHIPS


by

R. D. WALDO
Aeroiet-General Corporation
El Monte, California

Paper No.
67-346

AIAA/SNAME Advance marine


volumes meeting
NORFOLK, VIRGINIA/MAY 22-24, 1967
First publication rights reserved by American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1290 Avenue of the Americas, New York, N. Y. 10319
and Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, 74 Trinity Place, New York, N. Y. 10006
Abstracts may be published without permission if credit is given to uthor and to AIAA/SNAME. (Member Price-75c; Nonmember Price$1.50)
1.08, 2.05, 3.08
SOME SPECIAL PROBLEMS IN SURFACE EFFECT SHIPS
R. D. Waldo
Aerojet-General Corporation
El Monte, California

Abstract Introduction
An engineering analysis of the Ca ptur e d Air The success of the Captured Air Bubble Sui.face
Bubble Surface Effect Ship concept has identified a Effect Ship will depend upon the detailed knowledge
number of developmental task areas which present of many pertinent characteristics which must be
problems in either design suitability or optimality. taken into account when making key decisions. Pre-
These task areas fall b r oa dly into the following liminary design studies have shown that a complete
areas: analysis leading to an optimum design is a complex
Structural design, problem involving a large number of variables. Such
Seal design, an analysis must involve, first, a determination of
Sideboard design, and the required desirable characteristics and the vari-
Propulsion, ous factors which influence them. This paper deals
with some of these characteristics and aspects of
and their relationships to: design which are largely unique to SES and, in par-
The mission, ticular, CAB. It presents various problems, some
Ship arrangements, of which appear readily solvable and others which
Ship performance, and are related to important but elusive factors suchas
Stability and seakeeping. human creativity, the current and projected level of
technical development, the cost of advancing tech-
The investigation presented wa s directed toward nology, and the associated risks involved.
understanding the problems and developing the nec-
essary tools for a more exhaustive analysis. No A list of the desired characteristics for CAB is,
specific blocks to technical feasibility have been of course, no different from that of a conventional
identified, however. ship; but the nature of the characteristics themselves
are completely different. Such a list should include:
The SES offers one outstanding characteristic.
This is the ability to operate at or near the air- sea Seakeeping qualities and survivability under
interface at speeds significantly above those for exceptional circumstances;
operational displacement hulled vessels. This speed Stability and controllability;
potential must, however, be associated with suitable Versatility and flexibility of utilization; and
operating characteristics. It may require, for ex- Economy of,operation.
ample, a significant range/payload capability, eco- This last characteristic is influenced by such fac-
nomic operation, small turning radius, survivability tors as lift-to-drag ratio, propulsive efficiency,
in severe storms, a mission profile having diverse maintainability, reliability, useful loa d fraction,
operational requirements, a useful life of many years range requirements, etc. It should be noted that in
with low maintenance and repair requirements, or the final analysis, it is the economy of operation,
unusual seakindliness during normal operation. whether expressed in military terms as cost effec-
This paper presents some data associated with tiveness or in commercial terms as cost per ton
structural design, seal design, sideboard design, mile, that will decide the success or otherwise of
and propulsion and their relationship to operational the SES. All the other characteristics are attainable
requirements, especially range-cruise efficiency. if, among other things, some aspect of economy
is sacrificed. For example, controllability can be
Operations analyses suggest an island-hopping achieved by introducing control surfaces and there-
procedure similar to that employed by aircraft. Be- by increasing drag, or survivability by increasing
cause of a cruising lift-to-drag ratio of between 20 structural weight and thereby reducing load fraction.
and 30 and a reasonable range requirement, struc-
tural weight is a critical factor. Inflatable flexible The following sections deal with some of the most
seals are found to offer possible advantages because important SES parameter s that, as shown by studies,
of the added dimension of controllability they pro- bear a great influence upon the characteristics of
vide. Sideboards, when de s ig n e d for significant the ship and reveal some of the unique problems to
buoyancy, present a non-trivial hydrodynamic de- be found in the design and analysis of the SES and
sign problem. A planform suggested by Hydronautics its major subsysterns.
offers a promising solution to some potential cavi-
tation problems. Overall propulsion efficiency is a Configuration
sufficiently critical parameter as to suggest a major
emphasis on achieving a high value. The general ship arrangement and shape is shown
in Figure 1. Rigid sideboards project down from
the sides of the main hull and deflectable seals trans-
verse the bow and stern. These appendages are

1
\
4300 TONS DISPLACEMENT 1,8 = 4 \

i
P/L = .5 ' \
42 \
BB
1
\
1, I, \
40 ,

Ss LB = 3 \
\
\
\
37
\
\
\

A \
350
150
Pl. = 1.0k

Figure 1. Basic Configuration.


325

P/L = 1.5
\ wraw L/11 = 2

SEW
300

normally in contact with the water and, together

¡law,.
with the bottom of the hull, form the bubble cavity. 275

Air for the bubble is supplied by blowers; typically


the pressure required is greater than the ram air
pressure. Main engine exh.aust is an alternate means
of pressurizing the bubble. This configuration in-
dicates the use of waterjet propulsion, but alternate
250
r .\4
means are considered as is shown in Figure 9. The 225
\
dimensions for length of bubble, LB, breadth of \
300

bubble, BB, and height of hull, HH, are indicated


in the sketch. The LB and BB combine with the 200
ll \
\\
bubble pressure, PB, to give the important design
parameters LB/BE and PB/1_,B. The relative plan-
form geometry associated with these parameters is
shown in Figure 2. Figure 3 is added to provide an
175
/AM\ \

500 PSF
\
\
.9)
400 35°

absolute meaning for these parameters. In this case rPB


a 4000 ton ship is selectedand, for ranges of LB/BE 150

and PB/LB, values of LB, BE, and PB are given.


As an example, with L/B = 2 and P/1_, = 1, the bub- 125
ble length is 262 feet, the bubble breadth is 131 feet
and, from the dashed line, the bubble pressure is
262 pounds per square foot. Note that by presenting
the data in this way, the planform geometry can be 100

visualized directly by means of the rectangle con-


taining the zero ordinate, zero abscissa, and the 75

orthogonal lines connecting the design point to the


axes. Limitations on these dimensions will be im-
posed by considerations of stability, volume, and
overall beam as an example. Other implications of
the LB/BB and PB/LB are covered in the following
discussions. 25

Structures
75 IDO 125 150
o 20

With performance characteristics more like an BUBBLE BREACTI4 BB (FT)


airplane thana ship, the weight of the SES structure
takes on great significance. Conventional ship de- Figure 2. Geometric Identities.
sign practices may need to be reconsidered, although
it is not clear how significantly they can be relaxed. The problem of materials selection is that of
As an example one may consider the structural safety finding the best compromise between factors such
criteria which include design safety factors and as high strength/weight properties and experience
criteria specifying the amount of damage that the with these materials, cost, corrosion resistance,
ship can sustain and still survive. Comparing the and fabricability. Possible materials appear to be
structural safety criteria of ships with those for high strength steel, s ta inle s s steel, 'aluminum,
airplanes suggests a n intermediate specification titanium, and c omp o site s. Of these materials,
which allows economical operation of the SES with aluminum alloys and GRP (glass-reinforced plastic)
suitable survivability and lifetime.
2
NL
1.0 1.5
2. Double skin panels
La Box core or honeycomb
Hr .___i_r core sandwich
Truss core, or corru
2
.1C:: C-1
_i
gation sandwich
Foam core sandwich
AA VA VA AVAV YAM

For materials evaluation purpose s, preliminary


3
C-7 C1=11 Cli:
weight/strength calculations were made for a simple
stiffened panel and for a sandwich design. The rela-
tive weights for these two panels, when constructed
of various materials, are shown in Table I, using
an H Y- 1 3 0 stiffened skin design as a reference.
4
-------1 Ci=ill il=1 1

Table I.
R E LA TI V E STRUCTURAL W EIGHTS FOR COMPRESSION PANELS
Figure 3. Relative Planforms. PANEL CON- SINGLE SKIN

composites appear particularly attractive, all fac- MATERIAL


STRUCTION STIFFENED
I 1 = Cost
SANDWICH Relative
Factor
tors considered. Considering the aluminums, the T1 bAL-4V .26 (10)
7000 series are preferred on a strength basis. 181 GLASS REINFORCED EPDXY .28 (.6)
Weldability, corrosion resistance, and stress cor- 17-7 PH .29
rosion cracking susceptibility are, however, poor (2)

for 7075, 7079, a-nd 7178 alloy s. The 7039 and 7075-T6 CLAD .30 (I)
X7106 alloys hold the greatest current promise; both 5456-H343 .46 (1)
of these are readily weldable to themselves and to 181 GLASS REINFORCED EPDXY .52
the 5000 series alloys. Current practical aluminum 7075-Té .53
alloys are selected from the 5000 and 6000 series
alloys. For sideboard usage, 5083 and 5086 alloys 5086-H34 . 54

are acceptable. Above the waterline (e. g. , main 5456-H343 . 5.


hull), 6061 alloys may be considered as suitable. 5086-H34 .65
The composite materials such as 181 gla s s- reinforced Ti 6AL-AV .70
epoxy hold exceptional promise using structural de- 17-7 PH .99
signs which are technically beyond current fiberglass
shipbuilding procedures. One problem associated HY-130 1.00
with the use of GRP composites is the panel fatigue HY-80 1.06
strength under repeated impact. Another problem ZOO MARAGING 1. 10
is the low modulus of elasticity, if indeed it is a
problem. In both cases the problems do not appear Sandwich construction is the lightest, wi th glass
insoluble. reinforced plastic and aluminum alloys being the
The weight/strength properties of the candidate most promising. Titanium alloy sandwich is the
materials have been investigated for the ship' s most efficient, but cost may be prohibitive and it
plating. On the basis of analyses of the compressive appears that the optimum facings will be too thin to
and shear stresses in the sideboard and hull plating, resist puncture or other damage. This is also true
the use of thin sheet panels is indicated over a large for the stainless steel (17-7 PH) sandwich design.
portion of the ship. These panels are then limited Broadening the scope of the structural design, it
in design strength because of buckling. Slamming becomes desirable to evaluate some important para-
forces, particularly in the forward areas of the ship, meters and make assumptions fixing many others.
will provide design criteria for panel bending. The A representative listing of structural design para-
optimization of panel construction therefore involves meters is:
the selection of stiffener and frame sizes and spac-
ings, as well as the thickness of the panel skin. In Design Criteria Parameters
general, the optimum stress for single skin panel Safety factors
construction is much lower than the yield stress, Mission definition (service life, service environ-
whereas double skin (sandwich) construction would ment, etc.)
be optimum near the compressive yield of the facing Cargo handling, cargo density
material. Compartment flooding requirements
Failsafe criteria (i. e. , load path redundancy)
Each type of panel construction must be optimized Stiffness and natural frequency requirements
separately before comparison between types can be Control methods (for stability and maneuvera-
made. Possible types to consider are: bility)
1. Single skin stiffened panels Maneuvering capabilities required
Sheet - stringer T T
Configuration Parameters
Sheet - corrugation A . Bubble length
C. Integrally stiffened Bubble breadth

3
.45
Ship length
Ship beam
Total depth of midship
Depth and lines of sideboards (and centerboard,
if used) La/HH = 8

Location of cargo doors (and number and sizes


required) .35

Location of blowers
Location of pilot house
Location of fuel tanks .30
VOLUME
Location of cargo storage LIMIT
Deck levels and compartments required
Overall surface contours .25
Seal configurations
Thrust vector location Pa/La = 1.0

.20
Loading Parameters 1.0 1.5 2.0 25 30
Weig ht distribution, c. g. ' s, I s (dead load =
structure + outfit + machinery; live load = L8/B9
fuel + cargo)
Sea state definition, including winds 1.5

C. P. locations, on and off bubble attitudes


Quasi-static aero- and hydrodynamic pressures
and accelerations
Slamming and irnpact pressures (repeated load
spec tra)
Thrust and control forces
Structural Design Variables 1.0
Materials (steels, aluminum, plastics, etc.)
Fabrication methods (welding, integr ally VOLUME
stiffened, sandwich, etc.) LIMIT
Full depth longitudinal spar locations
Intermediate longitudinal beam locations
Full depth bulkhead locations
Intermediate frames, variable depth
Panel stiffeners, panel curvature .5
0.5 10 15 20 2.5 3.0
Deck beams or arches
Lightening holes, machined tapering PB/LB

The variables of primary concern in this paper Figure 4. Weight Parameters.


are LB/BB and PB/LB. Hull depth is also consi-
dered for its effect on structural weight and drag. sideboards. The seals, of course, deal with the
The resultant weight parame ter s are shown in fore and aft flow.
Figure 4 for a 4000 ton CAB constructed of 5086 Solely from this point of view, the advantages of
aluminum alloy. In preparing data such as this, a Captured Air Bubble ships over Ground Effect Ma-
major unknown is the proper bow region slamming chines are open to discussion. However, properly
loads. These loads have a large effect on the struc- designed sideboards add some very advantageous
tural weight. The results in Figure 4 were based characteristics to CAB ships which are not shared
on approximately 15 psi pressure in the nose plating by GEM' s.
and result in a weight fraction of about 0.25. This
weight fraction increases to 0.35 if designed to peak F r structural reasons, sideboards cannot be
slamming pressures of 300 psi. Methods of allevi- designed as flat thin sheets; and even a minimum
ating wave impact and slamming loads on primary practical width for a large craft insures that the
structure, through use of the forward seal or addi- sideboards will have a considerable buoyancy when
tional shock absorbing systems, should therefore the ship is off the bubble. There is, then, very little
be further investigated. additional weight penalty to design the sideboards so
as to displace the full weight of the ship when off
Sideboards the bubble. These voluminous sideboards offer some
definite advantages. Firstly, as discussed mor e
The sideboards of a CAB ship are the elements fully in the section on propulsion, the sideboards can
which largely give the craft the characterigtic mode accommodate the complete propulsion system from
of behavior which differentiates it from GEM craft. intake to pumps at the lowest possible elevation.
Basically, in CAB craft anattempt is made to mini- Secondly, the sideboards give a flexibility to the
mize the flow of air in the lateral direction at the mode of operation which may vary from the full fly-
cost of adding hydrodynamic drag due to the wetted ing mode with maximum bubble pressure and the

4
minimum of immersed sideboards down to a full development. A brief review of some of the im-
displacement mode when the sideboards carry the portant seal characteristics serves to indicate why
full weight of the vehicle. This latter mode provides this is the case.
a low power, low speed operation with the ability to
ride out heavy storms holding just enough way to Bubble Leakage
orient to the sea. The fundamental requirement of the seal is, of
course, that it prevent or limit the leakage of the
Sideboard design offer s some serious challenges. cushion air in the fore and aft direction. Leakage
At the high speeds of 70 to 100 knots, cavitation may can occur at the interface between the sea and the
be a serious threat to the sideboard structure. Even seal, between the sideboard and the seal, between
at top speed, enough of the sideboard will be exposed the seal elements, and also through punctures or
to the water as to suggest a proper profile design. failures in the seal. The most likely source of leak-
Figure 5 shows such a profile. The upper water age is the interface between the sea and the seal. It
lines are a modified parabolic shape developed by is the problem of closing this path without introducing
LB 2.0 PL 1.0
undesirable characteristics that produces the seal
FULL DISPLACEMENT AT ML 23 challenges.
257 FT Drag
The seal drag is composed of a viscous drag,
form drag, wave making drag, and spray drag. For
most reasonable seal designs the Froude number is
so high that the wave making drag of the seal will be
WL 3 FT small. For many shapes spray drag can be reduced
EL 23 FT-1 by adding a ski device at the bottom. Aerodynamic
STATION
drag of the forward seal is significant and should be
considered in evaluating seals which have irregular
23 FT
plan view shapes such as scallops.
257
Dynamic Response (Seal/Hull)
The dynamic response characteristic s of the seal
Figure 5. Sideboard Profile. and the interactions with the ship' s motions are per-
haps in most serious conflict with the requirement
Hydronautics, Inc., and the lower water lines show of sealing in the bubble air. It is necessary to com-
an aft thickening to accommodate the waterjet pro- promise between a very stiff spring rate or highly
pulsion system. Under zero yaw conditions this loaded seal which can keep the gap closed but will
shape s ho ul d be relatively free from cavitation, provide a hard ride to the ship and increase the seal
although yaw will still lead to cavitation aft of the drag, and a more flexible seal which will soften the
leading edge. The sterns of the sideboards are blunt ride but not have sufficient response to keep the gap
but with the ship on the bubble should become fully closed. The problem is similar to the automobile
ventilated at very low speeds so that base drag should suspension problem in terms of the spring stiffness
be practically eliminated. However, a matter to be and sprung to unsprung weight ratios. The accelera-
investigated is the conditions under which ventilation tions required to follow waves without hopying is
occurs for various depths of immersion of the side- readily obtainable. Based upon Cockerell( ) Fig-
board. In this connection it should be noted that if ure 6 shows the magnitude of seal acceleration
the propulsion is by waterjet located at the stern of
the sideboards, the jets will help to produce venti- 500

lation at low speeds. TRAVERSING SINUSOIDAL WAVES


TH NO LEAKAGE

Another problem related particularly to the flying 400


SHIP SPEED
mode, although also important for the displacement (KNOTS)

mode, is the relationship between sideboard shape


and size and parameters such as controllability, 300

MN_
120

maneuverability, stability, and seakeeping. How-


ever, this particular problem must be considered 200 100

in relation to the overall control and stability prob-


lem. Nevertheless, the sideboards must obviously
play an important role here. For example, it can 100 116,\E 60
80

be seen that with the ship configuration shown, the


air bubble does not contribute to stability in roll or 0
pitch. Therefore this task must devolve upon the 10

sideboards together with the seal s, and possibly


WAVE HEIGHT Hw (FI)
some other appendages as may be deemed neces sary.
Figure 6. Seal Acceleration Requirements
Seals
required to prevent "hop" leakage as a function of
Providing good fore and aft seals for the SES wave height and speed. Note the high acceleration
poses one of the most challenging tasks in the ship's requirements associated with low waves, decreasing

5
a s wave height increase s. The increa se in require- ranging from below 50 tons to over 20,000 tons are
ment as speed increases from 60 to 100 knots is also envisaged. The adaptability of the seal to exhibit
noteworthy. its characteristics over a wide range of sizes is
Weight
thus a desirable though not essential feature.
The seal has an obviously direct effect on the Figure 7 presents a sampling of general seal
structural we ight of the ship. More important,
however, is the effect of the moving mass on the
dynamic response, as already noted. \
Simplicity and Maintainability
Ec on om i c considerations suggest the use of
simple, easily maintained seals. Seals with re-
placeable or serviceable segments are particularly
desirable and complex supporting systems (e. g.
hydraulic or pneumatic systems) will register a
disadvantage on this point.
Damage Resistance and Operational Survivability
The resistance of the seal to damage bears sig-
nificantly upon the seal selection. A related con-
sideration is that the seal, having sustained some INGLE ROLO MEMBRANE MULTIPLE FOLD MEMBRANE

damage, should be able to continue operation even


though in a degraded mode. Damage modes to con-
sider a r e fatigue, cavitation erosion, corrosion,
deterioration, and impact with foreign objects.
Controllability and Power Required
It is possible that some seal concepts could,
through control of buoyancy, extension and spring INFLTED SECT. SHAPES MAIN
rate, provide some control inpitch, heave, and roll. TAMED BY DROP THREADS OR
mEMBRANES

While it is not clear at this time that this will be


necessary or preferable, control might well become
a desire. The power required to achieve equivalent
degrees of control will vary somewhat due to varia-
tions in the efficiencies and masses involved. SHUTTER TYPE WRAP ROUND' TYPE
(FAIRED INTO SIDEBOARDS,

Sensitivity to Bubble Pressure


Related to the question of controllability is the
relationship between the seal characteristics and
the cushion pressure. This relationship should be
known and considered in seal selection, ship stability
and ship operations.
Compatibility with Sideboards
Two means of joining the seals to the sideboards
are considered for the front seal. One is to borrow
from hovercraft technology and fair the seal around
and smoothly into the sideboard. The other .is to
bring the seal adjacent at the side of the sideboard
..BARN 000, TYPE
so as to be free to respond to wave action. In this
latter case flexible membranes may be used which (RIGID HINGED SE.ENTS RITO
are fastened to the seal end and the sideboard, giving -mULTIPLE FINGER'. TYPE
MEOIANICAL SPRING MOLD00.

a positive seal at that point. The virtues of each


vary with the seal concept being considered.
Motion Independence between Adjacent Sections
In order to conform to any but unusual wave con-
ditions, some amount of variable seal compliance is
required. Each transverse element of the seal has
its own wave form to meet. Ideally, each element
should be independent of its adjacent elements; how-
ever, practicalities of cushion sealing will assure
some interaction at best. This interaction can vary
significantly between seal concepts. BALLOON TYPE MULTIPLE CELL TYPE

Adapta.bility to Wide Size Range INFLATED BAG INFLATED BAG wITI1 SECTIONS
SNAPED BY COMPARTMENT WALLS
Finally, it should be noted that, while a nominal
4000 ton ship is being considered, ships of sizes Figure 7. Seal Concepts.

6
types. In each case their operation is self-evident 60

so the sketches are presented without comment.


However, applying the above criteria to each con-
cept indicates some severe shor tcomings and 50
limitations.
Propulsion
40
,,,-(No -
ef oct.
The selection of the best propulsion system for do,06 pOss
the SES focuses on marine gas turbine engines for
primary power and either water screws, air screws, 30 SO'
s\v''' 0,'I'\'' JT9D

or waterjet as the thrustors. It should be noted, *C-' 0)5


\'C'
however, that if studies in high pressure, high tem-
perature nuclear reactors bear fruit, the resultant 20
FT4A
horsepower-to-weight ratios available will be very
attractive for the SES. The high speed marine diesel
should also be considered for primary power. It has
a major disadvantage, however, in that its specific ID

weight is about ten times that of the gas turbine. In


its favor is the fact that currently it has a better
thermal efficiency than the gas turbine (by about o
50%), but this advantage can disappear with the next 2000 2200 2400 2600 2800

generation of marine gas turbines. Therefore, in TURBINE INLET TEMP (.19)


this application where weight and efficiency are con-
sidered to be more important than other factors such Figure 8. Engine Efficiency.
as fuel and development cost, the gas turbine appears
to be the most suitable power supply. sibilities present themselves for specific installa-
tions. One installation advantage is to separate the
The problem in propulsion system selection is gas generator from the free turbine. This is, in
not only to select the best system type, but in doing effect, substituting hot gas ducting for a mechanical
so to properly match the components and make sub- drive. A specific attribute of the duc ting is the
system selections. Then remains the task of sizing possible elimination of mechanical angle drive s. An
and selection in context with the overall ship opti- interesting application of this might be a coupling to
mization. a waterjet thrus tor. A conventional centrifugal pump
Within the class of marine gas turbine primary is located near the bottom of the sideboard with its
powerplants there are a number of problems and inlet eye facing downward and slightly forward. The
considerations in selection, improvements, modi- involute protrudes through the hull and a nozzle is
fications, and installation. For the 4000 ton ship directed to the rear. In this manner the water inlet
the Pratt & Whitney FT4 engine is a contemporary can be close-coupled to the pump and the pumps can
example of a highly suitable powerplant. It is an be sequenced in t a nde m. The engines, however,
adaptation of the J-75 jet engine with a free power must be mounted nearly vertically, or use anangled
turbine and modified for marine applications. This drive, or employ the remote free turbine technique.
engine has an overall thermal efficiency of about At the common power turbine rotational speeds,
26% at its normal continuous rating and has a growth a speed reduction gear box is required to match to
potential to about 29%. The possibilities for im- a propeller or a pump. Design considerations of
provement in the thermal efficiency are suggested changes to the power turbine to match rotational
by the Pratt & Whitney JT9D turbojet engine devel- speeds appear appropriate in spite of development
oped for the C-5A airplane. This e ng in e has an costs, possible added weight, and lowered efficiency.
overall thermal efficiency, exclusive of bypass, of
about 36% to 38%. The thermal efficiency is shown The installation aspects of locating the engines
as a function of turbine inlet temperature (compres- deep in the sideboards, taking in air and exhausting
sor power turbine) in Figure 8 with the FT4 and the combustion gasses present interesting problems.
JT9D indicated. To follow the efficiency line shown, With the waterjet propulsion, the partially sub-
assumptions are made with regard to improving merged superventilating propellers, and possibly
component efficiencies and increasing compressor with the supercavitating propeller, the desire to
pressure ratios. A very important consideration close-couple the engine and the thrustor leads to
must not be overlooked here. This is the perform- engines low in the sideboards. This compromises
ance potential of the regenerative cycle gas turbine. design decisions with respect to widening the side-
This engine pays a penalty in weight, development board and, possibly, compromising the hydro-
cost, complexity, reliability, overhaul c o s t, and dynamic characteristics of the sideboar d. An
installed vol um e but pays a handsome reward in additional strong factor of importance is the amount
thermal efficiency. The comparitive evaluation of of accessibility and the ease of removal which will
regenerative and nonregenerative cycles can be seen be provided. Both considerations lead toward widen-
to present a challenging problem. ing the sideboards. Some advantages are realized
Some interesting free turbine modification pos- by installing the engine at an angle to the horizontal.

7
Against such a desire are the bearing and lubrication of the sideboards or, with a penalty in water inlet
problems posed and the need, at large angles, of duct losses and weight, at the rear of the main hull.
additional development effort. As noted, an alternate is a tandem installation of
pumps along the bottom of the sideboards. Engine-
At speeds between 70 and 100 knots, recovery of pump couplings can be very close although some
the stagnation air pressure will increase engine per- installation advantages accrue to an inclined system
formance. Unfortunately, at these speeds white and with a long drive shaft. Speed reduction is required
green water tends to travel in the same direction for coupling unless, as noted, power turbine speeds
relative to the ship as the air. Eliminating or re- are redone to match the system. The greatest un-
ducing water capture by inlet shape and orientation, certainty and potential problem in waterjet propul-
and by the inclusion of mechanical separators, re- sion development is the water inlet and ducting. The
duces or eliminates the ram recovery. The location factors of consideration in inlet-duct design are:
of the inlet on the ship and its height will affect water
ingestion. Alternately, it may be possible to pres- Weight (including captured water),
surize the main propulsion air intake system from Added drag,
the bubble blowers and use the excess pressure for Pressure recovery,
water separators and/or filter s. In doing so, it Internal and external cavitation,
must be recognized that there are usually disadvant- Total head losses in the ducting,
ages to combined systems, especially when a failure Flow uniformity at the pump intake, and
OC cur s. Air ingestion.
In considering these problems it is possible to These factors must be considered over a large speed
compile a list of inlet design variables and evaluate range, over a large mass flow range, and with en-
configurational c omp romis e, performance, and gine out. Conflict exists between these factors and
weight as decision factors. The engine exhaust has between the ship design and some of the desired inlet
considerations similar to those of the inlet. characteristic s. For instance, an inlet designed for
optimum pre s sure recovery and minimum duct pres-
The basic thrustor ty-pes we have considered are sure loss may add unduly to ship drag and weight.
depicted in Figure 9. Studies and test programs whose objective is an
optimum inlet system, considering all factors, is
important.
To accommodate a wide range of mass flows at
high speed without cavitation, a variable inlet area
AIR PROPELLERS
will probably be required. The alternative of a
large radius inlet leading edge will add measurably
to the drag. Another problem in waterjet propulsion,
that of pump cavitation, is depicted in Figure 10. If
BOO

PROPULSIVE EFFICIENCY = 0.62 AT 100 KTS


6 FT 4 TURBOJETS Hw = 5 FT
WATERJ ET LOB = 2

6 CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS E. INDUCERS


600
SUCTION
20,000
8000 SPECIFIC
SPEED
P/L

400
SUPER CAVITATING 1.5
PROPELLERS
THRUST Thf
NORMAL CONTINUOUS
200

SUPER VENTILATING
PARTIALLY SUBMERGED o
20 40 60 80 100
PROPELLERS
Figure 9. Basic Thrustor Types. SPEED (KNOTS)

Figure 10. Thrust Available and Drag - Waterjet


The air propeller can have the engine remotely Propulsion.
installed in the hull as shown or be directly coupled
through a gear reduction box if a nacelle installation a water pump is to operate under some conditions
is used. The remote installation has the disadvant- without cavitating, it is necessary to limit its flow
age of mechanical complexity with two right angle rate and hence thrust produced. Two performance
gear boxes and a long intermediate drive shaft. The lines of limiting thrust are shown at suction specific
thrust axis will produce a negative pitching moment. speeds of 8,000 and 20,000. (Suction specific speed
The waterjet system can be located in the stern is a measure of the ability of a pump to operate

8
efficiently under incipient cavitating conditions.) A
critical performance region exists at speeds just 30

below and around the hump speed. An inability to


accelerate past hump speed is, in fact, indicated
under several combinations of ships and pumps. The 70 KNOTS
DRAG = THRUST = 315 000 LB
obvious answer of increasing suction specific speed
unfortunately comes at the expense of pump efficien-
cy. Operation of the pumps for a short time while 20 O

cavitating is not an uncommon rocket practice but


leads to pump lives which are incompatible with ship
life and maintenance considerations. Alteration of FT4

the drag level in the hump region shows promise as


a solution to this drag versus thrust dilemma.
Supercavitating propellers show promise on the ID

basis of their potential efficiency of operation. With JT9D

horizontal engines, two right angle drives are re-


quired. Retraction may also be required or desired
as indicated by Booz, Allen Applied Research. (2)
The blades are subject to cavitation erosion and
leading edge fatigue failures. The design created o
TURBOJET TURBOFAN TURBOPROP WATERJET SUPER CAVITATING
by the USN David Taylor Model Basinfor the Mari- PROPELLERS

time Administration's Dennison hydrofoil ship may Figure 11. Overall Propulsion Efficiency.
have solved the latter problem.
The partially submerged superventilating pro- Seven FT4A type units coupled to 21.1 foot
peller is a relatively new concept in which the low propellers.
pressure side of the blade experiences pressures Six FT4A type units coupled to 34. 5 foot
closer to atmospheric than cavitation. A propeller propeller s.
which is efficient over a wide operating range re- Turboprop units with efficiency comparable
sults. to the Pratt & Whitney JT9D and 8,100 sq.
feet of propeller area, e.g., six 41. 4 foot
The installation in the Captured Air Bubble con- diameter propellers.
figuration pPaces two propellers, one each at the Advanced turboprop engine with a thermal
bottom aft end of the sideboards. A ship with eight efficiency of 42% and 8,100 sq. feet of pro-
engines will thus have four engines driving one pro- peller area.
peller through shafts, an aggregating gear box, and FT4A turbine engine with a good current
speed reduction gears. The mechanical problems state-of-the-art waterjet thrustor having
are at once evident. Pe..riodic loadings of the blades a propulsive efficiency of 62%.
present problems in blade fatigue, habitability, and Gas turbine engine with JT9D level of per-
ship's structural excitation. The latter part of this formance and a waterjet thrustor having a
problem can be reduced by increasing the number propulsion efficiency of 62%.
of blades. Estimated ultimate for advanced turbine
To facilitate a "first cut" analysis of the different engine and advanced state-of-the-art water-
propulsion systems, an overall efficiency has been jet system.
used. This efficiency is defined as the ratio of thrust Supercavitating propeller with 65% effi-
work out to fuel energy in times one hundred. At a ciency coupled to the FT4A engine.
given speed and power required, then, the overall Supercavitating propeller with 70% effi-
efficiency is inversely proportional to the fuel flow ciency coupled to an engine with JT9D level
rate. It does not directly include variations in drag of performance.
associated with the installations. Figure 11 gives Supercavitating propeller with 75% effi-
the results of this analysis at a speed of 70 knots. ciency and an advanced performance gas
The reference turbojet case assumes an engine of turbine engine.
42% thermal efficiency without bypass and without Drag
afterburning. The other efficiency points indicated
are defined as follows:
The drag of CAB craft is very much affected by
Pratt & Whitney JT9D turbofan engine as variations in design, especially bubble geometry
specified (bypass ratio approximately 5). and bubble pressure. Being one of the key elements
Advanced JT9D engine with higher bypass in the performance of CAB, much attention has been
ratio (about 10). given to a proper evaluation of this parameter. The
Estimated ultimate for advanced bypass drag estimates which are shown in Figures 12 to 16
engine with a thermal efficiency of 42% and have been calculated using a rrietA0 which is essen-
a bypass ratio of about 20. tially that of Chaplin and Ford. The calculations
Turboprop installation using eight FT4A are based on the following assumptions:
type units coupled to 13.7 foot propellers.
The sideboard submergence is just sufficient

9
to prevent bubble leakage. most noticeable effect on the hump drags in the speed
The trim angle of the sideboard is equal to the region of 30 to 40 knots. In this region the drag is
arc tangent of the bubble drag-to-lift ratio. predominantly bubble wave drag. With increasing
Bubble pressure is adjusted to compensate for speeds, the differences in drag decrease until, at
the buoyancy of the immersed portion of high speeds in the region of 80 to 100 knots, there
the sideboard. is little difference between the va rious ratios of
The aerodynamic lift and seal lift is 5% of the PB/LB' Based on this curve alorxe, it would appear
total lift. that lower values of PB/LB would be preferable in
The aerodynamic drag coefficient of the hull that over the whole speed range up to 100 knots, the
above the water line, CD, equals 0.5 (this drag at any speed is always lower. However, refer-
is for a well-streamlined SES). ring back to Figure 2, it is seen that lower bubble
The momentum and energy penalty as sociated pressures are associated with larger dimensions,
with the bubble air is neglected. lower ship structural densities, ineffective use of
available volume, and heavier structural elements
Figure 12 is for a ship of nominal LB/BB = 2 and for a given total all-up weight. The choice, then,
PB/LB = 1. The cur ve s show the effect of wave is apparently between small efficient craft with high
height, particularly at high speeds due to the larger hump drags (with the associated problems of hump
800 cavitation, etc. ) and larger less efficient craft but
with lower hump drags. However, some preliminary
4000 TONS studies indicate that it may be possible to combine
LB/B = 20, PB/LE, = 1.0 the best features of these two alternatives.
600
Figure 14 shows the effect upon drag of varying
length-to-beam ratio, LB/BB. For the values of
800
1
1

400 4000 TONS


Pa/LB = 1.0

WAVE HEIGHT = 5 FT
600

200

400 L/8 = 4

20 ao 60 80 100

VELOCITY ( KNOTS )
AsoL/B ' 2

Figure 12. Drag Curves - Wave Height. 200

wetted area at the sideboards. Note also that at L/B = 3


lower speeds the drag reduces with wave height. o
This paradox is due to the complicated relationship o 20 40 60 80 100

between bubble lift, sideboard lift, bubble drag (wave VELOCITY (KNOTS)
drag), and sideboard drag (viscous drag).
Figure 14. Drag Curves - L/B.
Figure 13 shows the effect of varying the pres sure-
to-length ratio, PB/LB. This parameter has the LB/BB considered, it is seen that this parameter
800
I I
does not affect the drag as significantly as the para-
4000 TONS meter of PB/LB.
L8,13,3 = 2.0
WAVE HEIGHT = 5 FT Figure 15 shows the variation of aerodynamic
600
drag with the depth of the main hull. This informa-
tion is useful in determining the "best" hull depth
PA
when used in conjunction with other criteria affecting
hull depth suchas structural weight, stability of the
400
1.5 vessel, and cargo volume requirements.
1.0
----------------.. Figure 16 shows the effect on drag of varying
operating weight for a given configuration designed
for 4000 ton operation. The most noticeable effect
X
200 occurs at hump speeds, with a lessening effect as
the speed increases.
Some inteiesting features emerge if the lift-to-
drag ratios are calculated for the different operating
o
o zo 40 60 80 100 weights. Considering first the speeds for minimum
LID in the flying mode (best cruise speeds), it is
V ELOCI TY ( KNOTS)
seen that best cruise speed increases markedly with
Figure 13. Drag Curves - P/L.
10
800 , r
4000 TONS
estimates for ground effect machines. The relative
LB,13B = 2.0, P8 /L6 = 1,0
characteristics might be quite different, however,
WAVE HEIGHT = 5 FT especially under large wave deflections when the
600
seal' s contribution to drag will be large. A valid
estimate for aerodynamic drag is difficult due to the
HH FT) presence of the 'ground' plane. The aerodynamic
so drag is probably dominated by the contribution of the
o 400

M. 40
30
front seal/bow and the bases and these are highly a
function of specific shape. The addition of an equiva-
lent drag to allow for the blower system is important,
frequently guessed to be 10% of the total drag, but
290 r 111.P.- the very nature of the Captured Air Bubble Surface
Effect Ship lays open the question of the blower re-
quirement. Hopefully, the leakage might be low
enough under some sea conditions as to add negli-
o
20 40 60
gibly to the overall power required.
80 100

VELOCITY (KNOTS)
Route Analysis
Figure 15. Drag Curves - Hull Depth. In the typical situation of ship operations with
conventional hulls, nonstop routes are established
800
between the port of origin and the port of destination.
NOMINAL 4000 T CONFIGURATION
= 2.0, PB/L
The SES, as compared to a conventional ship, has
LB BB = 1.0
WAVE HEIGHT = 5 FT
an L/D approximately one tenth as large and a thrust
specific fuel consumptionabout two times as large.
600
The obvious implication of this is that for the SES

,
the versatility of no n s top operations is severely
curtailed. This ship has, in fact, range character-
OPERATING
WEIGHT istics more nearly like those of an airplane. The
400
4500 expectation that strategically located refueling stops
4000
___----------' will be desirable is a natural result of this evalua-
3500 tion.
200 An analysis has been undertaken to quantitatively
evaluate specific routes and possible refueling base s.
The desired result of this study was to determine
reasonably correct nonstop range requirements for
0.00
0 20
the SES so that meaningful tradeoff analyses can be
40 60 110 100
made.
VELOCITY (KNOTS) Table II is a compilation of distances between
Figure 16. Drag Curves - Weight Variation. Table II
increased weight, so that on a typical mission the DISTANCES BETWEEN PORTS

ship can be maintained at best cruise speed by de- fono. Mid-


San
Fran- Tan
celerating as fuel is consumed and the vessel lighten.s. Guam
Guam Rau
3318
Lg Shui Wake

It may be noted that the actual minimum L/D values F1onolulu 2301
2301
1149
2304
5542
5053
2091
1505
4398
1334
2004
Midway 2301 1149 4421
decrease by approximately 4% for a weight change Saigon 2304 5542 4421
2792
6878
*3130
*1130
1034
3580
from 3500 to 4500 tons. At 80 knots there is a 10% San Francisco
Tan Shui
5053
1505
2091
4398
2792
*3130
6878
s1,30 5611
5611 3821
.2400
increase in L/D, and at 100 knots an 18% increase. Wake 1334 2004 1034 3580 3821 *2400

These values apply only to this particular configura- Ascen-


sion Azores Bremen
Cape- George-
town town
Gib-
raltsr
New Ply- Porto
York mouth Grande Said
tion and may be considerably different for other Ascension
Azores .3125
.3125 .4700 2409 2758 *3279 4395 .3565 .1740 *5204
configurations. Brernen *4700 1815
1815 5152
6447
2488
4300
1102
1626
2098
3614
1264
573
1316
*3165
3027
3551
Capetown 2409 5152 6447 5026 5082 6786 7157 3958 5354
Georgetown
The curves shown on the aforementioned figures Gibrahar
2758
.3279
2488
1102
4300
1626
5026
5082 3358
3358 2217 *4000
3180 1075
*2300
1539
5283
1925
New York
indicate the relative effects which the various para- Plymouth
4395
.3565
2098
1264
3614
573
6786 2217
7157 a..
3180
1075 3063
3063 2881
2271
5105
3000
meters have upon drag. However, at this stage a Porto Grande
Said
*1740
*5204
/316
3027
*3165
3551
3958 .2300
5354 5283
1539
1925
2881
5105
2271
3000 3464
3464

number of uncertainties li m i t the possibility of *Author' a estimate.


accurately estimating absolute values of drag. There Source: Distances Be.een Port. - 1965. Hydrographic Office Publication 151.

is, as always, the question of scaling from the data


obtained from experiments performed upon small points for typical ports and possible refueling bases
sized models. The estimation of viscous drag of the in the Pacific and the Atlantic Oceans. These and
s i de board in the presence of waves can only be other routes are also shown in Figure 17. From
approximate because of the lack of knowledge of these possible routes, five specific and representa-
boundary layer build-up as the wave sweeps the side- tive terminal port groups were selected. Missions
board. Seal drag estimates are taken from trunk were analyzed for these routes considering both
11
7P'S;i0
£8.181,
---;
der
Figure 17. Route Map.
nonstop and intermediate refueling stop operation. a short two hour refueling layover. The ship's pay-
A 4000 ton ship was postulated with a total useful loads which resulted from the analysis (allowing a
load fraction of 0.60 which could be allocated to fuel 10% fuel reserve) are shown in the third column as
or payload in any proportion. A nominal condition payload in tons. This payload is established by the
with a significan.t wave height of 5 feet and a cruise longest port-to-port distance including the refueling
speed of 85 knots was selected. An extreme condi- stops. The payload-flow parameter, payload/block
tion with a significant wave height of 20 feet and a time, is shown in the next column. This parameter
cruise speed of 60 knots was added as a check on the includes the compensation for the disutility of the
conclusions. The information generated is shown longer block distances and layover times involved
in Table III. The block distance shows that the with refueling stops. From Table III it may be
readily seen that great increases in payload and
Table III consequent decrease in cost per ton-mile may be
ROUTE ANALYSIS FOR SELECTED PORTS achieved in spite of an increase in block time be-
Significant Wave Height = 5 ft
Sigruficant Wave
Height = 20 ft
tween port of origin and port of destination. Of equal
Vo = 85 Ms Vo = 60 Kta importance, these calculations show that the longest
De 8 tina-
Block Block W
Dintance Time Payload --,,,,
Block
Time Payload
6W
leg of the most productive route to the ports exam-
tion Intermediate
2,, ir,SFO
cm. Hrs Ton, .13 Mrs Ton, B
ined is 2400 nautical miles in the Pacific and 2800
Sa tgon 6878 80.72 114.63
nautical miles in the Atlantic. These figures sig-
Wake
Guam Midway
7459
7397
83.06
9I.02
645
1118
7.18
12.08
106.30
127.28 583 4.58
nificantly affect the overall design of the vessel by
Guam Wake Honolulu 7733 96. 98 1342 13. 84 134. 88 901 6. 68 reducing the heretofore assumed range requirement
66.01 0.8k 93.50
Tan Shui
(Taiwan) Midway
5611
5779 69.99
57
1018 14.54 98.32 443 4.50 of 3500 to 4000 nautical miles.
Wake Midway 6226 77.05 1118 14.47 107.77 583 5.41
Wake Honolulu 6495 80.41 1298 16.4 112.25 838 7.47
8.55
Guam
Origin: N. Y.
Wake Honolulu 6934 87.58 1342 15.30 001.57 1039
References
Bremen 3614 40.52 740 07.40 60.23 49 O. 82
Plymouth
Azores
3636
3913
41.78
48.01
993
1436
00.18
09.89
60.60
65.00
407
1035
6.90
15. 87 Cockerell, C. S., "An Introduction to the General
Said 5105
5105
60.06
60.06
55
939
0,65
15,13
85.03
87.03 3.80
Principles of Hovercraft," November 1963.
Gibralmr 331
Gibraltar Azores 5125 64,29 1436 00.34 89.42 1035 11.57 Chaplin and Ford, Design Principles of Ground
Capetown
Luanda Porto Grande
6801
7286
80.31
89.70 1077 12.00
103.35
025.43 525 4.19
Effect Machines, Section G, "Drag," May 1965.
Ascension Porto Grande
Ascension Georgetown
7290
7384
89.76
90.87
1077
1033
10.00
02.46
005.50
007.07
525
604
4.09
4.76
"The Surface Effect Ship in the American Mer-
Yip = Payload, TB = Block Time. LAgepcodocticityintOflSper5OUr.
chant Marine," Final Report for the United States
Department of Commerce, Maritime Adminis-
a ddi tion of intermediate refueling stops has the tration, by Booz-Allen Applied Research, Inc.
undesirable effect of increasing the total distance
c overed. The block times were c omputed a ssuming

12
No. 61-348

CAPTURED AIR BUBBLE (CAB) VEHICLE PROGRESS REPORT


by

ALLEN G. FORD
Naval Ship Research and Development Center
Washington, D. C.

Paper No.
67-348

AIAA/SNAME Advance marine


vows meeting
NORFOLK, VIRGINIA/MAY 22-24, 1967
First publication rights reserved by American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1290 Avenue of the Americas, New York, N. Y. 10019
and Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, 74 Trinity Place, New York, N. Y. 10006
Abstracts may be published without permission if credit is given to author and to AIAA/SNAME. (Member Price-75c; Nonmember Price-11.50)
2.05, 5.08, 6.14
CAPTURED AIR BUBBLE (CAB) VEHICLE PROGRESS REPORT

Allen G. Ford
Deputy Director for Research and Development
Surface Effect Ships Project Office
Naval Ship Research and Development Center
(Formerly the David Taylor Model Basin)
Washington, D.C.

Abstract
The Captured Air Bubble (CAB) is a sidewall air
cushion vehicle (ACV), a high-speed waterborne
craft that is inherently non-amphibious. Some gen-
eral vehicle comparisons are shown, as well as pare-
ametric results pointing to the need for large
multi-thousand-ton surface effect ships (SES) to
fulfill transoceanic requirements. Then comparisons
of theoretical drag predictions and experimental
CAB drag data are made, in smooth water and in
straight-ahead waves. Because the CAB has large
structural members, the sidewalls, in direct contact
with the water, there is a unique opportunity for
the utilization of high speed water propulsion sys-
ems. A comparison of air propeller and water-jet
propulsion systems is then made. The water-jet
shows significant efficiency advantages, particu-
larly for the medium "hump" speeds, and this in turn
allows CAB vehicles to have higher specific loading
for a given installed power. There is a structural
advantage to this higher specific loading, but a
slight power disadvantage. A sample tradeoff is
then made to indicate profitable design trends. Figure 1 - Artists Concept of 4000 Ton SES

General Vehicle Comparisons are likely to be amphibious, that is, to have over-
the-beach capability, and, further, they are likely
There are two principal contenders for the sur- to be associated with air propulsion systems. ate
/ face effect ship (SES) class of vehicle. The first national program in the United Kingdom for about 10
is the hovercraft developed by the British; the years, together with commercial incentive, has
second is the sidewall captured air bubble (CAB) brought this craft to an amazingly advanced state
vehicle which has received a less extensive in-house of development for this time period.
Navy development. The term, "surface effect ship
(SES)", was first used several years ago by the
Maritime Administration, in studies performed by FLEXIBLE
TRUNKS
them. As used here, SES simply implies a "large"
or "ship" size of an air cushion vehicle (ACV), re-
gardless of specific configuration.
/0 0 r-----;<-4 r(7,

Figure 1 shows an artist's concept of a 4000-


ton SES propelled by a waterjet propulsion system.
The specific configuration shown is neither the
full-peripheral skirted ACV nor the full-sidewall Figure '2 - Hovercraft Design Trend
ACV, but a hybrid of the two, with skirts ex-
tending around to the aft portion of the vehicle.
Like the hovercraft, the captured air bubble or
Development of the hovercraft (Figure 2) or full- CAB sidewall craft (Figure 3) is supported on a
peripherial skirted ACV has occurred within the last pressurized region of air beneath the craft. This
10 years, principally in Britain. ate most signifi- pressure region is retained by sidewalls and mechan-
cant design trend in the last 4 to 5 years has been ical or fabric seals fore and aft. In this case,
the introduction of flexible trunks or skirts; this the fan power is likely to be less than in the hov-
feature has allowed a reduction in the so-called ercraft case, but in both classes of vehicles there
"daylight gap" (the distance between the water and is a potential for sea state alleviation, that is,
soft structure) and an increase in the distance be- a potential for an essential platforming action in
tween the water and the hard structure. These craft which the body of the vehicle moves along relatively

1
straight and level, with a very highly dynamic per- this plot. Improvement with size would be even
formance of the fore and aft seals. A second char- more marked in a rough sea.
acteristic of the CAB class of vehicle is a poten-
tial for utilizing the sidewall volume to install For the hovercraft or ground effect machine
propulsion and machinery systems of the water pro- (GEM), the daylight clearance was taken to be con-
pulsion type. Because of its sidewalls, the CAB stant with size; hence the non-dimensional daylight
is not amphibious. Water propulsion systems may clearance was assumed to decrease with size. Some
show propulsive efficiency advantages, but their detailed features and limitations of these pro-
use restricts the craft to water operation, al- jections are discussed in Reference 3.
though running half up on a beach would be possible
with proper seal and sidewall design, such as that o
shown in Figure 1. 1000 cc

Compared to the hovercraft, the CAB has had


rather limited development. Most of the work has 500
ILINIIIIIII
iiiiL sN
300

20051'
o
o
a
been done since 1960 and principally within naval , a.
laboratories-the Naval Air Development Center, the vti
Naval Air Engineering Center, and the David Taylor
300 o A loo
Model Basin. 200 80.
We: io
i 4-,. ',-PIA(-- 60 ct'''
SHP 467 50 fe,

LB MO 40

FAN
HP
"cuNR,
..
mi
A VI \, , 30

50
100ro5
GEM
\ 7k./Jii,
, 7o V
.... S '
\,
20o
u
30 o1. , , es ,) \, ti-
,s ` 4/ Fe, / 3
a.
AFT
PLANING SURFACE
AIR
BUBBLE
FORWARD
PLANING SIIIPACE
20 -0
,, `,",'
r,
---.0
Ai
-4
, \
4 \\ 5 .
SMEBOARD- 1&,.. ''''' . e` u
10 20 30 50 100 200 300 500 1000
V IN KNOTS

:7 Figure 4 - Gross-Weight/Povver Ratio versus Speed for


Various Over-Water Vehicles
--__ AMUR'
The projections of Figure 4 are based on the
PLANING SURFACE utilization of air-propellers for the ACV's with
IN WAVES
propeller areas taken as 20 percent of the base or
cushion areas. Since publication of this TMB re-
Figure 3 - Captured Air Bubble (CAB) Sidewall Air Cushion port', the subject of high-speed water-propulsion
Vehicle (ACV) systems (water jets and super-cavitating propel-
In the summer of 1965, the Model Basin published lers) has been investigated more fully. These
a study of the technical feasibility of future high- studies show substantial promise over air propel-
speed Navy vehicles.1 Figure 4, from Reference 1, lers, at least for the CAB sidewall ACV craft.
shows a comparison based on the weight-to-power 0.50
ratio of various overwater vehicles as a function
of speed for various weights. It is evident that
the air cushion vehicles (ACV's) of both the hover-
craft (or GEM) and the CAB (or sidewall) types show
very advantageous (high) weight-to-power character- 0.40

istics at high speeds (50 to 100 knots, typically).


For example, if speed and weight are held constant
(100 knots and 10,000 tons, respectively), there
is a reduction of five to six in power required 0.30
for the ACV's relative to the comparable high-speed o
large dibpZaCCruetit hull. The ACV's of both classes L)
a
show an attractive proximity to the well known
von Karman-Gabrielli line.2 This is an empirical o
a
o 0/0
line drawn between aircraft and ships (ships meet
the line about a decade over the upper limit of a
this chart). The relatively poor performance of
other than ACV's at high speeds, as measured by
their distance from the von Karman-Gabrielli line, 0.10
has been referred to as the "naval gap." In this
general sense, Reference 1 pointed out that the
ACV's had a potential for doing much toward filling
this existing high-speed over-water-vehicle "naval 3000 4000 5000
gap." o 1000 2000

RANCE IN NAUTICAL MILES


It is also evident from Figure 4 that both ACV
types show a substantial improvement with vehicle Figure 5 - Payload Fraction versus Range for Various
size, even for the calm water conditions given in Gross Weights

2
Payload fraction as a fupction of range in nauti- Resistance (LID)
cal miles for a CAE vehicle"' is shown in Figure 5.
Vehicle gross weight or displacement is treated Stability
parametrically from 100 to 50,000 tons, with cor-
responding vehicle velocities listed. If trans- Dynamic Loads
atlantic ranges (3000 to 4000 miles) are required
and it is desired to have reasonable payload fract- Structural Weight Fraction
ions of the order of 25 to 30 percent, then the in-
tersection region in Figure 5 calls for craft of Propulsion - (efficiency)
the 2000- to 5000-ton category.
- (weight, reliability)
Figure 6 shows speed as a function of gross dis-
placement of the craft for various sea conditions. The remainder of this paper deals with specific
It is seen that the design-determining condition technical information in two of these areas that
turns out to be the case of high (State 6) seas. was not available in the time frame of References 1
A special importance is attached to the capability and 4. The two areas are (1) resistance (or L/D),
to maintain a good speed in a 'itate 6 sea because and (2) propulsion. The third topic of stability
it is estimated to be the worst sea state which a is treated in Reference (5).
high-speed ship need ever encounter, making use of
modern sea state forecasting and taking advantage Resistance
of the more reliable route planning made possible
by higher speeds. :.loreover, a tAate 6 sea need be During 1966, tests of a 12-foot-long model of a
encountered only over short distances, on the order 4000-ton CAL sidewall vehicle were conducted at
of 100 miles. If a good speed is maintained, it the T1413 high-speed towing tank facilities at
should be practical to drive ahead through the Langley, Virginia. This model is shown as Figure
distrubed area at full power in a few hours, with- T. It has fabric seals forward ana mechanical
out prohibitive fuel burnoff. If a good speed seals aft; both respond very dynamically in waves
could not be maintained, however, then the full- relative to the body of the craft itself.
i.ower fuel burnoff would become excessive, and it
would be necessary to reduce power and increase
transit time to traverse the disturbed area at low
speed.
150

CAB

pa - 0.8 .e1b - 2
W 'HP -60 lb 'hp

llol.
prIJIlip Figure 7 - CAB Model (1 27.2 Scale) of a 4000-Ton SES

Figure 8 shows a significant comparison


between theoretical drag-predictive methods and

iordil
experimental results for smooth-water conditions.
It considers model drag as a function of model
speed and compares a calculated theoretical pre-
diction of drag to experimental values. The ex-
perimental points are shown as various shaped dots
representing 1, 2, 3, and 4 blowers. in the 28-
50
5 2 4 6 8 2
foot per second case (model speed), representing
500 1000 10,000 MON 87 knots for the 4000-ton CAS, the 1-, 2-, 3-, and
DISPLACEMENTINLONGaUDINALTONS 4-blower cases represent 5, 10, 15, and 20 percent
Figure 6 - Speed versus Gross WeightforVarious Sea States of the total vehicle power invested in fan or cush-
ion power. Each blower represents a flow of ap-
If a fixed, above-the-hump speed of 50 knots is proximately 350 cubic feet per minute. A compari-
taken as a minimum for the condition of a L;tate-6 son of the theory and experiment is valid only at
sea, then Figure 6 shows that a large vehicle of speeds above the hump. The primary conclusion that
3000 to 4000 tons is required. can be drawn from Figure 8 is that there is essential
agreement (fnr the smooth-water case and with ade-
The major problem areas that apply to new vehi- quate fan power) between the experimental results
cle developments in general and to ACV's in par- and the theoretical drag and power predictive meth-
ticular are: ods used in References 1 and 4.

3
0.25 100

0.125 50 90

45 0.20 80

0.100 40 70

35 0.15 60

0.075 u 30 50
a
o
w 25 0.10 ô 40
o
0.050 20 30

15 . 0.05 20
1 BLOWER
2 BLOWERS
0.025 10 3 BLOwERS 10

4 BLOWERS

O
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32
mODEL SPEED IN FT/SEC
25 SO 75
0
8 12 16 20 24 28 32 PROTOTYPE SPEED IN KNOTS
mODEL SPEED IN FT SEC
0 25 50 75 100 Figure 10 Model Drag Results in Waves
PROTOTYPE SPEED IN KNOTS

Figure 8 Model Drag Results in Smooth Water Propulsion

Figure 9 is a similar comparison for this model It was mentioned previously that the amphibious
in 3.0-inch regular waves (6.5 feet full scale). hovercraft would likely have air propellers; these
Again there is an essential agreement between theory are compatible with overland operation. The CATS,
and experiment, provided adequate fan power is pres- which is not amphibious, has a potential advantage
ent. There is, however, an anomalous effect that in the use of high-speed, water propulsion systems.
begins to appear, i.e., the best experimental points The propulsor, gears and prime mover can be in-
are above the theory at interim speeds, but, they are stalled, partially or totally, in the sidewalls of
below the theory at the highest speed,32 feet per the vehicle.
second (model scale) or 100 knots ( full scale),
The anomalous effect is still present in Figure 10, Figure 11 is a picture of a water-jet propulsor,
where the best experimental points at high speed are together with a turboshaft engine and associated
considerably better than predicted. machinery installed in the sidewalls of' a large
CAB vehicle. The water is ingested at the bottom
of the siciewall into an inlet-diffuser region.
From here it moves through the water-jet pump and
0.20 80
exits through a nozzle at the rear of the sidewall.
It is very significant that the duct lengths can
70 be of minimum length with minimum bends; this
allows the most favorable overall duct loss coef-
0.15 60
ficients, without prohibitive water weights.

50

0,10 2 40

30

0.05 20

10

o
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32

MODEL SPEED IN FT SEC


25 50 75

PROTOTYPE SPEED IN KNOTS


Figure 11 - Water-Jet Propulsion Installation in a
Figure 9 Model Drag Results in Waves CAB Sidewall
A computer program has been established on If more reasonable,but still large propeller ar-
water-jets 0.7 as well as air propellers; vpAcle eas are accepted (20 percent of base area), it can
drag and power characteristics are included'''. be seen from Figure 13 that higher shaft nowers
Air propellers and water jets can now be compared are required because of lowered propulsive effici-
based on results of this program for a 1O00-ton encies. The efficiency drop is caused by the lower-
CAB vehicle. ed mass flow rate.

Figure 12 shows shaft power versus speed, where If more practical air propeller areas are con-
the shaft power depends both on the vehicle drag sidered (5 percent of the base area) as shown in
characteristics as a function of speed and on the Figure l, then the propulsive efficiency loss is
propulsive efficiency. This plot applies to water- severe and results in high values of required shaft.
jet propulsion of the 'type shown in Figure 11 en- power. Roughly a factor of two in installed power
closed within the sidewalls. The same power re- required is shown in Figure 11+, 150,000 shaft
sults can be obtained for air propellers, but in horsepower for the water jet versus 300,000 shaft
this case, the propeller area must be absurdly horsepower for a.n air propeller of 5 percent pro-
large, 80 percent of the base or cushion area of peller-to-base-area ratio. This difference is of
the craft. paramount importance in large craft with long re-

,
quired ranges.
200

150

eon:
omm,
50-
WATER JET
OR AIR PROP Sp/S =0.80

00000
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

SPEED IN KNOTS
Figure 12 - Power versus Speed for Water-Jet and for Large
Air Propeller Array
250

200

150 AIR PROP Sp/S = 0.20

100

*moo*
50-- WATER JET momo
OR AIR PROP Se/S=0.80 moo**
moo..
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

SPEED IN KNOTS

Figure 13 - Power versus Speed for Smaller Air Propeller Array

5
300

250
AIR PROP Sp/S .0.05

200

AIR PROP SEIS = 0.20


x 150

LIJ

100

50 WATER JET
OR AIR PROP Sp/S = 0.80

01100111

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

SPEED IN KNOTS

Figure 14 - Power versus Speed for Small Air Propeller Array

Propulsion considerations are not independent; Figure 15 shows structural weight fraction as a
they interac't with the choice of vehicle chara.cter- function of the pressure-to-length ratio (P/L).
istics. For example, if the vehicle specific load- The pressure P is essentially the specific load-
ing (weight/cushion-area) increases, 'there is a ing (weight/cushion area). This, plot shows that
likelihood of a reduction in structural-weight there is, in fact, a substantial potential savings
fraction,which can then be invested in payload or in the structural weight fraction for high (P/1)
in fuel to increase range. But the upper value of values; the value 0.13 is typical of the present
vehicle specific loading is controlled by the state-of-the-art and 1.5 is a possible projection.
wave-making drag at the hump speed and the pro- The exact downward trend of Figure 15 is subject
pulsive efficiency at the hump speed (for a given to further definition of loads and designs; how-
installed power). ever, the principal conclusions of the subsequent
trade-off argument will be relatively insensitive
to the exact finalized shape of Figure 15.

STRUCTURAL WEIGHT
GROSS WEIGHT

REFERENCE

02 0.4 06 0.8 10 1.2 14 1.6 18

P/L IN LB/FT'
Figure 15 - Structural Weight Fraction versus Pressure/Length
Ratio

6
300

250

200

150
uJ
o
o_

100

50

O 10 20 30 40 50

SPEED IN KNOTS

Figure 16 - Power versus Speed for Several Pressure/Length


Ratios over a Range of Wave Heights

Figure 16 shows power calculations for a 14,000-


ton CAB as a function of speed, with (P/L) a para-
meter. For each value of (P/L), a hign and a low wV1 Wi)
sea state condition is calculated (State 2 and 6 RAliGb =
P 7177 ln (Wf
seas). because highly efficient water-jet propul-
sor systems are utilized, the powers at the hump 1
speeds (30 to 40 knots) are low for (P/L) of 0.8. RANGE = K () ln
wf)
Figure 14 shows that the greatest power advantage
for an efficient propulsion system is at and near Wi = Initial Weight
hump speed. For a (P/L) of 1.5, 150,000 shaft
horsepower at hump speeds is not exceeded. This Wf = Final Weight After Fuel Burn off
power value is sorewhat arbitrarily selected; SFC = Specific Fuel Consumption
however, the argument to be made is a relative one, = Power
and (P/L) values of 0.8 and 1.5 will be used.
W = Weight
For the low sea state, the cruise velocities V = Velocity (VK in Knots)
are equal (about 85 knots) for both (P/L) values; = Constant
for the high sea state case, the velocity for a
(PIL) of 1.5 is only about 3 knots lower than for FIGURE _
WV 1 (DL
a (P/L) of 0.8. By going to (P/L) of 1.5, how- OF MERIT - P T7TF7 \OW) VK
ever, we gain significantly in payload or fuel load
(Figure 15).
To evaluate the tradeoff implicit here, a tenta-
tively selected figure of merit M was used. It has This figure of merit M is plotted in Figures 17
many of the terms of the Breguet range equation, and 18. These figures confirm that the trend to high
and expresses proximity to the von Karman-Gabrielli (P/L) values is a profitable one. For these reasons,
line (Figure 4). It is proportional to disposable- it is concluded that the ACV field will probably
load fraction (VL/GW), that is, fuel plus payload trend to higher (P/L) values, typically from 0.8 to
fraction, and inversely proportional to specific 1.5, particularly in sidewall CAB craft where effi-
fuel consumption (SFC), which expresses power plant cient water-jet systems can be utilized.
efficiency.

7
2.0 VON KARMAN-GABRIELLI LINE FOR -DL - 50 PERCENT
GW

LB)2.0
P/L (--FT3
1.5 1.5

FIGURE OF 1.2
MERIT

1.0 0.9

)
LB/HP HR
(KNOTS

0.2

0.1
20 30 50 100 200 Figure 19 - Semi-Submerged Supercavitating Propeller
Installation in a CAB Sidewall
VELOCITY IN KNOTS

Figure 17 - Figure of Merit versus Speed for Several


Pressure/Length Ratios

0.8
1.8 -
0.7
1.6

1.4 0.6

1.2
0.

M 1.0
0.4

0.8
0.

0.6
a.

0.4

0.2r
1,6 0.9 1.0 13
0.5 0.
0.8 1.2 1.5 2.0
ApvANCE RATIO 1-
NO
P/L
Figure 20 - Propeller Efficiency versus Advance Ratio for
Figure 18 - Maximum Figure of Merit versus Pressure/Length a Semi-Submerged Supercavitating Propeller Model
Ratio
A second class of propulsion to be considered
is a partially immersed supercavitating propeller;
see Figure 19. An advantage of such an installat-
ion in a CM sidewall is that there are no shafts
or large pods in the water; the shafts and machin-
ery can be contained within the sidewall. References

Figure 20 shows early test results of propeller 1. Todd, F.H., Chaplin, H.R. , Ellsworth, W.M. Jr.,
efficiency as a function cf advance ratio).O. The Radler, J.B. , Nakonechny, B.V., "A Study of The
value of the maximum propeller efficiency is encou- Technical Feasibility of Future iiigh-Speed NavY
ragingly high, as high, in fact, as a fully immersed Vehicles (U), "David Taylor Model Basin Feport
supercavitating propeller, exclusive of shaft or C - 2050 (July 1965) Confidential.
pod losses of the fully immersed propeller.
Gabrielli,. G. and von Karman, T., "What Price
The availability of two promising possibilities Speed?" Mechanical Engineering (Oct 1950).
for high-speed water propulsion of CAB vehicles;
water jets and partially immersed supercavitating Chaplin, J.R. , "The New Trend in Gems'',
propellers; raises the probability for the success- Astronautics and Aeronautics (Oct 1965) Vol 3
ful development of at least one of these systems. No. 10.

8
Nakonechny, B.V. Breitenstein, K.O., "Cost Con- High Speed Hydrofoil Craft", AIAA paper So. 64-306.
parison and Tradeoffs for Surface Ships, Air Cush-
ion Vehicles, and Aircraft in Naval Transport/Sup- Ford, A.G., "Prorress in Air Cushion Vehicles",
ply Missions (U), (Preliminary Study)," David David Taylor Model Basin Report 2280 (Oct 1966).
Taylor Model Basin Report C - 2123 (Nov 1965)
Confidential. Chaplin, H.B., Ford,'A.G., "Some Design
Principles of Ground Effect Machines, Section D -
Wilson, R. A., "Captured Air Bubble Vehicle Drag" David Taylor Model Basin Report 2121 D
Stability Tests", Presented at AIAA/SNAME (June 1966).
Advanced Marine Vehicle Meeting (May 1967).
Shields, C.E., "Open-Water Performance Char-
Levy, J., "The Design of Water Jet Propulsion acteristics of Several Semi-Submerged Supercavi-
Systems For Hydrofoil Craft" Presented before tating Propellors" David Taylor Model Lasin
Southern California Section SHAME (May 1964). hyuromechanics Laboratory Test Report 193-h-01
(Dec 1966).
Johnson, V.E. Jr, "Water Jet Propulsion for
No. 61-349

CAPTURED AIR BUBBLE VEHICLE STABILITY TESTS


by

ROBERT A. WILSON
Naval Ship Research and Development Center
Washington, D. C.

Paper No.
67-349

AIAA/SNAME Advance marine


whims meeting
NORFOLK, VIRGINIA/MAY 22-24, 1967
First publication rights reserved by American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1290 Avenue of the Americas, New York, N. Y. 10019
and Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, 74 Trinity Place, New York, N. Y. 10006
Abstracts may be published without perrnission if credit is given to author ánd to AIAA/SNAME. (Member Price-75c; Nonmember Price$1.50)
3.08, 7.07, 10.11
CAPTURED AIR BUBBLE VEHICLE STABILITY TESTS

Robert A. Wilson
Aerospace Engineer
Surface Effect Ships Project Office
Naval Ship Research and Development Center
(Formerly the David Taylor Model Basin)
Washington, D.C.

Abstract There were many parameters tested such as


vehicle weight, c.g. etc., but the primary param-
Results of calm water, steady state turn stabil- eter has been design configuration. Over one-
ity tests on numerous Captured Air Bubble (CAB) hundred configurations have been submitted to the
vehicle design configurations are presented. The same set of test conditions. The primary variables
relatively high speed experienced by the CAB within these design configurations have been length
vehicle with its high center of gravity present sta- to beam ratio, sidewall shape, forward seal design,
bility problems whose solutions are intrinsically aft seal design, centerboard/no centerboard, and
enmeshed with the nature of the craft itself. Strong ventral stability fins.
interactions between sideslip (yaw), roll, heave,
pitch and bubble pressure increase the complexity In general the goal has been to find configura-
of the problem. A test technique was devised tions that exhibit yaw and roll static stability in
where, by virtue of the Fraude scale laws, models relatively severe smooth water turn conditions.
are analogs of larger vehicles in turns with equal Behind the assignment of this goal is the knowledge
centripetal accelerations. In this test technique that the more general problem of dynamic behavior
used, side-slip angle is taken to be the prime in turns is not being addressed at this time.
independent variable, being closely related to the
centripetal force (or acceleration) on the craft in Model
a turn. Roll, pitch, heave and bubble pressure are
dependent variables. The goal has been to find The CAB stability model which was tested is
configurations that exhibit yaw and roll static presented in Figure 1. The model is constructed
stability in relatively severe smooth water turn of aluminum with plexiglas or wood sideboards and
conditions. Primary configuration variables are plexiglas centerboard. The forward and aft seals
beam dimension, sidewall shape, forward and aft are constructed of plexiglas, neoprene coated fab-
seal design, centerboard and ventral stability fins ric or neoprene coated fabric reinforced with
of various designs. Quantitative results are pre- spring steel depending on the configuration. Six
sented which identify design directions that provide axial fans are utilized as compressors to lift a
significant progress toward the goal of a stable percentage of the model weight and to pressurize
craft. the seals when required.
Introduction Two sets of standard TMB block gauges are
utilized to measure three component force data on
Calm water steady state turn stability tests the bow and stern of the craft in the body axis.
were conducted on a 1/7 scale model of the XR-1 Moments can be calculated for pitch and yaw. Roll
Captured Air Bubble (CAB) vehicle together with moment is measured on an independent gauge.
numerous vehicle design modifications. The tests Lateral forces on the sideboards are measured
were carried out on the Rotating Arm Facility, a fore and aft on smaller block gauges. Vertical
260 foot diameter test facility at the David Taylor position indicators on the bow and stern mea.sure
Model Basin (DTMB).(1) the angle of pitch and the height of the center of
gravity referred to the water level. Roll angles
The purpose of the test was to determine vehi- were also measured. Continuous recordings of
cle design modifications to be made to the )CR-1, the vertical position of the forward and aft skis
the first CAB type vehicle, to insure steady state and the bubble pressure were made on an oscillo-
turn stability. These objectives were broadened graph. All other forces, moments and displace-
when the complexity of the problem areas were ments were digitized and typed data obtained. The
evaluated in the early stages of the test. The ob- center of gravity of the model corresponded to the
jective was expanded to evaluate vehicle designs scaled center of gravity of the XR-1. The force
which could be used on future CAB type vehicles. and moment gauges were located with their center
The complexity of the total vehicle dynamic prob- of action and roll center at the center of gravity
lem caused by the cross coupling of the modes of (see Figure 1).
motion lead to the test technique chosen. Models
tested in this way are, by virtue of the Froude The model was supported beneath the carriage
scaling laws, analogs of larger craft in turns with of the Rotating Arm on two vertical traversing
equal centripetal accelerations. The Froude scal- screw jacks. The Rotating Arm acted as the pro-
ing guarantees hydrodynamic similarity. pulsive force for the model. The model was

1
12 Y2 X2 X1 Y, Z.,

-- :111,1

-- 6.9 - COORDINATE SYSTEM

SIDEBOARD GAUGES
NOTE: ALL DIMENSIONS IN FEET
SCREW JACK

TYPICAL TMB BLOCK COUNTERWEIGHT


GAUGE ASSEMBLY TYPICAL
- PIVOT ARM

Z2 Y2 '2 Xl V1Z,
1 -
At_4 r

0.73
0.83 j
_t i L. 1
V/b
FEET
4.34 B/2
2.79 2.17 3.5 1.43 B
0.1 i H- 5.0 (BUBBLE LENGTH) 2.35 2.12 (BUBBLE WIDTH)

FIGURE 1-CAB STABILITY MODEL.

allowed to roll unrestrained within pre-set limits approximately 200%. The correct lift distribution,
to insure a zero roll moment when this condition taking into account the pitch down moment (with
is desired. The model can be restrained in roll respect to the c.g.) due to drag and the air propul-
when non-zero roll moments are needed. sive system for thrust was calculated. The lift
distribution on the model was achieved by raising
The tests were conducted at a Froude Number or lowering screw jacks independently (see Fig-
of 1.57 which corresponds to a 20 foot per second ure 1) until the desired lift at the bow and stern is
model velocity and scales to 31 knots on the XR-1A. obtained as read from the z gauges. The sideslip
Figure 2 shows the model in operation. Side slip angle was increased until a severe roll condition
(or yaw) angle was the primary independent vari- was experienced, at whiCh time a sideboard or seal
able used for testing each configuration. For each is out of the water and the bubble vented. Data
sideslip angle, the model was allowed to seek an pointsare taken in the vented, non steady state
attitude of zero pitching moment and zero rolling condition. The model weight in this case was in-
moment. The total weight of the model and instru- correct but a zero rolling moment exists. These
mentation exceeded the scaled model weight by latter data points are useful in identifying the
details of instabilities associated with venting.

Results and Discussion


Configurations are evaluated by comparing the
attitude, yaw moment, side acceleration and bubble
pressure for the sideslip range tested. The sever-
ity of the turn is established by comparing side
accelerations which can be equated to turn radius.
In the discussion presented, frequent reference is
made to the model's yaw or roll stability. The use
of these terms herein will be explained for clarity.
A craft which is yaw stable (without the use of
FIGURE 2-CAB STABILITY MODEL IN OPERATION
rudders) has a characteristic yawing moment
ON ROTATING ARM. which opposes any increased sideslip angle. A yaw

2
instability implies an inherent yawing moment
which tends to force the craft into a more severe s.eir
turn. In Figures 4 through 14, a negative (-) yaw-
ing moment curve slope is stabilizing. It should be ,
noted that the yawing moment is not only a function 3-a-BEAM DIMENSION, SIDEBOARD SHAPE,
CENTERBOARD'NO CENTERBOARD
INCREASED SIDEBOARD
THICKNESS
of side slip angle but largely dependent upon roll
angle, pitch angle and c.g. height referred to the
water surface. Since the model was tested on the
Rotating Arm, it was always operating in a curved
flow. It is this curved flow which tends to induce 3-b-VENTRAL FINS VERTICAL CANTED
a yawing moment at zero side slip (5) angles. If the
craft were tested in a straight towing basin, the
yawing moment at zero 5 would be zero.
FORWARD SEAL
Roll stability is a function of the height of the AFT SEAL
3-c-SEAL LOCATIONS
center of gravity of the craft, pitch angle and roll
angle. A roll stable craft is one with a character-
istic rolling moment which opposes any change in
roll angle from the steady state roll attitude for its
specific c.g. height and pitch angle. As will be SPRING ACTUATED PRESSURE ACTUATED

observed in the results shown, many configurations 3-d-AFT SEAL DESIGN

exhibit a roll instability at very severe sideslip


angles which result in a loss of bubble pressure
leading to an inoperable attitude for this high speed SEMI-FLEXIBLE RIGID
craft. Note that this instability was affected by the PLENUM PRESSURE ACTUATED
FAN PRESSURE ACTUATED
increased wetting of the sidewall due to flow along
3-e-FORWARD SEAL DESIGN
the sidewall from the yaw attitude and slight lower-
ing of the c.g. and change in pitch angle.
NON-RIGID
FABRIC
Early portions of the test were used to define a
method of test and verify the validity of the results. 3-f-RIGID/NON-RIGID SIDEWALL DESIGN

The first model tested was 1/7 scale of the )CR-1


FIGURE 3-DESIGN CONFIGURATIONS TESTED,
which has a length to beam ratio, (0/b) of 3.5 as
shown in the narrow beam in Figures 1 and 3a. hydrodynamic force vector to have a longer mo-
This vehicle, the first in the CAB vehicle series, ment arm above the c.g. and a larger restoring
had a roll-yaw instability which resulted in the roll moment than the narrower craft. In yaw, the
craft rolling over in a high speed turn. The steady sideboard drag vector would be larger and out-
state turn attitude history for the model is pre- board roll could produce a yaw stabilization.
sented in Figure 4. The model rolled outboard in Figure 4 demonstrates the effect of beam increase
a large radius turn and continued to roll outboard on roll and yaw. The wider craft has become more
as the severity of the turn increased. The model stable in roll than the narrow craft as observed by
demonstrated a stabilizing yawing moment initially
(negative moment) but the slope of the curve was the slower rate of outboard roll with increased
destabilizing (positive slope). The craft became sideslip angle. Yaw sta.bility was affected by de-
yaw unstable at a 0.08 g turn which scales to an laying the sideslip angle at which the instability
approximate 1000 ft. radius turn for the XR-1 at occurred to a 5 of about seven degrees.
31 knots. The height of the c. g. relative to the The roll attitude of the craft strongly influences
water is constant through the sideslip range tested.
A severe roll instability was experienced when the its yaw stability. Figure 4 shows that the height of
craft had rolled outboard to an angle of approxi- the center of gravity with respect to the water is
mately 40. The trends shown by the data seemed constant with changes in roll angle. As the side-
-epresentative of observed attitudes of the XR-1. slip angle increases and the craft begins to roll
outboard, the force on the sideboard is increased
since the projected area perpendicular to the flow
Based upon these observations, confidence was is increased. The percentage increase of wetted
gained in the test technique and the results of the area forward of the center of gravity rises at a
test. The follow on tests were to make basic de- faster rate than the percentage increase of wetted
sign configuration changes to the model to correct area aft due to the aft c.g. location and the large
the roll and yaw instabilities. initial wetting aft even at zero 5. The hydro-
dynamic force which is proportional to the wetted
Beam Increase area will move forward with increased roll. A
The beam of the craft was increased 50% to an point is finally reached where the yaw moment
( e/b) of 2.35 as shown in Figures 1 and 3a in the curve turns down (see Figure 4), and eventually
attempt to ensure a roll stable craft and hopefully where it crosses zero and exhibits an absolute
augment the yaw stability. This would cause the static instability in yaw.

3
0.6 12 and tends to roll the craft outboard in a turn at
1-
a greater rate than a craft with no fin. To mini-
E 0.5 mize the roll destabilizing affect, the fin was
P canted 45° under the craft. This would direct the
0.4 .... force toward the e.g., reducing the unfavorable
o - -,..'"-- \ Sp
roll moment by reducing the moment arm. The
ace 0.3 \ projected area of the 45° ventral fin acted upon
Ui \ by the hydrodynamic force is 30% less than that
of the straight ventral fin. This explains the de-
.0- - --
u- 0.2
u crease in yawing moment for the configuration
o
using a 45° ventral fin in Figure 5.
0.1

0.6 I 12
0 O

25 -
CONFIGURATION
0 NARROW MODEL, 0/b = 3.5 10
E 0.5 10 7
u_
AWIDE MODEL, 0/b = 2.35 6,
0.4 i
20 8
_ 8
u_ o ce

15
_ - 6
0.3 I' ..\\
6
Ui \ \\ LU
12
J Uio
u- 0.2 4
o_
Lu
Lu 10 4
co
o
0.1 2
-5 _ -2 o o

Aii
"t
41111 1Al 0
O
CONFIGUR ATION
o

NO VENTRAL FIN
-25 LSTRAIGHT VENTRAL FIN 10
-2 045 VENTRAL FIN
5
--..
0-, AO
ma
20 8
2 10

15 -6
1
_ 11C0/ -5
.

FAKE.
4
I I I I

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

_..,
2
SIDESLIP ANGLE, 13

FIGURE 4EFFECT OF BEAM INCREASE UPON O


. o
STEADY STATE TURN STABILITY.
5
. 2
Observations of the model at roll angles of
approximately 4° show the bubble venting under the 2 10
bow seal and on the side which is slightly out of the _ LLI

water. When this venting occurs, the bubble Pres- 1 5


sure can no longer support the vehicle weight,
shifting the weight of the craft onto the sideboards o 0
and aft seal. The sideboards then become deeply 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
immersed causing the craft to become yaw un- SIDESLIP ANGLE, 13
stable in the manner previously discussed.
FIGURE 5VENTRAL FIN CONTRIBUTION
Ventral Fins TO YAW STABILITY
A series of tests were conducted with ventral
fins of the size, shape and location shown in Fig-
ure 3b to improve the vehicle's yaw stability. The Sideboard Shape
effect of no fin, a straight fin and a fin canted 45° The shape of the constant section portion of the
under the craft are presented in Figure 5. The XR-1 sideboards made a 30° included angle with
hydrodynamic force vector is assumed to act per- the vertical inner surface of the sideboard. The
pendicular to the fin surface. The straight ventral hydrodynamic vector acting perpendicular to the
fin located at the stern of the sideboard creates a outer surface Oas only marginally stabilizing in
moment about the z-axis which is observed to give roll and as the severity of the vehicle's attitude
a substantial increase to the yaw moment. The increased in roll and yaw, the roll moment was
direction of the force vector with respect to the not strong enough to oppose the craft's inherent
x-axis creates an unstable roll moment component destabilizing roll moment. A 45° dead rise angle

4
would direct the force vector above the c.g. pro- the opposite side retained by the centerboard will
viding roll stability through a greater roll range. lead to an increased restoring roll moment. It
Figure 3a presents the 30° and 45° dead rise should be noted that the forward and aft seals were
angle sections tested and their vector direction planing surfaces as shown in Figure 3c and that
for a zero degree roll condition. Figure 6 pre- these seals were in two lateral sections for the
sents the effect upon stability of changing the side- model with a centerboard and only one lateral sec-
board angle from 30° to 45°. The configurations tion for the model containing no centerboard. The
also have the benefit of pressure compartmentation results of this comparison can be observed in
for roll stability. Increasing the angle on the side- Figure 7.
board delayed the rate at which the craft rolled
with increased sideslip angle. The increased roll Both models with a centerboard rolled into the
stability further increased the craft's yaw stability turn approximately until a 0.1 5 g turn at which
which made the craft stable in a higher g turn. time it began to roll outboard as the severity of
0.6 12
the turn increased. Of these two, the vehicle with-
out lateral bubble pressure compartmentation
rolled outboard at a greater rate than the vehicle
10
0.5
with pressure compartmentation. The yaw stability
for the craft with lateral pressure compartmenta-
d. 0.4 8 tion was the highest of the two because it had a
o higher pitch angle (less wetted area forward of the
ce
0.3 6 c.g.) and was in a higher g turn when the craft
u, became roll unstable.
0.2 4

0.6 12
0.1 2

-
0.5 10 7.-
CO
CONFIGURATION
30° INCLUDED ANGLE 0.4 8 cc
-25 A 45° INCLUDED ANGLE - -10
----:"- - ---'.--Z- -.
0.3 -6
8
,
0.2 %--` 4
-6 , \ -J
CO

0.1 ,,, 2 cia


-4 \LI
o O
-2
-25
-- -10
Alk
-20 8
-2
-15 -
10

-10
5

-_ -5 -2
1

4 6 8 10 12 141 160 \ .........-2/


SIDESLIP ANGLE, O O

.. .....'rONFIGURATION
123 NO CENTERBOAPD
FIGURE 6-THE EFFECT OF SIDEBOARD INCLUDED 5 - L), CENTERBOARD WITH - 2
ANGLE AND SHAPE UPON STABILITY. LATERAL COMPARTMENTATION
0 CENTERBOARD WITHOUT

Centerboard
2
1.- -..--.,--..--......-....---
HCG"'
LATERAL COMPARTMENTATION
. .. fa
...
O
c.n

The effect of a centerboard upon stability was 1 - 8 _ 5 z


determined by testing models containing a center- .0
board, with and without lateral bubble pressure O
''. J 1 , t
0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
compartmentation and a model with no centerboard.
SIDESLIP ANGLE,
A centerboard was installed to divide the bubble
into two lateral segments for roll stability. If the
craft tended to roll to the extent which the bubble FIGURE 7-COMPARISON OF NO CENTERBOARD, CENTER-
BOARD WITH, AND WITHOUT LATERAL
vented under the seal or sidewall, the pressure on BUBBLE PRESSURE COMPARTMENTATION.

5
The model with no centerboard and one piece for both are similar for low roll angles but as the
bow and stern seals (laterally) exhibited a zero craft rolls outboard, the pitch angle increased for
roll angle to a 0.1 g turn at which time it began the constant stiffness pressurized seal as antici-
to roll outboard as the severity of the turn in- pated.
creased but at a slower rate than both of its
counterparts in this comparison. The g force on 0.6 12
the craft when it became roll unstable by virtue
of the bubble venting was not as high as the g force 0.5 -10
on the craft with lateral pressure compartmenta-
tion but the peak value yawing moment for the two 0.4 8
craft were only 10% different. The yawing moment
for the vehicle with a centerboard but no lateral -6
0.3
bubble pressure compartmentation was approxi-
mately 50% lower.
0.2 4

Figure 7 demonstrates that the stabilizing effect


of a one piece seal (laterally) upon roll appro,d- 0.1 -2
mately equals the roll stability gained through
lateral bubble pressure compartmentation. Yaw
stability has not suffered appreciably and decreas-
ing the wetted surface by removing the centerboard -25 - -10
would decrease the drag on the craft.
-20
u_
Aft Seal Stiffness and Actuation cri
The aft seal is spring actuated and for all pre- -J. -15 - -6
vious configurations has had the same spring
constant. The effect of a softer aft seal was ob- -4
tained by halving the spring constant. Evaluating
the affect can be accomplished by noting the yaw- _ - -2
ing moment and pitch angle curves in Figure 8.
The soft stern seals caused a change in nominal
pitch angle from 0.5° to 1.2° and a 43% increase
of the peak value of the yaw moment curve. The
soft skis proved beneficial for stability but the CONFIGURATION
0 SPRING ACTUATEDSTIFF
-2
increased sideboard wetted area would presumably SPRING ACTUATEDSOFT
Q PRESSURE ACTUATED
cause a substantial increase in drag. 10
Uj. _ZICG I

Another method of controlling the stiffness of -5 z


the aft ski is by pressurization, the method shown Co.

in Figure 3d. The higher a spring actuated ski is 1

6
I I
8
1

10 2 16
o

raised by the water beneath, the stiffer it becomes. 2 4 114

This effect of the spring actuated ski could be SIDESLIP ANGLE, t3


detrimental to yaw stability. As the craft rolls FIGURE 8-COMPARISON OF AFT SKI STIFFNESS AND
outboard and greater vertical forces are exerted METHOD OF ACTIVATION.
on the aft ski, the stern of the model will be forced
to ride high in the water decreasing the pitch angle Solid vs. Semi-Flexible Seals
and causing the hydrodynamic vector to act nearer A one piece bow and stern seal appears to be
the bow. The stiffness of a pressurized aft ski can equally stabilizing in roll as a two piece seal with
be regulated by changing the diameter of the ori- lateral bubble pressure compartmentation as has
fice between the ski and plenum thus changing the been previously mentioned. The disadvantage of a
pressure. The ski stiffness is constant once the one piece solid seal is its inability to conform to
orifice diameter is set. Thus the craft will ride a quartering or beam wave. A possible solution
high in the water for small roll deflections and as would be a seal which is flexible locally but rigid
the craft rolls outboard and the vertical forces on when considering spanwise loading. This type seal
the aft ski associated with roll stability become was constructed (in the scale of the model) of
higher, the stern will ride lower in the water and spring steel ribs covered by a layer of a thin neo-
should be more yaw stable in this condition. prene coated fabric. Such a ski would have the
pressure acting over the entire width of the craft
Figure 8 also compares the pressurized aft ski providing a stabilizing roll force but could deflect
and the spring actuated aft ski. The yaw moment locally, allowing a qua.rtering wave to pass beneath
curve for each is very similar but the total side without allowing the plenum to vent. This type of
force where the yaw moment curve peaks for a seal is shown in Figure 3e. The rigid flap portion
pressurized aft seal is 10% higher than its counter- of the bow seal as shown in Figure 3e was forced
part with a spring loaded aft seal. The pitch angles down with air pressure greater than the plenum

6
pressure. This pressurization afforded better ventral fin located at the stern of the sideboard.
shaping of the forward seal for performance con- The height of the center of gravity with respect
siderations, good bubble retention characteristics to the water was lowered 15% to better insure roll
and tends to keep the bow high for favorable yaw stability. This configuration is compared with that
considerations. Figure 9 compares the data for of the XR-1 in Figure 10. The XR-1A demon-
configurations utilizing the semi-flexible forward strates roll and yaw stability to a 0.4 g turn. Tests
seal and the solid forward seal. The roll angle for using rudders showed a capability of putting the
each model is similar through a 0.2 g turn. The craft in a 0.15 g turn. Although the data shows the
lower yaw moment experienced with the semi- craft becoming yaw unstable at a 0.4 g turn, it is
flexible forward seal configuration is due to the felt that the dynamics of the problem will not put
slightly higher e.g. height, resulting in less side- the craft in a catastrophic condition.
wall wetted area as demonstrated by the lower
side accelerations in Figure 9.
0.6 12
0.6

0.5
, ,
f 12

0.5
/
0.4
-
o
6 0.4 f 0.3
__-
___ ------
-0

-6 ,01 .
-I-
17. 0.3
0.2 \
0.2
0.1
x>

0.1 -2
O O
....
-, CONFIGURATION ...
-2 - 0 XR-1 _ 10
OXR-1A
".(2.10
20 -8
u_
-20
-15 -6
u_
-15
10 4

w -10
o
o -5 _ 2
F
- - 0
...,--- O

..
5
.--, .7.
CONFIGURATION
D SOLID SEAL
0 SEMI-FLEXIBLE SEAL
10
2
0 10

----7-
1 5

H cG
1 -5 0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
o SIDESLIP ANGLE, ß
2 4 6 8 10 2 14 16

SIDESLIP ANGLE, ß FIGURE 10STEADY STATE TURN STABILITY


CHARACTERISTICS OF THE XR-1 AND XR-1A.
FIGURE 9COMPARISON OF SOLID AND SEMI-FLEXIBLE
FORWARD SEALS.
Current Status and Problem Areas
XR-IA Configuration The data presented in Figure 11 represents the
The original goal of this test was to determine current advancement in the stability of the craft.
a design configuration to which the XR-1 could be This model, which retains the reference e.g. height,
modified and operated safely. The modifications is not as roll stable as the configuration repre-
based upon test results recommended were: in- senting the XR-1A which had a lower e.g. The
crease beam dimension by 50%, change the dead higher e.g. seems more reasonable when one con-
rise angle of the sideboards to 45° , use one piece siders that the vehicle's ability to "swallow" waves
seals (laterally) on the bow and stern with the is dependent upon the bubble height and in turn, the
stern seal bubble pressure actuated, and a 45° height of the e.g.

7
Although the craft shown in Figure 11 has good These effects can be explained in the following
stability characteristics to a 0.36 g turn, it does manner. As the craft rolls outboard, a larger area
go unstable in roll and yaw past this point. The becomes wetted creating a higher side force. The
data taken at [3 =16° does not represent a craft in percentage of wetted area ahead of the c.g. in-
a steady-state attitude, because the weight sup- creases at a faster rate than the portion aft. This
ported is incorrect. The craft has rolled outboard explains the rapid decrease in yaw stability.
past the point at which the bubble vents. The test
points taken are zero roll moment conditions. The Possible Solutions
craft has been lowered into the water in two steps, There are two possible solutions to these in-
approximately holding the pitch angle of the last stability problems. The forward section of the
steady-state condition consta.nt. At point number 1, sideboards could be constructed from a fabric
the craft has rolled to a position where the bubble which would contain the bubble but be unable to
has vented. The yaw moment immediately became support a hydrodynamic side force. As the craft
unstable but the total side force felt by the craft rolls and the hydrodynamic force increases, the
increased only 15% implying a slight decrease in greater portions of the force would be aft of the
turn radius. The second data point was taken at a center of gravity creating an ever increasing
greater immersion and a slightly different model restoring yaw moment. The restoring yaw mo-
weight. This resulted in a more severe roll angle. ment would tend to increase the turn radius and
The yaw moment became very destabilizing and the pull the craft out of the turn. The second solution
total side force increased 170% in this second case. would be to prohibit the craft from rolling by
Further, the craft has gone from a 0.4 g turn to a always having a restoring roll moment. This could
1.0 g turn with only a slight change in roll angle. possibly be accomplished by adding a variable
thickness section to the sideboard which would
0.6 12 allow the hydrodynamic vector to remain above
°2 el the c.g. as the force becomes high.
0.5
A fabric sideboard would not utilize the type of

V
a, o
c+ 0.4 .....0 seal previously tested, namely a movable planing
o ..._ -.....; surface. A fabric bag type forward seal shown in
Figure 3f could be used. This seal would be an
ace 0.3 integral part of the fabric sideboards. The pres-
Ui
surization would maintain the shape of the forward
uu 0.2
-..
- seal and create a tension force longitudinally in
\ the fabric sidewall which would tend to prohibit
0.1 the fabric from collapsing when the side forces
become high.
6 O
o
Tests examining the effect of fabric sidewalls
-25 0 XR-1
CONFIGURATION
- -10 and the seal shown in Figure 3f were undertaken
CI ADVANCED CONFIGURATION in four steps, the extremes of which are presented
%

8
in Figure 12. Ventral fins were not used in order
-20 to single out the effect of fabric sidewalls upon roll
2, and yaw stability. The sideboards were moved aft
i-
i

i
6 18 inches from their original position in six inch
steps and shortened at the stern. The craft with
4 normal length sideboards demonstrates some yaw
411, --P <IC
stability to a 0.2 g turn. As the craft rolls from
0 P 2
o-J points 1 to 2, (in Figure 12), it becomes more yaw
.>/
5
unstable as it progresses from a 0.35 g turn to a
0.6 g turn.
O O

N2 -.0 The fourth configuration tested in this series


t- 2 (the second configuration presented) consisted of
s- a set of sideboards shortened 18 inches or approx-
10 imately 25% of the sideboard length. The slope of
2
-- .A2 --- the yaw moment curve in this case was always
- CG ..................0
-, 5 z stabilizing regardless of roll angle. The maximum
1
side forces represented a 0.42 g turn. The inabil-
ity of a fabricsidewall to react a side force near
the bow results in a lower total side force but a
1 I 1 I

O
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

SIDESLIP ANGLE, #
high yaw stability. The trend of these results
represents a possible solution to the yaw stability
FIGURE 11-OVERALL ADVANCEMENT AND BASIS problem regardless of the roll attitudes of the
FOR FUTURE WORK craft.

8
0.6 12 0.6 12

10 0.5

P /
/ /

./. -
-.6 --,,,,... V
/7. \ --,..
.....
4

t.\\
4
..

2 \ 2

CONFIGURATION
CONFIGURATION A 0% S.B. THICKNESS INCREASE
-10 -25 10
-25 - 0 0% FABRIC SIDEWALL L. 60% S.B. THICKNESS INCREASE
0 25% FABRIC SIDEWALL
-20 8
i

1 -6

--r -
L
.2

-2
.... 1

O O

_
5 ......

2 10

licG7-- 5
LU

_ -- 8

O
u

6 8 10 12 14 16
, I
SIDESLIP ANGLE, 0 1
,
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

SIDESLIP ANGLE, 0
FIGURE 12YAW STABILITY ACHIEVED WITH THE
USE OF FABRIC SIDEWALLS NEAR FIGURE 13INCREASED SIDEBOARD THICKNESS FOR
THE BOW OF THE CRAFT. ROLL STABILITY.
The previously mentioned sideboard additions
intended to iinprove roll stability were tested. increased creating a greater lift and caused the
A section cut of this addition is shown in Figure 3a. stern to raise. As the stern rises, the hydro-
The results of these tests are presented in Fig- dynamic vector translates forward causing a yaw
ure 13. The addition made to the sideboards ex- instability.
tended from the stern of the sideboard forward
65% of the sideboard length. The planform thick- Tests are currently being performed which will
ness of the addition tapered from zero thickness combine a fabric sidewall at the forward end of the
at its forward most point to 60% of the sideboard craft for yaw stability and thicker, solid side-
thickness at the stern for the previously mentioned boards at the stern for roll stability. These tests
length. will be reported at a future time.
The roll history experienced was generally as Conclusions
anticipated up to about 9° of (3. The sideboard
addition caused the model to roll less. However, 1. Beam increase improves roll stability.
this addition caused the craft to exhibit poor yaw Z. A sideboard dead-rise angle of 450 directs
stability. The decrease in yaw stability can be the hydrodynamic vector above the center of
understood by observing the pitch angles which gravity improving roll stability.
decrease as the sideslip angles increase. The 3. Ventral fins increase yaw stability but they
increase in sideboard thickness created an in- must be canted under the craft yielding an effective
creased planing lift at the stern. As the side slip dihedral to minimize their detrimental effect upon
angle increased, the wetted area of the sideboard roll stability.

9
Lateral bubble pressure compartmentation Recommendations
achieved through the use of a centerboard is sta-
bilizing in roll but the same effect can be achieved A general observation from the test data is that
by increased beam dimension and improved side- a craft with rigid sidewalls the entire length of the
board geometry without the problems of added drag vehicle cannot easily be made statically stable in
associated with a centerboard. very severe conditions because of the roll-heave-
yaw interactions. Preliminary tests have shown
Flexible seals are beneficial for sea-keeping a craft with partially non-rigid and partially rigid
but contribute little to roll stability. sidewalls can be made yaw stable even though the
craft exhibits a heave-roll instability. Increasing
Laterally rigid seals contribute to roll sta- the sidewall thickness aft of the c.g. can provide
bility. heave-roll stabilization but lift at the stern asso-
ciated with the increased volume and wetted area
Pneumatically actuated bow and stern seals creates a lift which decreases the pitch angle and
provide the best pitch attitude leading to improved decreases the craft's yaw stability.
yaw stability. A sidewall containing both of the above men-
tioned properties could yield a craft which exhibits
Fabric sidewalls forward of the c.g. cannot both heave-roll and heave-yaw stability. If this
react side forces on the craft leading to improved can be achieved, the more general problem of the
yaw stability. The fabric sidewalls must be an
integral part of a fabric forward seal which contrib- vehicle's
can be
dynamic behavior in turns and sea-ways
subsequently addressed.
utes little to roll stability.
A sidewall with increased thickness for roll Referenc es
stability creates lift at the stern and lowers the 1. DTMB Report No. 1053, A Rotating Arm and
pitch angle which tends to decrease yaw stability. Maneuvering Basin, July 1956

10
No. 61-350

WATERJET PROPULSION FOR HIGH-SPEED SHIPS


by

L. ARCAND and C. R. COMOLLI


Pratt and Whitney Aircraft
West Palm Beach, Florida

Paper No.
67-350

AIAA/SNAME Advance marine


vemcies meeting
NORFOLK, VIRGINIA/MAY 22-24, 1967
First publication rights reserved by American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1290 Avenue of the Americas, New York, N. Y. 10019
and Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, 74 Trinity Place, New York, N. Y. 10006
Abstracts may be published without perrnission if credit is given to author and to AIAA/SNAME. (Member Price-75c; Nonmember Price$1.501

4.04, 5.08
WATERJET PROPULSION FOR HIGH-SPEED SHIPS

L. Arcand, Assistant Project Engineer,


and C. R. Comolli, Project Engineer,
Pratt & Whitney Aircraft Florida
Research and Development Center,
Div. of United Aircraft Corp.,
West Palm Beach, Fla.

Abstract delivers hot gas to a free turbine. The free tur-


bine power is delivered to a large water pump,
Gas turbine-waterjet propulsion offers signif- which accepts water from the inlet, raises its
icant advantages in many high-speed or special energy, and discharges it through a nozzle. This
purpose ships. These ships generally have speed
system differs from the propeller in the same way
capability above 30 knots and installed power-to-
propeller-driven aircraft differ from jet aircraft;
weight ratios of more than 10 hp per full load ton. that is, the acceleration of the working fluid is
The ships included in this category are destroyers greater in the jet than in the propeller. These
of the DD type and some smaller DLs, hydrofoils higher accelerations can result in lower propul-
above 40 knots, surface effect ships, and planing sive coefficients. The advantages are higher power
craft. Optimization of gas turbine-waterjet per unit weight, lower vessel drag per unit thrust
installations for maximum net thrust (system increased payload fraction, and reduced horsepower
thrust less drag penalty associated with the pro- required. Determining when the advantages outweigh
pulsion system) depends primarily on the L/D the disadvantages is the subject of a propulsion
ratio of the basic hull, design speed, ship length, optimization program.
and various component efficiencies. The major com-
ponents are the inlet, pump itself, gearbox, gas
turbine, and associated auxiliaries required for
an installation. For high-speed ships, propulsive
coefficients of 60%-65% are possible with conserv-
ative component loss assumptions. Optimization of
water jets from a total propulsion machinery plus
fuel cost for the ship life points out the impor-
tant effect of machinery reliability (overhaul
time), estimated ship life, and duty cycle. In
an optimum installation, gas turbine-waterjet
systems can be shown to cost about half as much
per payload ton-mile as a comparable steam power- 1 Bare Hull Drag 6 Pump Efficien,
plant for the same application, despite higher 2 External Drag of Inlet 7 Nozzle Loss Coefficient
priced fuel. 3 Inlet Ene, Loss 8 Gearbox Efficiency
4 Drag Due to Machine, Weight 9 Drag Due to Fuel Weight
5 Drag Due to Contained Water Weight 10 Engine Performance
I. Introduction
FIGURE 1. POWERPLANT OPTIMIZATION CONSIDERATIONS
The acceptance of seagoing propulsion using gas-
turbine powered waterjets has received increasing
attention in recent years. The acceptance of the II. System Optimization
modified aircraft gas turbine powerplants resulta
from their light weight and high power density, The basic approach we use to select waterjets
both of which are critical in high speed ships due in our design studies is an iterative solution of
to their relatively low lift/drag ratios. As ves- the net thrust equation for varying inputs. The
sel speed increases, weight reduction becomes crit- powerplant is said to be optimized when the ship
ical if any useful payload is to result. The reason thrust requirement is satisfied at the minimum
for consideration of the waterjet varies with the shaft horsepower. The technique is essentially the
intended application. In the case of landing craft, same as that used in References 1 and 2, except
the absence of propeller damage and the improved that in large displacement ships boundary layer
maneuverability of the craft play an over-riding ingestion effects alter the solution appreciably.
part in recommending waterjets. In other instances, As will be shown later, minimum shaft horsepower is
the improved work efficiency of the vehicle, as riot always a proper criterion for choosing propul-
compared to the propeller-driven vehicle, is the sora, but its calculation yields a maximum practi-
over-riding concern. Machinery simplification cal propulsive coefficient based on machinery per-
frequently is the reason for selection of waterjets formance, weight estimates, and component perform-
because of the possibility of eliminating lengthy, ance. Fig 1 is a sketch of a waterjet-vehicle sys-
expensive power trains. In the final analysis, tem showing the items of importance to optimization.
where the waterjet is selected it will do the task Item 1 is the drag of the hull at design speed
at lower total cost to the user, whether this lower without conventional propulsion system appendages,
cost results from improved reliability, better work such as rudders, bearings, struts and propeller
efficiency, lower maintenance, or lower installed shafts. Item 2, the external drag of the inlet,
cost. This paper identifies some applications is that drag in excess of the smooth (unpierced)
where the waterjets promise better overall effec- hull drag: this results from the waterjet inlet.
tiveness than comparable propeller systems. A This term consists of friction drag from the
typical gas turbine-waterjet propulsion system is increased hull surface (if any) exposed to flow,
shown in Fig 1. The gas generator, which is an interference drag generated at the "corners" the
aircraft gas turbine modified for marine use, inlet makes with the hull, and any profile drag

1
that may result from external diffusion. It is 0
100,000
the least definitive term in the optimization.
Item 3 is the inlet energy loss coefficient that
represents the actual dynamic head loss of the
water in the induction system, plus an elevation
n10,000
loss term to reflect the raising of the water to
some point above its normal level. Elevation loss E-
is generally negligible in displacement hulls and X
can be significant in hydrofoils. Item 4, the
additive drag due to machinery weight, is simply 1

the estimated weight of the prime mover, gearbox,


waterjet and associated ducts, stacks and founda-
tions divided by the lift/drag ratio of the hull.
Item 5, the drag associated with weight of the
100
water in the system, frequently leads to argu- 100 1000 10,000 100 000
ments that water contained below the waterline of SHAFT HORSEPOWER
the hull has no weight effect. Inasmuch as the
water occupies space and communicates with the sea, FIGURE 2. MARINE GAS TURBINE WEIGHT (AT MAXIMUM
it represents a lost buoyancy term. For this CONTINUOUS POWER) VS SHAFT HORSEPOWER
reason, we bookkeep it as a dead weight, and accept
100,000
a drag loss, which is divided by the lift/drag Mar'ne Practice
ratio of the hull. Pump efficiency, item 6 in the Simple Herringbone Gears
optimization program, is the overall mechanical 0
efficiency; i.e., np = (AHW)/550 shp. Typical
values of pump efficiency possible for the region n, 10,000
Aircraft Practice
of interest to waterjet designers are 85 to 90%. Planetary Gears
E.
The lower number reflects relatively low power 0
machines. Nozzle loss coefficient, item 7, is
simply the energy loss coefficient of the nozzle,
1,000
typically about 2% of the velocity head. Gearbox
efficiency (item 8), additive drag due to fuel
weight (item 9), and prime mover sfc (item 10) are
obvious influence factors. As previously men-
tioned, in finding the minimum installed horse- 1 1 1 1 1 I 1

power we must calculate the maximum net thrust of 1,000 10,000 100,000
the system, that is the thrust required to move SHAFT HORSEPOWER
the ship less the thrust required to move the pro-
FIGURE 3. GEARBOX WEIGHTS FOR WATERJETS
pulsion machinery and fuel. For preliminary
(REDUCTION RATIO . 4/1)
design purposes, estimates of weights of the var-
ious components are required. Figs 2, 3, and 4 1,000,000
are weight curves used in this study for gas tur-
bine weight as a function of power, gearbox weight
as a function of shp and waterjet weight as a 100,000
function of flow rate. There are restrictions on .n
several of these figures. The gearbox weight
curve, which is given for marine practice and air- 10,000
craft practice assumes a simple nonreversing reduc-
tion gearbox with reduction ratios of 4:1. This
implies relatively high waterjet rotational speeds.
In our studies, particularly of low speed ships at 1000
low shaft horsepower, we find that low rotational
speed lead to waterjets that are approaching ducted
propellers or pump jets. This situation has led 100 I I

to our arbitrary definition of the limit of water- 1000 10 000 100S00 L000000
jets operating at a pump specific speed of Ns = WEIGHT FLOW -11,/m,c
10,000 or less. We consider optimized values above FIGURE 4. WATERJET WEIGHT VS FLOW RATE
this number either pump jets, or simple propellers. 1.00

Three Shafts
0.90
Na M. =
L = 400 ft
10,000
y/8 = 0.4 900 rpm ...in ..
0.80
Typical study results for displacement hulls,
using the pump speed limits and weight estimates E 030
are plotted in Fig 5, which shows propulsive
115
0116/"--
Ailliirr
0.60
0
coefficient versus displacement/drag ratio for " -
various speeds for a fixed boundary layer operat-
ing condition. Fig 6, a more general curve, shows
0.50

0.40
/r 40
30
...--
20 Speed (Knots)

1 C2 to C4
typical values for different types of craft and 030
propulsion systems. In arriving at these curves,
020
L SES Ships Class Freighters-11
Destroyers
waterjet weight is taken as twice the wet weight
value shown in Fig 4 to account for the weight of 0.10

water in the inlet ducts and the ducts themselves. o . 1 1 1 1 1 1 l 1 1 1 1 1 , 1 1 1 1 1

The weight of the entire propulsion system is o 10 100 1000


increased by 20% to account for machinery founda- DISPLACEMENT/DRAG RATIO
tions, miscellaneous auxiliaries, and stacks FIGURE 5. OPTIMUM GAS TURBINE WATERJET PROPULSIVE
chargeable to the propulsion system.
COEFFICIENTS VS DISPLACEMENT/DRAG RATIO

2
0.80 Large Ship Ga. Turbine Waterjets among others. The simplest and clearest explana-
Boundary Layer Ingestion tion is that of Wislicenus, who points out that, at
E-
a fixed flow rate through the propulsor, thrust
0.60
is proportional to Vj - VI, while power required is
proportional to VJ2 - V12. Therefore, for a fixed
thrust and flow rate, the propulsor with the lower
inlet velocity (relative to the propulsor) will
o 0.40 Hydrofoil Waterjets require less shaft work.
Small Craft

estroyer Propellers Supercavitating Propellers Naval architects have for decades been faced
4 0.20 with boundary layer effects that skew the velocity
MN%MI Propellers profile of the water approaching propellers. In
ifgall6SM Waterjets
o the case of a propeller - hull matching, the
a. velocity profile is a problem because the blade
o
40 60 80 100 faces varying angles of attack in each revolution.
O 20
VELOCITY - knots In a waterjet installation it is possible to turn
this problem into a significant advantage, much as
is done on torpedo pump jets.
FIGURE 6. DESIGN PROPULSOR COMPARISONS

In the particular cases shown, the ship length


is 400 feet and the inlet is positioned at 90% of
Y/8 = 0.1
the ship length. This consideration is quite
important in studying displacement hulls, because
it determines the momentum of the boundary layer
flow available to the propulsor. In the case of
hydrofoils, or planing hulls, there is usually no Ya = 0.2
coherent boundary layer flow available to the pro-
pulsor, so ship length is not a consideration. Y/d = 0.3

The boundary layer velocity distribution used Y/.1 = 0.4


in this study is Von Karman's description of tur-
bulent flow; e.g.,

v/Vo = 9,177
14 18 22 26
where v is the local velocity WATERJET WEIGHT FLOW - lb/sec
Vo is the free stream velocity
y is the dimension perpendicular to the
flow at which v is measured FIGURE 7. IMPORTANCE OF THE EFFICIENT INGESTION
6 =the boundary layer thickness. OF THE BOUNDARY LAYER (80 KNOTS,
350-FOOT SHIP)
The definition of boundary layer thickness used is
a simple approximation of the Schoenherr - Von
Karman development and is
The actual optimization procedure is done on a
6/x = 0.02065 - 0.00138 log10 (VK.x) small engineering computer and is a simple itera-
tive procedure in which flow is incremented and the
where x = hull length, ft powerplant is redesigned in each step until the
VK = speed in knots minimum installed power is reached. The block dia-
gram (Fig 8) shows the flowpath used. As shown,
This formula is quite accurate at values of the program optimizes a ship and speed for each
log10 (VK.x) above 2.8 and for open sea tempera- case at various lift/drag ratios. This optimiza-
tures. 6/x typically ranges from 0.014 to 0.017. tion can be changed to include mission capabilities
merely by specifying sfc and endurance for several
The importance of the efficient ingestion of power settings. In this way, the optimization is
the boundary layer is shown in Fig 7. In this affected by fuel weight, which generally reduces
figure waterjets for an 80-knot 350-foot ship were optimum propulsive coefficient by a small amount
optimized for different ingestion percentages with- (on the order of 2 points).
out consideration for the limits of geometry. The
curve shows a possible variation in propulsive co-
efficients from approximately 81% at 10% ingestion The program is a basic iterative loop that is
to 70% at 40% ingestion. dependent on some engineering approximations for
some of the input. For example, choice of y/6 =
In most cases that we studied an inlet ingesting 0.1 would almost always result in early abort of
only 10% of the boundary layer results in unreal- the calculation at a low propulsive coefficient and
istic geometries where inlets are wider than the high shp. Typical data are shown in Fig 9.
ship. A more realistic ingestion percentage would
be y/6 = 0.4.
Inlet Systems
The reason propulsive coefficient is sensitive Three technical areas of interest in inlet dif-
to boundary layer suction has been discussed in fuser design are (1) external drag, (2) internal
the literature by Wislicenus (Reference 3), performance, and (3) cavitation as it affects per-
Gearhart (Reference 7), and Thurston (Reference 6) formance and structural damage.

3
Input Block One Ship, One Speed, One Mission - Varying LID

Calculate Drag
Calculate Flow
Assume Machinery
Weight
Check shp
Increasing
Correct Displacement Decreasing Increment Flow
Correct Drag Iterate

Calculate(iFlow Print Out shp,


Increment AH Flow,Ns,
P'
S, Drag,rp,
Ypá , Vim, W/Y,
PC and L/D
Calculate/1V
Required at Flow
Assumed
If L/D >
Check LID Limit I...I
L/D Maximum

Calculate Inlet
Lip Velocity Vim Increment LID

Return to
Calculate Overall
Head Required
(:2)

Calculate Pump Store Weights for


Head Required Next Iteration

Calculated Ns, S,
NPSH, shp, Calculate Propulsion
and PC System Weight

Calculate y,
and Ainlet

Exceeds Limits

Check Ns, S, and W


Against Input
Limits

FIGURE 8. SAMPLE OPTIMIZATION PROCEDURE BLOCK DIAGRAM

1
External Drag. External drag of a waterjet
Displacement
Hull inlet is one of the most important inputs to the
0= 40 propulsor optimization program. Unfortunately,
1../D = 20 only a limited amount of data are available.
Data for airplane inlets are available (Ref-

1111 ME ----- erences 4 and 5), generally for relatively low


Reynolds numbers with thin boundary layers. The
marine data available are limited to condenser
E mp--- Minimum eh. Design Point inlets with several exceptions, none of which
provides the data in the area of interest.
5

0 40
/i 60 80 100 120
hp X 10-3
140
WATERJET WEIGHT FLOW - lb/sec, z 10-3
160 180 200
The problem is to minimize the external drag while
keeping internal losses to a minimum and avoiding
cavitation. In studying inlets, we consider only
external drag as a drag term and classify the
"internal drag" as an energy loss chargeable to
the waterjet. This technique differs from that of
FIGURE 9. TYPICAL PRINTOUT DURING OPTIMIZATION
condenser designers who consider both as drag terms.

4
The net effect is the same, increasing horsepower
above the ideal (bare hull) value. External drag, R = 1.90
as mentioned previously, consists of viscous drag
due to any added surface area, interference drag
occurring at the intersections of the hull and the
inlet, and any ram drag that may result from exter-
nal diffusion forward of the inlet. In studying the
- atikA 1.000
Hull Line
available data, two types of displacement hull in- Vt.\r = 0.032
lets suggest themselves, submerged (or flush, Fig 10)
and extended (or scoop). Most displacement hull 1.000
0.250
waterjets available today utilize the flush inlet.
According to Hoerner (Reference 5) such inlets pro-
vide no external drag. In addition, they lend
themselves to incorporation into the waterjet inlet
casing and permit easy installation in small craft.
The disadvantages of these inlets are (1) a rela- FIGURE 11. BASELINE FLUSH INLET MODEL - EXPANSION
tively high internal loss coefficient, and (2)
RATIO 4/1, INLET ASPECT RATIO = 4
susceptibility to cavitation.

The reported zero drag coefficient for these


inlets is fictitious, although our early experi-
ments indicate that they probably have the least
amount of drag of the candidates. To study the
external drag of such inlets, we built a small wind
tunnel in which we simulate the velocity ratio and
boundary layer profile for typical vessel operating
conditions. Our baseline test unit is two-dimen-
sional with a flush inlet followed by a rectangular
Flow Flush Inlet diffuser. Fig 11 is a sketch of the baseline model
Hull Line and Fig 12 is a photo showing the test setup. In
addition we built a baseline scoop inlet, Fig 13.
FIGURE 10. TYPICAL FLUSH INLET DESIGN Both of these units are designed to establish meas-
urement techniques and obtain primary data on eas-
ily reproducible configurations.

FIGURE 12. BASELINE TEST UNIT

5
h/o =1.1, W/h=3.05
h/o =1.8,
V Inlet Calculated from Flow Measu emente
and Area at h
V° = Free Stream Velocity = 95 fp
C0) = leota - e,n r=sv
= Momentum Thickness - 1--v )dy
o Vo Vo
Cruise Position Boundary Luyen Thickness =. 0.96
(at V = 95% of V0)
W = WLdth of Inlet Lip = 1.22
0 1 0.2 0.3 04 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0

INLET VELOCITY RATIO

FIGURE 13. VARIABLE AREA INLET MODEL FIGURE 15. APPARENT DRAG COEFFICIENT VS VELOCITY
RATIO FOR SCOOP INLET
The external drag coefficients measured for
these inlets are shown in Fig 14 and Fig 15. We In studying the flow data for the flush inlet,
call this the apparent external drag coefficient, we have compared Vim to an ideal Vi based on two-
because it compares the momentum downstream of the dimensional ingestion of a portion of the boundary
inlet to the momentum of the undisturbed flow at layer upstream. In the cases studied we found Vi
the same location. This is the same technique used ideal higher than Vim, which indicates the flow is
by Mossman and Randall (Reference 4). We believe being ingested from areas not only ahead of, but
the real external drag of the inlet must take into also on both sides of the inlet. In this respect,
account the ideal momentum downstream of an inlet the flush inlet will have a better performance
(assuming perfect two dimensional ingestion) and than the scoop inlet, since it will tend to ingest
compare it to the actual or measured momentum down- more of the low velocity flow near the hull than
stream. Although we have performed this operation, the comparable scoop inlet. This will result in
the data collected were not reduced in time for this lower drag, since the drag affected area will "see"
paper. lower velocities than the comparable scoop.

In studying the apparent drag of the two inlets, To show how a negative drag coefficient can be
several items become noticeable: obtained, we plotted centerline velocity profiles
from an early test of a flush inlet (Fig 16) for
The flush inlet has a lower drag than the four velocity ratios. In most cases, the flow
scoop, due almost exclusively to the sharp downstream (C and D) has a thinner boundary layer
corner interference drag of the scoop; future than the approach flow. The effect is more notice-
experiments will add cruise position fairings able as the velocity ratio increases. In calculat-
to the scoop to fill in the sharp corners. ing a "real" drag coefficient, we believe the pro-
file at D should be compared to an ideal profile
The closer the inlet velocity to the free- at D. In every case, we integrate these profiles
stream velocity, the lower the drag. This over the entire affected area downstream, which we
indicates flow is spilling over the inlet find is 1-1/2 inlet widths on either side of the
at most conditions. centerline at a distance of 4 widths downstream
of the inlet lip.
The thicker the boundary layer with respect
to inlet lip height, the lower the drag, Internal Performance of Inlets. The internal
although the flush data do not consistently performance of an inlet diffuser system is criti-
demonstrate this fact. cal to the overall system performance since each
foot of head lost here must be made up by the pump.
,
We define the efficiency of an inlet diffuser as
W = Inlet Width
V° = Free Stream Velocity = ma foe
1 - (Ht1-Ht2)/(V2/28)
Il where Hti = total head available at inlet
6 = Boundary loyer Thmknem

-
Ist V - 86% of Vol = total head measured at diffuser
Ca = (Omit - 6011/h Ht2
Er. d = Momentum Thickness = joY =li -,Y; (1 - if-.1 dy discharge
W/h = 0.358
0 = o.ae ie. 6/6 = 078
V2/2g = velocity head available for dif-
0 = DAMS in ha = 0.43 fusion.
0= 0.90 io 1,1 = 0.31 !Drs.
...
/Thrum We plot this efficiency in two ways, one based
Ovo on the measured inlet velocity Vim, using Vim2/2g
-alt ... = 0.130 11/5 = 0.43
as the available velocity head, and also as a free-
6=030 ha = . stream efficiency using Va as the available veloc-
. 0.900,700
8
1

ity. The results are shown in Figs 17 and 18.


The apparent pressure recovery or efficiency, goes
above 100% at low velocity ratios, which is an
02 0.4 06 0.8 1.0 indication that Vim measured from inlet area and
INLET VELOCITY RATIO flow measurements is actually higher than calcu-
lated. This indicates separation at the inlet,
FIGURE 14. APPARENT DRAG COEFFICIENT VS VELOCITY causing the ingested flow to have higher local
RATIO FOR FLUSH INLET velocity than calculated. When we reference our

6
performance to freestream conditions, we find dif- angle of 25 and 30 degrees used was arbitrarily
fuser efficiency quite low, as might be expected chosen with the aim of making the inlet system as
in a thick boundary layer. Neither measurement is short as possible. The diffusers were made rec-
adequate, although the freestream efficiency lends tangular to avoid the transition problem between
itself to design calculations better than the the rectangular lip to the circular diffuser.
apparent efficiency. In studying the data, it Models now being prepared incorporate this tran-
is obvious that the scoop inlet (as expected) is sition and the fairings for the scoop in the cruise
a better pressure recovery device than is the position.
flush inlet. Also, as expected, the greater the
scoop extension, the better the pressure recovery.
700
o
1

410

0.20
600
0 ,

o o
500 a. ....

h
in. (4 400 o 8. Boundary Layer Thickness = 0.36 in
Vo 0 (Taken at V = 95% of V./
300 W = Inlet Lip Width =1.22 in.
A HT = Total Head - ft .

'71/ = 1. - (Hu Ht2 NV/'/210


= 200 1.- (H,0 1.1,2 )/(V/2g)
X II h/8= 0.56 W/h = 6.1
0.25 D h/8 = 1.1 W/h = 3./
com 100 0. h/8 = IS W/h = 19

A X
ra,

V. 0 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 0.8 09 1.0
INLET VELOCITY RATIO
0.50

FIGURE 18. PRESSURE RECOVERY VS VELOCITY RATIO FOR


SCOOP INLET
Vo --
Inlet Cavitation. Cavitation, both internal to
075 the system and external, can present a real problem
in that compromises made to avoid cavitation may
A result in poor pressure recovery or high drag designs.
V1
This is particularly true at some of the high
Vo speeds contemplated in future ships where speeds
lo between 50 and 100 knots are proposed. Internally,
10 15 20 25 30 10 15 20 25 30 10 15 20 25 30 10 15 20 25 30 we would expect the lowest static pressure to occur
11/2 in. Left V2 in. Left 0 (On Lip) 1 in. Right
on the suction surface of the inlet opposite the
VELOCITY - ft/sec
lip. In the flush inlet, this point experiences
the most severe fluid turning on the scoop; this
FIGURE 16. CENTERLINE VELOCITY DISTRIBUTIONS - point is also in the minimum area of the flow
LOW SPEED TEST field, hence the lowest static pressure area. In
evaluating this problem, we compare the local
700 static pressure near the lip and compare it to
,4... .08=0.9in a static pressure in an undisturbed section of the
05=065
0 600 A-
Oa.. freestream flow. The results are shown in Figs 19
and 20 for both inlets. The flush inlet tested
X 500 h=0 23in. "Di-oiti-H 2) /v121/20 is much more susceptible to cavitation than the
0 V..99 fps 8p-1-(Hto -H62)/V,2/2)
scoop inlet, and in both inlets, the pressure at
8
.11
H,=Total Head
the sensitive location is strongly affected by
400
°'e 95% of V.
8 Taken
Vi/V0, the velocity ratio. The drag data indi-
W/b=0.356
3 cate the need for high V1/V0 values, while the
V,2 Based on Mass Flow
Measurement and Area cavitation data indicate that low values are
c,9 200 required. Neither set of data indicates any par-
ticularly strong influence of the boundary layer
a 100 1111111111111
---,....- thickness.

0
0.1 02 0.3 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 External cavitation (that is, cavitation result-
INLET VELOCITY RATIO
ing from the presence of the inlet) will most
FIGURE 17. PRESSURE RECOVERY VS VELOCITY RATIO likely occur in the vicinity of the lip at the
FOR FLUSH INLET minimum pressure point of an eqùivalent airfoil.
External cavitation will also probably occur at
the corners or intersections of the scoop and the
Examination of scoop data comparing cruise to take- hull when fairing is inadequate. This external
off position recovery also points out one of the cavitation can have two extremely harmful effects:
basic problems found in boundary layer inlets; it can increase drag, and it can cause severe
efficient diffusion of a nonuniform velocity is structural damage. Unfortunately, our small wind
inherently difficult, particularly at the smaller tunnel does not lend itself to obtaining any useful
percentages of the boundary layer flow. The data on the external cavitation problem. Wind
efficiencies shown, together with associated drag tunnels, in general, fail to provide adequate data
characteristics show trends and are not acceptable in cavitation studies because they do not simulate
values for a real installation, because of the the discontinuous medium of the vapor/liquid inter-
relatively crude models used. The inclination face, but only indicate the low pressure areas

7
where cavitation is likely to occur. In short,
wind tunnel capabilities in this area stop just
this side of useful data.

0.2
11
a. c>
0
. 0.1
wg
CID
CI)
W

Z vo= Free Stream Velocity = 99 fpe


C4 W/h = 0.356
E' Haj = Static Head At Inlet Throat
fxs Hs: = Free Stream Static Pressure Head 0 8 = 0.36in. h/8 = 0.78
U) W = Inlet Width 0 8 = assin. hid= 0.43
0 0I = 0.90in. h/8= 021 Auxiliary Ram Scoop Takeoff Flap
[ 1

L)-0.2
0 OA 0.2 03 OA 03 0.6 07
INLET VELOCITY RATIO FIGURE 21. MINIMUM DRAG VERTICAL RECTANGULAR
INLET WITH TAKEOFF FLAP
FIGURE 19. STATIC PRESSURE DROP COEFFICIENT VS
VELOCITY RATIO FOR FLUSH INLET

0.5
Waterjet Designs
I. The design of the waterjet itself can be, and
3,, 0.3
, 0.4 .........4s, lo
0. Hrx ../125.
has been, accomplished in several different ways.
Any efficient pump can be used in a waterjet sys-
Vo = Free Steam Veloocity = 96 fpe
tem, regardless of its type; e.g. centrifugal,
0.2
W = Inlet Width =...1.22 in. mixed-flow, axial-flow or propeller pump. Most of
w 171.i = Static Head At Inlet Lip these pump types have been used in waterjet appli-
1,4 01 o
cn
H. ,= Free Stream Static Head cations with varying degrees of success. For
Z h/8 W/h example, Boeing's hydrofoil "Little Squirt" is
z
5656
0 0.566.1 powered by a double-suction centrifugal pump. Most
-0.1 0
0
1.1 3.1 8 = .36 in. waterjets are straight-through axial- or mixed-flow
-
c..)
E..4 -0.2 1.8 1.9
units that minimize the number of turns made by
.40 0.31 6.1
the flow. Our approach to waterjet designs is a
-0.3 0.62 3.1 8 = .65 in.
10 1.9 mixture of our compressor cascade system modified
o
o 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 06 07 08 09
by results of our rocket engine turbopump experi-
INLET VELOCITY RATIO
ence. The basic problem faced by the waterjet
designer is similar to that of the propeller
FIGURE 20. STATIC PRESSURE DROP COEFFICIENT VS designer; he must produce high efficiency at low
VELOCITY RATIO FOR SCOOP INLET inlet pressures, while avoiding cavitation damage.
Our solution to the design problem is an axial-
We do not believe that waterjet inlet design flow rotor with varying hub radius and high solid-
problems can be solved in subscale wind tunnels. ity blading. The number of blades is minimized
The wind tunnel gives us (1) an appreciation of to improve cavitation performance. Fig 22 shows
the important variables and their qualitative a waterjet rotor of our design. A typical feature
effect on performance, (2) preliminary design of such pumps compared to classical axial-flow
data, and (3) an economical method of developing units is the low inlet flow coefficient. The flow
test techniques that can be applied to full- coefficient is a direct result of rocket inducer
scale test units. experience which, as in propellers, shows cavita-
tion performance improved with reduced inlet blade
Hydrofoil inlet designs face the same problems angle. A more detailed account of our existing
as displacement hull inlet designs with one units is given in Part IV of this paper.
important difference; the inflow is generally
planar. Hydrofoil inlets are further complicated Waterjet nozzle designs are, for the most part,
by the fact that the inlet nacelle incorporates simple low-loss, fixed-area, converging nozzles.
foil structural and actuating mechanisms. In Their performance is affected seriously only when
addition, the designer is usually faced with the the flow from the pump stator contains appreciable
necessity of making a 90-degree turn immediately rotational vectors or swirl. This swirl is inten-
after ingestion of the water. sified by the nozzle contraction, and can choke
the pump flow.
External diffusion on a hydrofoil inlet results
in high internal efficiencies (>90%) and high
drag. The takeoff problem in hydrofoils, where Variable-area nozzles for waterjets are impor-
maximum power and, thus, flow are required, occurs tant for vessels with widely varying speed range,
at minimum inlet pressure and has a strong influ- and when the inlet ram pressure is a significant
ence on nacelle sizing. A possible solution to portion of the system pressure. Under these con-
the problem is the incorporation of an auxiliary ditions, changes in vessel speed cause significant
scoop to capture as much ram pressure as possible changes in pump flow and tend to drive the unit
and in the closed position reduce drag as much as into off-design conditions. By varying the nozzle
possible. (See Fig 21.) area the pump flow can be adjusted so that the
8
pump is operating at its best efficiency point. 700
Fig 23 shows the effect of variable-area nozzles
on the thrust for a ship designed for 70 knots when = SR%
it is operating at higher speeds. At 100 knots,
the v'ariable nozzle design gives 15% more thrust 600
50% Ship Overspeed with
than the fixed nozzle. Fig 24 is a plot of a typ- 1111189 Variable Exit Nozzle
ical pump map that shows the extent of overflow and
efficiency change occurring at a 50% vessel over-
speed. The variable-area nozzle can correct this 4'4500
lk I

Design Point (70 Knots)


3335 shp 4111480
overflow and adjust the jet velocity ratio to its 50% Ship Overspomd viith
optimum value for the same overspeed condition. Fixed Exit Nozzle
a: 400
Mechanically, such nozzles should be relatively
straightforward designs. Fig 25 shows a variable
geometry nozzle. Many other schemes are possible.
300 FrMAIL

200 I1.41111r 41: ,5° 2370

1
FP'
MI o
1500
.40
2000

o
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
FIONV - gprn (rhousand)

FIGURE 24. VARIABLE NOZZLE EFFECTS ON PUMP


PERFORMANCE

FIGURE 22. WATERJET ROTOR

FIGURE 25. VARIABLE GEOMETRY NOZZLE


60 500-Ton SES
Design Point
6 SeaJet 12-1
III. Economic Consideration
General
o
o
50 _Vanabl Area In a preceding discussion, it was shown how
.o Noale Waterjet optimum propulsive coefficient was determined by
the propulsor weight characteristic, the basic
lift drag ratio of the vessel, and the performance
E. Fixed Notiele Waterjet characteristics of the machinery. These calcula-
CID 40 tions solved for the minimum horsepower required
to drive a given ship at a given speed. The anal-
ysis is limited in the sense that it does not
optimize the powerplant and the vessel for a
LA specific mission. Such an optimization requires
° 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 a great deal of information beyond the scope of
Vk this paper. There is, however, an additional facet
of the powerplant optimization calculation, which
FIGURE 23. FIXED NOZZLE VS VARIABLE NOZZLE gives insight into powerplant selection, that can
WATERJET PERFORMANCE be performed independently of the overall vehicle
study. This is an effectiveness criteria that
determines the optimum design on the basis of the
9
total cost of the powerplant. Here, knowledge of 1.14
the cost of obtaining, installing, and operating
the machinery over the useful life of the ship is
required. Obvious influences on the powerplant
1.12

1.1
=Mr shp shp,nin
selection, such as fuel cost or specific fuel con-
sumption, are frequently overshadowed by depreci-
o.
. 1.0 Cost 11111119. Propulsive Coefficient 0.7
ation period, duty cycle, and lift/drag ratio. o

O
L
Mir-Trost

MINIIIIIIPP" ...1
-
Minimum Co.
0.6

n Po Mt-
Our method of studying the effect of machinery
cost is a simple calculation and summation of all
the powerplant costs incurred in any mission for
varying horsepower levels. The contributing fac-
E.
cc

cn
O
u
1.

1.0 =MI
EMIII hDe8ig
0.5

0.4

hillbil's
illa
1. 0.3
tors are:

Gas turbine cost 0 50 60 70 80 90 100


Gearbox cost FLOW RATE - % OF DESIGN
Waterjet cost
Installation cost, including ducts, FIGURE 26. BASELINE CASE-SENSITIVITY OF COST
foundations, and auxiliaries DESIGN POINT TO SELECTED FLOW RATE
Fuel cost
Oil cost 100
1
Peicent of Lite at 1
Maintenance and overhaul cost (as a percent Case Full Power Power V,
90
of engine price). O Minimum A 80 10
ao Total Cost B 10 30
o C 5 30
Items 1 through 4 are depreciated at the useful 70
.1-.4
D 2 30
life of the vessel (typically 20 years), using the
Capital Recovery Factor method of Professor Benford 1 60 Typical Commercial Ships
A
(Reference 9). cc 50
1
40 Costa
Results of studies of several ships are shown Fuel
in Figs 26 through 29. For clarity, a base case E0 30
is taken in which: I
20 Typical Warships
o 0
10 o C B
Installed power = 50,000 shp max D
o A
L/D = 20 80 90 100 110 120 130 140
WEIGHT FLOW - lb/sec
VK = 40 kts
Useful life = 20 years
FIGURE 27. EFFECT OF UTILIZATION ON MINIMUM COST
CRF = 0.0703% (3-1/2% interest) DESIGN POINT (2000-TON, 40-KNOT
BASE CASE)
Full power SFC = 0.5
Part power SFC = 0.7 4.0
Full power - 10% of total operating life
Part power - 30% of total operation life at
25% of installed power
o
Fuel Cost = $3.00 per barrel ($0.0105 per pound)
Maintenance and overhaul cost = 5% of machinery g 3.0
cost/overhaul
period.
Overhaul period - 2000 hours o
Lube oil cost - 66ç/1b
04
The gas turbine cost chart (Fig 30) is an <4 2.0
approximation based on limited information of the
selling prices of the available marine gas tur-
bines, which vary widely due to a number of fac- E0

tors. For simplicity in calculating, an approxi- C)


mate mean line is drawn through the data and taken
to represent all such machines. The same is true '- Lo
of the gearbox data shown in Fig 31. Waterjet
prices, Fig 32, were obtained by plotting large C)
commercial (cast iron and steel construction)
pumps versus flow rate and multiplying by a factor
of 3.0 to reflect improved materials and compo-
nents required in a marine environment, and gener-
ally higher machinery loads. An arbitrary figure 0
of 1 dollar per pound of equipment is added to 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
obtain installation costs. SHEP LIME - years
*For instance, a $200,000 powerplant would cost $10,000
for maintenance and overhaul per overhaul per-toa. FIGURE 28. PROPULSION COST PER YEAR VS SHIP LIFE

10
for relatively short periods of time, and for such
22 vessels as ferry boats. The effect of utilization
is shown in Fig 30, where application of an 800/, full
20
power, 10% part power utilization cycle (long haul
freighters) more than triples the propulsion cost
over a 10% full power, 30% part power cycle, due
almost entirely to the increased fuel cost.

The importance of reliability in propulsion


machinery is shown in Fig 31, where the total cost
of the machinery and fuel is plotted against time
between overhauls. There is a real economic
incentive for long-life machines in terms of
machinery and fuel cost alone, without considera-
tion of unavailability of the ship. This curve
8
a. o 2000 4000 6000 8000 10,000 12,000 emphasizes the fact that, realistically speaking,
TIME BETWEEN OVERHAUL - hr long-life warships cannot afford a 1000-hour power-
plant, or one with a high maintenance rate equiva-
lent to the cost assumed here of a TBO.
FIGURE 29. EFFECT OF TIME BETWEEN OVERHAUL ON
TOTAL POWERPLANT COST (BASE CASE,
20-YEAR LIFE)
1000
Monel and Stainless
Steel Equipment
1,000
.0.

...
Approximately 3x
_ C = 42.7 (shp) 0.766 Lightweight Average Cost
0. Marine Gas Turbine C 76(Q)"74

10 100 1,000 10,000 100,000 1,000,000


o
i
FLOW RATE - gpm
1 1 1 I
l L

10
100 1,000 10,000 100,000
MAXIMUM CONTINUOUS SHAFT HORSEPOWER FIGURE 32. APPROXIMATE MARINE WATERJET ODST

FIGURE 30. APPROXIMATE MARINE GAS TURBINE COST


The effect of ship life on total cost per year
1000 is shown in Fig 28. This figure emphasizes the
fact that the specific fuel consumption and fuel
cost of expendable or short-life vessels (landing
craft or small patrol boats) have a negligible
effect on the total cost of powering the vessel,
and more consideration should be given to relia-
bility, weight, and installed cost.
C 9.6 (shp)1.
In preparing the above comments and data, we do
not mean to suggest that a vessel's machinery can
be optimized without regard to the vehicle itself,
but merely to show those factors which have meas-
urable first order effect on the propulsion selec-
tion.
100 1,000 10,000 100,000
By utilization we mean the best estimate as to
SHAFT HORSEPOWER
how the vessel will be used. This frequently does
not coincide with the design requirements of the
FIGURE 31. APPROXIMATE COST OF AIRCRAFT-TYPE vessel, since warships (for example) are built in
MARINE GEARBOXES (4,1 PLANETARY) peacetime and operate mostly in peacetime, but
must be designed for war operations. The unhappy
Because gas turbine-waterjet propulsion is as result in terms of propulsor performance is usually
yet unproved, one item not included, which could a ship operated at less than its potential speed
have a measurable effect on the outcome, is and carrying seemingly excessive fuel reserves and
development cost. It is unlikely that realistic power. The advent of CODAG systems tend to solve
development costs could be generated, particularly this problem. A CODAG waterjet system where low
as the extent of future use of these systems is speed operation is by a diesel-propeller combina-
unknown. tion and high speed by gas turbine-waterjet has
The baseline case shown in Fig 28 is typical of the further advantage of reducing low speed drag
a small warship, but its implications would also by eliminating the high power propeller and append-
apply to short run freighters, which are at sea ages associated with all propeller CODAG systems.

11
Three classes of high speed ships are of Gas Turbine/Steam Annual Cost Ratio versus Fuel Coat
interest to potential gas turbine-waterjet propul- Fixed Displacement and Range Varying Payload
sion - high speed displacement ships, hydrofoils,
and surface effect ships. JN°
si,oV
rj .G0.80 e

High Speed Destroyers a0 G.


In considering displacement ships, our studies
have continually shown that only when the installed
conventional power is high do waterjets show O. Diesel
promise, largely due to the reduced drag from G
removal of the appendages required on relatively (4°0.50 JP at 9. per Gallon
small high powered ships. In this category, we 3GT
are principally concerned with destroyers and 0.40

escort ships. Appendage drag on such twin-screw o0 r."


io
vessels is typically above 10% and frequently as 0 A
A. 0 3.0 40 5.0 6.0
high as 30% of the total drag. Fig 33 gives
FUEL COST - DOLLARS PER BARREL
approximate values for typical twin-screw destroyers
in the high speed range. By removing appendages and
installing a waterjet, the overall propulsive effi- FIGURE 34. VARYING FUEL COST EFFECTS FOR 3500-TON
ciency* can frequently be improved, usually at DESTROYER ESCORT
reduced propulsor weight.

70 One problem introduced by waterjets in small


ships is that lightweight propulsors located below
the_center of gravity can introduce a stability
problem. On small ships, aside from the machinery,
60 fuel and ammunition, the heavy equipment, is located
0 EfiP = 0.0005.1% (V03 topside. This indicates that gas turbine powered
D = 0.1625A2 (VK)2 ships with either waterjets or propellers are not
0 simply going to be steam ships with different
°
4:4
50 machinery in the spaces, but rather new designs
E. to take advantage of the lightweight machinery.

40
In calculating the above cost comparisons, only
machinery cost and fuel cost are used, whereas in
the actual case, costs of personnel, overhaul,
30 auxiliary machines, and maintenance, etc., would be
4000 Tons added. In these other areas, the gas turbine-water-
3500 Tons jet plant should prove to be more economical than
3000 Tons the steam plant.
Z20 2000 Tons The case for hydrofoil waterjets follows a
a. similar line of reasoning, with the important dif-
P.
ferences being that the drag reduction comes about
10 by reducing nacelle diameter and an appreciable
cost and weight savings is found by eliminating
the gear train drive. Fig 35 shows a drag com-
parison of a waterjet and propeller driven
hydrofoil.
0 10 20 30 40 50
VELOCITY - Knots Surface Effect Ships
If the potential of surface effect ships is
FIGURE 33. APPENDAGE DRAG FUR DESTROYER-CLASS realized, we may someday see ships of 10,000 tons
SHIPS cruising at speeds of 100 knots carrying freight
to Europe in 35 hours. Another possibility would
be an aircraft carrier with 130-knot wind velocity
A recent P&WA study compared steam propeller, conditions over the deck.
gas-turbine propeller, and gas turbine-waterjet
propulsion for a 3500-ton DE with 2600 hours of Economic studies already published on the sub-
utilization per year. The results are shown in ject of SES ships for ocean commerce have indi-
Fig 34, where annual cost/payload ton ratio is cated the importance of high propulsive coeffi-
divided by the same ratio for steam, all plotted cients and low SFC, as might be expected in any
against fuel cost per barrel. Note that gas tur- relatively constant speed ship with long range
bine costs can be as little as 507. of comparable requirements. P&WA studies of powerplants for
steam plant costs. Most of the benefit shown here such ships indicate we may realize both the
results from the fact that the gas turbine-waterjet required propulsive coefficients ( = 657.) and the
increases payload (much lighter weight) and costs low SFC ( . 0.55) in the near future. Fig 36 is
less to install. Studies such as this indicate a plot of estimated thrust versus ship speed for
the economic potential of the waterjet in large this unit at two horsepower levels. An instal-
sizes. lation drawing of the powerplant element for a

*OveraZZ propulsive Jfficiency rp (E/D) where rp = TV-0/shp 550

12
4000-ton ship is given in Fig 37. This waterjet While the SeaJet 4-3 is a "paper design", it
is designated the SeaJet 4-3, which indicates it follows the design system utilized in the SeaJet
is to utilize the power of the FT4 marine gas tur- 12-1, a 3200 shp unit designed to be used with the
bine. A proposed installation of si* SeaJet-4 FT12 engine.
waterjets in a 4000-ton SES is shown in Fig 38.
800 ASSUMPTIONS:
7000 1

Pump Cavitation Limi 1. Fixed Design Point


Discharge Nozzle
700 2 Boundary Layer
6000 / Length = 245 ft
/ "a 3 Variable Area
Propeller Strut and Foil \ // = Semiflush Inlet
5000 // = 600
o
/
Waterjet Strut and Foil / E.
Inlet)
/
(Vertical Rectangular r
7-9 500
7 4000
/. <4
/.
//
04 Sea State
A 3000 400
/ Sea State 2
/r o Estimated Drag
E-300 Curves
2000 for 3965 - Ton SES
// -
(4600 - Ton SES at Design Point,
// 04 6(% Fuel Load)
1000 .., Waterjet Str t and Foil E. 200
(DTMB 4162)

O 80 90 100
10 20 30 40 50 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
VELOCITY - KNOTS SHIP SPEED - knots
FIGURE 35. HYDROFOIL REAR STRUT AND FOIL DRAG- FIGURE 36. PERFORMANCE OF SIX SEAJET 4-3 WATERJETS
34,000 GPM, 4800 SHP SYSTEM IN 4600-TON SES

659.4

235.4 112.0 312.0

37.2

FT4 Marine Gas Turbine


Shaft Support
SeaJet 4-3 3.96:1 Gearbox Bearing Box
49.7

25,000 shp SeaJet 4-3 System Weights


FT4 Engine 14,200 lb
Gearbox 4,200 lb
Pump 12,800 lb
Water 13,900 lb
Total 45,100 lb

FIGURE 37. INSTALLATION CHARACTERISTICS OF SEAJET 4-3 SYSTEM

13
Top View
m====10
1
Scale in Feet

LSea Jet 4
Waterjets Variable Geometry Inlet
Side View

FT4 Gas Turbines

Length of Bubble 262 ft


Length of Ship 341 ft

FIGURE 38. TYPICAL INSTALLATION OF SEAJET 4 WATERJETS IN 4000-TON SES

IV. Waterjet Propulsion Components pounds wet) and 1500 pounds dry (2500 pounds wet),
respectively, for SeaJet 6-1 and SeaJet 12-1.
An exploratory waterjet propulsion systems
development program was begun at Pratt & Whitney The hydrodynamic designs of the pumps are based
Aircraft in mid-1965. Preliminary designs were on cascade data and an analytical program devel-
completed on waterjets sized for the 400-hp ST6, oped in support of our rocket engine and jet engine
the 3770-hp FT12, the 20,000-hp FT3, and the 30,000- research and development programs. The rotors for
hp FT4. Two of these, the SeaJet 6-1 (ST6 size) the two pumps have a solidity (chord/gap ratio) of
and SeaJet 12-1 (FT12 size) were designed in detail three for a blade arrangement consisting of three
and parts were fabricated for test. full blades and three half blades. The nominal
The design of the two pumps is quite similar,
tip inlet blade angle for the rotors is 8 degrees,
which gives a 1.5-degree incidence. The blades
as shown by Fig 39. Both have essentially axial- are swept to maintain this incidence angle along
flow single-stage rotors, with flow from the rotors the leading edges of the blades to provide opti-
discharging through a stator section, which turns mum suction performance. A five vaned stator sec-
the flow axially into a nozzle. The rotor drive tion provides constant velocity turning of the
shaft is supported on the impeller end by a water- fluid from rotor discharge through a 70-degree
lubricated journal bearing and on the drive end by turning angle for axial flow at the nozzle.
oil-lubricated bearings designed to carry both
radial and thrust loads. The rotor in both pumps Steering systems that provide side and reverse
is back-vaned to minimize the unbalanced loads forces by deflection of the waterjet have been
resulting from the static pressure rise across the designed for both pumps. They are designed for
rotor. In the SeaJet 12-1 pump, the thrust load mounting on a boat transom, and all maneuvering
can be as high as 50,000 pounds. The materials forces are transmitted into the boat without
for the pump components were selected for their directly affecting the pump mount loads. Side
light weight, high strength, and compatibility thrust loads for steering can be in excess of 37%
with a sea water environment. The pump housings of forward thrust; reverse thrust is 502. For-
are cast 356-T6 aluminum, the rotors are forged ward thrust loads are transmitted to the hull
titanium AMS 4928 (6A1-4V), and the shafting is through the pump mounts that are located in the
K500 Monel. Maximum operating stress is 40,000 thrust bearing housing. Steering system esti-
psi and occurs in the roots of the rotor blading. mated weights are 520 pounds for SeaJet 12-1;
Weights of the two units are 340 pounds dry (490 and 72 pounds for SeaJet 6-1.

14
Steering and Reversing
Mechanism
Oil Cooler Exit Guide Vanes

Coupling
Thrust Bearing
Purnp Inlet Discharge Nozzle
RG12-3.89 Gearbox Impeller -

Bottom of Hull Hull hilet


SeaJet 12-1
61.600 69.800
Impeller

TIffustBeadng
101111,
fio,======ene=4_.
-

Exit Guide Nozzle


Vanes
ST6A Marine Gas Turbine Waterjet Pump
SeaJet 6-1
FIGURE 39. COMPARISON OF SEAJET 6-1 AND 12-1 UNITS

show the thrust vs boat velocity performance curves


A one-half scale SeaJet 6-1 steering system was for cruise conditions as well as several other pump
fabricated and subjected to experimental testing. operating speeds.
Total propulsion system weights, including 700
engine and gearboxes, are 900 pounds wet and 4500 1

pounds wet for the SeaJet 6-1 and SeaJet 12-1, V = 89%
respectively. The design characteristics of Sea- 600
Jet 12-1 and SeaJet 6-1 are presented in Table 1. $,
89%

Table 1. Design Characteristics


44 500
Design Point III.
& .%

SeaJet 12-1 SeaJet 6-1


Rotor Speed, rpm 2240 2100
cI
itisT7o0,
014 400
Flow, gpm 22,600 7730
Head Rise, feet 480 170
ilL,60%
Specific Speed
Suction Specific Speed, Cruise
3285
8740
3930
7200
M 300
1 WV
Overall Efficiency, % 89 86 200 ak% Op
Rotor Diameter, in.
Nozzle Velocity, ft/sec
Boat Speed, knots
21.6
191
55
13.4
120
40
100 Bird
O
Estimated head rise vs flow curves for 0 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000 60,000
the two pumps are presented in Figs 40 and 41.
The design point shown represents the respective FLOW - gpm
cruise conditions for a SeaJet 6-1 and 12-1 boat FIGURE 40. ESTIMATED PERFORMANCE OF SEAJET 12-1
propulsion system application. Figs 42 and 43 WATERJET PUMP

15
Fig 45. Both recirculation and ram water capabili-
250 ties have been built into this stand to provide
for simulating boat transient and steady-state
operating conditions. More than 50 hours of test-
86% ing has been accumulated on SeaJet 6-1, 35 hours
87.5 on SeaJet 12-1, and 20 hours on the steering system.
200 In both pumps rotor efficiency has been high,
(about 93%, as predicted), however, overall per-
formance has been less than predicted. This is
attributed to flow separation on the suction side
of the stator vanes and high mixing losses at the
cn 15
70 stator exit. New vanes have been designed to
eliminate the flow separation and parts are pres-
cni ently being fabricated. During the SeaJet 12-1
testing, a rotor-to-housing rub was experienced
at high rpm. This was attributed to insufficient
10 stiffness of the shafting, and has been corrected
2 2000 rpm
by increasing the shaft diameter. Tests on the
steering system revealed that reverse thrust was
over 50% of forward thrust, as compared to 20 to
2100 rp
25% for a commercial system. For a full turning
5 1

1500 rpm
angle of + 38 degrees, axial thrust is maintained
at over 50% and lateral thrust is over 40% of full
forward thrust. Actual steering forces and angles
required will depend on the type of vehicle and
degree of maneuverability desired.
o 2000 4000 6000 8000 10,000
F1ONV -gprn 16000 Suction Specific Speed
altik25,000
FIGURE 41. ESTIMATED PERFORMANCE - SEAJET 6-1
15000 Anl
WATERJET PUMP 4
V
14000
6400

5600
13000
lark ,,,:4,
.4

mc;00

,
,,,.,,,
..
12000

III smill
'zio "c"
CID
fs.,
4800
D
0411000 1116/1111
,,,_,,,

4000
10000
.. ENE %
NPSH Values
9000 SHP 20 Knots 50 Knots rm.
368 ft.
M 3200 3770 123.8 ft.

E-
3500
-3200
37.4 ft. 124.3 ft.
38.0 ft. 124.9 ft.
b. ',Ill
3 ft. 9 ft. Ht Above Waterline

2400
''. P . 64 lb/ ft
l
O 1

0 8 16 24 32 40 48 56
VEHICLE VELOCITY - Knots
1600
FIGURE 43. SEAJET 12-1 TYPICAL HYDROFOIL
INSTALLATION PERFORMANCE

10 20 30 40 50 60 Current work on the pumps involves development


VEHICLE VELOCITY - knots testing of SeaJet 6-1, during which new hydro-
dynamic designs will be evaluated to improve the
basic design system. SeaJet 12-1 is being
FIGURE 42. ESTIMATED THRUST CAPABILITY FOR TWO tested to evaluate performance and durability
ST6A SEAJET WATERJET SYSTEMS under cavitating and inlet aeration conditions
at varying simulated boat operating conditions
(Fig 46). The capability of operating while
SeaJet 6-1 and the scale steering system were ingesting different types of debris, such as
tested in a floating test stand shown in Fig 44. sand, wooden dowels, and weeds, will also be
This facility has the capability of direct measure- investigated. Successful completion of these
ment of the magnitude and direction of thrust loads programs will provide the basis for operational
in the horizontal plane. SeaJet 12-1 was tested waterjet propulsion systems for high speed
on the stationary stand shown schematically in boats in the 400- and 3770-hp range.

16
-

Ram Water Supply


30,000 gpm Capacity

SeaJet 12-1 Waterjet


RG12-3.89 Gearbox
F1'12 Gas Turbine

Recirculated
Ram Water

FIGURE 46. FT12 SEAJET 12-1 WATERJET SYSTEM

V. References

"Waterjet Propulsion for Small Craft," L. "Efficiency of a Propulsor on a Body of


Arcand, SNAME Small Craft Hydrodynamics Revolution Inducting Boundary-Layer Fluid,"
Southeast Section Meeting, May 27, 1966 S. Thurston and M. S. Evanvar, Journal of
Aircraft, Vol. 3, No. 3, May 1966
"Waterjet Propulsion for Marine Vehicles,"
J. Traksel and W. E. Beck, AIAA Paper 65-245 "Selection of a Propulsor for a Submersible
System," W. S. Gearhart and R. E. Henderson,
"Hydrodynamics and Propulsion of Submerged AIAA Paper 65-232
Bodies," G. F. Wislicenus, ARS Journal V30
No. 12, December 1960
"First Coast Guard High Endurance Cutter in
Twenty Years - The Coast Guard Cutter Hamilton
"An Experimental Investigation of the Design
Powered by CODAG Plant," H. E. Russell, USNE
Variables for NACA Submerged Duct Entrances," Journal, October 1965
E. A. Mossman and L. M. Randall, NACA RMA7130,
January 1948
"The Practical Application of Economics
"Fluid Dynamic Drag," H. F. Hoerner, Pages 9 to Merchant Ship Design," Harry Benford,
to 16 Marine Technology, January 1967.

18
VI. LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS

Symbol Description Units

Cost dollars

Drag coefficient CD
CD
pv2
Ainlet 2g

CRF Capital recovery factor


Drag lb

Gravitational constant ft/sec2


Inlet lip height ft

Head ft/H20
Hsi Head, static inlet ft

Head, static hull ft


sx
Head, total - free stream ft
Hto
H . Head, total inlet ft
ti
Head, total - diffuser exit ft
Ht2
Waterline length ft

LID Lift/Drag ratio


N Shaft speed rpm
NPSH Net positive suction head (total ft
head above the vapor pressure at
waterjet inlet)

N Specific speed
AH 3/4
PC Propulsive coefficient TV/shp x 550
Flow rate gpm
Radius in.

S Suction specific speed NVT/NPSH3/4


sfc Specific fuel consumption lb/hp-hr
shp Shaft horsepower
Thrust lb

Local velocity ft/sec

V. Mean inlet velocity ft/sec


im
V Jet velocity ft/sec
Velocity knots
Vk
V Velocity ft/sec
o
Inlet velocity ft/sec
V1
Flow rate lb/sec

Weight lb

Distance from bow to inlet ft

Y Distance perpendicular to hull in ft


boundary layer
Boundary layer thickness ft

Displacement long tons (2240 lb)


Pump efficiency
Momentum thickness

19
No. 61351

THE U. S. NAVY HYDROFOIL DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM -


A STATUS REPORT
by

WILLIAM M. ELLSWORTH
David Taylor Model Basin
Washington, D. C.

Paper No.
67-351

AIAA/SNAME Advance marine


vetoes mooring
NORFOLK, VIRGINIA/MAY 22-24, 1967
First publication rights reserved by American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1290 Avenue of the Americas, New York, N. Y. 10019
and Society of Naval Architects ond Marine Engineers, 74 Trinity Place, New York, N. Y. 10006
Abstracts may be published without permission if credit is given to author and to AIAA/SNAME. (Member Price-75c; Nonmember PriceS1.50)
1.08, 3.07, 10.11
THE U.S. NAVY HYDROFOIL DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMA STATUS REPORT
William M. Ellsworth, Technical Director
Hydrofoil Development Program
David Taylor Model Basin
Washington, D.C. 20007

ABSTRACT

The current status of technology relating to the design


of military hydrofoil craft and major craft subsystems is
reviewed. Major subsystems covered include struts and
foils, hull, ship control, propulsion, and auxiliary ma-
chinery. Background information, characteristics, oper-
ational experience, and future plans for U.S. Navy hy-
drofoil craft are also given. These craft include HIGH-
POINT (PCH-1), PLALNVIEW (AGEH-1), FRESH-I,
FLAGSTAFF (PGH-1), and TUCUMCARI (PGH-2).

INTRODUCTION

During almost the entire first half of the twentieth


century, the flickering flame of enthusiasm for the devel-
opment of hydrofoil craft waxed and waned with only
sporadic interest and very limited financial support. Ex- Figure 1. SEALEGS
cellent summaries of activities during this period of his-
tory are given by Crewel and Hayward2 as well as by much valuable data and only within the past year has it
many other authors, and it is not the intent of this paper been retired and donated to the Smithsonian Institution.
to deal with these historical aspects of hydrofoil develop-
ment. It is interesting to note, however, that only within The year 1960 was a significant milestone in the Navy
the current decade has there been a concentrated effort Hydrofoil Program. At that time it was decided that suf-
to develop such craft for either military or commercial ficient data had been accumulated to demonstrate that
purposes. This has led many to express the opinion that large submerged-foil craft are feasible and that such
hydrofoil development, in contrast to that of the aircraft, craft could provide the Navy with a significantly advanced
now falls into the category of "too little, too late" except high-speed mission capability. As a result, an acceler-
for specialized situations. Certainly, it is true that ated program of development was initiated and emergency
progress has been painfully slow; however, the substan- funds were made available to support an expanded re-
tial growth in the employment of commercial hydrofoils search and development effort. Also, FY 1960 ship con-
for passenger service during the last several years struction funds were allocated for the design and building
strongly suggests a contrary view of the future. Further, of the PCH-1, a 110-ton hydrofoil patrol boat. Later, in
it is the intent of the author of this paper, in the following FY 1962, funds were allocated for the design and con-
sections, to show that there is a real future for hydrofoil struction of the AGEH-1, a 320-ton experimental ASW
craft in military applications, and that this future is hydrofoil ship. Finally, in early 1966, contracts were
comingto full realization in the currentU.S. Navy Hydro- let for the construction of two Patrol Gunboat Hydrofoils
foil Development Program. (PGH), one by the Grumman Aircraft Engineering Corpo-
ration and the other by the Boeing Company. The char-
BACKGROUND acteristics of each of these craft and their status are
discussed in detail in a later section.
The U. S. Navy's interest in the potential of hydrofoils
dates from the late 1940's. In the period 1947 to 1960 During the period from 1960 to the present there has
the Office of Naval Research, with support by the been a continuing program of supporting research and
Bureau of Ships, sponsored a number of research and development directed toward solution of problems and the
development projects directed toward the establishment generation of criteria for the design of hydrofoil craft
of feasibility and fundamental criteria for the design of subsystems including hull, struts and foils, propulsion,
hydrofoil craft. Theoretical analyses and model experi- ship control, and auxiliary machinery. The results of
ments were made and tests were conducted on a variety much of this work have been incorporated in the design
of small craft. Of the small hydrofoil craft, the SEA- of present craft; however, much remains to be done
LEGS, Figure 1, is perhaps the most notable. SEALEGS, toward the achievement of higher performance and In-
through the joint efforts of Gibbs & Cox and the MIT creased reliability. Excellent summaries of the state-
Flight Control Laboratory, provided the first real dem- of-the-art in Navy hydrofoil craft design were presented
onstration of the feasibility and advantages of a fully- by Oakley3 in 1962 and Lacey4 in 1964. These papers
submerged, automatically-controlled foil system. The provide the foundation for the review and up-dating of
many hours of foilborne operation of SEALEGS produced today's technology which follows.

1
CRAFT SUBSYSTEM TECHNOLOGY some penalty in added cost, and perhaps less reliability.
For large hydrofoil craft, required to operate in heavy
Struts & Foils seas, the percentage of total cost represented by the
control system does not constitute a major consideration.
Before proceeding with a more detailed discussion For smaller craft, constrained to operate in relatively
of strut/foil technology, it is appropriate to first re- light seas, the cost and added sophistication of an auto-
view the major differences in foil system configuration. matic control system does not appear justifiable. How-
One major difference is that between "fully-submerged" ever, because of the size and sea state requirements
and "surface-piercing" foil systems shown in Figure 2. associated with envisaged Naval mission applications,
The fuLly-submerged system places the lifting surface the U.S. Navy has elected to employ fully-submerged
completely below the air-water interface by means of foils with automatic control systems. The advantages
strut supports. In such a case, some type of automatic inherent in this configuration are graphically illustrated
control is generally required to maintain flying height, in Figure 3, taken from Reference 3.
at least for operation in significant waves. There is a
pronounced stabilizing effect which results from close
proximity of the fully-wetted foil to the free surface. For
relatively calm water conditions this free-surface effect
may be sufficient to permit foilborne operation with rela-
tively simple control measures such as that of varying
craft trim. In the surface-piercing foil system the
lifting surfaces themselves penetrate the air-water in-
terface. Such systems are inherently stable in that lift
varies in relation to the flying height or depth of foil
submergence. As a result, at most, only simple stabil-
ity augmentation is required, even for operation in a
seaway. The selection of one system over the othelyis Figure 2. Typical (a) Surface-Piercing and
made principally upon considerations of cost, reliabilitY,.: (b) Fully-Submerged Foil Systems
and simplicity, in light of the resulting foilborne motion
characteristics achievable in negotiating the specified A second major difference in basic hydrofoil configu-
sea conditions. The fuLly-submerged, automatica rations is in the distribution of lifting surface area along
controlled system clearly provides smoother opera9dn the hull, as shown in Figure 4. In the "canard" config-
and greater flexibility of control in heavy seas but at uration, the major portion of the load is borne on large

30 97%

25 7

1,000T.

90% 6

80%
75% 5a
67%
4
55%
40°/0 3
RC\IsIG
LLH. S. DENISON
PT 50 SUPRAMAR 2
PT 20 SUPRAMAR
1

o 50 100 150 200 250 300


HYDROFOIL SHIP LENGTH - FEET

Figure 3. Significant Wave Height for Unrestricted Operation of Hydrofoil Craft

2
LONGITUDINAL CONFIGURATION LATERAL CONFIGURATION
NONSPLIT SPLIT

CONVENTIONAL 0< x <0.35

-a
.
CANARD 0.65< xL <1.0

TANDEM 0.35< xL < 0 65

CENTER OF GRAVITY

Figure 4. Definition of Foil Area Distribution

foils located aft of the midship section. A smaller When the total pressure at a point in the liquid drops
lightly-loaded foil is placed forward. The canard dis- below vapor pressure, cavities form and collapse with
tribution is arbitrarily defined as one in which 65% or resulting radical alterations to the flow characteristics.
more of the load is concentrated on the aft foil assembly. This phenomenon also produces high noise levels and
The opposite arrangement is referred to as the "airplane" causes severe erosion of many materials otherwise suit-
or "conventional" foil configuration. Here the major able for construction. Above this critical speed regime,
portion of the load is supported by foils located forward a radically different approach must be talcen in designing
of the midship section. Intermediate between these two the foil system. A distinction must be made, therefore,
types is the "tandem" foil arrangement where the load is between "subcavitating" and "supercavitating
borne equally by the forward and aft foil assembly. configurations.

GeneraLly spealcing, satisfactory overall arrangements The hydrodynamic characteristics of subcavitating


and craft performance can be achieved with either a hydrofoils are very similar to subsonic aerodynamic
canard or airplane configuration, and, thus far, there is characteristics of aircraft wings Thus it has been pos-
no clear indication that one arrangement has a major sible to adopt much of airfoil theory and techniques in
inherent advantage over the other. Selection of foil area their design. For hydrofoils which are to operate in the
distribution is, therefore, dictated primarily by such subcavitating regime, the problem is to develop foil con-
considerations as location of major component weights in figurations having sufficient strength, minimum weight,
the hull, requirements for towing, and the ease of pro- and maximum lift to drag ratio, while at the same time
viding retraction, if desired. There does remain an extending the critical cavitation speed as high as practi-
important question regarding the effect of lateral area cal. The achievement of high cavitation inception speeds
distribution on the lateral stability of the craft in con- is made more difficult by flow interactions at foil, strut,
junction with strut unwetting during passage through a_nd pod intersections; effects of craft motion in a seaway;
waves. This question should be resolved by comparison surface roughness and discontinuities; and the orbital.
of PCH-1, a canard arrangement, with AGEH-1, which velocities present in surface waves. In addition, severe
is of conventional or airplane design. problems are encountered due to the effects of air venting
from the free surface. This is a particularly critical
A third major distinction to be made relates to the problem in the design of surface piercing struts where
maximum speed. The major obstacle to achievement of the struts are subject to angles of attack such as those
high sustained speeds in water is the occurrence of cavi- associated with high speed turns. Ventilation of sub-
tation. High velocity fLow around struts, foils, and other merged foils can also occur through internal air passages
appendages is attendant with a reduction in local pressure. in the struts or even through tip vortex tubes that on

3
occasion vent to the free surface. At present, there is
a notable lack of knowledge concerning the mechanisms
of ventilation and the laws governing scale effects. Of SUBCAVITATING FOIL
particular concern is the characteristic sudden occur-
rence and the hysteresis associated with formation and
disappearance of ventilation cavities.
To date, ventilation problems have been dealt with CAVITY
primarily by the use of "fences" to block the passage of
air from the free surface to regions of low pressure in BASE -VENTILATED FOIL

the fluid. Fortunately, this type of engineering fix is


usually adequate in preventing the occurrence of unwanted 7ANNEX
ventilation. Forward sweep and dihedral of surface-
piercing struts also are beneficial in reducing the ten-
CAVITY
dency to ventilate.

Thus far, most foil and strut section shapes have been SL1PERCAVITATING FOIL
those selected from the NACA design literature such as
the 16 or 63 series. These sections have characteris- Figure 5(a). Comparison of Typical Foil Sections
tically flat pressure distributions and provide maximum
lift within limits of cavitation inception. From this
standpoint, bearing in mind the 800 to one ratio of water STRUT CAVIT,;(7
and air densities, it appears that under ideal conditions WATER SURFACE

a foil loading of about 2000 PSF is about the maximum


BASE VENTED
attainable without cavitation. In practice, considerably STRUT
lower loadings of the order of 1200 to 1400 PSF must be
employed if cavitation is, in fact, to be avoided. Further-
more, it appears that speeds much above 40 to 45 knots
will always be associated with some cavitation unless ex-
treme care is taken in the design and fabrication of the
foil system.. In the speed regime between about 45 and
UNIFORM PRESSURE OVER
60 knots one can consider the possibilities of living with UPPER SURFACE P, IYDROFOIL CAVITY
cavitation, at least for short periods of time. One pos- Pc Po
sibility that is under investigation is the introduction of
air at points of cavity formation either by natural venti- CAMBERED PARABOLA
lation or forced air injection. Such techniques reduce
or eliminate cavitation damage to materials, and also Figure 5(b). Base-Vented Strut/Foil Configuration
give promise of significant decrease in noise production.
They do, however, increase the complexity of system avoided. There are a number of difficulties with super-
design and also may result in some penalty in lift-to- cavitating foil design yet to be satisfactorily resolved.
drag ratio. Among these are the high angles of attack needed to re-
liably generate the cavity, the effects of proximity to the
Another technique ander investigation is designed to free surface, structural strength of the thin leading edge,
eliminate or ameliorate the radical changes in flow char- the problem of generating high lift at low speeds asso-
acteristics when cavitation occurs. By proper design of ciated with takeoff, and difficulties in achieving reliable
fully-submerged foils, cavitation can be caused to occur and effective control of lift. In general, it appears that
first at the tips of the foils. As speed increases the true supercavitating foils offer the greatest promise at
cavitating area enlarges smoothly toward the wing root. speeds above about 80 knots. At speeds below 80 knots it
This design is referred to as a "transit" foil. Although presently is felt that fully-wetted base-vented designs
this type of transition should be achievable, successful may be more practical. The success of such base-vented
designs have not yet been demonstrated. foils depends to a large degree on the development of
sections with decreased cavitation and ventilation sensi-
At speeds above about 60 knots we enter a design area tivity to angle of attack and results of research in this
which can no longer be classed as state-of-the-art even area shows promise. Generally superior lift-to-drag
though a significant fund of knowledge has been accumu- ratios can be expected of supercavitating sections in the
lated toward the solution of hydrodynamic problems. At 80 to 100-knot range but fully-wetted base-vented sec-
present, there are two basic approaches to high-speed tions will be competitive at lower speeds. FuLly-wetted,
foil design. One involves the use of so-called "super- base-vented foils and struts have been evaluate(' on ihe
cavitating" sections and the other the use of fully-wetted, BuShips test craft FRESH-I at speeds up to 80 knots and
base-vented sections. Typical designs are shown in the results show considerable promise. It is clear, how-
Figures 5a & b. In the supercavitating foil design, the ever, that much additional work, both experimental and
sharp leading edge causes the formation of a fully- theoretical, must be performed to develop an adequate
developed cavitation cavity over the entire upper surface capability for high-speed foil system design.
of the foil. Cavity collapse occurs well aft of the trailing
edge and problems of buffeting and erosion are thus

4
One of the most critical problem areas in the design surface effects have no analogy in the aeroelastic case
of foil systems is that of materials. The selection of and are not completely accounted for in the present state
suitable materials having high strength, low weight, of the art. However, the extension of incompressible un-
resistance to sea-water corrosion and cavitation erosion, steady airfoil theory has been shown to be highly unre-
and having acceptable fatigue properties, while at the liable in predicting hydrofoil flutter. It has been demon-
same time not imposing unacceptable penalties in cost strated that foil flutter can occur in regions where direct
and difficulty of fabrication, presents-a.major challenge application of unsteady airfoil theory would predict a
to the designer. To date, a considerable effort has been completely flutter-free condition. At present, it appears
expended in the development of suitable materials, much that dependable predictions of flutter can only be made
of which has not been directly aimed at the hydrofoil with dynamically-scaled models and experimentally-
problem even though the information on material proper- measured damping values. In spite of this unsatisfactory
ties thus obtained has been of great value to the foil de- state of our knowledge of hydrofoil flutter, there is some
signer. At the present time, a number of candidate foil reason to believe that subcavitating desig,ns which are
materials have been identified, each of which calls for adequate to prevent divergence are not likely to flutter.
one compromise or aiaother in comparison to ideal mate- This is borne out by present experience with operational
rial properties. PCH-1 struts and foils are constructed craft. However, with the advent of lighter-weight struc-
of HY-80 steel which must be coated to resist seawater tures and more sophisticated composite designs, our
corrosion and cavitation erosion damage. During oper- margin of confidence is likely to decrease unless contin-
ations, to date, a variety of coating materials have been ued efforts are made to extend the knowledge in this area.
tried with varying degrees of success. In the most re- Certainly, in the case of high-speed supercavitating con-
cent foilborne operations an elastomeric coating of neo- figurations, there is a notable lack of confidence in our
prene has shown considerable promise and raised the ability to predict the occurrence of hydroelastic insta-
level of confidence in future use of HY-130 and HY-140 bilities. This is particularly true in the case of leading-
steels. Active consideration is also being given to the edge flutter of supercavitating foil configurations. Other
use of alloys which require no coating. Of these, Inconel types of hydroelastic instabilities involving stall and
718, 17-4PH, and 6-2-1 titanium with 0. 8% molybdenum coupling between foils and control flaps also present
are the most promising candidates. In each case, how- serious design questions on which present knowledge is
ever, there remain unresolved questions regarding ma- considered inadequate.
terial suitability for the large sizes, complex construc-
tions, and severe environment associated with the large Hull
hydrofoil application. Furthermore, it is presently dif-
ficult to obtain the new developmental materials from The major reason for the employment of hydrofoils is,
suppliers in the desired billet sizes and with the required of course, the desire to lift the hull from the water and
guaranteed properties. thus circumvent the constraints on high speed due to
wavemaking and frictional resistance and intolerable
In the area of strut and foil structure, one of the craft motions in a seaway. Total drag just prior to take-
major considerations is the avoidance of hydroelastic off is a significant factor in establishbag the power re-
problems. "Hydroelasticity" is concerned with phenom- quirement and careful attention must be paid to the hull
ena involving mutual interactions among inertial, hydro- design to minimize this effect. Figure 6 shows a typical
dynamic, and elastic forces. Although the over-all per- smooth water drag curve for a hydrofoil craft with its
formance of a hydrofoil craft involves each of these significant "hump" prior to takeoff. Comparison is also
forces, hydroelastic considerations involve all three made with a typical planing craft to illustrate the high-
simultaneously and are most significant for foil systems. speed advantage of the hydrofoil even in smooth water.
Among hydroelastic phenomena it may be concluded that In order to allow for additional takeoff drag which results
the dynamic instability known as "flutter" is the most from significant waves, a power margin as much as 40
complex of all hydroelastic problems of concern in hy- or 50% over smooth-water takeoff requirements is
drofoil craft design. Whereas the problem of torsional usually provided. This large margin is somewhat indica-
divergence involves only the hydrodynamic and elastic tive of our current lack of knowledge regarding the true
forces, flutter involves- also the inertial forces of both magnitude of the added seaway effect.
the foil system and the fluid medium. Flutter analysis
requires a knowledge of vibration characteristics, mode Actually, there are currently no good design criteria
shapes, and over-all damping and it may be stated with specifically for hydrofoil hull shapes and there are as
some confidence that flutter is currently the least trac- many different configurations as there are hydrofoil
table of hydrofoil hydroelastic problems. Since flutter craft. Hull configurations are generally based on pre-
can cause a catastrophic failure of the foil system with vious experience with seaplane and planing craft and
possible damage to the main hull structure, a careful much more work is required to establish an adequate
consideration of this problem area is essential. design foundation particularly applicable to hydrofoils.
Further standard series model work is necessary and
In subcavitating foil designs, theoretical and experi- investigation must be made of the possible advantages of
mental developments, based largely on aeroelastic ex- stepped hulls in achieving lower take-off drag.
perience, have apparently been used successfully in the
prediction of static hydroelastic effects such as diver- Another major consideration in hull design is the re-
gence. Reasonable success has been achieved in also quirement for good sea-keeping characteristics in a
predicting the vibration characteristics of foil structures heavy sea. If hydrofoil craft are to operate unrestricted
with zero forward motion. This is true even though free in the open ocean, they must be capable of surviving

5
THRUST-DRAG COMPARISON impact loads in negotiating high seas when foilborne, and
situations causing sudden "set-down" in waves; there are
few real data upon which judgment can be made except for
HULL recent rough water trials of PCH-1. Current designs
BARE PLANING
must therefore still be guided, in the main, by present
knowledge of displacement ships, seaplanes, and planing
craft. With hull weight-fraction being critical in the de-
sign, hydrofoil hull structure much more resembles that
of aircraft than conventional displacement craft. Weld-
ability and resistance to seawater corrosion are signifi-
cant factors in the selection of lightweight hull materials.
HYDROFOIL CRAFT
At present, only the 5000 series aluminum alloys satisfy
TAKE-OFF SPEED MA XIMUM
f these criteria. Of these, 5456 is most frequently used.
SPEED
5456 is weldable and has a yield strength of 26,000 PSI
for plate. It is the material used for both the PCH and
AGEH hulls.

In utilizing aluminum alloys for the hull material,


SPEED
provision should generally be made for some form of
Figure 6. Typical Calm-Water Thrust-Drag Curves cathodic protection. This may be avoided in future de-
signs with developments in utilization of titanium or per-
storm seas in the hullborne condition. Furthermore, in haps high-strength fibre glass reinforced plastics.
operations such as ASW, it may be expected that the hy-
drofoil will spend the major portion of its operating life- In summary, it may be stated that availability of
time in the hullborne mode. Thus, it is essential that suitable hull materials does not appear to constitute a
close attention be given to the hull seakeeping character- major design restriction. Problems in adequate strength
istics. With the foils extended during hullborne operation of foilborne hull structures have not yet arisen, but this
there is a significant effect on craft motion, particularly may be due to lack of adequate experience in very rough
in the roll mode which is normally not heavily damped. sea operations. Certainly, it is essential that adequate
This is shown in Figure 7 (Reference 5) obtained from provision be made for acquiring extensive data on the
model tests on AGEH-1. It is expected that the foil sys- structural characteristics of new hydrofoil craft during
tem will give hydrofoil craft hullborne motion character- their operations in a seaway.
istics of ships having much larger displacements. There
remains, however, a question regarding the possibility Propulsion
that foil damping may detract from the ability of the craft The three major components of the propulsion system
to weather large breaking waves. Although model studies are the prime mover, transmission, and thrust producer.
have provided considerable insight into this area, more For small craft, a single system may be adequate; how-
actual operational experience is required to fully assess ever, the conflicting requirements for hullborne and foil-
potential problems. borne operation of Navy hydrofoils generally dictate a
separate system for each mode.
0 FOILS UP, WAVES FROM STARBOARD Because of their lower first cost, higher efficiency,
FOILS UP, WAVES FROM PORT
FOILS DOWN,WAVES FROM STARBOARD and flexibility of operation, diesel engines are generally
FOILS DOWN, WAVES FROM PORT employed for hullborne propulsion. Lightweight diesels
ZERO SPEED
HULLBORNE
in sizes up to about 4000 HP are available with specific
weight as low as 4 or 5 lbs per HP, specific volume
around 0.2 Cu. ft. per HP, and specific fuel consumption
around 0.4 lb. per HP hr.

Foilborne propulsion of large, high-speed Navy hydro-


foil craft has been made possible only through the devel-
opment of the marinized gas turbine engine. Existing
aircraft jet engines have been slightly modified as gas
10°
producers and coupled with newly designed free power
turbines to permit conversion of jet power to mechanical
power. These engines are available in sizes ranging up
O
HEAD BOW BEAM QUARTER FOLLOW
to 30,000 HP with specific weights of around 0.5 lb per
HEAMNG
HP and specific volumes of less than 0.1 cu. ft. per HP.
Fuel consumption, at most economical power levels,
ranges from 0.6 to 0.8 lb/HP hr; it rises considerably
Figure 7. Predicted Hullborne Roll of AGEH-1 in State above this at low percentage of full power. Improvements
7 Sea Based on 5-Foot Model Tests (Reference 5) in this area may, however, be expected as a result of
current development programs. Higher turbine inlet
With respect to the capability of hydrofoil hull struc- temperatures give significantly increased efficiency;
tures to survive very high sea states when hullborne, however, temperatures are currently limited by effects
6
of the marine enviroiament. When the turbine inlet tem- 0.8 being attainable. At speeds much above 35 or 40
perature exceeds about 1550°F, "sulfidation" occurs with knots, however, it is virtually impossible to avoid the
disastrous effects on the metal parts, in particular the inception of cavitation with attendant loss in efficiency,
turbine blading Sulfidation is the formation of a glass- erosion of blade material, and high radiated noise. A
like deposit which results from combination of salt in the nominal increase in cavitation inception speed can be
inlet air with sulfur in the fuel. Removal of this coating achieved by very careful design using thin blade sections
can be effected by passing a charge of ground walnut of high-strength material; however, the problems of de-
shells through the engine; however, progressive deteri- sign are made more difficult by the adverse effects of
oration of the metal parts still occurs. In addition to the strut/foil/pod interaction and the orbital wave velocities
sulfidation problem, the ingestion of salt laden air causes near the free surface. This has led to the development
salt buildup on the blades of the compressor. This leads of techniques for injecting air into minimum pressure
to a progressive loss in power which, under adverse con- regions on the blades and to the design of supercavitating
ditions, can be as much as several per cent per hour. blade sections. Several families of supercavitating pro-
This deposit of salt can be removed with fresh water pellers have been developed and, although further devel-
washing; however, the most effective technique to elimi- opment is necessary, some designs have already been
nate these problems is to remove the salt from the air applied in practice. A 3-bladed supercavitating propeller
before it is introduced into the turbine. This requires of titanium has proved successful on the DENISON and
the use of separators along with careful design and posi- 4-bladed supercavitating propellers of titanium have been
tioning of the inlet. Separators, until recently, have installed on the AGEH-1.
presented a problem due to the added system weight;
however, improvements in the development of lighter- Problems which have been encountered with water
weight units show great promise. propellers and anticipated future difficulties which are
likely to occur with increasing sizes of gear transmis-
Since gas turbines have many other marine applica- sions have led to interest in the development of water jet
tions than that of the hydrofoil craft, there is an exten- propulsion systems. Such systems typically consist of
sive development program underway in the Navy. This an inlet water duct, a pump, and an above-surface water
broader program may be expected to provide, in the main, jet exhaust. Heavily loaded gears and long transmission
the technology required for the hydrofoil application. shafts are thus eliminated and the number of moving
There are, however, certain aspects of the hydrofoil de- parts is substantially reduced. Feasibility studies and
sign which are not common to other applications and tests of experimental systems indicate that this type of
these must be covered in the hydrofoil development pro- propulsion can be used at moderately high speeds with
gram.. In particular, special attention must be paid to efficiency competitive to the water propeller. With re-
the unusual load requirem.ents and duty cycle of the hy- spect to propulsive efficiency, it must be emphasized
drofoil. Each start of a gas turbine produces high ther- that this parameter alone is not adequate in making a
mal gradients and resulting high stress levels in the true comparison of candidate propulsion systems. This
metal parts. To meet the envisaged duty cycles, such as has been clearly demonstrated in detailed parametric
will be associated with the ASW application, further de- studies of waterjet systems. One must examine all of
velopment of materials and possibly blade cooling tech- the trade-offs which are offered in making a design se-
niques is needed. lection. On this basis, considering weight, fuel con-
sumption, power, system losses, and other relevant
The selection of a thrust producer for hydrofoil craft variables, the system selected as optimum for a partic-
is complicated by a number of unique design factors. Re- ular operational requirement may, in fact, have a lower
quirements for high-power at low speed associated with propulsive efficiency than is actually attainable within the
the takeoff condition conflict with requirements for high state-of-the-art. Further development is required to
power at high speed during foilborne operation. Further- demonstrate the capability of waterjet systems for hy-
more, although the current maximum speed range of drofoil craft. Major problems appear to be the occur-
interest is high by comparison to displacement ships, it rence of cavitation in pumps and ducting, the loss of
is not high enough to make attractive the use of such efficiency at low speeds, and the friction losses in the
devices as gas jets or air propellers due to their low duct system. The Boeing PGH-2, currently being con-
efficiency. Effort is being applied to explore the possi- structed, will be waterjet-propelled using a pump de-
bilities of increasing the efficiency of gas jets since this veloped by Byron-Jackson and vvill provide the first
means of generating thrust offers a number of significant opportunity to evaluate the merit of this form of hydro-
advantages. Thus far, however, efficiencies that are foil propulsion under actual operating conditions. Also,
attainable are not acceptable for current applications. Navy sponsored static tests are currently being con-
The high-speed test craft FRESH-I does employ a turbo- ducted by Pratt-Whitney on a different type of 3000 hp
fan engine for propulsion but this selection was made to water-jet pump system using an FT-12 gas turbine drive.
avoid interference with test foil systems. As for the air Results, thus far, using small test craft such as the
propeller, the large diameters required for the hydrofoil Boeing LITTLE SQUIRT, appear quite promising'and
application preclude their use. This leaves water pro- offer future improvement in system reliability as well as
pellers and water jets as the two principle candidates for significant reduction in radiated noise compared to the
hydrofoil propulsion. conventional propeller systems.

For speeds up to about 40 knots, the subcavitating In order to utilize the water propeller as a foilborne
water propeller is, by far, the most efficient device for thrust device, it is necessary to provide a transmission
producing thrust with propulsive efficiencies as high as system to span the long distance between the prime

7
mover and the propeller. The problem is formidable in Ship Control
that it involves transmitting 20,000 to 30,000 HP, re-
duction of rotational speed from 5000 RPM at the gas The ship control system comprises those components
turbine to 1200 to 1500 RPM at the propeller, and provi- necessary for steering, dynamic stabilization, and con-
sion for complete watertight integrity throughout the sub- trol of craft speed and attitude in flight. In fLight there
merged portion of the system. The problem is further are, in principle, two modes in which the craft can oper-
complicated by the desire to provide the capability for ate in rough water as shown in Figure 8. If the hydrofoil
retracting the foil system. is relatively large compared with the waves and its flying
height is sufficient to permit the hull to travel in straight
The U.S. Navy has examined various types of trans- and level flight clear of the waves, the craft is said to
mission systems with the conclusion that the right-angle "platform" with zero response. In the other extreme,
bevel gear drive represents the best choice at the cur- if the hydrofoil is small compared to the waves, it is
rent stage of development. This type of "zee" drive was constrained to follow the surface. This is known as
employed in the MARAD hydrofoil craft DENISON and "contouring" and, ideally, a 100% response is required.
successfully demonstrated the capability of handling Any practical craft control system must, to some extent,
10,000 HP through a single shaft and single-mesh bevel compromise between these extremes and seek to provide
gear. A similar system is employed in the PCH where minimum foil broach and maximum hull clearance without
3000 HP is transmitted through a single shaft and a split exceeding the desired limits of craft motion. The limits
bevel arrangement in the pods to distribute power to the on motion are primarily those prescribed by the maxi-
fore and aft propellers. The AGEH will be the highest mum accelerations which are, in turn, important in their
power application of the zee-drive transmission with influence on structure, mission equipment, and the
more than 15,000 HP being transmitted through two drive human occupants.
shafts down each main strut to single propellers on the
aft end of each pod. This system has been qualified in In looking at the more detailed technical aspects of the
factory tests and has been installed on the ship Devel- guidance and control system, we may consider it com-
opments of even larger systems are in progress and prised of the sensors, computers, actuators, and lift
some promise has been shown by a new planetary gear control devices. This last component area obviously ties
system, under development by Curtiss-Wright, which into much of the previous discussion on struts and foils.
offers the possibility of significant reduction in pod size. It is included for the sake of completeness in covering
the problems of system design.

PATH OF C. G. (ZERO RESPONSE)

PLATFORMING CRAFT LARGE COMPARED WITH WAVES

CONTOURING CRAFT SMALL COMPARED WITH WAVES

.11
PATH OF C. G. (PARTIAL RESPONSE)

INTERMEDIATE RESPONSE

Figure 8. Comparison of Platforming & Contouring Modes

8
Hydrofoil craft having only surface piercing foils, in control response required of large hydrofoil craft which
general, do not employ an autopilot system with its as- must operate in high sea states.
sociated sensors. The foils themselves act both as
sensors and control devices by virtue of the change in In the more sophisticated electronic control system
forces and moments with depth of foil submergence. As described in more detail in Reference 6, inputs to the
already noted, this provides the persuasive advantage of autopilot are provided by electronic height sensors, ac-
extreme simplicity and high reliability. In some cases, celerometers, position gyros, and rate gyros. For the
simple control augrnentation may be added to surface- hydrofoil applications thus far considered, the state-of-
piercing systems in order to counter special stability the-art in autopilot design is generally satisfactory and
problems that may occur due to particular mission re- developments have kept pace with requirements for oper-
quirements. This is the case in the design of the Cana- ational systems. This is due in major part to the signifi-
dian FHE-400 where controllable anhedral foil tips will cant advances in technology stimulated by aircraft re-
be employed to give added stability in the takeoff and quirements. Aircraft-type accelerometers and gyros are
low foilborne speed range. This addition was made due available off the shelf with 2000-hour life ratings and
to the wide range of speeds desired, which is consider- these are generally suitable for hydrofoil control systems.
ably greater than the usual design practice where the
takeoff speed is about one-half the maximum flying. Electronic control systems, to date, have all been of
speed. This posed a special problem in providing ade- the analog type wherein craft-motion sensor outputs are
quate stability at low foilborne speeds. processed by the control computer and continuous pro-
portional commands sent to the control surface actuators.
Other systems employ a surface-piercing main foil Present operating experience with large craft, although
and a smaller fully-submerged control foil in an attempt limited, seems to indicate such systems may not be com-
to buy some of the advantages of both configurations. pletely adequate for optimum control at high speeds in
The DENISON is an example. In this craft, provision is high sea states, and future experience may dictate the
made for manual and automatic control of trailing flaps need for self-adaptive systems. By self-adaptive is
on the surface piercing foils and an all-movable sub- meant the process of automatically changing loop gain
merged tail foil. with changes in environment such as speed, wave condi-
tions, temperature, etc. Self-adaptive systenis can also
In general, it is the conviction of the U.S. Navy employ gain-changing using the difference between actual
that large ocean-going hydrofoil craft require fully- performance of the vehicle and desired performance ob-
automatic control of submerged foils in order to tained with an electronic model of the craft incorporated
provide acceptable craft motions. As a result, the in the autopilot. This leads to the need for consideration
main effort in this area is directed toward such de- of digital systems rather than analogs. By judicious de-
signs. The validity of this philosophy should be dis- sign of switching circuits, digital computers could pro-
proved or verified, as the case may be, by future vide duty cycles which would extend the life of actuators
operational experience. In any event, this discussion and provide increased system reliability.
will be primarily constrained to the technical aspects of
submerged foil craft having some form of automatic Sensing of the local height of the hydrofoil above the
control. water has been done with some degree of success with
ultra-sonic devices mounted at the bow and with resis-
The simplest forms of automatic control systems tance-type probes installed down the leading edge of
employ combined mechanical sensors and actuators di- struts. Because of susceptibility to damage by debris,
rectly linked to lift control devices. These include the resistance-type probe is considered much less de-
forward arms with skids that plane on the free surface sirable and the ultra-sonic sensor is presently favored
and sprung flaps attached to the struts at the air-water due to its simplicity and proven reliability under actual
interface. Both types of mechanical "sensors" control operating conditions. This type of sensor was developed
trailing-edge flaps on the submerged foils in proportion to a major extent on SEALEGS and is in current use on
to the flying height. These devices, in particular the PCH-1. Ultra-sonic sensors for and aft will also be
strut-flap type, do provide a smoother ride in significant used on AGEH-1. Developments have also been carried
waves, but there is serious question as to their suitabil- out on radar-type sensors; however, recent results have
ity for hydrofoils above a size of 50 to 100 tons. Since, proved disappointing and it appears that the necessary
however, there are a number of Navy applications for close proximity to the water surface precludes achieve-
the smaller size craft, the simplicity and low cost of ment of acceptable operating characteristics with these
these systems merit attention in future designs. devices.

A second and somewhat more sophisticated approach The efficiency of energy transfer, the low compres-
to foil control is the use of pneumatic systems. In such sibility of the power transfer medium, and the high
systems air is introduced through orifices in fixed foils power to weight ratio of hydraulic actuation devices
and this produces large changes in lift at acceptable high makes the hydraulic system generally more attractive
response rates. This technique, now under development, than pneumatic or electric actuation systems. The ready
shows considerable promise for application to craft in availability of suitable hydraulic servo valves and, in
the 50- to 100-ton range up to moderately high sea most instances, actuation motors places the state-of-the-
states. Thus far, however, it has not been demonstrated art in foil actuation in a reasonably satisfactory position.
that such systems are capable of providing the degree of Since, however, the foil actuation components are

9
frequently the most costly part of the control system and U.S. NAVY HYDROFOIL CRAFT
since they also contribute a significant weight fraction,
further engineering refinement is considered necessary. Although a substantial part of the foundation for design
Furthermore, additional effort must be made in providing of operational craft can be, and has been, established by
increased reliability under the severe conditions imposed development of theory, analyses, model tests, and ex-
by the marine environment. periments with small vehicles, there must ultimately be
verification by construction and test of full-scale proto-
Actual control of submerged foil lift is effected in two types. At present there are three experimental craft
principal ways. One is by use of trailing edge flaps encompassed by the U.S. Navy Hydrofoil Development
coupled to the actuation system. The other is by varia- Program. These are the FRESH I (a high-speed platform
tion in the angle of attack of the entire foil. This latter for tests of new high-speed foil systems), the HIGHPOINT
method is referred to as "incidence" control. In addition, (PCH-1) and the PLAINVIEW (AGEH-1). In addition,
control of lift on the main foils can be accomplished by there are two hydrofoil gunboats, PGH-1 and PGH-2,
varying the trim of the entire craft. The selection of a wider construction at Grumman and Boeing, respectively.
foil control system is influenced by a large number of These two craft, being of smaller size and within the
design considerations, with particular emphasis on opti- state-of-the-art, are not considered developmental and,
mization of lift/drag characteristics throughout the range upon completion of final acceptance tests, they are sched-
of desired operational modes. The PCH uses flap control uled to be delivered to an operational unit of the fleet.
alone and the AGEH will have only incidence control of Data will be obtained during their test and operation,
the main foils and tail foil. Accurate comparisons of however, and these will be of great value in the develop-
these different approaches will only be possible through ment of firm criteria for the design of future craft.
actual operating experience. It may be noted, however,
that there is a growing conviction that both incidence and Before proceeding to a detailed discussion of the char-
flap control might ultimately be required to achieve the acteristics and status of each of the U.S. Navy Hydrofoil
best performance from large ocean-going hydrofoils. craft, it is important to make note of the special provisions
This is due to early indications that flaps are more effec- that havebeen made to conduct an extensive special trials
tively used for takeoff, whereas incidence control is program. For some time the Navy has recognized the need
more effective at foilborne cruise. for a special facility to conduct technical trials of advanced
surface craft. The first step toward provision of such a
As previously noted in the section on struts and foils, capability was taken in November 1966. At that time, the
the most critical problem in lift control is cavitation and Taylor Model Basin, upon request of the Naval Ship Systems
ventilation and present knowledge regarding such effects Command, established a Hydrofoil Special Trials Unit at
on the static and dynamic stability characteristics of hy- Bremerton, Washington. This Unit will function as a tenant
drofoil craft is not yet adequate. Most control system activity of the Puget Sound Naval Shipyard and will be staff-
designers seem to feel that hydrofoil control technology ed with both civilian and military personnel. The Officer-
is primarily deficient only in the need for more precise in-Charge will be responsible to the Commanding Officer
information regarding the nature and magnitude of the and Director of the Model Basin and the Technical Director
hydrodynamic inputs to the control system. of the Hydrofoil Development Project Office for the conduct
of all special trials of assigned craft. Effective in Decem-
Auxiliary Machinery ber 1966, technical control of PCH-1 was transferred to
the Model Basin with operational control to be provided by
This more or less miscellaneous area includes various the Commandant of the 13th Naval District. AGEH-1 willbe
auxiliary systems such as electrical generators, pumps, similarly assigned upon delivery to the Navy.
air conditioning, etc. Although there do not presently
appear to be any major technical problems in this area, HIGHPOINT (PCH-1)
these systems do contribute a substantial portion of the
total craft weight. As a result, there is strong reason to General
devote continued attention to means for reducing the
weight of auxiliary system components. As an example, The guidance design of the PCH-1 was performed by
in a recent study it was concluded that major weight re- the Bureau of Ships and a contract for detailed design and
duction and improved effectiveness could be achieved construction was awarded to the Boeing Company in June
within the present state of the art by utilization of 400- of 1960. The keel was laid at J. M. Martinac Shipyard in
cycle gas turbine generator electrical systems. Con- February 1961 and the hull was launched in August 1962.
sidering the close parallel between aircraft and hydro- Construction was completed and the craft began operations
foils, there are undoubtedly many other such possibilities in September 1963.
for adopting modified aircraft practice in the design and
specification of auxiliary systems. The principal characteristics of PCH-1 are given in
Table I and are graphically illustrated in Figures 9
Another aspect which merits further study is that of through 15. As shown, the craft is a canard configuration
reliability. Considering the projected mission applica- similar to SEALEGS with 70% of the load being borne on
tions for hydrofoils, the small crew sizes, and lack of the after inverted "n" foil. Foil lift is controlled through
spares capacity, it is clearly essential to provide high trailing edge flaps. The flying height is controlled by the
reliability and ease of maintenance in all critical systems. flaps on the forward foil by comparison between the sig-
nal from two bow-mounted ultra-sonic height sensors and

10
Figure 9. PCH-1 Suspended on Crane

Figure 10. PCH-1 Foilborne

11
DISPLACEMENT'
LIGHT SHIP - 93T
FULL LOAD - I20T
DRAFT
FOILBORNE - 7'- 6"
HULLBORNE
FOILS RETRACTED - 6' -6"
FOILS EXTENDED- 17'

115-9 L.O.A. 33f- 4"


BEAM OVER
FOIL GUARDS -
32 BEAM
OVER HULL

Pt1-2] 2.-10"
-- FULL LOAD DISPL W L BASELINE
FR 0 j 5 -0"
F LYTIV-G W. L ,6 3r 6
O." L 20'

Figure 11. PCH-1 Principal Dimensions

a manually positioned altitude-set device. Pitch is con- Operational Experience


trolled by the two flaps on the aft center foil span and roll
is controlled by differential operation of the flaps on the Before proceeding to a discussion of operational ex-
aft outboard foil sections. Foilborne steering is accom- perience with PCH-1 it is important to establish the
plished by means of a small strut-flap above the forward proper context in which to evaluate this experience.
foil and a spade rudder, on t.he same shaft, positioned
below the forward foil. Hullborne steering is accomplished PCH-1 was originally conceived as a state-of-the-art
by rotation of the hullborne propulsion unit about a vertical
craft and, therefore, upon delivery and completion of
axis. This unit can also be rotated upward 87° about a special performance trials it was planned that it be as-
longitudinal axis to eliminate its drag during foilborne signed to an operational fleet unit. As a result, only
operation. Further information on the control system and limited provisions were made for installation of instru-
its evaluation is given in Reference 7. mentation with which to make detailed assessment of sub-
system operation and craft performance and acquire the
Foilborne propulsion consists of two 3100 HP Bristol more extensive data needed to correct design deficiencies.
Proteus gas turbines, each driving two propellers, one This reflected the traditional view that conventional new
on each end of pods at the aft strut/foil intersection. ships usually incorporate only modest evolutionary
Power is transmitted through an upper gear box and a changes in design and, thus, do not require an extensive
single vertical shaft in each strut which terminates in a period of testing and major modification in order to
single bevel gear in the pod. The pod itself comprises achieve the desired performance and reliability. Hydro-
the watertight lower transmission housing. foil craft such as PCH-1, however, represent a revolu-
tionary change in design concept and, in contrast to con-
Provision is made for vertical "wet" retraction of both ventional displacement ships are more akin to aircraft.
the forward and aft struts in order to reduce navigational In retrospect, therefore, the difficulties which have been
draft during hullborne operation. The aft struts retract experienced with PCH-1 should have not come as a sur-
into the trunks seen on the afterdeck and these also house prise and should not reflect adversely on the potential of
the air intakes for the gas turbines. such craft for considerably enhancing Naval capabilities.

12
ACTUATOR

/9,

PACKARD
ENGINE
STRUT
VERTICAL
DRIVE v\_ RETRACTED POSITION
iSERVO
/ VALVES

PLAN VIEW
HYDRAULIC
TUBING ;

1 I AILERON
NACELLE
LOWER
TRANSMISSION I
ak ACTUATOR FWD
FLAPS

ACTUATOR, SS;
SHIP'S HULL

/ AILERON
NORMAL POSITION
(AHEAD DIRECTION)
SIDE VIEW

Figure 12. PCH-1 Main Aft Foil Assembly Figure 14. PCH-1 Hullborne Steerable Propulsion Unit
The operational problems which have been encountered
stem, in great part, from failure of conventional hard-
ware components. The other major problem areas stem
from the not unexpected difficulties of operating at cavi-
tation inception speeds. In the latter case, the step from
commercial surface-piercing hydrofoils to the PCH-1
might be compared to that of advancing from the DC-3 to
LEAD SCREW near-sonic aircraft such as the DC-8 and 707. Viewed
in this context, and considering that PCH-1 represents
the first and only craft of its kind, the performance which
has been achieved is considered remarkable.
PCH-1 was delivered to the U.S. Navy on 15 August
ACTUATORS;.
1963 and was manned by a Navy crew. Support for the
craft was provided by three large mobile shore vans con-
taining spare parts, hydraulic and electronic test and re-
pair equipment, and a small administrative office.

During the period from delivery until September 1964


the craft operated foilborne for a total of 53 hours and 41
minutes of which about two hours was in rough water of
sea state 4. Numerous problems were encountered in-
cluding erratic steering, cavitation damage and failure
of coatings applied to the HY-80 struts and foils, and
saltwater contamination of the lube oil in the transmis-
sion. This period of operation is described in detail in
ç ,v, ELEVATORS Reference 8, and results thereof led to a decision, in
September 1964, to completely refurbish and repair the
craft. It remained out of the water until June 1966 and
underwent a complete overhaul of the strut/foil and trans-
mission systems. Modifications were made to the auto-
Figure 13. PCH-1 Forward Foil Assembly matic control system, a larger spade rudder was installed,

13
VERT
GYRO
Ts +
PITCH HEAVE CHANNEL

HEIGHT
TRIM
VALVE SERVO
AMP VALVE ACTUATOR
I

HEIGHT
SENSOR I ELEVATORS
Ts + I

LINEAR FEEDBACK POTENTIOMETER


ACCEL.

PITCH PITCH CHANNEL


VERT
GYRO

PITCH
TRIM
---7
PITCH
RATE FLAPS

LINEAR
ACCE L.
Ts
Ts+ I

ROLL CHANNELS
VERT ROLL
GYRO

ROLL
RATE

AILERONS
ROL L
TRIM

BANK FL AT

YAW
RATE >Th-s+1
SYNCROS

HEL M
RUDDERS

Figure 15. PCH-1 Control System Funcuonal Diagram

14
and several different types of elastomeric coatings and that future designs should provide for containment of the
test patches were applied to the struts and foils. Addi- lower gear box in a completely separate watertight hous-
tional instrumentation and recording equipment was also ing within the pod.
installed, including 63 bonded strain gages in the struts
and foils, and adaptation was made to the height-sensor Although the three-bladed forward propellers have not
output to permit recording of actual wave heights during shown evidence of cavitation damage, their wake seriously
rough water operations. affects flow conditions over the pod and strut/foil juncture.
The increased velocity in the wake and the cavitating tip
Operational testing in calm water was resumed on 22 vortices which are generated, considerably degrade the
June 1966 and, with the exception of a short drydocking cavitation characteristics of the pod assembly and a
period to replace one of the experimental coatings which change to eliminate the forward propellers is indicated.
proved defective in bonding, continued until the middle of As for the after propellers, they have proved completely
October. During this period, 26 hours of foilborne calm- inadequate in their resistance to cavitation damage. The
water operations were carried out successfully and exten- present bronze aft propellers are seriously eroded by
sive data were obtained. On 19 October, the craft made cavitation on both faces of each blade and require replace-
a foilborne transit from Bremerton, Washington to Neah ment or repair after about 40 hours of foilborne operation
Bay, a distance of more than 100 miles, in an elapsed at cruise speeds. A three-blade configuration is partic-
time of three hours and 19 minutes. During this transit, ularly poor due to the harmonic content of the wake and a
weather conditions were severe and swells were encoun- wake-adapted design is required to alleviate the problem.
tered which averaged six feet with the highest being as Even so, it is not likely that aft propeller cavitation can
much as 10 feet in amplitude. Subsequently, further be avoided at the desired speeds and other design tech-
rough water operations were conducted in the Neah Bay niques must be employed. These include recourse to
area for a total of 11 hours of foilborne time. During partially cavitating or supercavitating designs, or pro-
this period, the craft was operated at speeds up to 40 vision for forced air injection.
knots in seas in excess of sea state 4. Forward foil
broaching was periodically experienced primarily due to The transmission disconnect couplings which are re-
shorter length of the forward strut. This was attendant quired for strut retraction have proven to be a continual
with some hull slamming which produced occasional bow source of trouble. The primary problem occurs in the
accelerations as much as 2g. However, foilborne oper- difficulty of maintaining alignment with three essentiaLly
ation was maintained without difficulty and RMS vertical independent structural support points. Ultimate solution
accelerations at the steering station did not exceed 0.2g. can be effected only by a complete redesign and this is
Furthermore, no difficulty was experienced in rough currently underway.
water takeoff at any heading even in winds up to 30 knots.
The only significant mechanical failure occurred at the Future Plans
beginning of the return transit to Bremerton after comple-
tion of the trials Immediately after takeoff both trans- Operational experience with PCH-1 has demonstrated
mission disconnect couplings failed and necessitated that a second iteration in the design of the strut/foil/
making the return trip in the hullborne condition. Al- propulsion system is required in order to achieve an ac-
though this was a disappointing conclusion to an otherwise ceptable level of performance and reliability. As a re-
successful operation, it did serve to demonstrate the sig- sult, a contract was awarded to the Boeing Company in
nificant benefits of foilborne operation from the standpoint May 1966 to make a detailed study of candidate strut/foil/
of human factors. Foilborne comfort was reflected in the propulsion systems reflecting current advances in tech-
relative absence of seasickness when operating on the nology and incorporating changes necessary to overcome
foils. Only four cases of mild foilborne seasickness were deficiencies in the present PCH-1 design configuration.
acknowledged during the entire trials period. In con- In this study, a detailed comparison was made between
trast, after the transit up to Neah Bay, only three min- improved propeller propulsion concepts and waterjet
utes elapsed before the first hullborne seasickness oc- propulsion systems. This design study was completed in
curred, and on the return hullborne transit, a large per- September 1966 and results were reported in Reference
centage of the crew and trials personnel were sick. 10. After extensive consideration and review by the Navy,
the following conclusions were reached regarding the
Although PCH-1 has now demonstrated that the achieve- configuration of PCH Mod-I:
ment of the original design goals is entirely feasible, Steering will be provided by a rotatable forward
there remain a number of design problems still to be re- strut in lieu of the present strut flap and spade rudder.
solved. Experience with the present coatings described
in detail in Reference 9 shows considerable promise in Propeller propulsion will be retained; however,
that no significant deterioration was found after nearly the Mod-I configuration will consist of two pusher pro-
40 hours of foilborne operation. Speeds during these pellers, of new design, mounted on the aft end of the pods.
trials were, however, restricted to a maximum of 40 Provision will be made for future addition of air injection
knots which considerably alleviated cavitation effects. to the propeller blades.
More data at higher sustained speeds must be obtained Watertight housings will be provided for the lower
before a complete evaluation of coatings can be made. gear boxes, separate from the pods.
Previous difficulties with saltwater leakage into the Wet retraction of the struts will be retained to
transmission lube oil appear to have been corrected by minimize navigational draft.
internal pressurization of the system. It is clear, however,

15
Struts and foils will be constructed of higher- design was completed by Grumman in May 1963. A con-
strength material (minimum 130,000 PSI yield). This will tract for detailed design and construction was awarded to
permit utilization of sections of smaller thiclutess, thus Lockheed Shipbuilding and Construction Company in June
improving cavitation inception characteristics. Inconel 1963 and the hull was launched in June 1965. As of this
718, 17-4 PH steel, and HY-130 steel will be considered writing, construction is nearly complete; however, due to
as candidate materials. problems which have arisen in the design of the hydraulic
system and other construction delays, delivery to the
Flap control will be retained; however, consider- Navy is not expected before the middle of 1967.
ation will be given to the use of an elevon system on the
main foils so that all flaps will provide both roll and pitch The major characteristics of AGEH-1 are given in
control. (In the present Mod-0 system the center-span Table I and further illustrated in Figures 16 through 19.
flaps provide only pitch control and the outboard flaps It is the largest hydrofoil ship in the world and will offer
provide only roll control.) the first opportunity to evaluate the potential of such craft
for full ocean-going Naval service. In addition to its
Based on these conclusions, the contractor is currently large size, it is substantially different in design concept
proceeding with the detailed design of the PCH Mod-I from PCH-1. Foil lift variation is effected by change in
configuration. Upon completion of the detailed design in incidence angle of both the main foils and tail foil which
early 1967, construction will be initiated and the new are arranged in an airplane or conventional configuration
strut/foil/propulsion system is scheduled to be completed rather than a canard. Ultra-sonic height sensors are
and ready for installation in the summer of 1968. At that mounted both at the bow and at the stern. Foilborne pro-
time, the PCH will enter drydock and undergo conVersion pulsion is by two 62-inch-diameter, four-bladed, super-
which is expected to be completed by the beginning of 1969. cavitating propellers, one on the end of each gear pod.
The hydrodynamic design of these propellers was per-
During the approximately 1 and 1/2 years before the formed by Hydronautics, Inc. They were built by Hamilton
Mod-I strut/foil/propulsion system will be ready for in- Standard and are made of titanium alloy with blades bolted
stallation, the PCH will continue to undergo extensive test to the hubs. The initially installed power plant consists
and evaluation by the Hydrofoil Special Trials Unit. of two General Electric LM-1500 gas turbines, each
During the first half of 1967, preliminary investigations driving, one propeller through a right-angle bevel-gear
will be made of the interfaces between the craft and po- transmission. Provision has been made, however, for
tential mission equipment such as weapons; and detection, adding two more engines to ultimately achieve much
navigation, and communication equipment. Here, it is higher speeds using a ventilated or supercavitating foil
not the intent to develop new mission equipment, but system. The hull, which is constructed of welded 5456
rather to explore the potential for utilization of existing aluminum, has been designed to meet the structural load
hardware with this new high-speed platform. From such requirements of higher speed operation.
tests, requirements and specifications will be developed
for mission equipment tailored to realize maximum bene- Future Plans
fit from the advanced performance capabilities of hydro-
foil craft. Upon delivery to the Navy, AGEH-1 will be assigned to
the Hydrofoil Special Trials Unit and will undergo exten-
This period of mission interface testing will afford an sive evaluation for a period of several years. This will
opportunity to acquire limited additional craft performance undoubtedly include at least one major modification to
data and permit more thorough analyses of extensive data correct design deficiencies and enhance performance
which have already been acquired. During this period, capabilities.
also, a more complete documentation will be made of the
existing craft system and subsystem configuration. Based Since this ship was conceived and built as an experi-
on this a na I y s is and documentation, performance areas mental tool for acquiring data to establish a firm founda-
requiring further definition will be delineated. Then, in tion for design of large submerged-foil craft, it is being
the latter half of 1967, additional calm water and rough outfitted with an extensive instrumentation suit. More
water performance trials will be carried out to establish than two hundred strain gages have been installed and
fully the performance envelope of the Mod-0 configuration. calibrated in the struts and foils. Additional strain gages
are being installed throughout the hull structure along with
During the first half of 1968, emphasis in the trials hull pressure sensors. Velocity transducers, accelerom-
program will shift again to more detailed investigation of eters, and other measuring equipment are also located
mission capabilities. Experimental towing equipment, throughout the ship and provision is made for accurate
simulating a high-speed towed sonar system, will be in- measure.ment of thrust and torque. To facilitate analysis
stalled and towing capabilities of the craft will be evalu-
of data obtained from the many sensors, provision has
ated. Upon conclusion of this phase of the planned trials
also been made for continuous and simultaneous recording
program, the craft will be drydocked for installation of of the more than two hundred data channels on a single
the Mod-1 strut/foil/propulsion system. magnetic tape.
PLArNVIEW (AGEH-1)
Based on experience with PCH-1, it is to be expected
that early operations with the AGEH-1 will be character-
General ized by a host of minor and major problems which will
Funds for construction of the AGEH-1 were authorized severely restrict its availability for test. Furthermore,
in view of its unique nature and aspects of safety,
in the FY 1962 ship construction program and the guidance

16
Figure 16. AGEH-1 Afloat

Figure 17. AGEH-1 Stern Figure 18. AGEH-1 Main Propulsion Pod

17
82.628'

/HULL BORNE4MAX. /4NRETRACTION


'145 ANGLE
15.
25' D.W.L.

25' 10'
156
C.W.L.
FOIL BORNE 4 MAX.
90'
45'
70' CV .6

206'
115' 3.5 "(JIG

158'
RETR.ANGLE
13.4!
RETR. AXIS

841( REF.)

Figure 19. AGEH-1 Principal Dimensions

advancement to full rough water operation must proceed three struts which can be attached in either a canard or
in careful steps. This process will involve detailed anal- an airplane arrangement. Provision is also made for use
ysis of data as they are acquired and continual refinement of a fourth strut to permit tests of a tandem arrangement.
of analog computer predictions of performance to be ex- The demonstration foils are of equal area with base-vented
pected. The planned special trials program is tailored cambered parabolic sections. The struts are also blunt,
to this situation and will permit the acquisition of full- base-vented, with parabolic section.
scale data necessary to correct deficiencies in design and
establish firm criteria for design of future operational Propulsion is provided by a large turbo-fan engine
craft . which, although inefficient, permits investigations of foils
and foil control systems without interference. The cata-
FRESH-I maran hull also permits considerable flexibility in strut/
foil arrangement.
General
As previously noted, the attainment of foilborne speeds
considerably greater than 50 knots requires recourse to
ventilated or supercavitating foils. Limitations on maxi-
mum speeds of available model test facilities seriously
limit the acquisition of data needed for the design of such
systems. Furthermore, scale effects associated with
two-phase flow phenomena significantly affect the accu-
racy of predictions of full-scale behavior based on model
studies. As a result, the need for a flexible, large-scale,
high-speed foil test craft was recognized early in the
Navy Hydrofoil Program. A competition for design and
construction of a 100-knot, fully-instrumented test ve-
hicle, designated FRESH-I, was held by the Bureau of
Ships in early 1961. On the basis of this competition, a
contract was awarded to the Boeing Company in June 1961.

FRESH-I was launched in February 1963 and began its


performance trials in the spring of that year. The char-
acteristics of the craft are listed in Table I and illus-
trated in Figures 20 and 21. The initial foil configuration,
referred to as the demonstration foil system, consists of Figure 20. FRESH-1 Foilborne

18
DISPLACEMENT:
LIGHT SHIP 12.4T
FULL LOAD 16. 5 T

571- 4" L.O.A. 22-6" BEAM


53'- 2"

04A
1P
I -I-

4'- 8 3/4" r

FRESH - I TYP-3 FOILS


Figure 21. FRESH-1 Principal Dimensions

Operational Experience of cavities in the flow permitted a gradual increase in


flying height during the run and this was not detected un-
Experiences and data acquired in operating the FRESH- til the foils were in the near-broach condition. At the
I are reported in detail in References 11 and 12 and will very shallow foil submergence the craft lacked both
be summarized only briefLy here. lateral stability and rudder effectiveness and went into a
divergent yaw to starboard. Ultimately, the port foil
Extensive hullborne and foilborne trials were conducted completely overloaded and stalled with a resulting rapid
by the builder during the first half of 1963. During most roll to port causing the craft to capsize.
of this "shakedown" period, the demonstration foil system
was arranged in a canard configuration. A change was FoLlowing the accident, the FRESH-I was completely
made to an airplane configuration and the craft first flew refurnished and changes were made to prevent a recur-
with this arrangement on 6 June 1963. No significant rence of a loss of directional stability. A water brake
problems were encountered during these tests and demon- system was also added and the JT-3D fan jet engine was
strations at speeds up to 80 knots were conducted for a replaced with a reconditioned YTF-33 jet engine acquired
Navy Trials Board on 10 July 1963. During the following from the Air Force. Upon completion of the refurbish-
week, a change was made back to the canard arrangement ment, additional trials were successfully conducted by
and demonstrations for the Trials Board were resumed on the builder. Delivery of FRESH-I was accepted by the
18 July. During this series of xuns the craft went out of Navy in July 1964 and after completion of final tests of
control at a speed of 70 knots and completely turned over. the demonstration foil system in December 1964 the craft
Fortunately, the two-man crew and a member of the was placed in storage at the Boeing Company in Seattle.
Trials Board, who were on the craft at that time, sus-
tained only minor injuries. Damage to the craft was also Future Plans
light except for considerable deformation of the first-
stage blading in the jet engine and later extensive corro- At the present time there are no specific plans for
sion of other metal parts of the engine. further tests with FRESH-I. A "transit" foil system has
been designed and constructed by Grumman for installa-
Analysis of data tapes, which were recovered un- tion on FRESH-I; however, plans for test of this system
damaged, made possible a complete reconstruction and have been temporarily shelved. This results from a re-
analysis of the series of events leading up to the accident. appraisal of program goals which was made in early 1965
In brief, a loss of flap effectiveness due to the formation in light of difficulties incurred in operations of PCH-1.

19
At that time, it was decided to concentrate efforts and
limited funding on resolution of current design problems
as evidenced in PCH-1 and as expected in AGEH-1. Upon
successful demonstration of the performance capabilities
of these large submerged-foil craft in the intermediate
speed range, attention will again turn to the development
of higher speed systems., In the interim, fundamental
design studies and model tests of ventilated and super-
cavitating foils are being continued in the Navy's Ex-
ploratory Development Program. A study is also cur-
rently underway at Boeing to determine the feasibility of
conversion of the FRESH-I as a platform for test of
waterjet propulsion systems.

PGH

In response to a requirement for a high-speed hydro-


foil gunboat, established by CNO in 1963, two PGH's were
authorized in the FY 1966 shipbuilding program. Based
on design data generated by the Hydrofoil Development
Program and further feasibility studies, conducted by the Figure 22. PGH-1 (Grumman) Artist Concept
Ship Concept Design Division of the Naval Ship Engineer-
ing Center, final characteristics for the craft were ap- As previously noted, these craft are considered within
proved in early 1965. In July 1965, a request for propo- the state-of-the-art and are not a part of the RDT & E
sals was sent to a selected list of contractors known to program. They will, however, undergo extensive trials
have interest and experience in the design and construc- before they are delivered to the fleet, and the data ob-
tion of hydrofoil craft. Of the seven contractors solicited, tained from these tests and future operations will be of
only two responded. These were the Grumman Aircraft considerable value and importance in the design and de-
Engineering Corporation and the Boeing Company. Both velopment of present and future hydrofoils.
proposals, although presenting substantially different
design concepts, were considered technically sound and ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
offered configurations adequate to meet the requirements.
As a result, it was decided to procure one boat from each By its nature, this type of summary paper does not
firm and, accordingly, contracts were awarded in April represent an original contribution. Rather, it represents
1966. Builder's trials are expected to be conducted in a review and summarization of the work of many who have
the latter part of 1967 and delivery is planned for early contributed to achievement of the goals of the U. S. Navy
1968. Hydrofoil Development Program. It is, of course, not
possible here to recognize each of the many significant
Principle characteristics of the two PGH's are listed contributions. However, it is considered appropriate to
in Table I and shown in Figures 22 through 25. The acknowledge a few of these which are felt to be particu-
Grumman PGH-1 has a conventional foil configuration larly noteworthy.
similar to AGEH-1 with a 70/30 load distribution and in-
cidence control. Foilborne propulsion is provided by a Certainly, the principle early impetus to the develop-
single supercavitating propeller located on the aft end of ment of hydrofoils in the U.S. came from the Office of
a pod at the juncture of the tail strut and foil. The prime Naval Research. Additional progress toward demonstra-
mover is a Rolls-Royce Tyne gas turbine which drives tion of full-scale craft came about through the efforts of
through a right-angle bevel-gear transmission. Hull- the Maritime Administration. Pull realization of the po-
borne propulsion consists of two Buehler waterjets each tential of hydrofoils for Naval service was generated by
powered by a General Motors diesel engine. The foils the former Bureau of Ships and there, the efforts of
are of subcavitating design and will be made of solid cast Mr. Owen Oakley and Mr. Ralph Lacey and their staff in
aluminum. the Preliminary Design Division as well as the other
technical and design divisions of the bureau merit special
The Boeing PGH-2 is a canard configuration with a acknowledgement. They were supported in much of the
31/69 load distribution and flap control system. The fundamental work in developing design criteria by the
foils are of subcavitating design and the main foils are David Taylor Model Basin and many other government
arranged in an anhedral configuration to reduce their and private laboratories.
tendency to ventilate in banked turns. Foilborne propul-
sion will be provided by a waterjet system consisting of Among the many industrial contractors who have
a Byron-Jackson pump driven by a Bristol-Proteus gas played a significant role in this development, the con-
turbine. Water inlets are located at the juncture of each tributions of Gibbs & Cox, M.I.T., Boeing, Grumman,
main strut and foil. Hullborne propulsion consists of a Lockheed, Hydronautics, Pratt & Whitney, and General
single Buehler waterjet driven by a General Motors Electric have been of great importance.
diesel engine.
Finally, the author wishes to pay special tribute to
Lt. Steve McGanka and the crew of the PCH-1. Their

20
1 r
1

I :,--4'
"
1.1.
11,
=121 OS

e ,/
Itaalibarld.111111E111010111r"
MS..... C.t C12.161MCia wail= aw.. ../
,

Figure 23. PGH-1 Configuration

"

Figure 24. PGH-2 (Boeing) Artist Concept

enthusiasm, wining cooperation, and understanding of continue to be, of vital importance in achieving the ulti-
the nature of the development process has been, and will mate goals of this program.

21
Figure 25. PGH-2 Configuration
REFERENCES McGanka, S.W. , Lt. , USN, "Service Evaluation of
the Control System Installed Onboard the Hydrofoil
Crew, P.R. , "The Hydrofoil Boat; Its History and Ship HIGH POINT (PCH-1), " Proceedings, Ship Con-
Future Prospects," Quarterly Transactions, The trol Systems Symposium, USN Marine Engineering
Institution of Naval Architects, Vol. 100, No. 4, Laboratory, Nov. 1966.
Oct. 1958.
Petrie, D. M., "Operational and Developmental Ex-
Hayward, L., "The History of Hydrofoils," Series perience on the U.S. Navy Hydrofoil, HIGH POINT,"
of Articles published in Hovering Craft & Hydrofoils Paper presented to AIAA/USN Marine Systems and
(Kalerghi Publications, London, England) Vol. 5,1966. ASW Conference, 10 March 65.
Oakley, 0.H. , "Hydrofoils - A State of the Art Sum- Watson, F. B. , "Protective Coatings-Foil System,
mary," Institute of Aeronautical Sciences, Proceed- PCH-1 HIGH POINT," Boeing Co. Report No.
ings, National Meeting on Hydrofoils R.L.Air Cushion D2-133600-1, July 1966.
Vehicles, 17-18 Sept. 1962.
"PCH-1 Mod I Design Study, Phase A Technical
Lacey, R. E. , "A Progress Report on Hydrofoil Report," Boeing Co. Confidential Report No.
Ships," Quarterly Transactions, The Institution of D2-133601-1, August 1966.
Naval Architects, Vol. 107, No. 1, Jan. 1965.
Stevens, D. L., Jr. , "The Bureau of Ships Hydrofoil
Chey, Yoang, "Motions and Accelerations of AGEH Craft, FRESH-I," Paper presented to the Chesapeake
When Hove-To in Extreme Sea States," Stevens Section, Society of Naval Architects & Marine Engi-
Institute of Technology, Davidson Laboratory Report neers, Washington, D.C. , 26 Feb. 1964.
977, Aug. 1963.
"FRESH-I Phase II Summary Report," Boeing
Jamieson, J.J. , "Controls Technology in Hydrofoil Confidential Report No. D2-82512-1, June 1965.
Ship Design," Proceedings, Ship Control Systems
Symposium, USN Marine Engineering Laboratory, Stevens, D. L., Jr. , "Design and Procurement of the
Nov. 1966. Hydrofoil Gunboat, PGH," Naval Engineers Journal,
December 1966.

22
TABLE I
CRAFT CHARACTERLSTICS

Characteristics PCII-1 (Mod-0) AGE H-1 FRESH-I* PGH-1 PGH-2

Configuration Canard Airplane .Various Airplane Canard


Length Overall-Feet 115. 7 212 53. 1 74. 5 71. 8
Beam, Extreme, Foils down - Feet 33.3 70.8 22.5 21.5 19.5
Full Load Hullborne Draft - Foils up - Feet 6.5 6.4 ---- 4.2 4.5
Full Load Hullborne Draft - Foils down - Feet 17 25 10. 4 13. 5 13. 9
Full Load Displacement - Long Tons 120 320 16. 7 57 58
Hul'borne Propulsion
Engine (1) (2) (2) (1)
Packard Diesel GM Diesels GM Diesels GM Diesel
Shaft Horsepower 600 1200 320 160
Thrust Producer (1) (2) Waterjet Waterjet
3-bladed 5-bladed
Subcav. Prop Subc ay. Props
Foilborne Propulsion
Engine (2) (2) (1) (1) (1)
Bristol Proteus GM LM-1500 P&W JT-3D Rolls-Royce Tyne Bristol Proteus
G. T. G. T, Fan Jet G. T. G. T.
Shaft Horsepower (continuous) 6200 28,000 ** 3150 3100
Thrust Producer (4) (2) Turbo Fan (1) Waterjet
3-bladed 4-bladed Supcav. Prop
Subcav. Props Supcav. Props
Max. Hullborne Speed, Knots 12 15 4. 5 7+ 7+
Calm Water Takeoff Speed, Knots 27 33 45
Max. Foilborne Speed, Knots 40+ 45+ 80-100 40+ 40+
HY80
Foil Ei Strut Material HY 80 Steel HY 80/100 Steel 17-4PH Cast Alum/4130 17-4 PII
Hull Material 5456 Al 5456 Al 5456/2014A1 5456 Al 5456 Al
Type of Control Flaps Incidence Flaps Incidence Flaps

*Demonstration Foil Configuration


**18, 000 lbs Static Thrust
No. 61-352

ON THE PREDICTION OF THE SEAKEEPING CHARACTERISTICS


OF HYDROFOIL SHIPS
by

I. A. HIRSCH
The Boeing Company
Seattle, Washington

Paper No.
67-352

AIAA/SNAME Advance marine


vehicies meeting
NORFOLK, VIRGINIA/MAY 22-24, 1967
First publication rights reserved by American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1290 Avenue of the Americas, New York, N. Y. 10019
and Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, 74 Trinity Place, New York, N. Y. 10006
Abstracts may be published without permission if credit is given to author and to AIAA/SNAME. (Member Price-75c; Nonmember PriceS1.50)
3.07, 7.07
ON THE PREDICTION OF THE SEAKEEPING CI-LkRACTERISTICS
OF HYDROFOIL SHIPS

I. A. Hirsch
The Boeing Company
Seattle, Washington

Abstract these wave properties act as disturbances on the simu-


lated ship. A simulated 70-ton preliminary-design
hydrofoil ship is used in this paper as a basis for the
presentation of computer predictions.
Three analytical methods for predicting the foil-
borne seakeeping characteristics of fully sub-
merged-foil hydrofoil ships are presented. Each
of these methods uses a comprehensive electronic
Computer Model
analog computer simulation of the hydrofoil ship
and of the sea-state environment. The simplest
method of prediction, applicable only to regular
waves, uses a sinusoidal representation of the Attempts to predict the seakeeping characteris-
tics of large hydrofoil ships based on the performance
sea. By recording the computed ship responses of smaller craft or models have been relatively un-
to the simulated sea, a prediction of the seakeep-
ing characteristics of the ship is obtained for successful due to the difficulties of adequately repre-
regular waves. A second method for simulating senting the inertial properties and dynamic character-
the sea is based on a statistical description of istics of the active control system of full-scale ships.
the wave height and the associated orbital particle The use of the analog computer as the mathematical
velocity. Random signals proportional to these model permits adequate representation of the inertial
tw6 quantities are generated and act on the hydro- properties and the control system of a full-scale ship.
foil-ship simulation to produce time histories of The computer model that has been used for the ex-
the ship's response to the sea state. These re- ample of this paper has six degrees of freedom (that
sponse data can be processed by statistical analy- is, pitch, heave, surge, roll, yaw, and sway) with
sis equipment to provide predictions of seakeep- continuously variable speed and hull height above the
ing characteristics in the form of spectral density water. For predicting behavior in rough seas, the
functions and probability distribution functions. simulation of a hydrofoil ship must realistically re-
A third method uses a linear superposition tech- flect the properties of the actual ship in all essential
nique based on the measurement of the ship's details. That is, accurate values must be known for
response to selected sinusoidal waves. These ship weight, moments of inertia, and pertinent dimen-
measurements are used to operate on the spectral sions. The hydrodynamic characteristics of the foil-
density function of wave height for a given sea strut assemblies must be based on thorough model
state to yield a prediction of the hydrofoil's tests with results adjusted to include full-scale effects
seakeeping characteristies, Representative sam- where appropriate. The lift, drag, and side forces
ples of seakeeping predictions obtained by each of developed by the foil-strut assemblies must be prop-
the three methods are presented. erly represented in response to changes in foil sub-
mergence, craft forward speed, foil angle of attack,
strut angle of attack, and control surface deflections.
The dynamic properties of the automatic control sys-
Introduction tem must be represented in detail, including the
characteristics of the control electronics, electrohy-
draulic servo actuators, and sensors. Typical sen-
High-speed operation with good seakeeping charac- sors on a hydrofoil ship include a vertical gyroscope,
teristics forms the basic justification for the sub- a yaw-rate gyroscope, one or more accelerometers,
merged-foil hydrofoil ship. The ability to pre- and a height sensor mounted at the bow of the ship.
dict the behavior of the hydrofoil ship in a given Inherent control system limits, such as exist for con-
sea state is an important element in the design trol surface rate and position, must also be included.
of the ship, and specifically in the design and
evaluation of the ship's automatic control system.
The purpose of this paper is to describe three Sea-state effects act on the simulated ship as
analytical techniques that can be used in predicting disturbance functions. For the foilborne ship con-
the foilborne seakeeping characteristics of sub- sidered here, the disturbances act at each foil-strut
merged-foil hydrofoil ships. location and at the height sensor. The sea profile at
the height sensor generates an error signal in the
Each of the methods presented uses a comprehen- control system electronics that represents a depar-
sive electronic analog computer simulation of the ture from the desired foil depth. This error signal
hydrofoil ship and of the sea-state environment. is processed by the automatic control system that, in
In the simulation, the wave height and wave orbi- turn, delivers a command to change the position of
tal particLe velocity are represented. Both of the control surfaces.

1
One effect of the sea on the foil-strut assemblies ponent. By choosing the direction of wave travel as
is to generate a change in submergence at each as- negative , the horizontal component lags the vertical
sembly. This change in submergence affects the lift, component by a phase angle of 90 degrees. This is
drag, and side forces. In addition, the simulated expressed as:
water orbital particle velocity affects the effective u= uo sin (ce (4)
angle of attack of the foils and local sideslip angle of
the struts. This change in angle of attack and side- Saunders has also shown that the tangential orbital
slip angle in turn affects the lift, drag, and side velocity decays exponentially with depth and can be
forces. expressed by:

Sinusoidal Sea
u, = u0 exp ( -217S ) (5)
decay
where: exp = "e to the exponent." The exponent
The simplest method of representing a seaway on
the analog computer is to assume that the wave pro- here is ( -2 17S )
file can be described by a long-crested sinusoidal
wave having a specified wave height and length. While S = Distance below the surface.
this technique of representing the sea is the least
realistic method to be discussed, very useful infor- A sinusoidal water surface is depicted in Figure
mation is obtained nevertheless. The instantaneous la. The Earth coordinate axes are XE, YE, and
wave height for the sinusoidal or regular wave can be ZE and are shown to establish a reference system.
expressed as: The orbital particle velocity characteristics of a
sinusoidal wave are shown in Figure lb. Note the
h= sin (w t) (1) exponential decay of the orbital velocity with depth.
2

where: h = Instantaneous wave height above the


mean water level.

H = Distance from trough to crest of a


wave.
t = Time.
= Wave frequency in radians/second.

has discussed some basic wave as-


Saunders(1)

sumptions that can be made for regular waves. He


has shown that the velocity of wave propag,ation, more
commonly called wave celerity, can be calculated
from the following relationship:
FIGURE IA: SINUSOIDAL WATER SURFACE
(2)
igX
2Ir

where: X = Wave length.


g = Acceleration due to gravity. wAvE CLERITT, C

C = Wave celerity. ORIGIN OF


EARTH AXES RE FE RE NC E
AT = C SMOOTH WATER SURFACE
IT = Numeric constant (3.1416...).
Saunders has also shown that the vertical compo-
nent, w, of the tangential orbital velocity, u0, is the
time derivative of the wave height. This can be ex-
PATA OF A WATER
pressed as: PARTICLE LOCATED
AT POINT AT
TIRE, O

ExpoNENTIAL DECAY
dh co H u, cos (co t) (3) OF GRRITAL vELOCITT
w= = cos (cc t) = WITH DEPTH
dt 2

The particle orbit is usually elliptical in nature.


However, if the water depth is large compared to the
wave length, the orbit can be assumed to be circular. FIGURE 1B: ORBITAL PARTICLE VELOCITY
A circular particle motion is assumed here. The CHARACTERISTICS
horizontal orbital particle velocity component, u, has
a phase-quadrature relationship with the vertical com-

2
The equations developed thus far represent the and
sea at a fixed point with respect to the Earth. These
equations must be modified to account for craft speed, 27 r + vo t + L. cos 6
7 L(c
WEWi = uo cos /
craft heading, and spatially separated foil locations.
From an observation point moving with a forward (- 27 Si)
velocity, Uo' the water surface appears as: - f . sin td 1 exp (10)
Yi. X

H . [x27(C + VE) t where: UEwi = Component of water orbital parti-


Z EW = 27 sin (6) cle velocity of Earth X axis at the
ith foil.
where: Z Ew = Distance from the coordinate sys- W EWi = Component of water orbital part-
tem origin to the water surface cle velocity of Earth Z axis at the
(Figure la). jth foil.
VE = Craft velocity relative to the sea. Si = Submerg,ed distance of the ith foil.

The instantaneous wave heights described in Equations


For most operations it can be assumed: 6 and 8 and the instantaneous orbital particle velocity
components described in Equations 9 and 10 are sima-
VE = U0 cos 6 (7) lated on the analog computer. These equations are
then resolved into the craft coordinate system.
where: U0 = Craft forward equilibrium speed.
4 = Craft heading angle. (4 = 0 degree To properly evaluate a hydrofoil ship in regular
corresponds to a head-sea condition. waves it is necessary to operate the ship in waves of
4 = 180 degrees corresponds to a various heights and lengths. Time-history responses
following sea.) of the vertical acceleration at the steering station to
a variety of wave heights and lengths are shown in
The water surface is observed from the height
sensor and foil locations that are fixed relative to Figure 2. These responses were ta.ken for a pre-
one another but are moving relative to the Earth axes
coordinate system. It is necessary to introduce
phase lags that describe the height of the water sur- ACCPIEEMAT/CN
NTECRING

face at these points. The phase lags are determined 0 I

rriszc.
by craft geometry and heading angle. When these
phase lags are included, the equations for water sur- WAVE IENOTH 90 PT WAVE HEIGHT 6 n
face heights, as seen from a craft maneuvering on a
sine sea, can be expressed as: ACCELERATIC

27
STATIM
o_
Ewi sin + VE) t + fx cos 4 PT/202
X 10
DC1,01 I

VASO HEIGHT 6 IT

- lyi sin d1 (8) ACCLIZNAl2l


NTENR1110
=Anal
where: Z Ewi = Instantaneous wave height at the Tr/ --- Ad\v ,
ith foil measured in Earth axes VASO MOM -60 PT WAVE FEIGNS , PT

from the reference mean water DOM


TIM

surface. 10
ACCEIERATICN

Distance from the height sensor mown


Xi sun-
along the X axis to the ith foil. ,r.r2 °
WAVE LENGTH 80 PT WA. MIGHT - 4 FT
1
Yi = Distance from the craft centerline
DOM

along the Y axis to the ith foil UP


(starboard is positive). ACCELERATION
STEIN=
3TATICII

In a manner similar to that used in determining


5 n
the wave height at each foil, the orbital particle veloc- DOM WAVI =ACTH 100 PS WAVE HEIGHT

ity in Earth axes can be expressed as: IO- or


ACCEPERATION
CM-81NR

{27 t fxi cos


STATION

UEwi = u0 sin [(C


PT/SLe

(- 27 Si) WAVE IZNOTH 160 PT WAVE HEIGHT 8 Pr


_ fYi sin td exp
X
(9)

FIGURE 2: ACCELERATION TIME RESPONSES IN


SINUSOIDAL WAVES

3
liminary-design 70-ton hydrofoil ship operating at 40 This is a result of the yaw-rate feedback signal to the
knots in a following sea. From the figure it is noted rudder. It has been found that some ship desig-ns have
that the nonlinearities in the force characteristics of considerable difficulty negotiating headings between a
the hydrofoil ship are evidenced by the distorted beam and a quartering sea. A yaw-rate feedback sig-
sinusoidal response. However, it can be seen that nal to the rudder has eliminated most of this diffi-
the responses are approximately linear in the lower culty. Note that for this particular sea state the
sea states, if the ratio of wave length-to-height is acceleration time response shows that the peak-to-
large (greater than 20 to 1). peak vertical acceleration is sig,nificantly less in a
following sea than in a head sea.
The major advantage of the sine-sea method for
predicting seakeeping over the other methods to be The major disadvantage of using the sinusoidal
discussed is the ability to represent a hydrofoil ship sea is that it is not representative of the majority of
performing a continuous 360-degree turn. An analog the sea states occurring in nature. However, it is a
computer time-history trace of various ship responses very useful design tool and also provides a basis for
for turning in regular waves with a fixed helm com- the more realistic random representation of the sea.
mand is shown in Figure 3. The wave height is 5 feet
and the length is 75 feet. The forward-foil depth re-
sponse shows the craft to be maintaining a near- Random Sea
platforming attitude in head and following seas where
the encountered frequencies are relatively high. How- Observations readily verify that a seaway in
ever, the craft contours the lower-frequency waves nature is composed of numerous wave heights and
around the beam and quartering seas. The initial lengths. Neumann(2) and others (3 8z 4) have formu-
starboard roll angle is due to the fact that the ship lated analytic expressions for ocean waves based on
turns in a banked-turn mode. The rudder angle statistical concepts of continuous random events. A
varies in a turn even though there is a fixed helm. Neumann wave spectrum for a fully-arisen long-
crested sea can be expressed as:
1
2]
[H ( co] 2 exp[2 )

10D-
(AO ISTS) where: [H (4.4 2 ,
Spectral density of wave height.
CRAFT
SPEED

FT/SEC C j = Empirically determined con-


FOIL
stant --- 51 .6 ft2/sec5.
OEPIN
FWD
5- U,, = Wind velocity.
exp = "e to the exponent." The ex-
2
P I TEN
ANGLE

DEG
ponent here is -2 ( g )

ROLL
Equation 11 provides a basis for simulating the wave
ANGLE
DEC
height properties of a random sea.
STDO

25
0

.VE
HEADING
ON 'Es Also required in the simulation are the spectra
DEG
for the components of orbital velocity. In a sinus-
FOLLOW
180

10
oidal sea the vertical component of orbital particle
RUDOER
ANGLE
LEFT velocity is the time derivative of the wave height. It
DES
RIG1T
is assumed that a statistical sea is an infinite sum-
/0 matio-n of sinusoids with a gaussian distribution.
ACCELERAT ION ie
Therefore, it can be assumed that the vertical orbital
STEERING
'IR4iflgqq" particle velocity is the time derivative of the wave
Atik
STATION
e
FT/SEC1.

10
;
height for the statistical sea. From random process
10
theory(5), it is known that if two functions are related
TURNING
FLAT(
PORT by a time derivative, such as is the case with the
OEG/SEC
STS0
vertical orbital velocity and wave height, then their
10 spectra are related by:
[w (w)]2 [H (12)

where: (ce)] 2 Spectral density of the verti-


FIGURE 3: A HYDROFOIL SHIP TURNING IN cal component of orbital
SINUSOIDAL WAVES
velocity.
Note that there is no explicit phase relationship
between the individual frequency components of verti- Sy (w) = 1G (j (012 Sx (w) (15)
cal orbital velocity. However, each vertical orbital
particle component at a particular frequency has a By making Sx (w) white gaussian noise with a noise
definite phase relationship (90-degree lead) with the level of 1.0 feet2/radian/second, Sy (w) will be
component of wave height at that frequency. This numerically equal to 1G (j 4.012. This implies that
phase relationship must be preserved in the simu- the output spectral density at each frequency will be
lation. equal to the square of the magnitude of the filter trans-
fer function at that frequency. The converse of this
The horizontal component of orbital particle is used in designing filters. That is, the filter trans-
velocity [U (co)j2 has the same spectral density fer function is simply the square root of the desired
characteristics as the vertical component of orbital output spectrum at each frequency.
velocity. However, each frequency component of
[U (cc)]2 lags the corresponding component of A digital computer program based on an
[Vti (w)] 2 by 90 degrees at each frequency. This re- extremum-seeking technique has been developed to
lationship must also be observed in the simulation. design the necessary filters. The digital computer
program is capable of determining the necessary
The generated spectra are only valid for a sta- transfer functions with the proper amplitude and
tionary point in space. These spectra must be trans- phase relationships. Separate filter transfer functions
formed to account for craft speed and heading. To are needed for the wave height at the height sensor
preserve the energy of the spectra in a transforma- and at each foil. Filters are also required for the
tion, it can be shown that the transformed spectral components of orbital particle velocity at each foil.
density curves can be expressed as: A total of ten filters is required theoretically to
represent the sea.
[H (ce)]2
[H (oe)]2 - (13)
To reduce the required number of filters, an
2U0
1+ cos approximation is made. It is assumed that the sea
and is a position-stationary process relative to the height
sensor and the foils. As a result of this approxi-
= W2 [H (we)] 2
mation, the foils "see" the same sea as the height
[W (wj 2= Eu (we)] (14)
sensor, suitably displaced in time. The time delay
is simply a function of craft speed, craft heading,
where: [H (we)] 2 = Transformed spectral density wave celerity, and foil distance from the height
of wave height. sensors. This relationship is approximately:
( we)] 2 = Transformed spectral density
of vertical component of or- - f cos rk + sin
X. Y.
bital velocity. t. - U cos 11) C
(16)
o
( wed 2 = Transformed spectral density
of horizontal component of or- Predicted hydrofoil-ship responses are obtained
bital velocity. by "flying" the hydrofoil ship in the realistic sea.
Time histories of craft responses in a random sea are
The procedure that has been selected to generate shown in Figure 4. These responses were taken for
a statistical sea on the analog computer is based on the 70-ton hydrofoil ship operating in a head sea,
"shaping" a continuous white gaussian noise signal traveling at 40 knots in Sea State 4. Observe that in
with electronic filters and obtaining a continuous no case do the peak accelerations at the steering
spectrum. This method is considered superior to station exceed 0. 25 g.
using a line spectrum in which a finit,e sum of sinus-
oids is assumed. It is possible to inadvertently omit UL457
-800165--6.
resonant frequencies of the craft when a line spectrum
is assumed. To help understand the basis for gen-
erating a continuous spectrum, consider Diagram I:
6/6160
non

[G (j a2) I , Sy (w) '111%!°8000,0d:

Diagram I /16.1
5

0 2J).W4 11),,I\AMAAAIW
In the diagram: 060

no.
Sx (w) = Input spectral density. 1

-TR
.1.30012.657011

Sy (cc) = Output spectral density. 01161:110


2161161011
' A

G (j Le) = Transfer function of a linear filter. rt/sEe


pp.

Because G (j co) is a linear transfer function, the


following is true; FIGURE 4: HYDROFOIL-SHIP TIME RESPONSES IN
A RANDOM SEA

5
One of the more useful methods of presenting An electronically measured craft pitch angle
statistical data is in the form of spectral density spectrum is shown in Figure 7. The rms value
plots. The procedure for obtaining this type of pre- pitch angle is 1.04 degrees and the spectrum is
diction involves the recording of a time-history centered about 0.25 cps. Again, note that peaking
sample of the desired response on magnetic tape and occurs at various frequencies.
then processing of the tape through an electronic 104)
1.04 RMS DEGREES

spectrum-analysis machine. SCALE CONVERSION FACTOR:


1 VOLT2/CPS = 25 DEG2/CPS

An electronically measured spectral density plot 5.0 DEG2/CPS


of a simulated Neumann wave height spectrum is
shown in Figure 5. The simulated spectrum is that 10db

of upper Sea State 4 for craft traveling 40 knots in a


head sea. The predicted acceleration response spec- 0.5 DEG2/CPS

trum for the craft operating in this sea state is


shown in Figure 6. The root mean square (rms)
acceleration is 3.54 ft/sec2 centered about 0.4
cycle per second (cps). Note that the predicted
acceleration spectrum peaks at certain frequencies. 10-3
If a line wave height spectrum were used rather than
the continuous spectrum, these peaks could have
been undetected.
I 1 1

.01 .1 1.0 10.0


10-0
FREQUENCY, CPS

6.76 FT 2/CPS FIGURE 7: CRAFT PITCH ANGLE SPECTRUM

10-1 10 db
Linear Superposition Technique

.676 FT 2/CPS
R. P. Bernicker (6 & 7)has shown that hydro-
foil craft motions can be predicted in a random sea
10-2 from knowledge of hydrofoil-craft responses in a
regular sea. Bernicker conducted his study in a
water tow tank with a model of a surface-piercing
hydrofoil craft. He showed that the technique was
10-3 1.71 RMS FT valid for a nonventilated foil system and for a fully-
ventilated foil system. The same technique can be
SCALE CONVERSION FACTOR
shown to be applicable to a fully-submerged-foil
1 VOLT2/CPS = 25 FT 2/CPS
hydrofoil for which the analog computer acts as the
-4 model.
1O
.01 .1 1.0 10.0
The technique that is used to predict craft
FREQUENCY, CPS
response in a random sea is a linear analysis tech-
FIGURE 5: WAVE HEIGHT SPECTRUM nique for which a closed loop dynamic transfer func-
tion must be determined between the wave height and
3.54 RMS FT/SEC2 the ship responses. On the basis of the theory of
10-0
SCALE CONVERSION FACTOR: linear superposition, the output response spectrum
1 VOLT2/C PS = 15.6 {FTA SEC )212/C PS is the product of the value of the wave height spec-
3.59 (FT/SEC2) 2/CPS tral density at each discrete frequency and the
square of the absolute value of the transfer function
10db at the corresponding frequency. The successful
application of this method depends on nonlinear
0.359 (FT/SEC2) 2/CPS effects being minor.
10-2 Figure 8 shows the measured response spectrum
of after vertical acceleration for an alternate hydro-
foil-ship design. This continuous spectrum was
obtained in response to shaped white noise as pre-
viously discussed. Also shown are predicted
response spectrum points that were calculated by
this linear superposition technique. Predicted
points at frequencies of below 1.0 cps show excep-
10-4
.01 .1 I .0 10.0 tionally good cor'relation. The confidence of pre-
FREQUE NCY , CPS
dicted points greater than 1.0 cps may be question-
able because this would represent steep waves which
FIGURE 6: VERTICAL ACCELERATION SPECTRUM AT produce nonlinear operations. However, because all
THE STEERING STATION predicted points fall within +.3.0 db of actual data, the
correlation is considered to be good.

6
10
4.48 RMS FT/SEC2 0.361 RMS DEG
SCALE CONVERSION FACTOR:
SCALE CONVERSION FACTOR:
1.0 (VOLT)2/CPS = 7.92 (DEGREES)2/CPS
1.0 (VOLT)2/CPS = 625 Pf/(SEC1 2/CPS

10-1
0.792 (DEG)2/CPS

12.5[FT/(SEC) 2 /CPS 10 db

10 db 0.0792 (DEG)2/CPS

2/CPS
1.25 [FT/(SECM

o PREDICTED RESPONSE SPECTRUM

10-4 o PREDICTED RESPONSE SPECTRUM


0.01 0.1 1.0 10.0 1
10-4
FREQUENCY, CPS 0.01 0.1 1.0 10.0

FIGURE 8: AFT VERTICAL ACCELERATION SPECTRUM FREQUENCY, CPS

FIGURE 10: PITCH ANGLE SPECTRUM


5.25 RMS FT/SEC2
SCALE CONVERSION FACTOR:
1.0 (VOLT)2/CPS = 625[FT/(SEC)22 /CPS
ever, a technique limitation can be observed from
0_1
the figure. The actual spectrum peaks sharply
between 0.3 and 0.5 cps. No predicted point was
chosen in this band. Because the method is only
valid at discrete frequencies, there would be no way
of knowing that peaking' would occur in this band
unless a point had been chosen in it.

10-3

o PREDICTED RESPONSE SPECTRUM


Concluding Remarks
0.01 0.1 1.0 10.0

FREQUENCY, CPS
The first prediction method that was discussed
FIGURE 9: FORWARD VERTICAL ACCELERATION was based on the sinusoidal sea. While this tech-
SPECTRUivt nique was the least realistic method, valuable con-
trol system design information can be obtained from
Éigure 9 shows the response spectrum of for- it. The hydrofoil ship can be evaluated oyer a full
ward vertical acceleration for the same craft and range of wave heights and wave lengths. Craft
sea. The time history of the forward vertical performance can be obtained in the sinusoidal sea by
acceleration in the simulated random sea showed either "flying" the ship at a fixed heading or by
that the forward foil broached on occasion. performing turns.
Broaching induces highly nonlinear effects and the
linear analysis must be used with caution. Foil
broaching would appear as narrow-band square-wave
pulses to the spectrum analysis equipment and the The second method discussed was based on the
spectral density plot of square pulses appears as random sea. This technique makes use of filters to
very low-frequency power. Forward foil broaching "shape" a continuous white gaussian noise signal.
will affect all craft responses under investigation. By the proper choice of filters the wave height
However, it is reasonable to assume that the for- spectrum and particle velocity spectra are obtained.
ward vertical acceleration will be affected signifi- Spectral density plots were used to present craft
cantly more than the other responses. The lowest performance data.
prediction point in Figure 9 is 14 db in error due
to foil broaching. All other predicted points are
within ±3.0 db of actual data. The final method was a linear superposition
technique in which a transfer function was obtained.
Figure 10 shows a continuous spectrum of craft The transfer function was then combined with the
pitch angle compared with points on the spectrum spectral density function of the wave height to give
predicted by superposition. All predicted points a prediction of the hydrofoil's seakeeping character-
show good correlation with continuous data. How- istics.

7
Symbols XE Earth X axis
cps Cycles per second YE
Earth Y axis
Wave celerity ZE Earth Z axis
Cl Numeric Constant = 51.6 feet2/sec5 ZEw The distance from the origin of the
coordinate system to the water surface
exp "e to the exponent"
Wave frequency
Acceleration due to gravity
Encounter wave frequency
G(j w) Transfer function of linear filter
Wave length
Instantaneous wave height above
the mean waterline TT Numeric constant = 3.1416...
Distance from trough to crest of a wave EL Craft heading angle
Spectral density of wave height
Transformed spectral density of wave
height
Distance from the height sensor along
the X axis to the ith foil
Distance from the craft centerline
along the Y axis to the ith foil
Acknowledgement
TMS Root mean square
S Submerged distance The author wishes to thank Dr. J. D. Burroughs,
Submerged distance of the ith foil Mr. J. J. Jamieson, and Mr. R. M. Hubbard for
Si their helpful comments in preparing this paper.
Sx(W) Input spectral density
Sy(w) Output spectral density
References
Time
ti Time lag to the ith foil Saunders, H. E., Hydrodynamics in Ship
u Horizontal component of orbital DesignVol. I, New York, The Society of
Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, 1957.
particle velocity
Neumann, Gerhard, On Ocean Wave Spectra
U, Wind speed
and a New Method of Forecasting Wind-
[U(w)]2 Spectral density of the horizontal Generated Seas, Technical Memorandum No.
component of orbital particle velocity 43, Beach Erosion Board, Corps of Engineers,
Transformed spectral density of the 1953.
[U(we)]2
horizontal component of orbital Pierson, W. J., Jr., and St. Denis, M., "On
particle velocity the Motions of Ships in Confused Seas,
Component of water particle velocity in Transactions, The Society of Naval Architects
UEwi and Marine Engineers, Vol. 61, New York,
direction of Earth X axis at the ith foil
1953.
u0 Tangential orbital velocity
Bunting, D. C., Wave Hindcast Project North
U0 Forward craft speed Atlantic Ocean, U. S. Naval Oceanographic
Office, Washington, D.C., January 1966.
V Volts
Craft velocity relative to the sea Davenport, Wilbur B. Jr., and Root, William
VE L., An Introduction to the Theory of Random
Vertical component of orbital Signals and Noise, New York, McGraw-Hill,
particle velocity 1958.
[w(wd2 Spectral density of the vertical Bernicker, R. P., Hydrofoil Motions in
component of orbital particle velocity Irregular Seas, Davidson Laboratory Report
Transformed spectral density of the 909, November 1962.
[w(WA2 vertical component of orbital particle Bernicker, R. P., Heaving and Pitching Motions
velocity of Superventilated Hydrofoil Craft in Irregular
Component of water particle velocity of Seas, Davidson Laboratory Report 958, June
wEWi Earth Z axis at the ith foil 1963.

8
No. 61353

DEVELOPMENT OF AN AUTOPILOT FOR THE DOLPHIN HYDROFOIL


by

H. D. RANZENHOFER
Grumman Aircraft Engineering Corporation
Bethpage, New York

Paper No.
67-353

AIAA/SNAME Advance marine


imams meeting
NORFOLK, VIRGINIA/MAY 22-24, 1967
First publication rights reserved by American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1290 Avenue of the Americas, New York, N. Y. 10019
and Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, 74 Trinity Place, New York, N. Y. 10006
Abstracts may be published without permission if credit is given to author and to AIAA/SNAME. (Member Price-75c; Nonmember Price-81.50)

3.07, 7.07, 8.08


DEVELOPMENT OF AN AUTOPILOT
FOR THE DOLPHIN HYDROFOIL*
H. D. Ranzenhofer
Grumman Aircraft Engineering Corporation
Bethpage, New York
Abstract open ocean operation in Sea State 3. (1) Incidence-
controlled foils, rather than trailing edge flaps, provide
The Dolphin Autopilot is the result of conceptual optimum lift-to-drag ratios. The first Dolphin was
and hardware studies that were conducted on a number constructed to Grumnian specifications by Blohm and
of hydrofoil craft in an effort to achieve successful Voss in Hamburg, Germany.
open ocean performance. Such operation is character-
ized by the maintenance of low vertical accelerations The Dolphin Autopilot was built by the AiResearch
in small, high-frequency waves and the avoidance of Manufacturing Division of the Garrett Corporation, in
hull impact and foil broach in large ones. This has led accordance with a specification evolved from a series
to an autopilot design approach in which the hydrofoil of studies performed on the HS Denison, the XCH-6,
craft is treated basically as a vehicle whose response PC(H), AG(EH), and FRESH-1 hydrofoil craft. (2-6)
must be tailored, by a control system, to each element During these studies considerable data on the effects of
of a set of random disturbances occurring in an incom- speed, size, weight, and sea state upon craft stability
pressible medium. The paper presents a brief history and performance was amassed. The data was used to
of the analysis, design, construction, and test phases establish the functional designs for the autopilots of
of such an autopilot for the Dolphin hydrofoil boat. these vehicles. While differing in details, the designs
Also described is the development of an automatic gain- all had a basic similarity to those for aircraft, in that
setting procedure, based upon the 'integral of the abso- heave (vertical) acceleration, pitch, and roll para-
lute value of the error input to each autopilot control meters were employed to operate control surface hy-
channel. Employment of this technique has aided the draulic actuators through a control computer.
analytical work on the Dolphin Autopilot and shows
promise of being useful in the establishment of suitable A statement of the basic hydrofoil control problem
gains during initial sea trials of future hydrofoil craft. and a possible solution is given followed by a descrip-
tion of the analytical programs carried out and a discus-
I. Introduction sion of results of both the analytical programs and the
sea trials.
The Dolphin, designed and produced by Grumman,
is a 75-foot, 60-ton craft with conventionally-placed, Also presented is the technique of automatically set-
fully submerged hydrofoils. (See figure 1.) The craft ting autopilot gains for both analytical and sea trial
is capable of 50 knots in smooth water, carrying 88 purposes. This development was carried out as a sep-
passengers and a crew of four. It is also capable of arate, but complimentary, program to that for the
Dolphin autopilot.

)
Figure 1. Dolphin Hydrofoil
That portion of the development work described herein, performed by the Grumman Aircraft Engineering Cor-
poration, was carried out under the sponsorship of Advanced Development Projects. Recognition is given to Messrs.
R. Rose, of Grumman Aerodynamics, and R. Barcus of the Flight and Electronics Systems Section of AiResearch,
for their work in the analysis and testing of the Dolphin Autopilot.
1
II. The Hydrofoil Control Problem and a Solution Disturbances
In dealing with a design for which calm water in-
stability is predicted, an autopilot will certainly be re-
quired for stability augmentation. Moreover, our work Height
has shown that submerged foil craft, whether stable or Vehicle
not in calm water with fixed foils, tend to exhibit Heave, Pitch,

r-
heave and pitch divergence in waves. Hydrofoil craft, Roll
therefore, operating in a relatively incompressible
medium under severe constraints in allowable heave,
pitch and roll motions, require rapid continuous move-
ment of control surfaces. The purpose, then, is to
maintain flight, and, in addition, to provide satisfactory I
Sensors
performance. As far as passengers and crew are con-
cerned, performance is defined by one criterion: com-
fort, which implies maintenance of low vertical acceler-
ations in all parts fo the vessel and prevention of hull Control
impact and foil broach. Apropos of these requirements Control
Surface Computer
are two modes of foilborne operation: Actuators
Platforming - maintenance of a flat trajectory
in waves of heights less than or equal to keel-

-I
to-foil distance, satisfying flight condition
Height
Contouring - heaving and pitching in phase with Sensor -17
higher waves, meeting the comfort criterion. Autopilot
L._ J
Submerged foils help here, in that they inherently
tend to slice through small, high-frequency waves, ex- Figure 2. Dolphin Control System Functional
hibiting little or no response to wave inputs, and ex- Block Diagram
perience a resonance in low-frequency, high waves.
These properties are characteristics of low-pass filters.
The control problem then, is to design a control system III. Discussion
which enhances this filtering capability so that the re-
sultant vehicle-autopilot system satisfies the above Autopilot Analysis
requirements. The analytical portion of the autopilot development
program was carried out in two parts: a preliminary
The solution is an autopilot which employs in its design effort at Grumman intended for an autopilot per-
feedback loops high-pass parameters of craft motion for formance specification, followed by a more detailed
platforming conditions and low-pass parameters for system design study at AiResearch.
contouring. High-pass parameters are those craft A preliminary idea of dynamic stability is
motions minimized at the upper range of wave encounter gained by applying the theory -Of small perturbations to
frequences, such as pitch, roll, heave, and their deriv- the six vehicle equations of motion for an uncontrolled
atives. Conversely, a low-pass element would be the (fixed foil) craft in calm water (7), and solving the re-
height above the mean water level. sultant longitudinal and lateral stability matrices.
A basic autopilot is shown in figure 2. The types of
sensors required are prescribed by the parameters
discussed. For a craft equipped with surface-piercing foils,
such as the HS Denison, stability is provided by the
Basically, the control computer is required to pro- rather large changes in lifting surface area with varia-
cess sensor outputs so that, for platforming, the high- tion in foil depth. The principal contributor to the
pass signals are dominant, with a constant height main- dynamic stability of submerged foil craft is a "depth
tained at any commanded level. In contouring, the high- effect" which exists within about two foil chord lengths
pass signals effects are reduced and the height signals of the water surface. This effect increases lift as the
play a larger role as larger height errors are experienc- foil depth increases and vice versa. It dies out when the
ed. two-chord length limit is approached. The results of the
Ideally, the autopilot should sense wave height and stability calculation indicated that the Dolphin would be a
length, and position the control surfaces for the response stable craft, with reasonable damping (0.4 to 0.7) of the
desired. Practically, there are two objections to this oscillatory modes.
approach. First, treating the ocean as a random distur- Grumman's analog computer study (8) was part of a
bance, the overall input function can be identified by an
autopilot; however individual elements (waves) cannot be program to design and build an onboard autopilot simu-
defined without resorting to sophisticated techniques at lator using the Dolphin as the study vehicle. The pur-
relatively prohibitive cost. Secondly, even with a system pose of this device was to automatically calculate,
of this capability, by the time parameters of a particular during sea trials, the autopilot loop gains required for
wave were sensed and defined, the craft would be through satisfactory foilborne performance. This subject is de-
it and the control surfaces positioned too late to be of tailed in a subsequent paragraph.
any use. In the program, the vehicle was simulated with five
Consequently, parameters are used that can be equations of motion solved for craft body axis accelera-
practicably sensed and identified by the autopilot, such tions in heave, pitch, roll, yaw, and sway, or sideslip.
as pitch, roll, heave, acceleration, and keel-to-water- Foil and strut lift and drag coefficients, being nonlinear
surface distance, to provide performance most nearly functions of foil depth, were generated independently.
satisfying our requirements at a reasonable cost. The craft was programmed for operation in sinusoidal

2
waves in head, following quartering, and beam seas, lated. To make a qualitative estimate of takeoff per-
with the equations for foil depth and wave-induced orbital formance in a quartering (45 degrees) sea, roll was in-
velocities implicit in this requirement. cluded as the fourth degree of freedom.
The results of this computer study predicted quali- Automatic Gain Setting (AGS)
tatively the performance that could be achieved by the In the Grumman computer study, the autopilot equa-
Dolphin. Accordingly, an autopilot procurement specifi- tions expressed control surface motions as functions of
cation was issued, requiring AiResearch to perform, craft motion, rate, and accelerations, as is usually
and/or supply, the following: done. However, in this case, the feedback gains were
treated as variables, each a function of the error in the
A computer study to determine nominal autopilot related channel. This serves to introduce the AGS con-
gains and a method of programming craft pitch cept and its employment as an analytical tool.
during takeoff
During a number of autopilot analysis and design
Autopilot sensors, displays, controls, and self- studies, for hydrofoil craft, it became increasingly
test provisions evident that cost and time expended in both analysis and
flight testing could be substantially reduced by automa-
A master checkout unit for autopilot onboard tically computing autopilot response characteristics.
checkout and maintenance This could be done with an onboard analog computer, or
autopilot simulator, tailored specifically to control of
Fail-safety provisions. hydrofoil vehicles. Accordingly, this concept was devel-
oped to where analog computer programs could be carried
The AiResearch computer study was two-fold: a out to evaluate the application of the concept to a hydro-
five-degree-of-freedom analog program (9), similar in thetical vehicle and then to a specific hydrofoil craft.
scope to the Grumman computer study, and a four-
degree-of-freedom digital program (1u) to determine It was also decided that AGS studies would culminate
autopilot requirements for takeoff. in a set of modules incorporating the AGS function,
which were to be employed in hydrofoil craft sea trials.
The primary objective of this work was to establish Once gains were established they would be replaced by
performance requirements for the control computer and modules whose gains would be fixed at values computed
sensors of a fixed gain autopilot with a degree of accu- by the AGS modules. (See figures 3 and 4.)
racy sufficient to ensure ultimate satisfactory operation
with a minimum of trial and error procedure during Error
hardware development and sea trials. Signal
IKE
In the analysis, a mathematical model was devel- To
oped for the hydrofoil craft, the autopilot, and the dis- l Modulator
turbance inputs for a five-degree-of-freedom simulation.
The computer study encompassed a wide spectrum of
anticipated operating conditions and both longitudinal
and lateral craft motions with heave-pitch, heave-roll,
and yaw-sideslip coupling were considered. Craft per-
formance was investigated for smooth water turns and
straight runs in heading, quartering, beam and following
seas up to and including sea state 4. The stability of the

-
craft under changing foil load distributions due to shifts
in the craft cg was also investigated.
Module Threshold
In the takeoff program surge acceleration was made L
a variable, along with heave and pitch; hull lift, drag, Figure 3. AGS Module Block Diagram (High Pass)
and pitching moment terms were also introduced. Thus,
by allowing all motions in the longitudinal plane, per-
formance in smooth and head seas was accurately simu- Module

Multiplier To
Error Modulator
Signal

S lope
Reset

Absolute Switching
Value Logic
4-7
Gain
Schedule Threshold

_J
Figure 4. AGS Module Block Diagram (Height)

3
The AGS procedure is to increase gain from zero, Grumman's program resulted in the issuance of a
as a function of the integral of the absolute value of error procurement specification to AiResearch for the AGS
E until the particular error signal, on which the module modules in addition to that for the Dolphin autopilot.
is operating, is reduced to a value near zero. Thus, when
the error is greater than a preset threshold value, the A set of the following AGS modules was ordered:
gai-n increases at a rate proportional to the simultaneous
reduction in error. In other words, the effectiveness of Four high-pass modules, to be used in the pitch,
the resultant feedback signal (gain times error) is in- roll, heave acceleration, and lateral accelera-
creased at a decreasing rate until the desired vehicle tion channels, plus one spare
attitude is attained.
One low-pass height channel module, plus one
The two types of modules, high and low-pass, corres- spare.
pond to the platforming and contouring operation of hydro-
foil craft. Most of the time, the craft will be required to To provide stable and continuous computation of
platform small high-frequency waves in which attitude gain throughout the rather wide range required, AiRe-
parameters (pitch, roll, and heave) and their derivatives search has employed digital circuitry. (See figures 5
will be maintained as close to zero as possible. and 6.) Briefly, an error signal, E, is generated in the
form of five-volt pulses, whose frequency is proportion-
With these requirements, the high-pass modules al to the magnitude of the error signal. The E pulses
were designed to operate as previously described. are counted in binary fashion by a set of nine flip-flops.
Height control, however, should be more effective at Each of these networks pulses a relay driver, which, in
low (contouring) than high (platforming) frequencies. turn, actuates a two-position relay. This switching,
Moreover, it was often found that best performance was incorporated in a ladder network, results in a total of
obtained with an adaptive height channel. Therefore, 29, or 512 possible states, or impedances, to which the
the low-pass module's function is slightly different from switching network can be set. Thus, for both types of
that of the high-pass units, in that, in addition to the modules, the variable gain, Ki is increased in incre-
gain, a height channel gain schedule is computed as a ments of 0.0196.
function of height error. To accomplish this, gain
limiting is based on a comparison of signals proportional The gain value computed in each module is obtained
to gain height error. The gains resulting from craft by summing the relay driver outputs and recording the
operation in a number of different sea states will result result. The summing amplifier output is an analog
in a height gain schedule. If these results yield little or signal corresponding to the gain switching network state.
no variation in the height gains required, then, of course,
such a schedule will be unnecessary. The output signal of each AGS module represents the
product of variable gain Ki and the input error signal E.
Concerning the use of AGS in sea trials, it is ex- The overall open loop channel gain K is the product of Ki
pected that varying sea conditions and the shakedown and the nominal gain Ko established in sensors and auto-
nature of the trials will complicate the task of establishing pilot circuits external to the AGS module. Thus, K is
and maintaining operation in particular sea states and increased in multiples of Ko.
numerous takeoffs and landings will no doubt occur.
Therefore, to facilitate the calculation of proper auto- There are three modes of module operation- operate,
pilot gains, the AGS integrating circuits will be reset to takeoff, and gain shaping, the latter applyingto the height
zero and the gain allowed to raise again if the craft is module only. The AGS modules each consist of two
landed or if a reduced sea state is encountered. Reset circuit boards, with an additional board required for the
in any case will be at operator's discretion. height module gain schedule. The units are entirely
K1
E 1E1
Amplifier/ Counter piRelay
1-11 Summing
Multivibrator fUUL Drivers (9) Amplifier To
:Input
Ref Pulses Recorder

Reset

Threshold
Adjust
Relays (9)

K1
Switching ,mplifier
Output
Mode Switching 1
2
1 - Operate
2 - Takeoff
L _
Figure 5. AGS Module Mechanization (High Pass)

4
E
Amplifier Absolute Multi- Counter 1-0 Relay
L Logic Amplifier
_
Input > Value vibrator Drivers To
Recorder
Pulses

II
1
9

/ Reset

Relays

Ck
Smdtching
Diff
Amplifier I
( 1E1 - CkKH ) Mode Switching
1
Operate
Takeoff
Gain Shaping
K4.1
KH 1EH
H1 Amplifier
Switching
Output

2'
Gain
Shaping

Figure 6. AGS Module Mechanization (Height)

solid-state, the flip-flops being Fairchild DT L950


Micrologic devices. The set of modules is contained in
a portable case with a single cable arranged to plug into
a matching receptacle on the autopilot control computer.
(See figure 7.)

IV. Results and Conclusions

Analysis
Automatic Gain Setting
The Grumman studies indicated that the design of
hydrofoil autopilots through use of an onboard simulator
was indeed feasible. This conclusion was supported by
the five-degree-of-freedom analog study consuming only
about half the time of previous simular programs. It
was also discovered that certain of the feedback channels
used would not be necessary, since the computed gains
for these channels were negligible. Thus, by performing
a gain-setting role, the modules help to configure the
autopilot by indicating the need for feeding back any of
the craft motion parameters.
To date, the AGS modules have not been tested in
hydrofoil sea trials, but it is intended to do so at the
earliest opportunity. Meanwhile, the results obtained
have engendered studies of the application of the tech-
nique in the area of aircraft autopilot development and
the expansion of the AGS concept to self-adaptive
systems for both hydrofoils and aircraft. Figure 7, AGS Module
5
Dolphin Foilborne Performance 1.50 Pitch
Dolphin performahce, with autopilot gains fixed at -o I Predicted
the values determined by the simulator, was a compro-
mise between ideal platforming and ideal contouring. _9 1.25 0, 0 Sea Trials
This was necessitated by the intention of keeping the 6.0

autopilot simple and the costs down. However, two Ráll


alternative methods of providing both platforming and
contouring were studied. One was the retention of the
automatic height gain adjustment used in the simulator. //Pitch
Roll
The other was a manual switching of height channel gain
for platforming and contouring. The latter method is 0.75
employed in the Dolphin system. The predicted heave
performance is given in figure 8 and pitch and roll mo-
tions in figure 9.
cl;

8
o epi Head Seas
0.50 Following Sea

ca'
Height Sensor Noise
To anticipate craft performance with height sensor 0.25
9S7
noise computer runs were made using a height signal to
noise ratio of three to one (10 db). This ratio is much lower
than that normally required (40 db) and imposed a severo
z Platform-in Contouring
task upon the control system. As a result, foilborne 2 4 6 8 10
operation was maintained although performance was
degraded to 0.36 g's of heave acceleration. (See figure Wave Height, ft
8.) No such noise effects were found during actual sea
trials. Figure 9, Dolphin Pitch and Roll Motions in Waves
0.7
Takeoff Performance
The chief control restraint imposed by takeoff condi-
Optimum tions is to limit the positive travel of the forward foils.
0.6 Predicted This must be done to prevent the foils being driven by
X Sea Trials the large height error to their maximum positions,
thereby increasing drag to the point where takeoff could
not -be achieved. Two limiting methods were used,
0.5 namely, pitch channel cross-coupling with the forward
foil control channels, and limiting foil actuator commands,
O in accordance with drag calculations, to 70 percent of
maximum. With pitch channel cross-coupling the for-
Platforming ontouring ward foils reached angles of only 40 percent of their
With Height IC maximum value. The 70 percen.t limit resulted in similar
Sensor Noise takeoff times. It was also found that takeoffs could be
achieved manually, if necessary.
t) 0.3 Best takeoff performance was attained by programming
pitch as a function of height error and retaining pitch
cross-coupling.
CS
Fail-Safety
0.2
It was determined that if hardover sensor and/or
circuit failure occurred, provision should be made to
automatically position the foils at suitable null positions.
Simultaneously, the helmsman, having been warned by
XX visual and aural devices, would throttle back the engine.
X
X
X Foil null positions are defined as the mean positions
about which the foils have been operating in the time
period prior to failure. The voltage source of these
4 6 10 null signals are independent of the control computer
Wave Height, ft circuitry which receives inputs from sensors.
Autopilot Mechanization
Figure 8, Dolphin Heave Acceleration in Waves Selection of sensors and the control computer
mechanization was carried out by AiResearch as a result
Height Sensor Location of the studies previously described.
In order to provide maximum anticipation of wave
encounter the height sensor should be motmted as far Control Computer
forward as possible, thus requiring a radar or sonic The control computer contains the circuitry re-
device. In view of high cost and unknown reliability of quired to trangorm the sensed parameters into command
radar and sonic height sensors, however, the possibility signals for the control surface actuators in accordance
of using the contact type of unit on the forward struts with the performance requirements previously discussed.
was investigated. With proper filtering, both locations (See figure 10.) Subsidiary functions, such as turn
yielded good platforming. However, the strut-mounted coordination, height and attitude train, a variety of
unit's contouring performance was. in adequate due to lack operating modes (standby, takeoff, and cruise), fail-
of anticipation afforded by the bow-mounted unit. safe monitoring, and self-test are also supplied. (For
6
Sensors Control Computer

Controls & Signal Processing Servo &


Monitoring

Command Platform
Height
Control Actuator
Takeoff
Schedule Height
Channel Forward
Starboard
Heave Accel Channel Channel
Stbd
Accel - 1VIWP

i
Port (Master Warning Panel)
Accel

Trim Actuator
Lateral
Accel Roll
Channel Forward
Vert Port
Gyro Turn Channel
Coord I MWP
Rate
Gyro

Takeoff
Vert Pitch
Gyro Actuator
Cruise Channel
Rate
Gyro
Aft
Channel
Trim MWP

Figure 10, Dolphin Autopilot


clarity, the latter two mechanizations are not shown in should exist to an extent likely to affect sensor outputs.
figure 10). The inertial sensors are types that are readily available
for aircraft, with the following basic characteristics.
The computer is a functionally modular assembly
using solid-state circuitry throughout and interchange- Vertical Gyro (2-axis)
ability insofar as possible. (See figure 11.) It contains
a power supply which provides 400-cycle power to the Range ± 30 deg
sensors, as well as power used internally, by static Drift Rate 0.25 deg min
inversion of the ship's power. Repeatability to Vertical ± 0.25 deg
Sensors Rate Gyros (2)
The height sensor has received much consideration
because of its state-of-the-art status. After a survey of Range ± 10 deg/sec pitch,
manufacturers in this field and some field testing, it ± 30 deg/sec roll
was decided to use the pulsed sonic type, produced by
Arma Division of the American Bosch Arma Corporation Damping 0.5
For the height channel, a low-pass filter is employed,
whose chief function will be to negate the effects of small Undamped Natural Frequency 15 cps
surface chop. The heave acceleration channel also re-
quired a noise filter to avoid vibration effects. Two Accelerometers (3)
accelerometers are located in the hull at the forward
strut mounting areas. This places them at one of the Range ± 5.0 g vertical (2),
most likely nodal points of hull bending if such a mode ± O. 5 g lateral
7
Linearity ± 0.5% done along these lines, where, in addition to accelera-
tions, such things as frequency, and duration of occur-
Damping 0.5 rence are involved. In the final analysis, everyone on
board a vehicle has his own definition of comfort, depend-
Undamped Natural Frequency 20 cps ing a good deal upon intangibles. Suffice it to say that at
no time during the Dolphin trials was there an indication
of discomfort.

Elapsed
Time
Indicators F,..

Figure 11. Autopilot Control Computer


Controls and Displays
All command and monitoring functions are brought
out to three panels: Helmsman's Control (figure 12),
8elf-test and Performance Monitoring, and Master
Warning. These panels provide manual fail-safe capa-
bility, as well as devices warning the helmsman of
autopilot malfunction.
Sea Trials Foilborne Performance
Sea trials took place in the Elbe River and in the
Baltic Sea, off Kiel. During bench and installation Figure 12. Helmsman's Control Panel
checkouts no trouble of any significance was experienced
with the autopilot. Conclusions
The conclusions are briefly summarized as
- Calm water trials confirmed the fixed-foil stability follows:
predicted in the analytical studies. Transient responses
in heave and pitch were characterized by damping ratios The Dolphin is inherently stable, with fixed
of approximately 0. 5. foils, at design cruising speed in calm water
For takeoffs, pitch commands programmed as a Dolphin performance in the open ocean makes
function of height, as indicated by the AiResearch the craft eminently suitable for comfortable,
studies proved successful. The smoothness of takeoffs rapid transport of large numbers of passengers
is illustrated by the fact that passengers were frequently and/or cargo over selected routes in many
unaware of the transition from hullborne to foilborne parts of the world.
operation.
In the open sea, the Dolphin encountered waves up V. Bibliography
to six feet high at all sea headings and was found to per-
form excellently. (See figures 8 and 9.) For compar- W. Pierson, Jr., G. Neumann, and R. W. James,
ison of predicted with actual results, it should be point- "Practical Methods for Observing and Forecasting
ed out that sinusoidal waves of average length, obtained Ocean Waves," U. S. Navy Hydrographic Office
statistically (1), were used in the analog programs, and Publication H. 0. 603, 1955.
that the Baltic Sea in winter is characterized chiefly by
waves whose Length-to-height ratios are among the small- H. D. Ranzenhofer, Grumman Report DA M23-
est to be found. Moreover, since heave accelerations 335. 1,Hydrofoil Research Ship AG(EH) Autopilot
are a function of the square of wave encounter Development Program - Five-Degree-of-Freedom
frequency, it follows that one can expect acceleration Analog Computer Simulation, July 1962.
values higher than those predicted.
W. C. Blaiklock, and E. W. Ferris, Grumman
The connection between heave acceleration and com- Report MPD 47.135(R), Development and Testing
fort is intuitively rather obvious. What is not so obvious of Motion Measuring Instrumentation for the
is a definition of "comfort". There has been much work XCH-6 Hydrofoil Craft, January 1963.

8.
H. D. Ranzenhofer, Grumman Report DA M23- Longitudinal and Lateral Dynamic Stability of
335.2, Hydrofoil Research Ship AG(EH) Autopilot Hydrofoil Craft, 1958.
Development Program - Preliminary Computer
Study Part 2, March 1963 (Confidential). H. D. Ranzenhofer, Grumman Report ADR 06-11-
64.1, An On-Board Autopilot Simulator for Hydro-
H. D. Ranzenhofer, Grumman Report DA M51- foil Craft - Five-Degree-of-Freedom Analog
200.1, Hydrofoil Ship FRESH-I Stability and Computer Study, December 1964.
Control Study, April 1963.
R. E. Vesque, AiResearch Manufacturing Division
H. D. Ranzenhofer, Grumman Report DA M51- Report 66-0440, Analog Computer Study - Dolphin
200.2, Hydrofoil Ship FRESH-I Analog Computer Hydrofoil Control System, June 1966.
Study, May 1963.
R. E. Vesque, AiResearch Manufacturing Division
P. Kaplan et al, Stevens Institute of Technology Report 66-0591 Digital Computer Study - Dolphin
ETT Report No. 691, Methods for Estimating the Hydrofoil Takeoff Program, July 1966.

9
No. 61354

HIGH SPEED TOWED HYDROFOIL SLEDS


by

R. ALTMANN
HYDRONAUTICS, Incorporated
Laurel, Maryland

Paper No.
67-354

AIAA/SNAME Advance marine


vows meeting
NORFOLK, VIRGINIA/MAY 22-24, 1967
First publication rights reserved by American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1290 Avenue of the Americas, New York, N. Y. 10019
and Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, 74 Trinity Place, New York, N. Y. 10006
Abstracts may be published without permission if credit is given to author and to AIAA/SNAME. (Mernber Price-75c; Nonmember Price$1.50)
1.08, 3.07, 10.11
HIGH SPEED TOWED HYDROFOIL SLEDS

R. Altmann
Associate Research Scientist
HYDRONAUTICS, Incorporated
Laurel, Maryland

Abstract

The payload, range, and effectiveness of sonar- Under contract to the Bureau of Weapons, Depart-
carrying, picket helicopters, used in anti-submarine ment of the Navy, the EDO Corporation at that time had
warfare, are limited by the relatively low aerodynamic developed a towed sled vehicle for use in mine-counter-
efficiency and high noise level of the helicopter. To measures programs. A 3800 pound version of the sled,
improve this otherwise versatile weapons system, a design supported by four hydroskis located at the corners of a
study and model testing program wasdirected atdeveloping catamaran hull, had been built and tested in 1960. The
a helicopter towed hydrofoil sled. Payload and fuel are EDO Corporation tests demonstrated that a water craft
stored in the sled, and the deck of the sled is sufficiently supported by dynamic lifting surfaces could be stably
large to permit the helicopter to land upon it. A tandem towed by a helicopter at high speeds. However, the in-
configuration of dihedral ladder hydrofoils was used to herently low efficiencies of the low aspect ratio hydroskis,
obtain a passively stabilized system. As the range of sled and their surface-contouring performance, made a simple,
speeds and displacements was very large, each ladder foil geometrically-scaled, larger version of the hydroski craft
contained all three of the known types of hydrofoils, sub- appear impractical for long-range, open water missions.
cavi toting , base-vented , and ful I y-venti lated . Tests of
a 1/8 scale model of one foil configuration showed the In an effort to improve the performance of this
cruise resistance to be adequately predicted by theory. promising craft, the Bureau of Weapons sponsored a re-
Pitch, heave, and surge stability of the sled were ex- search program to investigate a helicopter towed vehicle
amined through a series of freely-towed tests of a 1/24 utilizing hydrofoils as the dynamic lifting surfaces. Hydro-
scale model . The sled proved to be exceptionally sea- foils have the potential of producing lift-drag ratios 2 to
worthy, and lligh-speed operation through a State 3 sea 3 times greater than those produced by hydroskis, and can
appears possible. In calm water the sonar picket mission be designed with substantially "softer'' response to seaway
range will be doubled! conditions than can the surface-contouring skis.

Introduction HYDRONAUTICS, Incorporated performed feasi-


bility studies of hydrofoil supported sleds and completed
One of the principal tools presently used in anti- the hydrodynamic design of a particular configuration
submarine warfare for both search and attack is the heli- under subcontract to the EDO Corporation. An extensive
copter. The helicopter's ability to hover while listening testing program was then performed on models of the pro-
with "dunked" sonar, combined with its ability to proceed posed sled under direct contract to the Naval Air Systems
at higher speeds than surface craft when in the attack Command. This paper reviews highlights of each of the
phase of a mission, makes it an effective and self-con- above studies, which are described in detail in References
tained anti-submarine weapons system. Unfortunately, 2, 3, and 4.
the aerodynamic efficiency of the helicopter is quite low,
and consequently it is a vehicle of moderate range and HYDRONAUTICS, Incorporated gratefully acknow-
payload. Furthermore, the noise signature of a helicopter ledges the support of the EDO Corporation and the Bureau
hovering above a dunked sonar sphe:e is sufficiently in- of Weapons, currently the Naval Air Systerns Command,
tense to cause a decrease in the effective sensitivity of throughout these programs.
this instrumentation. In fact, the water-transmitted vib-
rations of a low-hovering helicopter are strong enough to Feasibility Studies and Preliminary Design
serve as a homing beacon for acoustically-guided missiles
launched from the hunted submarine. These same vibra- The two critetia that most influenced foil design
tions decrease the practical duration of helicopter sonar were the requirement that the sled be passively stabilized,
picket missions by reducing crew effectiveness as flight and the need to achieve efficient foil-borne operation
time progresses. over a large range of speeds and displacements. Some
form of dihedral , surface-piercing system was necessary
In 1961, Handler (Reference 1) proposed utilizing to satisfy the stability criterion, so initial studies of the
rowed sea-pallets, or sleds, to improve the performance craft performance assumed the use of "V"-foil configura-
of the helicopter picket craft. These sleds would house tions. Calm water lift-drag ratios of such systems were
both the sonar gear and a considerable amount of fuel, calculated using the best available techniques at the
permitting increases in the effective helicopter payload time, (1961), and are plotted in Figure 1. (The plotted
and range. In addition, the sled deck would serve as a performance estimates for supercavitating foils shown in
landing platform for the helicopter, permitting noise-free this figure have since been found to be somewhat op-
sonar listening and periods of crew recuperation during timistic). Plots of foil drag versus speed were obtained
the mission. from this information, and were superimposed on the

1
thrust available versus speed characteristic of the Sikorski coefficients required for low speed take-offs while main-
SH-3A helicopter (Figure 2). These resistance estimates taining a sufficiently high efficiency to compensate for
were doubled to account for the increases in foil drag that the drag of the fully-immersed strut. Diagonal trusses, in
accompany operation in a seaway. It was then apparent the form of fully-wetted lifting panels, were fitted be-
that only the lighter sled displacements could be towed at tween these upper wings and the struts to permit the use
reasonably high speeds by a picket helicopter. Sleds of large-span, thin-section wings. The cambered fully
larger than 50 tons were not practical. wetted foils were designed with lift coefficients and
thicknesses such as to optimize their hydrodynamic ef-
Structural relations for vessels of this general size ficiency consistent with constraints imposed by cavitation
were used to obtain estimates of the foil weights, hull and ventilation inception. The strut section itself was a
weights, and allowable fuel weight. Curves of the heli- near-parabolic, low-drag form. It is significant that the
copter-towed sled range were then computed as functions design requirements of this craft resulted in the use within
of average speed and sled displacement, and are shown one configuration of each of the three basic types of
in Figure 3. It is seen that for rough water operation a hydrofoil sections today available.
vessel displacement of nearly 20 tons and an average speed
of 65 knots produces a near optimum range of 740 miles. It seemed imperative that the sled trim not be al-
This range is over twice that of the picket helicopter when lowed to vary appreciably throughout the range of dis-
flying alone! placements and speeds, in order to minimize the drag
generated by operation of the foils atan angle of attack.
However, although "V"-foil configurations were The passive foil system most conducive to constant trim
very desirable from the standpoint of ease in construction, operation is the tandem configuration. Furthermore, the
it became apparent that they could not satisfy all the per- choice of four tandem hydrofoils permitted the use of
formance requirements of the sled. Figure 1 clearly shows smaller, high-speed foils than did three-strut conventional
the relatively low efficiencies of supercavitating foils or canard arrangements. This, in turn, allowed a greater
(as compared with fully wetted foils) when operating at proportion of the vertical area of each strut to be utilized
low speeds, and the even lower efficiencies of fully wetted for support of the low-speed, fully wetted wings, and re-
foils (compared to supercavitating foils) when operating at duced take-off speed. Symmetrical, tandem foil con-
high speeds. Since the substantial increases in mission figurations also regained some of the simplicity in manu-
range could only be achieved by operating with high foil facture necessarily abandoned when the "V"-foil system
efficiencies throughout the entire range of sled displace- proved unseaworthy.
ments and speeds, it was apparent that both fully-wetted
and supercavitating foils would be necessary, and a ladder The individual foils described above, and the strut
configuration was indicated to be required. on which they are mounted, are detailed in Figures 5
through 10.
Analysis of "V"-foil response characteristics in a
seaway also led to the choice of a ladder configuration. Two types of hull forms were examined during the
The high stiffness and low damping of simple "V"-foils re- design studies. Although catamaraet configurations were
sulted in poor calculated seaway performance. An arrange- favored for their stability characteristics, arrangement
ment in which the high speed lift of the craft was produced difficulties were encountered in housing the large sonar
by large, fully-submerged, low lift coefficient wings gen- transducer within one hull, and hull structure, particu-
erating over one-half the lift of each configuration, with larly the deck structure required to prevent racking,
smaller, surface-piercing wings mounted above them to represented a greater percentage of the total craft weight
produce the remaining lift, was found to substantially im- than in the conventional planing mono-hull . For these
prove seaworthiness. The large, submerged foils contributed reasons a mono-hull was chosen for the sled. Hull design
significantly ta the damping of the system,while heave incorporated high forward deadrise to alleviate water
stability was provided by the low-stiffness, surface-pierc- impact loads, but in all other respects utilized features
ing wings. The relatively low lift coefficients of these common to conventional , stepped, planing hulls.
two sets of wings dictated that the fully-wetted wings re-
quired for efficient low-speed operation be placed above Figure 11 is a photograph of a 1/24 scale model of
them, and the three-rung ladder configuration shown sche- the sled in its designed form. Displacement is 40,000
matically in Figure 4, was thusly formed. pounds fully loaded. 13,000 pounds of fuel are transferred
from the sled to the helicopter during the course of the
Section shapes for the three wings were also deter- mission. Sonar payload is 9600 pounds, and the remaining
mined by the requirements of efficiency and seaworthiness. weight is primarily hull and hydrofoil structure. Design
Low lift coefficient and high-speed operation made a calm-water speed, corresponding to the thrust versus
ventilated, supercavitating section the natural choice for speed characteristics of the SH-3A helicopter at normal
the lowest of the three foils. The small surface-piercing rated power, ranged from 72 knots fully loaded to 95 knots
foil required a sufficiently high lift-drag ratio to com- when running with no fuel on board.
pensate for the drag of the strut immersed beneath it, but
had to operate in the speed ranges associated with cavita-
tion damage to high efficiency, fully-wetted sections.
Accordingly, a base-vented section was selected for this
wing. High aspect ratio panels with fully wetted sections
were required for the upper wings to develop the high lift

2
Model Testing Program It had been realized from the beginning of the de-
sign studies that only through freely towed model tests
As the operation of hydrofoil craft at speeds in could dependable information on sled motions performance
excess of 60 knots is still at the upper limits of state-of- be obtained, and the purpose of the 1/24 scale tests was
the-art engineering capabilities, Reference 3 outlined a to examine sled motions. Many of the problems associated
thorough test program to be carried out before implement- with model tests of watercraft were not present, since the
ing the design with a prototype craft. This proposed test model had no self-propulsion devices. None-the-less,
program formed the basis for a detailed model study three scaling parameters had to be carefully examined
initiated by HYDRONAUTICS in June, 1964. before commencing the model study.

Phase I of the model testing program required The 2-foot width of the HYDRONAUTICS channel
the construction and testing of a 1/8 scale configuration led to the selection of a 1-foot maximum model beam,
of one of the foils of the proposed system. These tests which in turn established the 1/24 scale factor chosen for
were ta verify the predicted static performance of the the model . Froude scaling of dimensions, weights,
foils, and to indicate changes necessary to improve this moments, and moments of inertia to such a small scale
performance should it be found unsatisfactory. Tests were proved to be just on the border of practicality; however,
conducted in the variable-pressure, free-surface, high- a properly scaled model was achieved.
speed water channel at HYDRONAUTICS, Incorporated.
(A description of this facility and its use in hydrofoil Similarily, vapor cavitation index could just be
testing is given in Reference 5). Reference 6 describes scaled using the variable pressure capability of the
the testing program followed during this phase of the HYDRONAUTICS channel.
work, and discusses the various changes made to the model
as the tests progressed. The final model configuration is Reynolds number, however, could not be scaled,
shown in Figures 12 and 13; at this condition 28 tests were and proved to lie in the center of the laminar-turbulent
conducted on the foil, covering a range of seven water- transition region of flat-plate boundary layer flow. Suit-
lines, five angles of attack, and cavitation numbers cor- able frictional contributions to the 1/24 scale model drag
responding to speeds from 10 to 100 knots. could not be estimated, and the possibility of low speed
laminar stall was also present. Since drag had already
Results of these tests are summarized in Fig- been measured on the 1/8 scale foil configuration, the
ures 14 and 15, in which the sled foil submergence and inability to accurately expand drag measurements made
resistance, based on foil performance uncoupled from the on the smaller models was not considered a serious limita-
hull, are plotted as functions of speed and displacement. tion to the test program. Furthermore, as the foil system
The very obvious resistance ''humps'' of Figure 15 were of was a ventilated configuration, it was expected that the
concern for three reasons. Not only was resistance con- presence of laminar stall would be visibly exhibited
siderably higher than design during the critical take-off through air-filled cavities. Hence, the inability to scale
speed range, but also, the rapid changes in drag at speeds Reynolds number was not considered likely to influence
immediately above this ''hump" indicated the possible the important parameters of foil performance without pro-
occurrence of surge loadings on the towline at these ducing visible cavities defining the problem regions.
speeds. Furthermore, the speed range over which these Plans to cope with such occurrences were postponed pend-
drag changes occur corresponds with a region of rapid ing their actual occurrence, and tests subsequently failed
change in submergence with little change in speed, as to indicate any of these postulated problems.
shown in Figure 14. It seemed possible that surge and
heave motions could couple to produce violent accelera- Each of the four 1/24 scale foils was tested
tions at this speed. individually, and adjusiments to them were made to cause
their lift performance to closely duplicate that of the 1/8
Analysis of factors possibly contributing to the scale configuration. These changes were necessitated by
high resistance "humps" indicated the crux of the problem the considerable effects slight misalignments had on the
to lie in the low lift generated by foils ''b" and "c", and performance of the very small foils. Following these
increases in either the camber or angle of attack of these tests, the entire sled was towed freely in the channel,
foils appeared likely to improve the configuration per- using the arrangement schematically shown in Figure 16.
formance. However, it had been the intent of the design A detailed discussion of the test program is available from
to produce a hydrofoil with a soft response to waves, and Reference 4; only highlights of the test results are dis-
although this response was softer than predicted, as may cussed in the following paragraphs.
be seen in Figure 14, nonetheless it was the type of be-
havior believed conducive to good performance in a sea- Performance of the aft foils is considerably affected
way. Changes of the foil configuration to improve re- by the wake shed from the forward foils. Upwash in this
sistance at the possible expense of seakeeping ability wake allows both aft configurations to operate at 1.75°
could not be evaluated without first obtaining some idea less geometric angle than the front foils. However, the
of the behavior of the freely-towed model. Hence the aft foils must operate well outboard of the forward foils,
1/24 scale freely towed model was constructed to dupli- as the ventilated cavities behind the forward wings col-
cate the 1/8 scale configuration, and changes in the foil lapse in the plane of the aft configurations, and severe
mountings to improve resistance were postponed pending buffeting results if these cavities impinge on the aft foils.
tests on this towed model.

3
As indicated by the 1/8 scale tests, a calm-water Conclusions
heave-surge coupling was found to exist at the 50 knot
speed range (27,000 pound displacement). Motions in- The general conclusions drawn from the tests per-
duced by this coupling were essentially removed by in- formed on the hydrofoil sled were that this craft has an ex-
creasing the angle of attack of foil "b" 1-1/2°. This ceptional degree of seaworthiness, and although resistance
change removed the heave instability shown in Figure 14. is higher than anticipated, significant increases in the
helicopter mission range can still be obtained using the
Fifty three percent of the sled weight was carried towed sled concept.
on the forward foils to aid directional stability. The com-
bination of this extra load on the forward foils, along Further development of towed pallets is very de-
with the low dependence of high-speed lift on angle of sirable. Applications in naval programs are widespread.
attack, produced a bow-down trim during high speed op- The particular sled studied was intended for sonar picket
eration. This trim, in turn, caused a reduction in yaw missions. Such craft might also be used to supply an
stability. However, the addi tion of small skegs to the amphibious landing force from distant ships, or even serve
bottoms of the aft foils will aid in regaining yaw stability, as a relatively inexpensive target for surface ship gunnery
and no other adverse effects of the bow-down trim were practice. Small versions have already been shown suitable
observed during the tests. for mine counter-measures use. Vessels of this type might
also serve as relatively inexpensive test media to advance
The cruise waterline of the sled, designed to be the design of high speed hydrofoil systems. Serious con-
3.5feet below the keel , appeared to be near the maximum sideration should be given to this form of high-speed
allowable. Increases in this distance caused periodic transportation wherever unmanned surface craft can be
pitching and surging motions; the critical factor in these used.
motions was the height of the center of gravity of the sled
above the water. Acknowledgments

Towline attitude and periodic oscillations at the The author expresses his appreciation for the
head of the towline did not materially affect sled per- guidance received from Mr. Virgil E. Johnson, Jr., Chief
formance. Sled motions during acceleration, decelera- Engineer of HYDRONAUTICS, Incorporated, under whose
tion, and in transient (gust) conditions were very mild. supervision the entire pro¡ect was carried out. Mr. Johnson
conducted the original design studies and evolved the basic
An extensive series of tests was run in regular ladder configuration that permitted the sled to operate over
waves. Twenty-four combinations of sea state and forward the large ranges of displacement and speed ta which it is
velocity were examined, with motion picture records of subjected.
each condition preserved for later viewing and detailed
analysis. Typical extracts from the films of each test were The 1/8th scale model tests that form the basis of
examined frame-by-frame, and the motions of the waves the sled resistance information were conducted by Mr.
and the boat were recorded. Data so obtained were ex- Tsuying Hsieh of HYDRONAUTICS, Incorporated.
panded ta full scale and plotted on an IBM 1130 computer;
a typical plot of wave motion data is shown in Figure 17. The author also expresses his sincere appreciation
These data were further examined on a cycle-by-cycle for the continued personal interest and many helpful sug-
basis, with each cycle being assumed sinusoidal in char- gestions of Mr. Eugene Handler of the Naval Air Systems
acter. The time average maximum excursion and the time Command.
average maximum acceleration were computed for each
motion examined, and from this analysis, non-dimensional References
performance curves of boat response versus frequency of
encounter were constructed. Figure 1 8 shows the bow Handler, E., The Helicopter-Towed Hydrofoil Sea
heave response curves; responses in other modes and at Pallet," Journal of the American Helicopter Society,
different parts of the vessel are similar to the results shown Vol. 6, No. 3, July 1961.
in Figure 18. Using the seaway characteristics derived in
Reference 6, the non-dimensional data were replotted to
Johnson, V. E., Jr., Martin, M., and Turpin, F.J.,
The Hydrodynamic Characteristics of Towed Hydro-
show full-scale response for various sea states and forward
speeds. Heave motion and acceleration at the bow are foil Sleds," HYDRONAUT1CS, Incorporated Technical
Report 009-1, March 1961.
shown for head seas operation in Figures 19 and 20.
Johnson, V. E., Jr., and Martin M., The Hydro-
Response of the vessel to waves is very mild. Fig- dynamic Design of a Twenty-Ton Towed Hydrofoil
ure 19 shows that the craft heave motion will typically be Sled," HYDRONAUTICS, Incorporated Technical
less than one-half the exciting wave height for operation Report 009-2, July 1 961.
through a State 3 sea at all speeds above take-off. (Take-
Al tmann , R . , "Model Tests of a Twenty-Ton Hydrofoil
off can be achieved with significantly lower motions by
Sled," HYDRONAUTICS, Incorporated Technical
running with the seas, rather than into the waves). Verti-
Report 498-1, November 1966.
cal accelerations are also reasonably low, for an unmanned
pallet, at all speeds up to 60 knots. Johnson, V. E., Jr., and Goodman, A., "The
HYDRONAUTI CS Variable-Pressure , Free-Surface ,
High-Speed Channel ," HYDRONAUTICS, Incorporated
T. R. 229-1, January 1 964.

4
6. "Model Tests of a Twenty-Ton Hydrofoil Sled," 7. Martin, M., and Turpin, F., The Effect of Surface
Report of Progress for the Period December 1, 1 964- Waves on Some Design Parameters of a Hydrofoil
April 30, 1965, HYDRONAUTICS, Incorporated
Boat," HYDRONAUTICS, Incorporated Technical
Progress Report 498-2. Report 001-3, January 1 961.

28
1
1

24

20
SUB-CAV1 TATIN G
HYDROFOILS
---..
11 - 11
----CWL

16

SUPERCAVI TATING
12 HYDROFOIL S

4
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
SPEED -KNOTS

FIGURE 1 - SMOOTH WATER LIFT-DRAG RATIOS OBTAINABLE WITH SURFACE


PIERCING V HYDROFOILS

5
17

GROSS WEIGHT
16 TONS
100

15 95

90
14 TOW THRUST AVAILABLE
HSS-2 HELICOPTER 85
GROSS WEIGHT --- 1 4000 LBS
13
80

75
12
70

11 65

SUPERCAVI TA TI N G 6
10

551
TOW THRUST
O
REOUIRED \ 50
¡o
8
20
45

O7 100/
18
`±' [ /SMOOTH WATER

O
6
///
//
75

16
25
SUB -CAVI TA TI NG

50
Iv 12 80 70
KNOTS
60 50

15 14

//
12 /..
10 --

20 40 60 80 100 10
SPEED-KNOTS

FIGURE 2 - HYDROFOIL SLED TOW THRUST REQUIRED 2


AND SH-3A HELICOPTER TOW THRUST
AVAILABLE
u
<o
RESISTANCE =1.5 x SMOOTH WATER
O RESISTANCE

RESISTANCE = 2 x SMOOTH WATER


RESISTANCE

o
10 20 30 40 50 60
SLED GROSS WEIGHT - TONS

FIGURE 3- HYDROFOIL SLED RANGE TOWED BY SH-3A


HELICOPTER USING SOLID STEEL
SUPERCAVI TATI NG HYDROFOILS

6
PITCH ANGLE

DIHEDRAL ANGLE

STRUT RAKE ANGLE

FLOW

FIGURE 4 - HYDROFOIL SLED FOIL CONFIGURATION, SCHEMATIC

'LEADING EDGE
,QUARTER-CHORD LINE HYDROFOIL "a" ORDINATES
Y/C Y/C
X/C
TOP BOTTOM
1
0.0 0.0
TRAILING EDGE 0.00322 -.00171
0.01
0.02 0.00497 -.00225
0.03 0.00646 -.00259
-- '0.516'71
0.04
0.05
0.00780
0.00904
-.00282
-.00299
0.10 0.01 447 -.00331
0.20 0.02356 -.00297
o 0.30 0.03156 -.00251
0.40 0.03894 -.00253
0.50 0.04588 -.00339
0.60 0.05246 -.00536
0.70 0.05874 -.00869
0.386' 0.80 0.06475 -.01 361
0.90 0.06860 -.02031
1.00 0.07241 -.02900
1.00 0.07393 -.01372
Y 1.20 0.07470 -.01067
FOIL REFERENCE 1.30 0.07470 -.00762
C X LINE (HORIZONTAL)
1.40 0.07470 -.00381
1.50 0.07470 -.00000
SECTION AT
CENTERLINE

Y 1.750 HORIZONTAL LINE NOTE: Linearly varying twist


from root to tips; center
of twist along foil
quarter-chord line
SECTION FOIL REFERENCE
AT TIPS LINE

FIGURE 5 - FOIL "a" PLAN FORM AND SECTIONS

7
I .333'
HYDROFOIL "b" ORDINATES
0.266' Y/C Y/C
THESE. SURFACES TO BE X/C
FLUSH WITH SIDES OF STRUT TOP BOTTOM
0.0 0.0 -.0
0.0125 0.00578 -.00316
2. STRUT 0.050 0.01 301 -.00487
0.075 0.01 650 -.00540
0.10 0.01951 -.00579
4.0' 0.15 0.02459 -.00639
0.20 0.02881 -.00697
2 0' 0.30 0.03549 -.00833
0.40 0.04040 -.01 020
LEADING EDGE
0.50 0.04388 -.01268
UPPER SURFACE" 0.60 0.04608 -.01588
0.70 0.04704 -.01 988
0.80 0.04670 -.02486
0.90 0.04481 -.031 09
X-F*- C
FOIL REFERENCE
LINE
0.95
1.00
0.04306
0.04000
-.03492
-.04000
SECTION OF WING
EXTENDED TO STRUT
CENTERLINE

FIGURE 6 - FOIL "b" PLANFORM AND SECTION

THIS SURFACE SHAPED


TO BE FLUSH WITH FOIL "d" HYDROFOIL "c" ORDINATES

2.0' STRUT Y/C Y/C


X/C
0.376' TOP BOTTOM

0.0 0.0 -.0


0.0125 0.00568 -.00294
2 0' LEADING
0.05 0.01258 -.00416
EDGE 0.075 0.01585 -.00437
UPPER
0.10 0.01 861 -.00445
SURFACE
0.15 0.02316 -.00440
0.20 0.02677 -.00433
0.500' --- 0.30 0.03199 -.00413
0.40 0.03500 -.00402
0.50 0.03599 -.00401
X FOIL REFERENCE 0.60 0.03494 -.00396
LINE 0.70 0.03150 -.00364
0.80 0.02521 -.00277
SECTION OF WING 0.90 0.01547 -.00131
EXTENDED TO STRUT
0.95 0.00892 -.00050
CENTERLI NE
1.00 0.00040 -.00040

FIGURE 7 - FOIL "c" PLANFORM AND SECTION

2.0' --\
HYDROFOIL "d" ORDINATES
LEADING EDGE
Y/C Y/C
X/C
TOP BOTTOM

0.0 0.0 -.0


4.600' 0.0125 0.00682 -.001 79
0.050 0.01 629 -.00044
0.075 0.021 00 -.00078
0.10 0.02506 -.00200
0.15 0.03186 -.00430
SUR FACE 0.20 0.03736 -.00626
0.30 0.04537 -.00925
0.40 0.04999 -.01097
STRUT 0.50 0.05152 -.01152
1 .21 5'
0.60 0.04993 -.01103
11-IIS SURFACE SHAPED TO 0.70 0.04488 -.00974
BE FLUSH WITH STRUT 0.80 0.03580 -.00782
Y 0.90 0.02192 -.00514
0.95 0.01264 -.00321
Nor-
FOIL REFERENCE 1.00 0.00040 -.00040
LI NE
C

SECTION d-d

FIGURE 8 - FOIL "d" PLAN FORM AND SECTION

8
2.0'---\ THIS SURFACE SHAPED
TO BE FLUSH WITH STRUT
HYDROFOIL "e" ORDINATES
Y/C Y/C
X/C
TOP BOTTOM
e
I 58°
0.0 0.0
0.0125 0.00682 -.00179
6.040' 0.050 0.01629 -.00044
LEADING AT MID-CHORD 0.075 0.02100 -.00078
EDGE 0.10 0.02506 -.00200
0.15 0.03186 -.00430
0.20 0.03736 -.00626
UPPER
0.30 0.04537 -.00925
0.40 0.04999 -.01097
SURFACE 0.50 0.05152 -.01152
32°
0.60 0.04993 -.01103
0.70 0.04488 -.00974
0.80 0.03580 -.00782
0.880' 0.90 0.02192 -.00514
THIS SURFACE TO BE
FLUSH WITH STRUT 0.95 0.01264 -.00321
Y
1.00 0.00040 -.00040
FOIL REFERENCE
X
C
LINE

SECTION e-e

FIGURE 9 - FOIL "e" PLANFORM AND SECTION

LEADING EDGE CHINE OF SLED HULL


FOIL "e" AT TRAILING EDGE STRUT ORDINATES

X IN. Y IN.
0.0 0.101
0.278 0.194
0.557 0.260
FOILS "c", "d" AND "e" LEADING 0.835 0.309
EDGE AT STRUT TO COINCIDE WITH 1.111 0.350
STRUT LEADING EDGE 1.392 0.385
1.670 0.417
1.945 0.445
TRANSITION TO BEGIN 2.227 0.470
LEADING EDGES BELOW FOIL "d" AND END ABOVE 2.506 0.494
FOIL "c" AND "d" FOIL "b" 2.784 0.516
FOIL "b" TRAILING EDGE TO 3.897 0.588
COINCIDE WITH STRUT 5.011 0.644
1{CURVED
TRAILING EDGE 6.125 0.688
LEADING EDGE
7.238 0.722
FOIL "b"
NOTCHED SECTION ABOVE 8.352 0.749
SUPERCAVITATING FOIL "a" 9.465 0.770
FOR AID IN VENTILATION. 1 0.5 79 0.784
THICKNESS OF NOTCHED PORTION 11.693 0.794
LEADING EDGE TO BE 0.70" AT STRUT TRAILING 12.806 0.799
FOIL "a" EDGE, TAPERING LINEARLY TO 13.920 0.800
1.00" AT MID-CHORD AND REMAINING TO
- I AT THIS THICKNESS FORWARD OF THE 27.84 0.800
STRUT MID-CHORD.
FLOW Y SECTION
y A-A

X
0 rs B-B
Y
X
y SECTION C-C

FIGURE 10- STRUT PLANFORM AND SECTION

9
0 1 2 3
ill !IIII j
4 5 6 7 8 9
II
10 11 12
INCHES

FIGURE 11 - 1/24 SCALE MODEL OF HYDROFOIL SLED

PORT ELEVATION STARBOARD ELEVATION

3.23°

2.00°

FLOW
T <=1
ANGLES MEASURED FROM HORIZONTAL TO NOSE-TAIL LINE 4.66°

FIGURE 12- ATTACHMENT ANGLES OF 1/8 SLALE FOIL CONFIGURATION, AS TESTED

FOILS WATERLINE

A
a

FIGURE 13- HYDROFOIL SLED WATERLINE AND FOIL IDENTIFICATION

lo
6

\r7=
5 \\\\L DISPLACEMENT:
---- 27,000 POUNDS
\\\
\
40,000 POUNDS

\ \\i-\
E

DESIGN PREDICTION
\\
\lb

o A
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
BOAT SPEED-KNOTS
FIGURE 14 - FOIL SUBMERGENCE VERSUS SPEED - 1/8 SCALE TESTS
8000

6000 -_--L' 40 , 000 LB DISPLACEMENT

/
/ ' o
-- -- --,--2.:-.
DESIGN PREDICTION
/ e OF REFERENCE (2)

4000 i e I I
0 27,000 LB DISPLACEMENT

i//
//,-N
- --- .-------DESIGN PREDICTIÓN
OF REFERENCE (2)
//
2000
//
//
//

i 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 1 60


BOAT SPEED , KNOTS
FIGURE 15 - SLED FOIL-BORNE RESISTANCE VERSUS SPEED, 1/8 SCALE TESTS

PLANAR MOTION MECHANISM


VARIABLE AMPLITUDE
VARIABLE FREOUENCY

VARIABLE
R

DRAG FORCEELUCTANCE

TRANSDUCER
---
SPRING WAVEMAKER
- -----
FLEXURE (REMOVABLE) 96" LONG TOWLINE

FIGURE 16- TOWLINE MOUNTING OF SLED IN CHANNEL

11
4
2

o ** I ` "r
2
4
o 2 4 6 8 o 12 14 16
8
6
4
O
2
LÈ?'

-4
o 2 6 10 12 14 16
3

O BOW
0 STERN
CG
0 WAVE

VEL CPS

4400EL II 61 2.35
PRO TO 33.66 0.48
4
o 6 8 10 12 14 16
TIME -SECONDS

FIGURE 17 - TYPICAL WAVE DATA


4.0
SPEED-KNOTS
025 I PARTIALLY
0 34 ( HULL-BORNE
042
3.0 A50
V60
068
O
1

2.0 VERTICAL BOW ACCELERATIONS

\
\
1.0 \
41\ ,...
.......... V
--",-**-- A
'----- '' Air-
o

4 .0

VERTICAL BOW MOTIONS

3.0
%

O \
\
5 2.0
\
\\
\
1.0 \\
1"-

...._
"" 1-14*
V ,.. .___
A
0
0.2 04 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
FREQUENCY OF ENCOUNTER, CPS
FIGURE 18- NON-DIMENSIONAL VERTICAL RESPONSE AT BOW OF SLED IN WAVES

12
14

BOAT SPEED (KNOTS)

25 1 PARTIALLY
0 34 1 HULL-BORNE
12 O42
A50
60
12 68

10

CHARACTERISTIC WAVE HEIGHT


(1/10 HIGHEST WAVES)

40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320


CHARACTERISTIC WAVE LENGTH, FEET
1.+ 1.6.1 I

SEA STATE 1 SEA STATE 2 SEA STATE 3 SEA STATE 4

FIGURE 19 - HEAVE OF BOW IN HEAD SEAS

SPEED (KNOTS)
25 I PARTIALLY
ID 34 J HULL-BORNE
4 42
L\ 50
7 60
68

o
O
o
40 80 120 160 200 240 280
CHARACTERISTIC WAVE LENGTH, FEET

SEA STATE 1 SEA STATE 2 SEA STATE 3 SEA STATE 4

FIGURE 20 - ACCELERATIONS AT BOW IN HEAD SEAS

1 7,
No. 61355

ADEQUATE STRENGTH FOR SMALL HIGH SPEED VESSELS


by

PHILIP J. DANAHY
U. S. Coast Guard Headquarters
Washington, D. C.

Paper No.
67-355

AIAA/SNAME Advance marine


vows meeting
NORFOLK, VIRGINIA/MAY 22-24, 1967
First publication rights reserved by American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1290 Avenue of the Americas, New York, N. Y. 10019
and Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, 74 Trinity Place, New York, N. Y. 10006
Abstracts may be published without permission if credit is given to author and to AIAA/SNAME. (Member Price-75c; Nonmember Price-61.50)

6.14
ADEQUATE STRENGTH FOR SMALL HIGH SPEED VESSELS

by LCDR Philip J. Danahy, USCG


Merchant Marine Technical Division
U. S. Coast Guard Headquarters
Washington, D. C.

Abstract This method is detailed in part II. The method


includes three parts, impact loads, safety factor,
This paper presents a method for the determination and stress analysis, and must be used together as
of the critical minimum scantlings for small high written rather than lifting any one part considered
speed vessels. Particular attention is given to the favorable to the designer.
shell plating strength for hydrodynamic impact loads.
The suggested method uses an integrated approach It has been interesting to observe the variety
involving assumed loads, suggested safety factors, of approaches used in arriving at shell plating
and preferred stress analysis method. The stress requirements. No two designs have used the same
analysis uses plastic theory based partly on the values for safety factor or assumed loads, nor the
works of J. Clarkson and Thein Wah. Included in the same method of stress analysis and yet the result-
paper is a comparison of the relative structural ing shell strengths have frequently been comparable
strength of several commercial, military, and experi- as will be seen in the comparisons of part III.
mental hydrofoil vessels along with a few planing One side observation is that where extensive calcu-
boats and a seaplane hull. This shows the variation lations have been performed there is the application
of existing vessel structures and compares them to of a very low safety factor. This is understandable
the results obtained by the suggested method. Most since a safety factor is generally an ignorance
commercial, military and recreational vessels exceed factor and to a certain extent the designer is pro-
the minimum scantlings of the suggested method. The fessing greater knowledge by the application of a
most significant deviation is the hull of the sea- lower safety factor.
plane.
The basic assumptions in this paper are that any
I. Introduction marine vehicle must be able to experience contact
with the water at full speed and survive, and that
With the development of high speed marine vessels this contact or impact will occur at the worst
for commercial use there has been an increased possible orientation of the craft relative to water.
quantity of engineering investiFation involved per
ship. High speed vessels tend to be weight critical The complete nature of hydrodynamic impact is not
and strength can represent weight. It becomes fully defined. Data is available on slow speed
obvious that the designer of a high speed vessel impact caused by slamming, on space capsule impact,
desires to engineer out all unnecessary strength. and on seaplane impact. There are many papers
As speeds increase some loads will likewise increase, evaluating total forces, accelerations, and moments,
but there is a redeeming point in that the control- but relatively few with a detailed analysis of
linF desipn loads tend to become more apparent,. For pressures developed and actual local strains
example, a hydrofoil supported vessel need not con- experienced by the shell platinp and stiffeners.
sider wave supported hull bendinp since the control- Theoretical studies only consider the twn dimen-
ling bending condition will occur while the vessel sional problem. The abundant technical literature
is supported in the foilborne mode (much more severe covering such items as water impact loads allows
than the typical L/20 trochoidal wave support). setting criteria over a fairly wide range of values
while basing such criteria on published information.
In the past the naval architect has had available There will be disagreement with the suggestions
the scantlings of other vessels that had operated made in this paper and, hopefully, there will be
successfully under nearly the same conditions about as many who feel it to be too liberal as feel
required for his prospective design. Such infor- it to be too conservative.
mation in organized form is either totally lacking
or at least quite rare for the designer of high
speed marine craft. As a result the designers of Some things can be said concerning hydrodynamic
commercial hiph speed vessels have relied upon a impact. It produces an impulse type of load peak-
variety of methods to arrive at the scantlings for ing locally to very high pressure levels (several
their design. With the increasing efforts to fill times stagnation pressure), in a very short time
the gap in the transportation spectrum which separ- (in a matter of milliseconds) and possibly revers-
ates the aviation industry and the marine industry, ing itself. This peak pressure may move outwards
there are increasing requirements for merging the from the initial impact point somewhat like a
knowledge, capabilities, and methods of both. pressure front decaying exponentially with time at
any particular point on the vessel. The highest
Conventional hull design does not generally con- peak pressure may not occur at the point of initial
sider local strength a controlling condition. Deck impact, but for 'V' shaped hulls it may actually
loads and slamming loads are investiFated and check- develop at the chine rather than the heel. If the
ed, but these are secondary considerations. At high hull is concave between the keel and chine the max-
speeds the local loads created by wave impact become imum peak pressure will most likely occur at the
significant. In fact for vessels such as hydrofoils chine. When air is entrapped in the impact area,
one controlling strength condition has been wave such as with flat bottom slamming, the effect is to
impact. The primary purpose of this paper is to reduce the peak pressure, but increase the duration
present a method for arriving at adequate scantlings of pressure build up and decay. There is evidence
for a wide variety of high speed marine vessels, pay- that during a single impact there can be several
ing particular attention to hull bottom plating. significant load cycles alternating in direction

1
and decreasing in magnitude by an exponential HYDROFOIL VESSELS
function. This can be more complex for the plate
50
panel as it will have its own natural frequency out
of phase with the fluctuating impact pressures.
Another complicating factor is the carryover or 40
transfer, through the hull structure, of elastic
response at various and changing areas of impact 30
(i.e. strain waves within the structure).
20
The smaller we make the local component of
vessel structure, such as plate panel, the more
important becomes the magnitude of peak pressure O 10
and the determination of the impulse value. This
is to say that what can be approximated as a point 0
load on a 100" beam approaches a uniform load on a STERN MIDHIPS BOW
1" beam. There are arguments presented (19) for
ignoring peak pressures because of their short
duration and yet this impulse creates strain waves DESIGN PRESSURE LOADING
in the structure that must surely influence fatigue vs.
life. Gun manufacturers do not ignore peak pressures HULL STATION
although here too the duration is short. Similarly
shock waves caused by that pipefitters nightmare, FIGURE 1
waterhammer, may be sufficient to rupture pipes
despite the short duration of a strain wave travel-
ing at the speed of sound in the material. No
suggestions are offered on how to appropriately
account for peak pressures. If 100-150 knot
commercial marine vessels are to be constructed with Bottom Plating
safety and economy, peak pressures must surely be
considered and properly handled in the structural In arriving at suitable bottom plating the
analysis. expected or design pressure loads must first be
determined. Figure I may be used to determine the
design pressure load at the appropriate hull
station for the particular full speed condition.
II. Scantlings for High Speed Vessels This may also be calculated from the formula

Object P = KV2
100
The object is to present a quick and easy method
for determining hull scantlings on high speed where: P is in pounds per square inch
vessels which allows light weight construction and V is speed in knots -
adequate safety. This method is not applicable to K is selected from the appropriate curve in
vessels incapable of speeds over 30 knots. figure 2

'K' FACTORS vs. HULL STATIONS


FOR SELECTED VESSEL TYPES
P = 0.01 K V2

FICURE 2

HYDROFOIL VESSELS
2.0 PLANING BOATS
' A - Full speed less than 3X takeoff
B - Full speed less than 5X takeoff
but, greater than 3X takeoff

1.5

1.0

P. 3
0.5

STERN 6 2 BOW STERN 2i BOW

2
YIELD STRENGTH c 50 60 70 THOUSANDS
15 20 25 30 35 45 55

6061 T6 Yy=35,000pst

Aluminum Alloys
(E= 10.3 X lOps)
20

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 8090 IOD 120 40


\ I

PLATE SPAN TO THICKNESS RATIO b/li


FIGURE 3

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
I I I I I I I I I I I I

.6

.5
13y115
4
P= I.735()
b E"

.3

u.1
a. .2

.1

Y FIGURE 4

3
Figure 3 may be used to determine the plate thickness required section modulus for longitudinals:
and stiffener spacing for any particular aluminum
alloy used for plating. P b 12
12 S
Figure 4 is the general case from which figure 3
has been calculated for all2ys with a modulus of where: Z = required section modulus
elasticity, E, of 10.3 x 10° psi. It is appreci- P = expected pressure load
ated that the actual value of E for aluminum alloys S = yield strength 4 1.5 safety factor, or
varies slightly above and below this, but other ultimate strength 4 2.0, whichever is
variations in material properties and workmanship less
will exceed any effect the variation in E will have. b = spacing of longitudinals
For other materials with appreciably different E 1 = spacing of frames, length of longitud-
values the designer should use the general case, inal
figure 4. The formula approximating this curve is:
The transverse frames may be treated similarly.

Hull Side Plating


1.735(1.7 y1.15
P
In determining the scantlings of the side plat-
.15
E ing the pressure load should be taken as 300 PSF at
the weather deck and this should be increased
linearly to the chine by the hydrostatic head. See
where: P = pressure
figure 5. If this results in a pressure load at
h = plating thickness
the chine less than 50% of the expected pressure
b = plate panel span, or stiffener spacing
load on the bottom a further adjustment is required.
Y = yield strength of plate
The pressure on the sideplating at the chine should
E = Young's modulus for plate
be taken at 50% of the bottom plating pressure and
reduced linearly to intersect the load curve in
This general curve is from the work of Clarkson
figure 5 at the displacement full load waterline,
(12,13) at initial yield condition of flat plate.
inclined 15°.
NOTE: Figures 1 and 3 must be used in conjunction
with each other. To use one and not the other is Miscellaneous loads
to take the method out of context.
Weather deck forward of midships 600 PSF
Weather deck aft of midships 300 PSF
Longitudinal Stiffeners and Transverse Frames Superstructure front 750 PSF
Superstructure sides 300 PSF
The strength of longitudinal stiffeners and Superstructure top 150 PSF
transverse frames can be handled with conventional
beam theory. The average expected pressure load Other considerations
operating on the longitudinal can be taken from
figure 1. Apply this load to the fixed ended beam In the realm of high speed vessel design there
formula using a safety factor of 1.5 on yield or is always some new arrangement that may require
2.0 on ultimate, whichever gives the lowest stress special consideration by the designer. Obviously
level. This results in the following formula for unusual designs presenting special problems require

Bottom pressure
2

DISTRIBUTION OF
HULL SECTION SIDE PRESSURE LOAD

FIGURE 5

4
special consideration. "W" shaped hulls are apt to
develop considerably higher hydrodynamic loads at .8
the midpoint of the "W", and yet air entrapment may
soften this. The cushioning effect of fan generated
cushion craft presents some advantage that can be 7
credited in arriving at the scantlings. In figure 2
a modifying Kc may be used to reduce the K when .6
solving for expected pressure loads on these vessels.

Considerations for such things as fatigue life


have not been mentioned. Fatigue is particularly
important in high speed planing hulls because of o
the high frequency of high speed hydrodynamic
impact. Planing boats are well handled in the .3
paper by Heller and Jasper (2). The Kp for planing
boats in figure 2 is similar to that used by Heller .2
and Jasper, but in the development of K all values
have been doubled to allow simplifying the denomin-
.1
ator in the equation for P.
.0
There are obviously additional considerations in
100 20' 300 40°
arriving at suitable hull scantlings. The designer
must provide for hull penetrations such as sea
Deadrise Angle $
chests, internal foundations for machinery, external
foundations to support appendages to name a few
Cosine 6 vs. B
special design areas/ Selection of suitable mater-
for various buttocks angles e
ials, fastening systems and assembly methods will
require further decisions influencing strength.
FIGURE 6
Such items would be suitable for an extensive paper
dnthe practical considerations of vessel design
and Construction.
for what seemed to be considerably varying hull
shapes. A further look at the hulls revealed that
the significant difference in their lines was
III. Background and Comparisons primarily due to different deadrise angles, $ . Since
figure 6 shows how little influence a has upon cos 6
In an effort to evaluate the possible influence it's easy to see why the results were so close for
hull shape could have on impact it was necessary to many shapes.
know the angle 6. This is the angle between the
vector normal to the shell plating and the longi-
tudinal axis of the vessel. Vessel velocity multi-
plied by cosine 6 then represents the component of Figure 7 represents a typical 'V' shaped hull and
velocity perpendicular to the shell plating. Using shows the distribution of cos 6 along the length of
the two most readily determined shape parameters, the vessel for a buttocks line near the centerline.
deadrise angle and buttocks angle, the following To cover the entire bottom plating completely there
formula yields the desired cosine 6: should be a family of cos 6 curves representing all
buttocks lines. The cos 6 curve is naturally similar
cos 6 tan 8/Vtan48 + tan 2$ + I The cos 6 curve is naturally similar in shape to the
buttocks line and when we consider the cos 6 curve
where: e buttócks angle (angle between hori- for the buttocks line near the chine the resultant
zontal and tangent to the buttocks or effective cos 6 curve would be less concave and
line) the hollow would be filled somewhat by the effect of
$ = deadrise angle the outboard hull shape being similar but further
6 = angle between vessel longitudinal aft. For clarity of illustration the family of cos
axis and vector normal to shell. 6 curves is not included.

Figure 6 is a plot of cos 6 vs. $ for various Full speed hydrodynamic impact is unlikely to be
values of e . This points out the importance of 8 intentional, but rather the result of an unexpected
and the relative unimportance of a insofar as impact occurrence such as an operational casualty. There-
pressures are concerned. However, the value of a fore a pessimistic view is taken and it is assumed
will influence total impact forces. Although that the vessel takes on the worst possible attitude
increasing e will not appreciably reduce impact with respect to the water just prior to impact.
pressures it will reduce the amount of area immedi- Table 1 is a listing of some possibilities and their
ately involved and thereby reduce acceleration potential effect upon the apparent deadrise angle
forces and moments. and buttocks angle. If these are then used to adjust
the actual cos 6 the possible cos 6 becomes appreci-
Using figure 6 and the e and e values from the ably larger. This is shown on figure 7. It should
lines drawings of several hydrofoil vessels and plan- be noted that one significant possibility does not
ing hulls, a comparison was made with the view show in table 1 and that is the effect of vessel yaw.
toward developing a shape factor. This shape factor Although it was felt that this was minor and (8)
would modify stagnation pressure and produce an unnecessary to add to all else, the Edo Corp.
assumed hydrodynamic impact load. The comparison indicates that for model tests with a seaplane hydro-
included plotting cos 6 vs. hull station for several foil in 10° yaw there could be as much as a 25%
hulls. The result was surprisingly similar curves increase in impact forces.

5
POSSIBLE ADVERSE EFFECTS

ADVERSE EXPECTED NORmAL


ITEM ACTION MAGNITUDE

1. Vessel heel reduce up to 20°

2. Vessel trim increase e up to 6°

3. Wave slope decrease approx. 6°

4. Wave slope increase e approx. 6°

5. Vessel drop velocity decrease S approx. 5°

6. Vessel drop velocity increase e approx. 5°

7. Vessel drop velocity increase V approx. 5 F.P.S.

8. Wave Orbital Velocity increase e 15% of wave velocity

9. Wave Orbital Velocity decrease is 15% of wave velocity

10. Wave velocity increase 13.5 knots for 5' wave


velocity 10.5 knots for 3' wave

Potential reduction of B from #1 200 Potential increase of e from #2 6°

from #3 6° from #4 6°

from #5 5° from #6 5°

Potential total reduction of S 31° Potential total increase of 0 17°

TABLE 1

Cos 6 acts upon the velocity and the effect of Table 2 is self explanatory and may be useful to
velocity is proportional to the square so co82 6 is the designer who wishes to see what actually has
also plotted on figure 7. Remember that this cos2 been used or proposed in the past. Because of the
6 curve is only one of a family of such curves with uncertainties involved many of the vessels' speeds
the others tending to fill in the concave curve area sometime in the future while in other cases the
forward of midships. The K factors shown in figure operating vessel did not obtain the expected speed.
2 evolved primarily from this cos2 6 factor. The The planing boats are not as weight critical as
formula for stagnation pressure is approximately: hydrofoil vessels and the designers of racing plan-
ing boats are more concerned with maintaining bottom
P = V2 shell rigidity than in conserving weight. Neverthe-
52 less planing boats are included for their comparative
value.
where: P = stagnation pressure, psi
V = velocity in knots

For simplicity it was decided to double any factor Figures 8 through 14 were drawn up to show at a
acting on stagnation pressure to allow rounding off glance the relative strengths of the designs listed
the denominator to 100. Thus 2 cos2 6 at the forward in table 2. The curves in figures 8 - 14 were
perpendicular becomes approximately 1.5 which was the arrived at by applying the plating span to thickness
value finally accepted. However, 2 cos2 6 at the ratio from table 2 to the figure 3 for the appropri-
after perpendicular is less than .2 and this would ate alloy yield strength. Although other methods
mean such a large deviation from what was actually would allow a comparison of the relative strengths
being used in commercial designs that it could not be this approach also allows a ready comparison with
accepted. There is considerable basis for not accept- the criteria outlined in part II. The minimum
ing such a low value for the after bottom plating. A requirement of part II is plotted as a dashed line
check of possible bottom loads during takeoff and in the graphs of figures 8 - 14. One factor that is
during semifoilborne/planing operations at higher not reflected In figures 8 - 14 is theas welded"
speeds called for greater strength. Finally a com- strength of the shell plating. In several designs
promise was reached in which an arbitrary straight the'as welded'strength actually controls and would
line K factor was arrived at which became modified make the design appear much less conservative than
as the differential between full speed and takeoff in the figures. Frequently the weld and the heat
speed assured that full speed impact vas to be the affected zone can be located in a low stress region,
controlling condition throughout the hull bottom. but that is another problem.

6
100

40 KNCT HYDROFOILS

80

60

40

STERN MIDSHIPS BOW


20
Curve 'A' represents a typical cos 6 curve
at the 2' buttock

Curve 'B' is a typical possible cos 6 curve


(curve 'A' corrected to consider the effects
of table 1) STERN MIDSHIPS BOW

Curve 'C' is the square of curve 'B' --- i.e. Relative Strength
cos2 .of Bottom Plating

Curve 'D' represents the basic K factor for FIGURE 8


shape

FIGURE 7

80 KNOT HYDROFOIL (+)

100 100

40 KNOT HYDROFOILS
E

80 80

60 60
'*/

40 0 /
40 ct,

STEP
X
_ _ /
20 20
wz - - 70 KNOT'
SEAPLANE

STERN MIDSHIPS BOW STERN MIDSHIPS BOW

Relative Strength Relative Strength


of Bottom Plating of Bottom Plating

FIGURE 9 FIGURE 10

7
30

0 KNOT HYDROFOIL
180L 20

50 KNOT HYDROFOIL
30 KNOT HYDROFOIL
10

70 KNOT HYDROFOIL
60. O
STERN MIDSHIPS BOW

Relative Strength
40. of Bottom Plating

11(011' FIGURE 12
- - - --
4
-5°-
50 KNOT

TERN MIDSHIPS BOW

Relative Strength
of Bottom Plating

FIGURE 11 120
Planing boats
50 (+) Knots

100
100

Planing boats
80
30 (+) knots

60
Q.

o 20 knt displacement ship


o

20 20

STERN MIDSHIPS 2i BOW STERN MIDSHIPS BOW

Relative Strength Pelative Strength


of Bottom Plating of Bottom Plating

FIGURE 13 FIGURE 14

8
Shell Bottom Plating

Approx. Strength Thickness Span b


Design Vessel Speed Alloy Yield Ultimate h (inches) (inches)

A Hydrofoil 30 K 5086-H32 28000 40000 3/16 10

Hydrofoil 35 K 5083 ? 25000 40000 5/32 11-13/16

Hydrofoil 40 K 5086 ? 34000 44000 .138 Fwd 11-13/16


.197 Aft

Hydrofoil 40 K 5456-H321 33000 46000 3/16 8

E Hydrofoil 40 K 5086-H34 34000 44000 1/4 7


3/16

Hydrofoil 40 K(+) 5083-H113 31000 44000 3/16 Bow 6


24000 40000 5/32 Aft 3/4L 6

Hydrofoil 40 K 5456 ? 22000 .5 Bow 9-10


.313 Fwd 1/4L
.25 Aft 3/4L

Hydrofoil 40 K 5456-11311 25000 42000 .2 8

Hydrofoil 45 K 5083-1132 34000 45000 .09 Bow 3-3/4


Midships 4-1/2
Stern 7

Hydrofoil 50 K 7039-T6 55000 65000 1/4 Bow 6


8
Stern 10

Hydrofoil 50 K 5456-11343 41000 53000 1/4 20

Hydrofoil 70 K 5456-1134 41000 53000 .188 Bow 9


.156 6

N Hydrofoil 80 K 5456-11321 33000 46000 .313 7-1/2


.1
N Seaplane 70 K Alclad 57000 64000 .05 Bow 6-7 1/2
2014-T6 .03 6

0 Planing 30 K 5033-0 18000 40000 3/8 13

P Planing 30 K 5456-1132 36000 43000 1/4 7

Q Planing 50 K 5456-11321 33000 46000 3/16 Bow 11


1/4

Planing 60 K 5086-1132 28000 40000 1/4 8

S Planing 50 K 5456-11321 33000 46000 5/16 7

TABLE 2

In the paper by Beason and Buckle (11) a method


The most significant deviation from the minimum is outlined for arriving at scantlings for hydrofoil
requirements of part II is represented by design N, vessels up to 40 knots. Figure 15 compares their
a seaplane. It should be pointed out that the sea- results for shell bottom plating with the results
plane is designed to operate well away from the using part II of this paper. The hypothetical
hostile surface of the water and only a closely con- vessel is assumed to have a full speed of 40 knots,
trolled landing condition is anticipated. Part II a take-off speed of 20 knots and the shell plating
assumes an accidental landing or impact at full is an aluminum alloy with a yield strength of 30,000
speed in the most adverse attitude most reasonable psi. The results show that the method of part II is
to develop. A high speed marine vessel is continu- more conservative for the bow area and somewhat more
ally within immediate reach of the surface allowing liberal throughout the remainder of the bottom plat-
the operator insufficient time to take effective ing. Despite this the two methods are in much closer
corrective action. agreement than are actual designs.

9
"The Design and Model Testing of A Small Single
Hydrofoil Installation for the HU-16 Airplane",
Edo Corp. Report 7016, 7 Feb. 1966, AD-478 997
80
"Sea Tests of the USCGC UNIMAK - Slaming
Pressures, Strains, Etc.", by Joshua E. Greenspon
DTMB Report 978, March 1956

60 10. "Two-Dimensional Experiments on the Effect of


Hull Form on Hydrodynamic Impact" by Margaret
Ochi and Frank M. Schwartz, DTMB Report 1994,
May 1966

40 11. "Hydrofoil Vessels", by C. Beason and A. K. Buckle


Lloyd's Register of Shipping, Paper #1, Session
1965-66

20

Plastic Theory & Experiments

12. "A New Approach to the Design of Plates to With-


stand Lateral Pressure" by J. Clarkson, Quarterly
STERN HULL STATIONS BOW Transactions INA, Oct. 1956

Comparison of Bottom "The Strength of Approximately Flat Long Rectang-


Platinp Requirements ular Plates Under Lateral Pressure", by J. Clark-
son, Transactions, N. E. Coast Inst. of Eng. &
FIGURE 15 Shipbuilders, Vol. 74, Nov. 1957

"Investigation of Stiffened Steel Plates", by


Thein Wah Southwest Research Institute, 9 April
The method in part II should be considered as
1966, AD 631 632
giving the minimum acceptable strength requirements
and other considerations may require additional "Elastic-Plastic Evaluation for Rectangular
strength, i.e. areas around strut foundations, Aluminum Plates and Stiffened Steel Plates", by
machinery foundations, hull penetrations, etc. Thein Wah, Southwest Research Institute, 17
January 1966, AD 481 189

"Small Scale Grillage Tests", by J. Clarkson


Naval Construction Research Establishment, Feb.
BIBLICGRAPHY 1966, AD 634 227

Water Impact Loads "Response of Rigid Viscoplastic Circular and


Square Plates to Dynamical Loading", by Tomasz
"On the Structural Design of Planing Craft" by Wierzbicki, Stanford University Tech. Report
S. R. Heller, Jr. and N. H. Jasper, Transactions 162, April 1966, AD 483 729
RINA, 1960
"Plasticity", by B. Venkatraman, Polytechnic
"Hydrofoil Boat Hull - Wave Impact Loads" by Inst. of Brooklyn Report PIBAL 916, April 1966,
W. R. Jensen Grumman Aircraft Engineering Corp. AD 635 096
Report GE-173 Also: AS ME Paper 60 -WA -326
"Plastic Analysis of Structures", by Philip G.
"Structural Load Criteria for Hydrofoil Ships" Hodge, Jr., McGraw-Hill 1959
by Don L. Stevens, Jr., Joseph P. Banks, and
Eugene L. Aronne

"Hull Wave Impact Load on High Speed Marine NOTE : For those readers familiar with the Defense
Craft" by Young H. Chey,May, 1965, DTMB Report Documentation Center and the Clearinghouse for
1072, AD 469 862 Federal Scientific and Technical Information,
the AD numbers are listed where known.
"Experimental Investigation of Rigid Flat
Bottom Body Slaming" by Shang - Lun - Chuang, ALS 0: There are numerous other pertinent references,
Sept 1965, DTMB Structural Mechanics Lab, R & D including many NACA Reports. These have been
Report 2041 omitted from this list since they are referred
to repeatedly within the above references, and
"Water Impact of the Mercury Capsule. Corre- additional listing seemed redundant.
lation of Analysis with NASA Tests" by J. D.
Rosenbaum and W. R. Jensen, Grumman Aircraft
Eng. Corp. Report ADN -02 -08-62.1
The views expressed in this paper are those of
"Hydrofoil Ship Structural Design Criteria
the author and do not necessarily represent the
Study", Martin Co., Baltimore, Md., Feb 1965,
official view of the U. S. Coast Guard.
NObs-4791

10
No. 61356

ADVANCED CONCEPTS IN OCEAN TRANSPORT CAPABILITY:


THE CONTAINER/BARGE QUANDARY
by

ROY R. MOFFETT
U. S. Maritime Administration
Washington, D. C.

Paper No.
67-356

AIAA/SNAME Advance marine


volumes meeting
NORFOLK, VIRGINIA/MAY 22-24, 1967
First publication rights reserved by American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1290 Avenue of the Americas, New York, N. Y. 10019
and Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, 74 Trinity Place, New York, N. Y. 10006
Abstracts may be published without permission if credit is given to author and to AIAA/SNAME. (Member Price-75c; Nonmember Price$1.50)

1.08
ADVANCED CONCEPTS IN OCEAN TRANSPORT CAPABILITY:
THE CONTAINER/BARGE QUANDARY

Roy R. Moffett
Division of Ship Design
Office of Ship Construction
U.S. Maritime Administration
The thoughts expressed herein are those of the Author, and do not necessarily
represent the views of Maritime Administration.

Abstract veloped to solve the difficult problems associated


with cargo mix, marks, imbalance and the multi-
Using a simulated voyage technique, two new sys- port itinerary; all of which makes the decision to
tems concepts in ocean transportation are evaluated invest in new ship construction extremely compli-
and compared on their effectiveness in the handling cated.
of a specific general cargo trade. Both the con- Presuppose that due to the threat of competition,
tainership and barge carrying vessel are loaded a shipping company decides that its best interests
on paper with actual shiploads of cargo as carried lie in building ships utilizing advanced concepts.
on recent voyages and the resulting problems dis- The following comparison of two advanced con-
cussed. To insure that a singular cargo booking cepts, the containership and the barge carrying
would not bias the analysis, six consecutive voyages ship, will help to determine if one is superior, and,
covering the time period between March 1965 and if not, under what conditions would it be advisable
May 1966 are evaluated. Difficulties associated to employ either concept. The distinguishing fea-
with port to port cargo imbalance, the shutting out ture of these two concepts when compared to tra-
of cargo due to incompatibility with the unitized ditional cargo handling is that the cargoes are loaded
concept and ship space utilization are investigated. and discharged in large units rather than piece-
Advantages and disadvantages of the two systems meal. Containerships are designed to carry several
are developed in both present and future time hundred units of a size that can be accommodated
frames. Conclusions favor the barge concept by the trucking and rail industry whereas the barge
under present conditions but concede greater long carrying vessel utilizes far fewer units but of much
range potential for containerization. greater size.
The following is divided into two major cate-
Introduction gories; The Concept Analysis and The Operations
American steamship operators, concerned with Analysis.
the necessity of replacing an aging merchant fleet, Concept Analysis: A general discussion and
must now make more difficult decisions than ever comparison of the relative advantages and disad-
before. They must decide whether to invest large vantages of the two systems.
sums to develop new systems for handling unitized
cargo or to remain with the general cargo ship Operations Analysis: A determination of the
utilizing existing facilities. It is true at this suitability of each system to effectively cope with
writing that advanced concepts such as containeri- the general cargo situation as it presently exists
zation have not yet been fully proven in foreign on an essential United States foreign trade route,
trade, but if they are found to be successful, the
construction of a new fleet of break bulk ships, that Concept Analysis
could quickly become obsolete, may lead to finan- The ordinary break bulk freight ship is a most
cial disaster. Experience has indicated that there flexible vehicle for the carriage of general cargo
is no concensus among steamship operators as to and the methods of handling this general cargo are
the design criteria that are optimum for handling known and accepted everywhere. The advent of
general cargo. Important considerations such as advanced concepts such as the container and barge
size and number of hatches per hold, type of cargo systems adds a new dimension to the art of cargo
gear, speed, and cubic cannot be agreed upon even handling. Will these new systems be compatible!
among operators serving the same ports and carry- with existing practices and facilities? Will they
ing similar cargoes. The major point is that cargo be able to satisfy all the various elements and
handling is not a science, formulae cannot be de- vested interests that make up the shipping com-
.
munity? These and many other pertinent questions ments that must be carried to assure good custo-
must be answered before an operator can make a mer relations. A container ship operator might
final choice of the type of advanced system best be able to afford the luxury of carrying one ton of
suited for his trade. This Concept Analysis will cargo in a container to satisfy a very important
compare the two concepts in terms of flexibility, shipper but the barge operator cannot possibly be
inland transport systems, barge/container in- so generous as to utilize a whole barge to carry
ventory, cargo imbalance, labor, terminal require- that one ton. Because of their small size, the
ments, use as a military auxiliary, delays, trans- container will have greater utilization for door-to-
shipments, cargo losses, capital investment and door shipments, although there are obstacles pres-
tramp competition. ently impeding growth in full shipper to consignee
container movements.
Flexibility
Inland Transport System
To be considered as flexible, a ship must have
the ability to effectively handle commodities of vari- An important consideration is the determination
ous physical characteristics and cargo shipments of how the advanced concepts fit into the inland
of varying lot sizes stowed within the ship with transportation system, both in the United States and
suitable access to enable their direct discharge abroad. It can be generalized that each of the two
without removal of overstowed cargo. modes has its own area of maximum efficiency; i.e.,
containers, carried on road or rail, in handling
Physical Characteristics: General cargo can door-to-door packaged freight and barges econom-
consist of anything grown, mined br manufactured. ically carrying huge quantities of bulk grain, ore
It is not unusual for a vessel to carry such diverse and oil.
commodities as sheet steel, canned goods, tractors Foreign inland transportation systems offer a di-
and glassware on the same voyage. The physical rect contrast to that on the domestic scene. Cargo
characteristics of the cargo can lead to difficulties is transported to and from the ship by rail, small
for containerships and barge carriers as the follow- trucks, oxcart, sampans, go-downs, junks, family
ing example indicates. barges, long boats and on the heads and backs of
An important export from the United States is the local population. North Europe is the only area
sheet steel which occupies approximately ten cubic that can presently handle containers inland in quan-
feet per ton. A standard twenty foot, twenty ton tity and even there, there are great problems due
container, would utilize only seventeen percent of to inadequate roads, low bridges, narrow streets,
its cubic in carrying its maximum weight load, etc., that are hindering container operations and
while the barge is only slightly better at twenty giving some Europeans second thoughts about the
percent. The standard four foot deep, open-top future of containerization. Barges are a most
tray can be used, but in most instances it would important mode of freight transport in North Europe
have to make the return trip to the United States and would be more flexible and practical in almost
in an empty condition, as there are few import all other areas of the world. Containers would
commodities physically suited to be carried in this almost have to be restricted to the port area in
type of container. Barges would be a great deal most of the lesser developed countries whereas
more flexible if cargoes other than the steel were barges can go anywhere that nine feet of water is
also destined for the same foreign port. A mixture available. The importance of this is that a barge
of sheet steel and lighter general cargo could be system could consolidate cargo at one port from a
loaded into barges optimizing both cube and weight. large geographical area that extended across bodies
However, this happy circumstance does not often of water such as the Mediterranean Sea, The con-
take place in actual practice. tainer system could not accomplish this as effi-
Barges enjoy the advantage that they can be loaded ciently and might require that the containership stop
in much the same fashion as the tween deck of a at many more ports which would increase turn-
general cargo ship. Because of their size, larger around time and decrease the overall economic
pieces that could not physically fit into containers attractiveness.
can be carried and special racks have been fabri- Without minimizing the importance of the do-
cated so that large shipments of autos can be han- mestic waterway system, which does a tremendous
dled with a minimum of lost space. The disad- volume in bulk cargoes, it must be conceded that
vantage of the containership is that it is limited containerized shipments of packaged goods can be
to carrying only those commodities that can fit into transported by truck and rail in the United States
a container unless special roll-on/roll-off provi- providing efficient and flexible door-to-door de-
sions are designed into the vessel. livery giving this mode a virtual monopoly in this
Lot Size: Individual cargo shipments vary in area. Further, to fully utilize a barge system,
size from a few cubic feet to whole box car and shippers may be forced to purchase additional ma-
barge loads, and the flexible vessel should be able terials handling equipment, build riverside docks
to accommodate shipments of these diverse di- and add stevedoring personnel to their payrolls.
mensions. Experience is indicating that most However, shippers and consignees located on or
shipments will have to be consolidated at pierside. near a river may find it extremely economical to
A problem develops when there are certain small utilize barges, especially for bulk and lower reve-
shipments and left-over tonnage from large ship- nue cargoes such as chemicals, fertilizers and pe-

2
troleum products. Of great importance to the ship- 3. Imbalance which occurs when containerizable
per is the fact that barges can act as floating ware- cargo moves in each direction, but the ports of
houses, greatly reducing overhead and space re- call are primarily for either loading or dis-
quirements. Also, it would be more economical charging and rarely for both. Containerships can
to towbarge several thousand tons of cargo dis- handle this situation by "deadheading" empties
charged at New Orleans destined for St. Louis, from port to port and "back-tracking" to pick
for an example, than to truck it in containers. up full containers. This, of course, greatly
It must be concluded, therefore, that barges and increases voyage time and expenses for termi-
containers have their most efficient application in nal storage of containers. Barge ships are not
different segments of the trade. Although they may much better off except that tugs could be em-
be complementary in this respect, the determina- ployed to shift empties so that the ship would.
tion must be made by the shipping company as to be relieved from that expensive nonproductive
which mode will perform most effectively in his task. Storage of empty barges would be less
trade area. expensive than storage of containers.
Barge/Container Inventory Labor
The proposed containerships of today are speci- In the movement of packaged freight, through
fying a capacity ranging between 800 and 1,200 shipments of containers would have maximum im-
containers while the two proposed barge ships are pact in reducing man-hours of cargo handling
carrying 38 and 61 barges prospectively. It can labor. The threat that this poses in loss of work
be easily concluded that it would be much less dif- opportunity together with labor jurisdictional prob-
ficult to keep abreast of the barge movements than lems naturally create difficulties requiring far-
the hundreds of containers. Containers being an sighted consideration by management, labor and
integral part of the tractor trailer system could government in their ultimate solution. From a
conceivably end up almost anywhere at great dis- near term view less difficulty may be experienced
tances from the major port whereas the much in establishing the barge system, as handling cargo
larger barges are fairly limited in their movement between ocean carrier and land transportation par-
and are less likely to disappear. The container- allels present systems.
ship operator will need a larger staff couplad with Operators of proposed containerships and barge
increased expenditures to provide for inventory carriers generally concede that their cargo han-
control and maintenance programs than will the dling costs will be high owing to stuffing and un-
barge ship operator. One steamship company with stuffing operations before the major units are loaded
a going container operation found, upon an investi- aboard the vessels; however, premium pay expenses
gation pertaining to containers that had mysterious- resulting from night, weekend and holiday work
ly disappeared in foreign ports, that some of the should be greatly reduced.
local population had "midnight requisitioned" them,
and had converted them into fairly comfortable Terminal Requirements
places of abode. Very few ports have existing available facilities
where a large container system can be put into im-
Cargo Imbalance mediate, effective operation. Compounding the
There are three types of cargo imbalance as problem is the fact that most containers will have to
follows: be stuffed and unstuffed at pierside due to the ex-
pected small number of door-to-door shipments.
Imbalance which occurs when cargo moves in. one Itis to be especially noted that in some foreign
direction with little or no cargo moving in the ports it may be necessary to containerize and de-
other direction. This requires that the addi- containerize cargoes while the containers are still
tional expense of handling empty containers or onboard the ship for some time to come. For
barges on the return voyage be borne by the efficient operation, then, the large scale container
operator. The container operation may be a system requires expansive marshalling space and
little more costly in this instance due to the adequate uncongested access routes to and from
greater number of empty units that have to be the pier area. The barge system, however, does
handled. not have to contend, to the same degree, with the
Imbalance which occurs when containerizable problems associated with antiquated port facilities,
cargoes move in one direction with a full load terminal congestion or inadequate rail and road
of noncontainerizable items moving in the op- accesses. Barges can be stuffed and unstuffed at
posite direction leaving no room to stow re- present break bulk terminals using truck mounted
turning empties. Containerships are at a great cranes, if necessary, and then be towed to a con-
disadvantage on a service where this situation venient marshalling area. As the barge ship can
occurs and can only shut out cargo or stuff load and discharge in the stream there are very
containers with incompatible cargoes. The barge few lock, tide, or draft limitations that could cause.
ship is better suited to handle this trade, as the difficulties or loss of time. It may also be possible
size of the barges allow for stowage of a great to reduce or eliminate expenses such as harbor
many commodities that are physically impossi- dues, towing and mooring services which may
ble to stow in a container. offset the cost of towing the barges.

3
Military Auxiliary very large loads of such commodities as coffee
and raw rubber which justifies transfer by lighter
Both the containership and barge carrier could sized vehicles. The rehandling of cargo is not only
serve as effective military auxiliaries if properly expensive because of stevedoring charges but de-
designed. There has been discussion within the lays often occur that prevent a ship from sailing
marine industry and among various elements of the on time. This process is made to order for the
military establishment as to which concept has the barge carrier whether receiving or discharging
greatest military potential. The containership transshipment cargo. A container operation would
could serve as an excellent supply ship to military be more costly unless there was direct transfer
bases that are connected to an adequate seaport between two containerships. Since transshipments
by a road capable of handling van container traffic. are almost always between ships of different ship-
The advantage of the container system over barges ping companies an effective pooling arrangement
in this instance is that the material gets out of the would have to be agreed upon for the interchange
port area and onto the military reservation with of containers.
a minimum of delay. Barges would necessarily be
confined to the harbor or river area and cargo Cargo Losses
would have to be discharged in break bulk fashion
and then transported to the military base. This, of A big selling point for containerization has been
course, increases the probability that the material that it would substantially reduce damage and pil-
may be lost, damaged, destroyed or stolen. The ferage of cargo resulting in greater utilization of
barge carrier would be excellent in primitive areas containers by shippers and decreased expenses in
where a beach head has been established or where insurance costs to the operators. Experience is
the only access through jungles to the base is by indicating that greater effort on the part of both
river. The barge carrier can discharge in the shipper and carrier is required before maximum
stream and barges could deliver materials any- benefits will be realized. It is almost certain that
where there was water access. A properly de- insurance claims resulting from damaged cargo can
signed containership for military use should carry be greatly reduced if special emphasis is placed
its own cargo gear, have a deep second deck and on the proper handling of containers, the proper
ramps to accommodate a large variety of military stowage of the cargo inside the containers and the
vehicles and weapons. The barge carrier should proper packaging of the cargo itself. Pilferage
also have its own cargo gear and preferably, a is automatically impeded as:
system of horizontal movement of barges rather The system can provide lar expedient move-
than cell stowage. This would enable the vessel ment of cargo to and from the terminal area;
to effectively handle the maximum number of mili- Cellular stowage prevents easy access to most
tary vehicles. containers;
High cargo handling rate reduces port time;
Delays and
Cargo is hidden in the container reducing
The maritime industry has always been harassed the opportunity for selective choosing of
by time consuming and therefore expensive port easily pilferable items.
delays caused by bad weather, strikes and harbor
congestion. A containership can load and discharge The barge offers less advantages in this respect
in bad weather as there is no chance of cargo be- unless it is completely shipper loaded. It is ap-
coming damaged. Harbor congestion will most parent, however, that barges for the most part,
certainly ,delay the containership as it is almost will be stuffed and unstuffed at pierside, so that
necessary to dock to load and discharge containers. pilferage and damage will continue at about the
If the containership has its own cargo gear it could same rate as the normal break bulk operation.
conceivably handle containers into lighters while
anchored in the stream. The barge carriers can Capital Investment
effectively avoid delays caused by both bad weather The useful life of the barges is estimated to be
and port congestion by working cargo in any pro- twenty-five years while ten years is the generally
tected roadstead. accepted standard for containers. This means, of
course, that two and one-half sets of containers
Transshipments will be needed for every set of barges over the
Transshipping, the process of transferring cargo twenty-five year life of the ship. Couple this with
from one vessel to another for further transport, the fact that containers are much more expensive
ordinarily is a very costly operation to the shipping than barges based on dollar cost per cubic foot of
company. The usual process involves, for example, cargo space and the capital investment differential
a load of cargo from South America or the Far becomes much greater in favor of barges. Large
East that arrives in a domestic port and is dis- expenditures of capital may also have to be made
charged into lighters and then reloaded into another for chassis and bogies, straddle trucks and real
vessel bound for North Europe or the Mediter- estate for marshalling areas to make the container
ranean area. Lighters are used because it is system work. If containerships do not carry their
cheaper to handle the cargo twice instead of four own cargo gear, shore cranes will have to be in-
times as would be the case if trucks were used. stalled at each port of call. The barge system
Further, the more important transshipments are will require that cranes be available to stuff and
4
unstuff the barges. However, existing break bulk piers as well as the busy Camden Marine Terminal.
terminals may be adequate to handle the barges Cased and drummed petroleum products generate at
and no further expenditures would be necessary Paulsboro, the largest New Jersey port on the
for additional land or equipment. Delaware River in tonnage handled. The entire
Chester-Marcus Hook waterfront is lined with in-
Tramp Competition dustry such as steel, chemicals, paper and auto-
Tramp competition makes significant inroads in motive parts which swell the basic tonnages pro-
marginal traffic which could well be handled by duced by the petroleum industry. Wilmington, sev-
liner fleets. As to United States liner carriers enty miles from the sea, is served by the Wilming-
there are two problems involved. First, there are ton Marine Terminal. Across the river are the
not enough American flag ships to handle the po- piers of Deepwater Point and Pennsgrove used
mostly for incoming raw materials and fuel.
tential business and second, there are many cargoes Finally, at Delaware City, millions of tons of pe-
that are presently economically impossible for troleum products are handled annually.
conventional liner operators to capture. This geographical area was described in some
Both problems can be solved in part by investing detail to indicate the tremendous potential available
construction funds in more of the efficient advanced to the liner operator who can effectively compete
concept types. For an equivalent number of dollars with the tramp lines who can afford to call at a
there would be a tremendous differential in cargo multitude of berths to pick up small shipments. It
carrying capability when compared to the general should be quite apparent that the barge concept is
cargo ship. This is due, of course, to the great made to order for this type of an operation. The
reduction in turn-around time which results in many barges would consolidate the cargo all along the
more voyages per year. To rephrase it; a given river and be delivered to a central point ready to
amount of money would buy a lesser number of load when the barge carrier arrived. A container
advanced ships than general cargo ships but due to system in the same operation would be much more
the more efficient utilization of the advanced ships, costly to both the shipper and the carrier and
American operators would be able to carry much would be much more difficult to justify because of
more cargo per year. the nature of the cargoesinvolved and the existing
Another aspect of the problem involves small facilities geared for river load and discharge.
ports or industrial plants on rivers where there
are minimum tonnages of cargo available per trip.
Tramp carriers with lesser operating expenses and Operations Analysis
smaller capital investment can afford to go after
this trade even though their port time is greatly As of this writing the maritime industry has had
increased. A second consideration is the fact that very little experience with full containerships en-
a point may be reached where it becomes uneco- gaged in foreign trade and no experience whatever
nomical to load any more cargo into tight spaces with the barge carrier operation. Therefore, it
due to increased port time and operating expenses. has not been established how effectively these new
This point of diminishing returns occurs earlier concepts will be able to cope with the myriad prob-
for liner ships than for tramps and this enables lems associated with the carriage of general cargo
the tramp operator to carry more cargo. This in a multi-port service. This Operations Analysis,
second consideration is taken care of by the ad- then, will endeavor to predict which of the two
vanced concepts as all cargo is prestuffed in the concepts is best suited to handle the general cargo-
containers or barges before the ship arrives. situation as it presently exists on one of the es-
The barge carrying vessel has the potential flex- sential United States foreign trade routes. To
ibility to compete with tramp operators for the accomplish this objective, the simulated voyage.
small port and industrial site trade. As an example technique which has proven to be very effective
consider the Delaware Valley where some 8,000 in evaluating the cargo handling capability of ships
industrial plants border the Delaware River along designed for a particular service will be utilized.
its length from the Atlantic Ocean to Trenton, New
Jersey. The port of Delaware Valley is actually Methodology
a series of waterfront units stretching from Trenton
to Delaware City forming a single economic har- The simulated voyage technique is a method of
bor. Trenton, at the head of the navigable portion evaluating the effectiveness of a proposed vessel
of the Delaware River, is served by the Trenton of new design on a trade route that is presently
Marine Terminal. South of Trenton, at Fairless being serviced by the older ships that will be re-
is the thousand foot dock of United States Steel. placed by the new design. Using data obtained
Across the river, between Trenton and Burlington, from cargo stowage plans of selected voyages, the
are the piers of Roebling and Florence, used mainly proposed vessel is paper loaded and discharged with
for incoming raw materials. Farther south are the same cargo and follows the same itinerary as
the industrial piers of the National Gypsum Com- the older design. Handling actual cargoes on a
pany and other firms. Philadelphia, largest of the port-by-port basis ascertains if the proposed vessel
ports in the Delaware Valley, measures the harbor can solve the intricate problems associated with
for twenty-three miles along the Delaware and eight cargo distribution, overstow and the development
and one-half miles along the Schuylkill. Camden of long hatches. The advantage of this technique
and Gloucester have a number of modern industrial is that the ships are evaluated under actual con-
5
ditions and not by broad statistical data which often data; port of origin, port of destination, commodity,
times can lead to erroneous conclusions. tonnage, packaging and number of pieces of each
The foreign trade route selected is one on which item. To effectively organize this data for sub-
shipping companies have formally proposed operat- sequent use, a tabulation, Figure 3 was devised.
ing both containerships and barge carriers. Cargo For each port of origin and destination, this table
stowage plans of actual voyages for the period lists every piece of cargo, its weight, stowage
between March 1965 and May 1966, have been ob- factor and volume. The calculation of volume was
tained. Figure 1 is a reproduction of a typical essential as revenue for most liner type cargo is
based on cubic rather than weight and experience
has indicated that containers are most often filled
volume-wise before the maximum weight load has
S.S.MARAD VICTORY been reached.
LEGEND:
CHARLESTON ALAMEDA EMI
SAVANNAH DUNDALK Eia
JACKSONVILLE I=1 PAUL SBORO
MOBILE ED SEATTLE MI
BARGE ¡CONTAINER STUDY
ANALYSIS OF CARGO 5T0,./AGE PLANS -SS. MARAD VICTORY

FR OM PORT OF MANILA TO PO RT OF SE ATT LE


111111 11111111111
Co." . N IT EMETEril CSITIMEWCIBMIVIIME
MEW.MIME=
Nersorlimmerammvurerm.
---
To FAA-. s
11111 111111111111111111
AL.,,..-
K ,,,,, s
MEMENIIMT
IIIMMIMMII 1111711MTEMI
11!!=1111M11.11I IIIIIMMTEM
W1..0 IMEMIIIIIIIMEN MITIIIIIMITIMI
PIXY `K S. 111111WMINIIIIIMITEIMMIERMTITIM I

tPC
.:, oC.411[13 TuSC
mirmumrammermomommzrze.
1=21211. 7 MIlriTIMI z 111=11
FROM PORT OF TORVO TO PORT OF SAN FRANCISCO
FIG 1
5000 14V P c T.. .. s F. Ct
t4 4a
.11TEMEMENIMINIMIEMII MIWINIMMIMPI3.111WITM
IIPMETVIREMININIIMMI I ITIMI1111711111ETTME
cargo stowage plan which is nothing more than a FROM PORT OF TORVO TOPO', OF SEATTLE
profile showing a plan view of the deck area in CON. mnoiTY N. PISCIS Tor. .../F,SCE 3F C VI:KC
each cargo space. An amplification of one cargo AKISuLAuc, 2 44130 4,2 AL*
S,
hold, Figure 2, enumerates the following relevant CARAy- ..L., T...,, I Z 4.50 '7-8

FRoM PORT OF TOKYO To P.ORT Or LOS ANGELS 3

CO 1./..1 op try No PNri3 Tows A/p1405 SF CU.,.


LIFT T1, c K t B RGO /SS 107,
FROM PoRT OF TOKYO TO POR-7 oF JACK SONVILLE
S. S. MARAD VICTORY CommoR.Ty N. V.,scws ',Ns ../Pmcis ' 5F CUBIC
Cow., Ms.,. 7570 S*4 i 01 51 IT 544
TOKYO/LOS ANGELES FRO., PORT OF 7.1,44W TO poRT
MANILA / SEATTLE OF SAVANNAH
2 LIFT TRUCKS BT

713 Pkg. 37T


CO m M oo tTY N. Ft.-. T-0.43 ../FIF. SF CU IC
AUTO PARTS AS. 1425
4900 Ctn. GLASSWARE 37;
TOKYO /SEATTLE
1 AMBULANCE 2'
INIScTI (tow.
NI ma tstCs NI Ac.
Co.n1yala (loon,
i I
7.3 I Z.
14.29
57
6 C.
70
dl
140
6 Pkg. HEATERS I21 S 77
4 VANS
7
4T.
1 CARRY-ALL TRK. 2' T,W1. I 30 I 7 200 220
FIG.2
35 Reels CABLE 30' TOKYO /SAN FRAN.
4 Pp. CRANE K. D. 56r.
lac, STEEL 52'
18 Pkg. PIPE 15' 2 Bx, MACH'Y, 13'
160 c/5 CONDENSER TUBE 47T- 91 Pkg BRAKES 81
BOMBAY/SAVANNAH
135 Drm. RESIN lar Flexibility
TOKYO / JACKSONVILLE
TAIWAN/SAVANNAH
To be considered as completely flexible, a ship
452 Drm, INSECT. 25' must have the capability to efficiently handle cargo
7630 BAGS - CORN MEAL 344T. 11 % MACH'Y. 13r
shipments of almost any size and weight with a wide
121 Ctn, CAN. GDS. 2' variety of physical characteristics. Table I lists
130 TIRES 1r the types of commodities booked for a typical voyage
as per the cargo stowage plans. There are two
major problems involving flexibility that must be
met by the operator handling unitized loads. The
BOMBAY / CHARLESTON first is that there are many commodities that can-
679 BALES - RAGS 217' not be unitized efficiently because;
They may be too large to fit into the container;
0r
They may be too difficult to load into the con-
tainer.
For this analysis, only the first of the above
limitations was considered to be controlling, as it
FIG.2
was assumed that the operator could find ways and

6
Table I.CARGO CONSIST: TYPICAL VOYAGE' cargo was available to the extent that 25% of the
Crane, K.D., pcs. Glass tubing, skids
weight capacity or 50% of the volume capacity of
TV parts, pkgs. Oil sealing cement, drms. the unit was utilized. All cargoes that were physi-
Tread rubber, pkgs. Wax, ctns. cally unsuitable for unitization or were less than
Asbestos waste, ctns. General, pkgs. a unit load were assumed to be shut out.
Instruments, C/S Woodpulp, bags
Bottles, ctns. Conex, pcs. The enormity of the problem that confronts the
Leather splits, ctns. Filters, bxs. steamship operator who receives a high revenue
Skins, bales Soil test equipment, C/S shipment, parts of which are destined for several
Motors, skids Pipe fittings, C/S
Scrap rubber, palts Construction metal, pkg. different ports, can be appreciated by studying Fig-
Chemicals, drms. Air condition equipment, C/S ure 4 and Figure 5 which are statistical analyses
Washers, crts. Synthetic resin, bags of the data provided from Table II.
Synthetic rubber, bags Parts, pkg.
Animal feed, drms. Specials, pkg. Figure 4 is the percentage by voyage of the num-
Welding machinery, C/S Chemicals, pkg. ber of port combinations where cargo was availa-
Tires, pcs. Yarn, ctns. ble but no unit loads whatever could be made up.
Cylinders, pcs. Printing ink, pkgs.
Tubes, ctns. Tractor parts, pkgs. A port combination occurs when there is cargo
Corn, bags Steel sheet, skids available at any one port for any other port on the
IBM cards, ctns. Welding rods, C/S itinerary. For example, if there is cargo available
Fabric, ctns. POV, pcs.
Egg albumen, ctns. Meat meal, bags in Norfolk for Bremerhaveri, London, and Rotter-
Reinforcing bars, bdls. Glass, skids dam, this represents three port combinations.
Lift truck, pcs. Rags, bales
Slugs, plts. Vans, pcs. The barge carrier under these circumstances
Canned goods, plt. Heater, pcs. could not handle the cargo that was available for
Ambulances, pcs. Label cargo, pcs. 42.5% of the port combinations. This means, of
Press, C/S Tinplate, skids
course, that many shippers would have been made
Paste, drms. Steel plate, bdls.
Molybdenum, drms. Carbon, bdls. very unhappy and would be tempted to consider
Hides, bdls. Printing supplies, C/S another carrier. The containership would have
Asphalt, drms. Tile, plts.
Rubber scrap, slcids Propylisocyanate, drms. had to shut out cargo for only 28.9% of the port
Pipes, bdIs. Clothes dryer, crts. combinations. This is an improvement over the
Metal containers, pcs. Auto parts, C/S barge carrier because the container can efficiently
Copy, skid (paper) Electrical materials, pkgs.
Abrasive paper, C/S Projector screens, ctns. accommodate shipments that would be too small
Insulating metal, pit. Heavy lift, pcs. to be carried economically by barge.
Tanker parts, C/S Pickup trucks, pcs. The containership faltered, however, when an
Helicopter KD, C/S Leather dressing, drms.
Refrigerator pts., C/S Brake fluid, ctns. analysis, Figure 5, was made to determine the
Textile waste, bales Tin dross, drms. percentage of port combinations where some cargo
Chemicals, bags Lubricating oil, drms. had to be shut out. In 62.4% of the port combina-
Ethylchloroformate, drms. Ball bearings, C/S
Wine tanks, pcs. Textile machinery, C/S tions, there was cargo available that was either
Blue phosphor, C/S Coal tar dye, pkg. physically unsuitable for containerization or was
Abrasive metal, C/S Insecticide, drms. available in a quantity that would be uneconomical
Tape, C/S Drugs, drms.
Capsules MT., drms. Latex, drms. to carry via container. An example of a situation
Amaboid, drms. Lecithin, drms. that could quite easily have caused carrier/shipper
Aluminum anode, skids Oil, ctns. relations to deteriorate rapidly is readily available
from the cargo stowage plans. A major manu-
facturer of construction equipment desired trans-
means to overcome the second problem. Some of portation for a large shipment of small spare parts
these physically unsuitable items were boilers, for various types of expensive machinery. The
yachts, generators, heat exchangers, bulldozers, shipping company contracted for this order as it
combines, road graders, piling, concrete pipe and is high revenue cargo and presents an excellent
tractor trailers. Secondly, many of the shipments chance for unitization which could result in lower
that are available between two ports are less-than- costs for the operator. It suddenly became im-
a-unit load and it would be uneconomical to utilize perative for the manufacturing organization to ship
an entire container or barge for these small lots. several large pieces of equipment with the spare
The dilemma is that the good customer relations parts to fulfill certain obligations. If the shipping
that presently exist must be maintained when an company had vessels that could carry only con-
advanced system is employed. Can the operator tainers and could not have handled the large pieces
afford to take the chance of losing the good cus- of machinery, an extremely difficult situation would
tomer who ships several hundred tons each month have occurred. The carrier would not be legally
by refusing to handle his shipment of only a few obligated to transport this additional cargo, how-
tons on occasion. The alternatives are equally ever, the probability of receiving future orders from
unattractive; shut out cargo and lose a customer the manufacturer would have been reduced if the
or accept the cargo and carry a few tons in a unit cargo had been shut out.
that may be designed for several hundred. The barge tarrier did not shut out any cargo due
Table II was prepared showing a partial listing to size limitations, therefore the curve in Figure 5
of ports of origin and destination and the number of is the same as for Figure 4. A further analysis
barges and containers necessary to carry the of cargoes unsuitable for unitization is indicated by
unitizable cargo as well as the cargo shut out. A Figure 6. This graph points out the percent tonnage
container or barge was assumed to be loaded if lost each voyage due to less-than-barge loads and

7
Table II

Ports Containers Barges

Tonnage shut out Tonnage shut out


Number Number
Origin Destination loaded Physically Less than loaded Physically Less than
unsuited unit load unsuited unit load

New York Rotterdam 11 3.0 0.0 1 0.0 0.0


New York London 18 39.0 0.0 2 0.0 0.0
New York Bremerhaven 0 14.0 1.0 0 0.0 15.0
New York LeHavre 3 3.0 0.0 1 0.0 0.0
Norfolk Rotterdam 21 48.0 0.0 2 0.0 0.0
Norfolk London 0 0.0 3.0 0 0.0 3.0
Norfolk Bremerhaven 14 26.0 0.0 2 0.0 0.0
Norfolk LeHavre 4 0.0 0.0 1 0.0 0.0
Boston Rotterdam 1 0.0 0.0 0 0.0 8.0
Boston London 0 0.0 1.0 0 0.0 1.0
Boston Bremerhaven 12 0.0 7.0 2 0.0 0.0
Boston LeHavre 1 0.0 0.0 0 0.0 12.0
Balto Rotterdam 28 0.0 0.0 4 0.0 0.0
Balto London 37 331.0 0.0 5 0.0 0.0
Balto Bremerhaven 19 17.0 0.0 2 0.0 0.0
Balto LeHavre 1 237.0 0.0 2 0.0 0.0

PORT COMBINATIONS WHERE NO UNIT PORT COMBINATIONS WHERE SOME


LOADS COULD BE MADE UP CARGO WAS SHUT OUT

s%
/ %....... I
I ,A ¡t
it
,
i
%
01 ir
i 1

11 Barge System
Container System
CD OD CD OD CD OD CD OD OD
FIG. 4
VOYAGE NO. CD OD CD OD OD OD CD OD OD qD
FIG. 5
VOYAGE NO.

8
systems and it can be concluded that additional
cargoes are needed if the new concepts are to be
successful.
LOST TONNAGE Figure 7 indicates the cubic utilization of the
vessels for each voyage based on the number of
containers and barges utilized and expressed as a
percentage of the maximum number of units that
can be carried. It would be expected from Figure
6 that the barge carrier would have the greater
Num. LESS THAN A BARGE utilization because of the physically unsuitable
LOAD cargo that the containership would be forced to shut
PHYSICALLY UNSUITABLE out.
FOR CONTAINERIZATION Considering the individual barge and container,
it could not be determined which was more efficient
in utilizing its cube. Many cargoes of drums, skids

.
of tin plate and ingots were containerized and the
its weight load was reached in some cases before 20%
of the volume was utilized. The barges, moreover,
Et,,, o4
V° carried some loads of 100 to 150 tons utilizing
tool...A ! * only 40% of available cubic as no more cargo was
0®®0®00®®® FIG. 6
destined for the port of discharge, and as a result
there was a waste of both cube and cargo deadweight.
VOYAGE NO. The size of the shipments for each port com-
bination was the deciding factor as to how efficiently
the units utilized available cubic and this varied
greatly for each port combination. For example,
when 150 tons of drums of lube oil were carried,
one full barge utilizing only 45% of the cube was
needed while eleven containers utilizing 65% of
available cubic would be required. lf, however,
300 tons of drums are available, one barge is still
sufficient but twenty-one containers would be nec-
cargo physically unsuited for containerization. An essary. In most instances where metals were not
average of 15% of the tonnage carried each voyage carried, the cubic utilization per container was
would have been shut out by the containership and
4% by the barge carrier. It is very interesting to
note that on one voyage 38% of the weight tonnage
could not have been carried by the container op-
erator.
The obvious conclusion pertaining to flexibility VESSEL CUBIC
is that the barge carrier can handle general cargo UTILIZATION
consist much better than the containership. How-
ever, the containership can more effectively cope
with the small loads and this can, presumably,
maintain better customer relationships. By ana-
lyzing the characteristics of the proposed trade
area, a steamship company should be able to ascer-
tain which of these considerations has the greatest
possibility of assuring a successful operation.
Cubic Utilization
The barge carrier and containership that have
been proposed for the trade area investigated follow
the present trend of ever increasing size. An
11°I. Barge Capacity
accumulation of statistical data over a period of Container Capacity
three years has revealed that United States flag
ships do not sail very often with all cargo spaces
completely utilized. The vessel from which the ® 0 0 0 CD O CD ®
FIG 7
cargo stowage plans were obtained is of W. W. II VOYAGE NO.
vintage with relatively small cubic capacity and yet
it sailed at less than 100% full for every voyage
analyzed. Compound this with the fact that it was
concluded in the flexibility discussion that some
cargo already booked would have been shut out if
the carrier was operating one of the advanced
9
higher than for the barge. The container, being
smaller unit, was much more efficient in this DISTRIBUTION OF CONTAINERS
respect and would become more efficient if half- TO MAINTAIN BALANCE
height container trays are made available.
The containership operator could increase the
cubic utilization of his vessels by offering container
service to the shipper's door for small lots of high
revenue cargo. It may also be possible to induce
manufacturers of large pieces of machinery to 2
ship in knock-down form in containers for assem-
blage by the consignee. The barge carrier op-
erator has a very excellent opportunity to capture
medium lots of bulk grains, ores and oils to in-
crease cubic utilization. Barges have traditionally PERCENT MT CONTAINERS/PORT
carried these cargoes with success and steamship FIG. 8
companies could take advantage of a system already
in being. Finally, it is anticipated that the rela- DISTRIBUTION OF BARGES
tively poor utilization forecast in Figure 7 may be TO MAINTAIN BALANCE
improved by the probability that superior service
provided by the advanced systems will attract ad-
ditional cargoes which, of course, leads to higher
cubic utilization and increased revenue.
Cargo Imbalance
The problem of cargo imbalance was discussed
in the Concept Analysis but the full significance
of its effect on operations was not determined O-20 21-40 41-60 61-80 80,00
until the stowage plans were analyzed and the port PERCENT MT BARGES/PORT
combination data tabulated. An analysis of the tab- FIG. 9
ulation has indicated that in order to maintain
balance the following ratios are necessary:
Empty container These graphs are presented to indicate the seri-
Full container x 100 = 90% ousness of the imbalance problem and the necessity
Empty barge of giving much consideration to arrive at a workable
Full barge x 100 = 80%
solution as the high cost of these advanced sys-
tems cannot allow lost time for handling and ferry-
ing large numbers of empty unproductive units.
This means, of cour se, that almost as many empty
units as full ones must be carried and handled
as the vessel proceeds on its itinerary. There was Shipper Loaded Units
no difficulty encountered on the voyages analyzed The most efficient way these advanced systems
because the number of full containers and barges could operate would be to handle only units that are
available was always well below design capacity. shipper loaded and consignee emptied. It is doubt-
However, serious problems could develop on this ful, however, that this system will ever exist in
type of multiport service if the vessels attracted foreign trade as the average shipment to the in-
more cargo and operated at a higher cubic utiliza- dividual consignee is small and cannot economically
tion. To counter this problem a decision must be utilize an entire barge or container.
made to reduce the number of ports visited, back- The analysis revealed that an average of 20% of
track to redistribute empties or provide for a feeder the outbound containers and 27% of the outbound
system to relocate units from discharge ports to barges could be shipper loaded. For the inbound
loading ports. Due to the lesser number of units leg of the voyages, 44% of the containers and only
involved and the greater ease of consolidation, it 5% of the barges could have been shipper loaded.
appears that the barge carrier can more effectively There is no data available as to the number of
cope with the imbalance problem. units that could have been consignee emptied, but
Figure 8 and Figure 9 indicate the percentage experience indicates that there would be relatively
of the units that would be needed to maintain balance few.
in each port. The abscissa is the percentage of Figure 10 compares the barge carrier and con-
units that were needed or would have been left over tainership as to the number of shipper loaded units
during normal operations on this service. It is that could have been made up for each voyage, and
distressing to note that for both concepts it is in- it is apparent that the container service offers the
dicated that 80% to 100% of the units for nearly greater advantages in this respect. This is true,
one-half of the ports visited must arrive at the port of course, because of the smaller size and there-
empty to provide for future cargo or be carried fore greater inherent flexibility of the container
away empty because no cargo is available. to handle lesser shipments.

10
Did not exceed present terminal requirements;
and
PERCENT OF UNITIZED UNITS THAT Could compete favorably with the tramp trade.
COULD BE SHIPPER LOADED The containership had its particular advantages in
that:
Small shipments could be accommodated;
It is compatible with the domestic inland
ilimm BARGES transportation system;

\ CONTAINERS Cargo losses can be reduced; and


Some door to door service can be realized.
Both of the concepts can reduce overall transpor-

kA tation costs, avoid delays and effectively serve as


military auxiliaries.
The Operations Analysis puts the theory to test
by operating these vessels on an actual trade route
using the simulated voyage technique. The results
of the Operations Analysis proved the statements
made in the Concept Analysis with regards to the
behavior of the advanced concepts in the general
C) 0) 0) CD 0) CD CD CD cargo, multi-port environment.
FIG. io

VOYAGE NO.
Utilizing containers or barges reduces the avail-
able cargo as some cargoes are not compatible
with unitized handling and these large expensive
vessels cannot afford to stop at the many smaller
ports on present itineraries. The final decision
to switch from general cargo ships to one of the
advanced systems, then, must ultimately be based
on the Operator's qualified determination that he
will be able to reconstitute his cargo bookings to
the extent that the larger, more expensive ad-
vanced ships will pay off.
Summary Acknowledgements
This paper is concerned with comparing two new The author wishes to express his appreciation and
cargo handling concepts, containerships and barge gratitude to E. Scott Dillon, Chief and Francis G.
carrying vessels, to ascertain if either can effec- Ebel, Assistant Chief, Division of Ship Design,
tively handle the general cargo situation as it Office of Ship Construction, Maritime Administra-
actually exists in foreign trade. tion, who have freely given their valuable time
The Concept Analysis compared the two designs and special knowledge for counsel and advice.
from a more or less theoretical point of view. It Sincere thanks goes to Ronald K. Kiss, Naval Ar-
was determined that the barge system: chitect, Office of Ship Construction, Maritime Ad-
Could handle the varied cargo consist; ministration, for his assistance in breaking down
Is compatible with foreign inland transporta- the cargo stowage plans and recording the re-
tion systems; quired data.

11
No. 61351

PGM 84 CLASS ALUMINUM GUNBOAT MACHINERY AND CONTROLS


by

BERTEL LUNDGAARD
Diehl and Lundgaard
Bainbridge Island, Washington
and
HAROLD M. MATHERS
Mathers Supply Company
Seattle, Washington

Paper No.
67-357

AIAA/SNAME Advance marine


whims meeting
NORFOLK, VIRGINIA/MAY 22-24, 1967
First publication rights reserved by American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1290 Avenue of the Americas, New York, N. Y. 10019
and Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, 74 Trinity Place, New York, N. Y. 10006
Abstracts may be published without permission if credit is given to ou'thor and to AIAA/SNAME. (Member Price-75c; Nonmember Price$1.50)

1.08, 5.08
PGM 84 CLASS ALUMINUM GUNBOAT
MACHINERY AND CONTROLS
Bertel Lundgaard, Partner, Diehl and Lundgaard, Bainbridge Island, Washington
Harold M. Mothers, President, Mothers Supply Company, Seattle, Washington

ABSTRACT TRANSMISSION ....... General Electric


TURBINE POWER GE LM1500 14,000 HP
The PGM 84 was the first of a growing class of ex- ELECTRICAL GENERATORS (2) Cummins 6 cycle,
tremely fast and maneuverable diesel or gas turbine power- 190 HP, 100 KW each
ed 165 foot aluminum ships. Two ships of the class are now PROPELLERS (2) Liaaen Variable Pitch,
operational. The propulsion system combines one 14,000 6 foot diameter
horsepower turbine with two diesel engines, driving two PERSONNEL .....
3 officers, 21 enlisted
variable pitch propellers through a transmission consisting ESTIMATED TOTAL COST .0... $4,000,000
of three gear units and several clutches. Misalignment
features compensate for the flexibility and thermal expan-
sion of an extremely light aluminum hull. The pneumatic Ill. CONSTRUCTION AND GENERAL ARRANGEMENT
control system permits engine control from either the pilot-
house or the machinery space. There are three propulsion The ship's hull is an all welded aluminum construction.
control levers and three control modes. Diesel mode: Two She is longitudinally framed.
levers control diesel speed simultaneously with propeller
pitch. Gas turbine mode: One lever controls turbine The superstructure is fabricated of molded fiberglass
speed and the pitch of both propellers. Gas turbine maneu- panels bolted to aluminum frames. Each panel is about 6'
vering mode: The turbine lever controls turbine speed wide by 7' high. Superstructure decks are also fiberglass.
while each diesel lever controls the pitch of one propeller. The housefront is a single fiberglass molding.
Two additional levers select the desired propulsion mode.
Numerous safety features prevent mis-operation and over- Machinery spaces, crew's accommodations, mess,
loading. The turbine may be started from either operating galley and stowage spaces are located below the main deck.
station, which automatically engages turbine clutches, dis- Officers quarters are on main deck while the radio room and
engages diesel clutches, brings the diesels to idle and the pilothouse are on the focsle deck.
transfers control from diesel to turbine operating levers.
Location of control rooms and machinery spaces are
shown on Fig. I. There are three main machinery spaces,
I. INTRODUCTION the turbine room, the diesel machinery room and the genera-
tor room. The ship is designed so that she can continue to
The PGM 84 Class Motor Gunboats are among the operate with any one of the three machinery spaces flooded.
fastest and most maneuverable ships in the world. These
ships were developed to operate in support of counterinsur- There are two main ship's control oreas, the Pilot-
gency and antiguerilla warfare. They provide the Navy house, shown on Fig. 2, at the forward end of the focsle
with a powerful weapon against enemy coastal and river deck and the Enclosed Cperating Station, (EOS), Fig. 3,
shipping. which is partitioned off from the auxiliary machinery room.
The EOS is completely watertight.
Two vessels of the PGM 84 class are now operational,
15 more are under contract. Tacoma Boatbuilding Company, The EOS is the main machinery operating and moni-
Tacoma, Washington, is building the first seven vessels of toring station, but control of the ship's speed and certain
the class. other machinery control functions may be carried out from
the Pilothouse.
The combined diesel-gas turbine (CODAG) or the
pure gas turbine drive is becoming increasingly popular for
ship propulsion plants, both in merchant and naval vessels. IV. MACHINERY
The development of the PGM 84 class propulsion and con-
trol system offered a number of challenging and interesting The propulsion plant consists of two diesel engines
problems. It is the authors hope that the solution to these and one gas turbine driving two variable pitch propellers
problems may be of interest to the audience. through the transmission. The transmission consists of one
first reduction and two second reduction gear boxes together
with the necessary interconnecting shafting.
II. SHIP'S CHARACTERISTICS
(a) Diesel Engines
LENGTH 165 feet
Two diesel propulsion engines, each rated at 750 HP
BEAM 24 feet
at 2100 RPM are located in the diesel machinery room. The
DRAFT 9.5 feet
engines are 4 cycle, turbocharged and cooled through salt
D IS PLACEMENT 240 Long Tons
to fresh water heat exchangers. The engine starting system
DIESEL POWER ....... (2) Cummins V-12
is hydraulic.
750 Horsepower each
Gas Turbine the pinion speed exceeds the diesel engine speed, the
clutch disengages. The overrunning clutches are spray lu-
The gas turbine installation is shown on Fig. 4. The bricated.
turbine may be divided into two separate parts: the gas
generator and the power turbine. The gas generator sec- The gas turbine clutches are hydraulically actuated.
tion contains the compressor and combustion components as When the clutches engage, a set of friction discs synchro-
well as all auxiliary equipment, such as lub oil and fuel oil nize the speed of the driving and the driven clutch halves.
pumps, controls, etc. The gas generator is basically a Upon synchronization, two sets of hardened steel teeth en-
standard jet engine and is the same engine used on B-58 gage and lock the clutch halves together. The turbine
and F-104 airplanes. clutches are cooled and lubricated by a heavy oil spray.

The power turbine is a simple two stage turbine Hydraulic System


wheel driven by the hot gases from the gas generator. The
povver turbine shaft drives the first reduction gear unit There are three main hydraulic systems:
directly. A 1500 psi system actuating the controllable
There is no mechanical connection between the gas pitch propellers.
generator and the power turbine rotors. At full power, the A 3000 psi accumulator loaded system provides
gas generator speed is 7200 RPM while the power turbine diesel engine starting power. This sytem also pro-
speed is 5500 RPM. vides oil for actuating the gas turbine clutches
through a 3000 psi to 500 psi reducing station.
During sea trials the fuel rate for the gas turbine was
The turbine clutches need hydraulic oil only during
found to be about 0.48 lbs per horsepower hour.
the engaging and disengaging cycles.
Propellers and Shafting A 4000 psi system starts the turbine. The
system consists of a 125 horsepower variable dis-
The two 6-foot diameter propellers are of the variable placement pump driving a variable displacement
pitch type. The propellers must be able to operate effi- motor, which turns the gas generator through an
ciently on both diesel and gas turbine power, and consider- overrunning clutch.
ing that the power ratio between gas turbine and diesel op-
eration is almost 10 to 1, the need for variable pitch is ob- Duplicate sets of hydraulic pumps are provided, each
vious. set driven by one generator engine front power take-off.
The original propeller blades were made of stainless Each set consists of four pumps:
steel. Later titanium blades were substituted. The ex- Two fixed displacement pumps for propeller
tremely high tensile strength of titanium permits thinner pitch operation, one for each propeller. They are
blade sections with less likelihood of cavitation. rated at 35 gpm each.

The diameter of the two hollow lineshafts was kept One fixed displacement accumulator charg-
as small as possible to save weight. Hydraulic control lines ing pump, rated at 0.23 gpm.
run through the shaft bores and convey the actuating fluid One variable displacement turbine starting
for the pitch control mechanism in the propeller hubs. pump, rated at 39 gpm.

Transmission The 1500 psi and the 3000 psi systems use a common
oil reservoir. The 4000 psi turbine starting system is an in-
The transmission is shown on Fig. 5. For diesel mode
dependent closed loop system with its own reservoir and a
of operation the power path is as follows:
small charging pump built into each main pump.
Each diesel engine drives one second reduction
gear through its friction clutch (3) and its overrun-
V. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS AND PROBLEMS
ing clutch (4). The two gas turbine clutches (5) are
disengaged making each diesel drive system complete-
The two most unusual features of the PGM 84 class are
ly independent.
the aluminum hull and the gas turbine/diesel combined pro-
In the gas turbine mode, the turbine drives pulsion plant. It is therefore not surprising that these areas
the first reduction gear, which in turn drives the posed a number of challenging engineering problems. These
two second reduction gears through the gas turbine problems and their solutions are described briefly below:
clutches (5). The overrunning clutches (4) disen-
gage automatically as soon as the diesel pinion (a) Gas Turbine Support
speed exceeds the speed of the engines, thus taking
the diesel engines off the line. The turbine is a very rigid, thin walled cylinder. The
temperature of the cylinder wall may vary as much as 1000°
The diesel friction clutches are conventional, pneu- F with a corresponding thermal expansion. The turbine is
matically operated units requiring about 125 psi air pres- located in a lightly built, highly flexible aluminum hull.
sure. The friction clutches need no lubrication. To accommodate.the relative motion between the turbine
and the hull, the turbine is supported as shown on Fig. 4.
The overrunning clutches are fully automatic, cen-
trifugally actuated. Each clutch will engage when the Mount #1 does not carry any weight, but takes the
speed of its diesel engine exceeds the speed of the second thrust of the turbine and prevents transverse motion of the
reduction gear diesel pinion,. When, under turbine power, power turbine. Mount #2 carries the weight of the power

2
turbine and provides vertical restraint. Mounts #3 and #4 control system was devised which assured that the motor
allow longitudinal movement of the machine while provid- driven pumps run only when one or both the diesel clutches
ing transverse and vertical restraint. Gear couplings in the are engaged and at the same time the gas generator is not
turbine drive shaft allow the turbine axis to move in rela- running.
tion to the drive shaft line.
Another problem arose from the fact that some friction
(b) Transmission is transmitted through ratcheting of the disengaged diesel
overrunning clutch. If the pneumatic clutch was left disen-
The transmission connects one gas turbine to two gaged, the entire overrunning clutch and the output side of
shafts or alternatively one diesel engine each to one shaft. the pneumatic diesel clutch would spin during gas turbine
It must provide for the flexing and thermal expansion of a operation at close to gas turbine speed. However, the
very lightly built aluminum hull. It should be noted that manufacturer of the pneumatic clutch supply line seal would
aluminum not only deflects three times as much as steel for not guarantee that this seal would last at the gas turbine
a given load, but that its thermal coefficient of expansion speed. The turbine end of the pneumatic clutch could be
is also about three times that of steel. kept from rotating by inflating the pneumatic clutch, and
this solution was initially adopted. However, on the test
The problem of providing flexibility was solved by stand, the nozzle lubricating the overrunning clutch became
splitting the transmission into three basically independent plugged and the clutch froze. If this had happened in the
gear boxes as shown on Fig. 5. The shafting between the ship, with only the overrunning clutch between the gas tur-
units as well as the input shafts from the diesel engines and bine and the diesel engines, the diesel engine would be
the gas turbine incorporate misalignment features which driven by the gas turbine at near gas turbine speed, and
allow for relative motion between the gear boxes them- would without doubt fly apart. To assure that this would not
selves as well as motion of the gear boxes relative to the happen, it was decided to sacrifice the pneumatic clutch
machinery.
shoes rather than the diesel engines in case of overrunning
Each gear box is completely anchored at one point clutch failure. The solution adopted was to inflate the
only. The other attachment points to the hull were devel- pneumatic clutches enough to keep the diesel side of the
oped to allow relative motion between the hull and each overrunning clutches from following the high speed side, but
unit both longitudinally and transversely. still keeping the pressure low enough so that not enough
torque could be transmitted to drive the diesel engines in
The transmission was designed to allow a smooth
case of overrunning clutch failure. The pneumatic clutch
transfer from full speed on diesel power to gas turbine
pressure is automatically reduced to the holding pressure
power. Two factors complicated the problem: the speed of
when the propulsion mode is transferred from diesel to gas
the power turbine cannot be controlled unless some amount
turbine.
of torque is applied to the output shaft; but at the some
time the gas turbine clutches will only tolerate a limited (c) Electrolytic Corrosion
amount of speed differential during engagement.
The ship's sea water and bilge piping is copper nickel;
We were afraid that the unloaded, idle speed of the
other piping systems were fabricated from copper or thin
turbine might be well above the top speed of the diesel
walled stainless steel tubing. Any of these metals may
engines, thus causing excessive wear of the clutch friction cause electrolytic corrosion in conjunction with aluminum
discs during engagement of the gas turbine clutches. To in a marine atmosphere. To prevent corrosion, metal to
solve this problem a speed switch was mounted on the port
metal contact between dissimilar metals was avoided by
gear-shaft of the first reduction gear. This speed switch
lining all pipe hangers with rubber and by using rubber or
initiates the clutch engagement. The speed setting was
nylon sleeves around pipes where they pass through bulk-
selected by trial and error to balance the engagement times heads.
of the clutch against the acceleration rate of the gas tur-
bine. The result is a smooth engagement with very little The copper nickel sea water and bilge systems pre-
speed differential between the clutch interfaces. sented the most severe problems. Aluminum and copper
together with a salt water electrolyte is a very good battery.
During shop testing of the gear, another unexpected The most important precautions taken to solve this problem
difficulty arose. The gas turbine clutches are cooled and were:
lubricated by a heavy oil spray. Due to this, some viscous Liberal use of anodes in sea chests and
friction builds up between the clutch friction discs even overboard discharge fittings.
with the clutches disengaged. The friction was estimated
to be sufficient to free-wheel the first reduction gear and Isolation of aluminum hull fittings from
the power turbine at about 700 RPM. But the power turbine the piping by the use of 4" long specially molded,
lub oil pumps are driven by the gas generator, and during flanged rubber spool pieces.
diesel operation the gas generator is not operating; the lack Keeping piping under floorplates dry by
of lubrication would have led to very quick failure of the keeping it as high as possible.
power turbine bearings. To solve this problem, one motor
Using 18" long plastic bilge suction
driven supply pump and one motor driven scavenge pump,
nipples to insure that the copper nickel bilge
serving the power turbine only, were added. However, if
piping would not be submerged in saltwater
these pumps were left running when the gas generator was
even if the bilges are not dry.
running, the motor driven scavenge pump and the gas gen-
erator driven scavenge pump would be taking suction from These precautions appear to have been successful.
the same bearing sump, with the almost certain result that To date, electrolytic corrosion caused by the piping systems
one pump would run dry and fail. To solve the problem, a has not been a problem.

3
VI. PROPULSION CONTROL SYSTEM DESCRIPTION VII. PILOTHOUSE CONTROL

The PGM Propulsion Control System is primarily a Norrnally, the PGM's are controlled from the Pilot-
pneumatic system operating on 100 psi air. There are, as house station when the vessel is underway. Therefore, in
well, electric and hydraulic systems that are initiated by order to get the "feel" for handling the PGM, we will
the air controls. follow a complete operating sequence from the Pilothouse
There are two propulsion control operating stations-- Station.
Pilothouse - Fig. 2 and 6 Call for Control
LOS (Enclosed Operating Station) - The pilothouse operator signals the EOS station that
Fig. 3, 7, 8 and 9. he wants control. The EOS operator will start the diesels
The design direction was to provide complete propul- and engage the diesel clutches. The LOS Operator will
sion control from either the Pilothouse or the EOS station. then position the station transfer lever to Pilothouse control.
The EOS operator, however, has sole control of some func- The Pilothouse operator will know that the transfer
tions and therefore the EOS station is manned when under lever at the EOS is on Pilothouse control position by the
way. Transfer Initiated Light going "on". It is then up to the
The Propulsion Control System is designed around Pilothouse operator to match the diesel control lever posi-
five main control levers: tion to the EOS levers by means of the Duplex Gages read-
I. Starboard Diesel (Speed and Direction - Item 4) ing EOS and Pilothouse control lever position. As soon as
2. Port Diesel (Speed and Direction - Item 3) the Pilothouse operator matches the EOS lever position,
Gas Turbine (Speed and Direction - Item 2) control will transfer to the Pilothouse and this will be indi-
Mode Selector ("Diesel" or "GT" - Item 7) cated at the Pilothouse by the control air gage rising from
Mode Selector ("GT Maneuver" or "Normal"- Oto 100 psi.
Item 6) Diesel Control
These five levers are provided at the Pilothouse sta- The Pilothouse operator now has full control of speed
tion and at the EOS station and they perform the same func and pitch of the port and starboard propellers under diesel
tions. However, control is always at one station or the control, using levers No. 3 and 4.
other, never at both.
Gas Turbine Control
There are three modes of control - The Pilothouse operator wants Gas Turbine mode of
Diesel control. He will signal the EOS operator that he wants the
Gas Turbine Gas Turbine ready to start. The EOS operator will place
Gas Turbine Maneuvering the gas turbine start switch on "automatic". When the gas
turbine is ready for automatic starting, the EOS operator
(a) Diesel Mode will close the "Gas Turbine Ready" switch and this will be
indicated at the Pilothouse and EOS stations by the Gas
Mode selector lever No. 7 will select diesel mode, Turbine Ready Light coming "on".
and levers No. 4 and No. 3 have control of the starboard
and port shafts, speed and direction under diesel power. Until the Gas Turbine Ready Light is 'on, the system
Lever No. 2 is inoperative. is interlocked so that an automatic start cannot be made.
As soon as the Pilothouse oper&or has the Ready Light, he
Gas Turbine Mode can go to Gas Turbine Mode or he can elect to remain on
Diesel Mode with the Gas Turbine on Ready as long as
Mode selector lever No. 7 will select GT mode and desired.
after the gas turbine has started, lever No. 2 will provide
speed and direction control under gas turbine power. When the Pilothouse operator decides on Gas Turbine
Levers No. 3 and No. 4 are inoperative. Mode he wi I 1--
Place diesel control levers No. 3 and No. 4
Gas Turbine Maneuvering Mode to full ahead position.
Mode selector lever No. 6 will select Gas Turbine Place gas turbine control lever No. 2 to a
Maneuver Mode when the gas turbine is running. Under position such that vessel speed remains un-
Gas Turbine Maneuvering Mode, lever No. 4 will control changed after transfer has occurred. This
starboard propeller pitch only. Lever No. 3 will control position is indicated by detent feel in the
port propeller pitch only, and lever No. 2 will control gas gas turbine control lever.
turbine speed only. Under Gas Turbine Maneuvering Mode, Hold mode selector lever No. 7 to Gas
the gas turbine speed is limited to protect against over- Turbine position for 4 seconds and release.
torquing the propeller shafts. The system is now fully automatic and in approximate-
Levers 2, 3, and 4 operate cams to control the speed ly 50 seconds the Pilothouse operator will have gas turbine
and propeller pitch air signals. These cams were cut to speed and propeller pitch control on lever No. 2. The
match vessel requirements after extensive sea trials on the diesels will be automatically declutched and returned to
first vessel, the PGM 84. idle speed.

4
(d) Gas Turbine Maneuver Control Station transfer control
Emergency station transfer control which, in
When under Gas Turbine mode of control, the Pilot- event of damage to the control system forward
house operator can, at any time, elect to go to Gas Turbine of the engine room, allows the EOS operator
Maneuver Mode. The Pilothouse operator will -- to take imrnediate control, simultaneously
isolating all pneumatic lines forward of the
I. Position Gas Turbine Control Lever No. 2 engine room bulkhead in order to prevent
to give a vessel speed of approximately
loss of control air.
20 knots.
Position Diesel Control levers No. 3 and Diesel clutch engage-disengage controls
Diesel "start" and "stop" controls
No. 4 to full ahead position.
Gas Turbine "start" and "stop" controls
Hold mode selector lever No. 6 to Gas
Turbine Maneuver position for 4 seconds
Gas Turbine clutch controls
and release.
The system will immediately change to GT Maneuver IX. FIVE PRINCIPAL CONTROL FEATURES
Mode. Levers No. 4 and 3 will control starboard and port
propeller pitch only and Lever No. 2 will control gas tur- The following five features of the control system have
bine speed only. been selected as key points in the overall success of the
PGM propulsion control system:
The Gas Turbine power is limited to slightly more
5% Lever Match before Station Transfer
than top diesel power under the Gas Turbine Maneuvering
Mode. Pilothouse Starting of Gas Turbine

(e) Return to Gas Turbine Control


Gas Turbine Maneuvering Mode
Propeller Pitch Trimmer
The Pilothouse operator will --
Position Gas Turbine Control Lever No. 2 to Gas Turbine or Diesel Speed Interrupt
approximately 1/3 ahead. The need for the features, why they are important and
Position Diesel Control levers No. 3 and how the problems were solved will be covered.
4 to full ahead.
Hold the mode selector lever No. 6 ta 1. 5% Lever Match before Station Transfer
"normal" for 4 seconds.
The problem here is to interlock two remote pneuma-
The mode of control will immediately transfer to Gas tic control stations so that there can be no violent vessel
Turbine Mode providing full Gas Turbine control of speed reaction to a control station transfer. Without the 5% lever
and pitch on lever No. 2. match interlock, a station transfer could be made, for ex-
ample, from full ahead Gas Turbine Mode at one station to
(f) Return to Diesel Control
full astern at the second station. The effect would be vio-
The Pilothouse operator wi I I -- lent and, in fact, would be the same as a crash reversal.
Position Gas Turbine Control lever No. 2 The pneumatic circuit developed to solve this problem
to the ahead transfer detent of approximately is shown on Fig. 10. A pneumatic regulator, driven by a
19 knots. cam, was provided for each control lever in order to read
Position Diesel Control levers No. 3 and 4 lever position. The cam provides a straight line pressure
to full ahead position. curve, such that at full astern the position pressure is 10 psi,
Hold mode selector lever No. 7 to Diesel neutral 50 psi, and full ahead 90 psi. The position regula-
Mode for 4 seconds and release. tor pressures are applied to three spring center-supply center
balance valves - one for the Starboard Diesel, Lever No. 4;
The gas turbine throttle will automatically be return-
one for the Port Diesel, Lever No. 3; and one for the Gas
ed to idle and the gas turbine clutches disengaged. The
diesel clutches will be engaged and the throttles brought up Turbine, Lever No. 2. The EOS position pressures are sup-
plied to one end of the balance valves, and the Pilothouse
to full speed. The transfer takes place immediately.
position pressures are supplied to the other end of the bal-
The gas turbine is left running at idle RPM until the ance valves.
EOS operator shuts it down. This is to allow for a cooling
period. The EOS operator turns off the Gas Turbine Ready The station transfer air signal must pass through all
switch which prevents an inadvertent gas turbine clutch re- three valves. The position regulators are not supplied when
engagement. that particular mode lever is not in use. For example - we
are in Diesel Mode, the diesel position regulators are sup-
plied at the EOS and Pilothouse stations but the gas turbine
VIII. EOS CONTROL position regulators are not supplied. The gas turbine spring
The EOS station operator has the same five main con-
centered balance valve, with no pressure on either end, is
therefore in centered position and will pass the transfer sig-
trol levers as shown on Fig. 7, operating as outlined above.
Operation from the EOS is by telegraphed instructions from nal. Approxiniately a 4 psi pressure differential is required
to move the spring center-supply center balance valves off
the bridge. The EOS operator has, in addition to the 5
center position. When moved off the center position in
main control levers, the following controls:
either direction, the 4-way balance valves block the trans-

5
fer signal; the diesel levers must be matched so that the The gas turbine starts and the clutch en-
position pressure signals are within 4 psi for corresponding gagement speed switch is made, and clutch
levers in order for the transfer signal to pass through. engagement begins. Engagement time is
approximately 7 seconds.
How does the operator know what he must match to?
The position pressure regulator, in addition to supplying Gas Turbine clutch engagement is indicated
one end of the spring centered balance valve, supplies one by proximity switches within the gas turbine
feed I ine of a duplex gage at the Pilothouse and EOS sta- clutches. When both clutches are engaged,
tions. The corresponding position regulator at the other a solenoid valve is actuated to transfer Mode
station supplies the second feed line of the duplex gage at of Control from Diesel to Gas Turbine, de-
the Pilothouse and EOS stations. The operators now have activating the diesel control levers, Items 3
a duplex gage for the two diesel control levers and the gas and 4, and activating the turbine lever,
turbine lever at both control stations. One pointer reads Item 2.
local lever position, the other reads remote lever position.
Remember that only the position regulators corresponding to The diesel overrunning clutches are dis-
the mode of control are supplied, and therefore, only the engaged, the pneumatic clutch pressure
duplex gage pointers showing must be matched to accom- reduced to 15 psi, and the diesel speed
plish station transfer. For example: reduced to idle automatically.
Diesel Mode - Match pointers on the two Gas Turbine propeller pitch and speed con-
diesel duplex gages only. trol are available under the Gas Turbine
Gas Turbine Mode - Match only the pointers Control Lever No. 2.
on the gas turbine duplex gage.
In addition to automatic gas turbine start from the
Gas Turbine Maneuvering Mode - All three Pilothouse or EOS stations, the EOS operator also has man-
duplex gages are operating and all ual gas turbine start and clutch engagement switches.
three must be matched for control
station transfer. 3. Gas Turbine Maneuvering Mode
The duplex gages also serve as the engine order tele-
The design thought here was to provide vessel maneu-
graph between the Pilothouse and the EOS.
verability in case of trouble with one or both diesels. Un-
der Gas Turbine Mode, the propeller pitch is controllable in
2. Pilothouse Starting of Gas Turbine
the ahead or astern direction but the pitch on both propel-
The original decision to make gas turbine starting a lers is always the same. Under Gas Turbine Maneuvering
fully automatic Pilothouse operation was made in order to Mode, the pitch on the propellers is independently adjust-
save time in getting the PGM ready for high speed opera- able.
tion. The system allows for the gas turbine to be on
"Ready" (Ready Light "on", turbine not running) for long The problem in the Gas Turbine Maneuvering Mode is
periods, and at any time the Pilothouse operator can ini- to protect the propeller shafts from being over-torqued.
tiate gas turbine start and be on gas turbine control in 50 For example - if the port propeller was positioned to full
seconds. This is the time required to start the gas turbine, ahead pitch and then the gas turbine speed increased to full,
bring it up to speed, and to engage the clutches. the starboard screw would attempt to absorb 14,000 HP.
The design requirements are only 7,000 HP. Therefore, in
The Gas Turbine start is initiated by the Mode Selec- order to provide the needed shaft protection, the turbine
tor Lever, Fig. 6, Item 7. The lever is held to GT Mode speed is limited in the ahead direction to provide a maxi-
for 4 seconds and then released. mum speed of approximately 22 knots. If the pitch on
The rest of the cycle, turbine start, turbine clutch either screw is in the reverse direction, the turbine speed is
engagement and control mode transfer is automatic. The further reduced.
main control problem is to delay transfer of mode from The control problem is to sort out control supply air
Diesel to Gas Turbine until the turbine clutches have so that --
engaged. During this period, mode of control must remain Gas Turbine lever No. 2 controls gas turbine
under Diesel. - speed only.
Diesel levers No. 3 and 4 control diesel
The gas turbine starting sequence is as follows:
pitch only.
1. Holding the mode selector lever No. 7 to Lever position regulators indicate position
gas turbine position for 4 seconds sends a of all three control levers.
pneumatic signal to close a pressure switch
The Gas Turbine Maneuvering Mode has proven to be
initiating the turbine electro-hydraulic
very successful. Some of the operators prefer making land-
starting circuit. The pneumatic signal also
ing under GT Maneuver Mode of Control rather than in the
closes a pressure switch setting up the tur-
Diesel Mode of Control.
bine clutch engagement electric circuit.
The electric circuit, however, is not com- Propeller Pitch Trimmer
pleted until the speed switch on the first
reduction gear is closed. During this The Pitch Trimmer Control system is a means of reduc-
period, mode of control remains with the ing the pitch on the inboard screw when in a turn.
diesels.

6
The Pitch Trimmer has proven beneficial in two ways: The reason for the Speed Interrupt is that the propel-
ler pitch change from full ahead to full astern requires 7
The turning radius is reduced.
seconds while speed change is very fast. For example - the
The propeller shaft loads are kept vessel is in a maneuvering condition, backing down with
more nearly in balance. full astern pitch and 1/3 speed. The operator would like to
When the PGM is operating under full speed Gas Tur- stop the vessel quickly and positions the controls to full
bine Mode, the propeller shaft loading is approaching max- ahead. The result is that the engine speed starts up; howev-
imum allowable torque. By reducing the pitch on the in- er, the actual pitch is still astern for 3-1/2 seconds and the
board screw in proportion to the turn, inboard shaft over- vessel receives additional thrust astern when it is not desired.
torque was prevented. The action of the speed interrupt circuit would be to cut the
engine speed signal to "idle" until the actual pitch passes
The control design approach was to provide an air through the zero pitch setting. At that point, the speed sig-
signal controlled by the rudder angle. One signal for a nal is allowed to pass and, therefore, all of the propeller
port turn and a second signal for a starboard turn. This was thrust is in the desired direction.
done using a drag link to the rudder arm and connecting a
cam shaft operating two regulators. The port turn regulator The actual propeller pitch position is read by a drag
delivers a 0-10 psi air signal depending on the degree of link connected to the pitch position pointer on the pitch
the port turn. The starboard regulator delivers a similar servo control box, see Fig. 11. The drag link operates
signal for a starboard turn. cammed pilot valves to deliver a signal to break the speed
lines when the position is wrong.
The pitch trimmer signals are then used to bias the
corresponding pitch signal in a downward direction. For The result is that the vessel can be handled quickly
example - the full speed gas turbine pitch pressure signal is under maneuvering conditions without the danger of power
60 psi. If the operator puts the vessel in a 100 turn, the being applied in a wrong direction.
pitch trimmer signal is 5 psi. The trimmer signal will re-
duce the pitch signal to 55 psi. The pitch on the inboard The systems, circuits and features discussed have been
screw will be reduced. thoroughly checked and tested as trials have been completed
5. Gas Turbine or Diesel Speed Interrupt on two of the PGM Class vessels. The PGM 84 USS ASHE-
VILLE and PGM 85 USS GALLUP have been commissioned
The purpose of the Speed Interrupt Circuit is to hold into the U.S. Navy as the forerunners of what shows every
the gas turbine or diesel speed signal to zero when the ac- indication of becoming an efficient and growing class of
tual pitch is in the opposite direction to that called for by fighting ships.
the operator.

F IG. 1
LOCATION OF PROPULSION
CONTROL UNITS

7
LIST OF COMPONENTS

58 CRYPTO RM EMERG EXIT ALARM


69 I CK CIRC IND LTS

105 WINDOW WIPER CONT SW (SEVEN)


106 CHEMICAL ATTACK ALARM SW
107 COLLISION ALARM SW
108 GENERAL ALARm SW
110 BLACK LT CONO SW
129 IC VOICE SWITCH UNIT

FOR LIST OF CONSOLE TOP COMPONENTS


SEE FIG. 6

FIG. 2
PILOTHOUSE CONSOLE

POR MATERIAL CALLOUT:

ON CONSOLE TOP - SEE FIG.7

ON FRONT PANEL - SEE F IG. a

ON SIDE PANEL - SEE FIG. 9

FIG.3
EOS CONSOLE PICTURIAL

8
x4USr
OUT
ITA/N
-1

L A/R //V
TRANSVERSE
SUPPORT S/N/LAR
TO J.

PLATFORM DIC -2

GAS TURBINE INSTALLATION


FIG4

0 Darn,
rere.d.0 GSA* UrVIT
011Serc olvv.
04,41-
dielf new.",
41. 1500 see,
0 OWNS. OrerOuCrIp. 00.4

.F.A41

IA DSI. MODE (6) G T MODE


F IG. 5
PROPULSION SYSTEM ARRG'T

9
1212 7,7
LIST OF COMPONENTS

HELM
LILj
202
2 GT CONT LEVER
3 Da. CONT LEVER - PORT
4 Da CONT LEVER - STEC
6 NORM/GT MANUV PRPLN MODE SRL 00220
7 DSL/GT PRPLN MODE SEL

15 STA TRANS INIT IND LT


16 GT MANUV PRPLN mODE IND LT . - a,
17 NORm PRpLN mODE IND LT ,
18 GT PRPLN MODE IND LT 3 04
19 DSL PRPLN MODE IND LT (46
20 PORT DSL CLUTCH ENG IND LT
21
22
PORT DSL CLUTCH DISENG IND LT
STBD DSL CLUTCH ENG IND LT 4
134
liRb
23 STBD OIL CLUTCH DISENO IND LT
24 PORT GT CLUTCH ENG IND LT 102

)
25 PORT GT CLUTCH DISENG IND LT Co 01) (4, ,0
26
27
28
STBD GT CLUTCH ENG IND LT
STBD GT CLUTCH DISENG IND LT
GT READY TO START IND LT
\\ .
>h,o,
341.! ES Orn,

31 STEERING MOTOR OVLD ALARM LT -.


37 OPER STA ORDER ir4o LT - PH
38 OPER STA ORDER IND LT - EOS
39 PRPLN MODE ORDER IND LT - HISPD
40 PRPLN MODE ORDER IND LT - GT MANUV
41 PRPLN MODE ORDER IND LT - CRUISE 201 RUDDER ANGLE IND
42 GT RUN IND LT 202 SHIP'S COURSE IND
43 STEERING POWER AVAIL IND LT 203 HELm ANGLE IND
44 STEERING PUMP ON IND LT 204 MAGNETIC COMPASS
45 PORT OIL RUN IND LT 206 GT CONT IND
46 STBD OSL RUN IND LT 206 PORT DSL CONT IND
207 STBD DSL CONT IND
101 STEERING CONT SW 208 PORT PITCH IND
102 NFU CONT SW 209 STBD PITCH IND
103 NAV INO LT DIMMER CONT SVv 210 PORT SHAFT TACH
104 PROP IND LT DIMMER CONT SW 211 STBD SHAFT TACH
127 PRPLN CONT LOC ORDER Sw 212 PWR TURB TACH
PRPLN mODE ORDER SW
FIG.
128 213 PWR TURB INLET TEMP IND
154 WINDSHIELD WASHER CONT SW 245 PH CONT AIR SUP PILOTHOUSE CONSOLE -TOP

OP.

F.0 9
0411,
Erg0 9 a!)) 12

0 4")
170 120 121111 o o g:;)

eo 117
_

e (6-.4

(6-!)
10

114 117
eIII
12
Lmj. 3

8
11
00O
[4,741 " O0

LIST OF COMPONENTS

2 GT CONT LEVER 24 PORT GT CLUTCH ENG IND LT 1.2 STBD DSL STOP SW
3 DSL CONT LEVER - PORT 25 PORT GT CLUTCH DISENG IND LT 13 GT CLUTCH MAN/AUTO SEL SW
4 GIL CONT LEVER - STBD 26 STBD GT CLUTCH ENG IND LT 14 GT CLUTCH P/S/BOTH SEL SW
5 EOS/PH OPER STA SEL 27 STBD GT CLUTCH DISENG IND LT 15 GT CLUTCH ACTUATION SW
6 NORM/GT MANUv PRPLN MODE SEL 28 GT READY TO START IND LT 16 GT EMERG STOP SW
7 DSL/GT PRPLN MODE SEL 29 GT 1NTLKS CLOSED IND LT 17 GT FAULT RESET SW
8 EMERG OPER STA SEL 30 PH COMMAND ALARM LT 18 GT START/STOP/RUN SEL SW
9 DSL CLUTCH CONT - PORT 31 STEERING MOTOR OVLD ALARM LT 19 GIL. O. LOW PRESS INTLK BYP SW
O DSL CLUTCH CONT - STBD 32 DC POWER AVAIL IND LT 20 GT MOTORING SW
1 DSL START LEVER 33 SHAFT TURN GEAR ENG ALARM LT 21 GT wASHDOWN SW
34 SHAFT TURN GEAR DISENG IND LT 22 GT ANTIICING SW
5 STA TRANS INIT IND LT 35 PORT SHAFT LOCKED ALARM LT 23 GT VIBRATION SEL SW
6 GT mANUv PRPLN mODE IND LT 36 STBD SHAFT LOCKED ALARm LT 24 PRPLN mODE TRANS TEST SW
7 NORM PRPLN MODE IND LT 37 OPER STA ORDER IND LT - PH 25 RED GEAR ERG TEMP SEL SW
8 GT PRPLN MODE IND LT 38 OPER STA ORDER IND LT - EOS 26 PH COMMAND ALARM SIL SW
9 DSL PRPLN MODE iND LT 39 PRPLN MODE ORDER IND LT - HI SPEED 27 PRPLN CONT LOC ORDER SW
20 PORT DSL CLUTCH ENG IND LT 40 PRPLN MODE ORDER IND LT - GT MANUV 28 PRPLN MODE ORDER SW
21 PORT DSL CLUTCH D1SENG IND LT 41 PRPLN MODE ORDER IND LT - CRUISE 29 IC VOICE SWITCH UNIT
22 STBD DSL CLUTCH ENG IND LT 69 1 CK CKT IND LIS 30 ENGINE RM CALL BELL SW
23 STBD DSL CLUTCH D1SENG IND LT Ill PORT DSL STOP SW 31 GT READY TO START SW FIG.7
EOS CONSOLE - 'TOP

lo
LIST OF COMPONENTS

205 GT CONT IND 221 PWR TURB L. O. PRESS GAUGE


206 PORT DSL CONT IND 222 GT L. O. PRESO GAUGE
207 STBD DSL CONT IND 223 PORT DSL TACH
208 PORT PITCH IND 224 STBD DSL TACH
209 STBD PITCH IND 225 DSL PYROMETER
210 PORT SHAFT TACH 226 RED GEAR L. O. PRESS GAUGE
211 STBD SHAFT TACH 227 PORT DSL L. O. PRESS GAUGE
213 PWR TURB INLET TEMP IND 228 STBD DSL L. O. PRESS GAUGE
214 PWR TURB TACH 229 PORT DSL J.W. TEMP IND
215 GAS GEN TACH 230 STBD DSL J. W. TEMP IND
216 GT FUEL SUP PRESS GAUGE 231 PORT PROP HYD PRESS
217 GT START HYD PRESS GAUGE 232 STBD PROP HYD PRESS
218 GT L. O. COOLER TEMP IN 233 RED GEAR L.O. TEMP "IN" IND FIG.8
219 GT L. O. COOLER TEMP OUT 234 RED GEAR L. O. TEMP "OUT" IND EOS CONSOLE -FRONT PANEL
220 GT VIS IND 235 RED GEAR BRG TEMP IND

LIST OF COMPONENTS

47 RED GEAR L. O. STE, PUMP NO. 2 RUN IND LT 38 AIR COMP NO. 2 STOP SW
48 RED GEAR L.O. STBY PUMP NO. I RUN IND LT 39 AIR COAAP NO. I START SW
49 F.O. BOOST 8 TRANS PUMP NO. 2 RUN INO LT 40 AIR COMP NO. I STOP SW
50 F.O. BOOST 8 TRANS PUMP NO. I RUN IND LT I MIST ELIMINATOR FAN START SW
51 .3T COMP SUP FAN RUN INO LT 42 MIST ELIMINATOR FAN STOP SW
52 AIR COMP NO. 2 RUN IND LT 3 GT L. O. HI TEMP ALARM SIL SW
53 AIR COMP NO. I RUN IND LT 44 GT L. O. LOW PRESS ALARM SIL SW
54 MIST ELIMINATOR FAN RUN IND LT 45 GT FLAMEOUT ALARM SIL SW
55 GEAR L.O. HTR ON IND LT 46 GAS GEN OVSPD ALARM SIL SW
56 PWR TURB L. O. PLIMP RUN IND LT 47 PWR TURB OVSPD ALARM SIL SW
57 ALARM PWR AVAIL IND LT 48 PWR TURB HI INLET TEMP ALARM SIL SW
58 GT L. O. HI TEMP ALARM LT 49 GT LOW FUEL INLET PRESS ALARM SIL SW
59 GT L. O. LOW PRESS ALARM LT 50 RED GEAR L. O. HI TEMP ALARM SIL SW
60 GT FLAMEOUT ALARM LT 51 CONT AIR LOW PRESS ALARM SIL Sw
61 GAS GEN OVSPD ALARM LT 52 SALINITY ALARM SIL SW
62 PWR TURB OVSPD ALARM LT 53 ALARM RESET SWITCH
63 PWR TURB HI INLET TEMP ALARM LT
64 GT LOW FUEL INLET PRESS ALARM LT 236 STM PRESO GAUGE
65 RED GEAR L.O. HI TEMP ALARM LT 237 AIR RECEIVER PRESS GAUGE
66 CONT AIR LOW PRESS ALARM LT 238 SS AIR PRESS
67 SALINITY ALARM LT 239 HYD OIL RESERVOIR TEMP IND
240 FW PUMP NO.2 DISCH PRESS
32 RED GEAR L.O. STBY PUMP NO. 2 CONT SW 241 FW PUMP NO.1 DISCH PRESS
33 RED GEAR L.O. STBY PUMP NO. / CONT SW 242 DSL START HYD PRESS
34 F.O. BOOST 8, TRANS PUMP NO. 2 CONT SW 243 SYS CONT AIR SUP
35 9.0. BOOST 8 TRANS PUMP NO. 1 CONT SW 244 ROS CONT AIR SUP
36 GT COMP SUP FAN CONT SW 245 PH CONT AIR SUP
37 AIR COMP NO. 2 START SW 246 ALARM BELL

FIG. 9
EOS CONSOLE - SIDE PANEL

11
,--/f/SAL/GNITENT
LOS CONSOLE .0G/A,E. X GAGE AGAR,/ spwrov P/I_OrNOC /SA- CONSOGAT
E

S TA 770N
TRANSFER
.ALANCE OL/T4G/T
VAGVE

4./

STA7/ON t k.
TRANSFER
/NPu r
1 T

STATION TRANSFER CIRCUIT


FIG. 10

- WAY VALVE
TO GOVER/VCR
SPEE0 /../NE pos/r/oNER
10-60 PS/

SPEED M./74-Ig/24./P7
!..7A//7

/YEC/-K
J. //VA"

,7- li/AY VALVE


AS'A' //V EX.,/
r/on,' Our ON SER.:/0 .60 Y

S.4/4/17-L4
VAL. ;/..47
ANSAZ1.../NE 0 OR 10c7j
AS 7.54)A., LAVE 0 04' CO1 /S/
SPEED INTERRUPT CIRCUIT
FIG.11

12
No. 61-358

UNITED STATES ARMY SHALLOW DRAFT BOAT PROGRAM


by

JOHN F. SARGENT
U. S. Army Engineer Research and Development Laboratories
Fort Belvoir, Virginia

Paper No.
67-358

AIAA/SNAME Advance marine


vehicies meeting
NORFOLK, VIRGINIA/MAY 22-24, 1967
First publication rights reserved by American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1290 Avenue of the Americas, New York, N. Y. 10019
and Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, 74 Trinity Place, New York, N. Y. 10006
Abstracts may be published without permission if credit is given to author and to AIAA/SNAME. (Member Price-75c; Nonmember Price$1.50)
1.08, 4.22
UNITED STATES ARMY SHALLOW DRAFT BOAT PROGRAM

John F. Sargent
U. S. Army Engineer Research and Development Laboratories
Fort Belvoir, Virginia

Abstract capability of negotiating densely vegetated swamps.


Transportability by airlift, parachute
The increased emphasis on counterinsurgency drop, or manhandling for short distances.
type operations forced the Army to consider means Sound level to be of a minimum compatible
to improve logistics in swamps and inundated areas. with the economics and propulsive efficiency.
The intent of this consideration was to complement
aerial movement of men and supplies. Although this These Characteristics had to be combined in an
type of ground operation has a long history in mil- item that was simple to operate and maintain, eco-
itary annals, the circumstances that currently pre- nomical to construct, and easily reproducible.
vail force an urgency to improve mobility in that
environment which is unprecedented. The unit of Prior to prosecution of the SIR, however, the
load arbitrarily established was a ton of supplies Army marine research activity was directed to eval-
or a squad of troops, depending on the mission. uate a group of pneumatic boats for specified
The end item expected to carry that load had to be limited warfare missions in addition to a group of
simple, cheap and easily reproduced. Conventional pre-selected boats for an interim standard craft
boat designs tested in-heavy watergrowths proved for the above requirement.
totally inadequate; consequently, a major part of
the effort wes directed to obtaining a propulsion Analysis of the required Characteristics left
system which was capable of swamp negotiation as considerable discretion to the developer in his
well as good open-water performance. In the pro- definition. The combination of payload and draft
pulsion study, waterjets, sine disc, paddle wheels, established the hull geometry adequately and the
rule propellers, and the airscrew were tested and open-water speed left no doubt as to what was de-
evaluated. The use of a unique propulsion system sired. However, the definition of densely vege-
was further compounded by boundary requirements of tated swamps was arbitrary and the need for man-
minimal navigatioeal draft, of envelope size com- handling short distances was open to interpretation.
patible with surface and aerial delivery, and of a Furthermore, the restriction on noise level was
weight allowing manhandling over limited distances indefinitive. Consequently, after considerable
overland. Selection was fin.11y narrowed to the coordination and literature searches, the following
waterjet and the airscrew propelled boat. Devel- conclusions were reached. Predicated on "modus
opment of these two craft is currently in the final operandi" of the user, the short-distance portaging
phase of tests and evaluations for field use. of the boat was necessary to traverse dry spots,
dykes, sand bars and similar obstacles when in
I. Introduction pursuit or ambush. Likewise, it was recognized
that the lowest sound level achieved with small
A Presidential Board convening in 1958 consid, commercial craft, powered by an eighteen-horsepower
ered the many factors influencing military opera- outboard engine acoustically damped, ranged between
tions in Southeast Asia. One of the major prob- 60-70 decibels at 100 feet away including back-
lens vas the need to improve mobility in an en- ground noise; this emphasized the impossibility of
vironment which ranged from mountain country to silent qperation considering the need for a larger
humid swamps. An outgrowth of that phase of study engine and uncontrollable hull noises. This also
involved mobility over inundated areas, inland riv- raised grave consideration of high speed to com-
ers andewamps. Emphasizing that need was the well- pensate for early noise detection. The definition
recognized increase in enemy military movements of dense vegetation was arbitrarily agreed upon by
during rainy seasons which not only swelled the the selection of the Chicks:hominy River test site,
natural arterials of drainage but also averflowed described below.
into adjacent low grounds. These Sh.11ow flooded
areas provided a natural maneuver area for indige- Test Site Selection
nous river craft which were built for sh.11ow-water
operations. The frustration at seeing the enemy Prior to a realistic evaluation of the pre-
pole away in a sampan from a high-performance deep- selected craft, a test site typical of the envi-
water craft grounded on a mudbank is easy to under- ronment for its intended use had to be selected.
stand. As a result, a Small Development Require- A reconnaisance of potential areas in the Central
ment (SDR) was initiated in 1963 directing the cog- Atlantic Region of the United States resulted in
nizant Army Agency to develop watercraft which the selection of a site in the Chickahominy River
would have the capability of nullifying guerrilla near Providence Forge, Virginia (Figures 1 and 2).
activities in this environment, now labelled Riv- In addition to the convenienee of proximity, that
erine operations. Characteristics which were spe- site in full summer bloom presented such a diversity
cified to be incorporated in the craft included and density of swamp vegetation as to afford a
the following: Challenging test site. A botannical survey re-
sulted in the conclusion that there was a similar-
A cargo capacity of 2000 pounds or twelve ity between this site and swamps of Southeast Asia,
(12) lightly-equipped combat troops. such as the Mekong Delta, despite the greater
A navigational draft of eight (8) inches climactic difference. The longer-grewing season
when fully loaded. of the Mekong Delta indicated a greater vegetative
An open-water speed of fifteen (15) knots, development, but recent field reports showed a
minimum. striking similarity. Although the Chickahomigy
A propulsion system which provided the River empties into the James River, a 1942 dam

1
formed the impoundment of fresh water preventing was not uncommon for a root of this plant to demon-
the entry of brackish water by tidal action. The strate a breaking strength of about four-hundred
shoreline of the Chickehominy River is generously pounds. The most innocent-appearing trail through
provided with dense stands of aquatic growth con- these stands of swamp growth abound in this genera
sisting of at least twenty-five genera of plants. which ride the propeller stream through the low-
Certain of these plants form floating vegetational pressure area into the propeller and gear case.
islands twenty to thirty feet in diameter that form The resulting fouling quickly occurs (Figure 3),
impassable obstacles to most water traffic. The stalls the engine, and renders the boat helpless.
following reactions invariably result in immobili-
zation of any watercraft daring this Lorelei:

Increased resistance and grounding.


-Paling ahead of the bow.
Fouling of the propeller, shaft and all
projections on the iitrersed hull.

Figure 3

Of a less serious nature, but still an annoyance,


the duckweed released miniature leaves that formed
solid surface scums in open circulating water sys-
tems causing engine overheating. In all boats,
keel coolers were a must for water-cooled engines
to avoid this condition.
Figure 1
Initial Approach

Initially, to keep development costs low, vari-


ous commercial off-the-shelf equipment was used.0)
Except for a propulsion system using a 100-horse-
power diesel engine, driving a weedless type pro-
peller, this austere approadh was eventnplly ter-
minated due to the unfavorable swamp performance.
These initial evaluations were only indirectly re-
lated to the subject of this paper and are cursorily
discussed to present some of the engineering and
environmental data obtained during evaluations of
the latter group of boats.

In general, these boats were of fiberglass


construction, fifteen to seventeen feet long, and
powered by outboard propulsion units ranging from
18 to 55 horsepower. To overcome the obstacles
imposed by dense vegetation, various forms of pro-
pulsions were evaluated, including the long shaft
drive (Figure 4), rule propeller (Figures 5 and 6)
Figure 2 and the sine disc propeller (Figure 7).

Small craft would actually run aground on the The long shaft drive was simply an extension of
vegetational islands although in water depths of a conventional outboard shaft, cantilevered close
five to six feet. Boats with a sharp, deep prow to the surface, to allow the propeller to operate
would bale the vegetation ahead of it, straining
thereby using the wake wave for submergence to
the submergents of the island until they separated
avoid the bulk of vegetation4 The use of a con-
from their taproots; the small, free-floating is-
ventional propeller at the end of this shaft is
land resulting would then be pushed into an adja-
common practice in the Far East, but results ob-
cent patdh until the drag exceeded thrust, immobi-
tained during these tests indicated little anti-
lizing the boat. In particular, a plant callpd
fouling improvement over vertical shafts. Conse-
Arrow Arum presented the most serious obstacle to
quently, rule propellers were tested on the long
marine propellers. This growth is a submergent
shafts, both worm type and bladed type. The rule
and averages approximately five to six feet in
propeller is formed by continuous helical blades
length; although extremely flexible and responsive
of specified length. In this case, 7-inch diame-
to changes in current, it is surprisingly strong
ter blades were used having two fixed pitches of
showing a consistency similar to sisal hemp. It

2
for structural strength a weight permlty must be
4.7 and 4 inches. During this application a hull
of 14-1/2 feet length, 7-foot beam and displaoement assumed. Compromises in both these areas were re-
quired to tailor their application to this use.
of approximately 900 pounds was tested using a 6-
horsepower outboard motor. The basic purpose of An experimental investigatiod2) indicated that for
this test was to determine the capability of the a full scale model the weight and vibration involved
rule propeller to operate continuously in heavily would penalize the design. Concurrently with the
above study, two sets of sine disc propellers were
vegetated waters. Open-water speed was approxi-
Complete stoppage of evaluated -- 27-inch diameter set at forty degree
mately three miles per hour.
the propulsion plant was rare, except when the pro- angle of pitch and a thirty-six indh diameter set
peller was deliberately ramm.d into Arrow Arum root at forty degree angle. Using a 50-horsepower en-
mass. However, the effort to control the tilted gine, a speed of approximately 4 knots was achieved
motor-shaft assembly in adaition to motor noises at an engine speed of 1500 rpm using the 27-inch
accelerated operator fatigue. Since the unit was disc; higher engine speeds proved ineffective with
excessive cascading and a drop in boat speed.
jury-rigged, a minor development could correct this
deficiency; but the efficiency needed for high- Using the 36-inch diameter discs, boat speed peaked
water speed was believed far too inadequate for at 6-1/2 knots at an engine speed of 1500 rpm. The
splash from the disc action was considerable and
consideration.
noisy, throwing water into the hull at both forward
and astern operations which necessitated a splash
guard. In swamm operations, the discs operated
satisfactorily, cutting through the vegetation with
little reduction in thrust. Subsequent use of a
disc with a 30-degree pitch allowed an increase in
engine speed with less cascading for the same boat
for all
speed. Steering was inadequate however
disc propulsion due to a combination of turbulence
induced by the discs and buildup of water growth
on the leading edge of the rudder. As a result of
paddle wheel propulsion potential and problems of
complexity, speed, weight, and vibration associated
with the sine disc, evaluation of the sine disc for
propulsion was discontinued.

Figure 4

Figure 6

Following the initial evaluation, larger com-


mercial craft were investigated in the sum ,r of
1963 during the swemp-growth season. Basic Char-
acteristics are synopsized in Table I.
Figure 5

The Sine Disc propeller is a rotatable disc set


at some angle to its axis of rotation. Again, the
purpose of this evaluation was to provide a means
whereby swamp vegetation could be negotiated, recog-
nizing the poor propulsive efficiency in open water
compared with a well-designed screw propeller. In
this application the sine disc axis of rotation is
pervendicumr to direction of travel and only a
portion of the disc (which is a continuous helical
blade) below the axis is submerged. Since the sine
disc is mounted at an ann to its shaft, an un-
desirable side thrust i5s produced which had to be
balanced by a disc 180 out of phase to cancel out
this component of force. For hydrodynamic effi-
Figure 7
ciencies the discs should be relatively large, and

3
HULL DRAG
BOAT DESCRIPTION
(hull fiberglass, engine gasoline-except as noted)
SPEED
(m01)
P?6 P H LOALED(L1S.) OPNL
WAT
tdintil...
oCui, ro 'OPEN
BULL PROPULSION -.1
2 m 53r NAM SWAMP (LBS)

k. - LOA 111'
, ' L AI pRop 1-4 1-4 ZZS r- 'Z_'', MI @ 7n1Ph

100 hp @ Weedless
A 1250 20'-0" 7'-10" 2'-6" imT15.7543,i 18 11 33 88 2200 500 2000 3600

2,-6 14E1.600%1 Teuet 18 8 13 82 680 300 2200 2750


B 1350 18' -6" 7' -0"

weedless
110 hp e 3.75" x 30 20 20 * * *
C 1250 20' -0" 7' -lo" 2' -6"
1900
4400 rpm 11.5
Paddles
D 23,, 160 hp @ & Std. 13 10 27 87 1650 715 1250 3230
960 18' -6" 7' -0"
4500 rPm 14" x14"

E 8o hp @ SM.
500 16'-4" 6'-6" 24"
4700 13i:, x 29 14 24 89 600 420 2000 1210

., hn @ Std.
F 500 16' -4" 6' -6" 24" 3g80 - 10.25 x 17 7 17 88 425 315 875 1400
11"
2000 160 hp C. W§te;jet
G Weld.Al. 23'-3" 9'-9" 2'-4- 4500 rpm m-1/ 15 8 lo 89 goo 1000 * 3400
Diem
TABLE 1 RESULTS OF TEST CONDUCTED IN 1963 * Tests not conducted

A 100-horsepower diesel engine driving a weediess


blade propeller, boat A mentioned below, performed
admirably in uwamp areas Ance it relied on brute
torque with a propeller adaptable to this environ-
ment. Occasion.11y, this system would collect suf-
ficient growths on the shaft and gear case to render
it ineffective until, by an astern operation and
repeated hard-over-steer cycling, the growths would
unwind and slither off. But the major objection
associated with this design was the excessive navi-
gational draft (33 inches) which confined its opera-
tion to relatively deep waters. As a result, this
boat was used as a chase and safety boat during
subsequent tests. (Government restrictions prevent
public evaluations of competitive products, so a
verbal description of the boats tested follows be-
low). It should be noted that the method of opera-
tion, loading and certain military modifications
are not representative of the respective craft in
Figure 8
their design environment.

A synopsized review of these craft follows. Boat D (Figure 9) became an item of considerable
interest since it resurrected the paddle-wheel pro-
Boat A mentioned above proved the best swamp- pulsion wtich was believed a possible solution to
er but was slow and heavy. Boats B and G were the heavy growth. The paddles were 5" by 7-3/4"
waterjet propelled test beds, each with a different attached to a 35-inch effective diameter side-
approach to enable swamp operation; boat B was wheelers (one port, one starboard). Eight of these
fitted with an excessively large inbmkp opening paddles were attached to each sidewheel which turned
(ten to one ratio of opening to pump suction area) at approximately 133 rpm at full engine speed, pro-
to keep flow rates low at that point. Both boats ducing a boat speed of approximately 13 knots,
were obviously underpowered to attain the desired loaded. The relatively high rate of rotation was(3)
open-water speed, but the weedcutter innovation of dictated by the philosophy of using standard, shelf
boat B showed promise; whereas, the low-flow intake equipment. In this case an automotive differential
design demonstrated little improvement over a stand- transmission was instP11d whieh, due to the weight
ard inlet. (Figure 8) involved, prohibited consideration of another re-
duction gear. Also, the paddle wheel size was
Boat C was very similar to boat A except for restricted due to weight and silhouette. The ini-
the spark ignition engine. As uwamp tests eventu- tial installed power was 80 horsepower when paddie
ally demonstrated, the higher torque of the diesel wheels were the sole method of propulsion; this en-
engine proved to greater advantage and no further gine was replaced with a 160-horsepower unit upon
testing of boat C was conducted. incorporating a propeller drive with the paddle
wheel propulsion (Figure 10). As anticipated,
open-water speed of paddle wheel propulsion was
poor, necessitating the additional complexity
and weight of an augumentary outboard drive. In Boats E and F were test beds for a compact in-
swamp operations, boat D performed fairly well al- board-outboard unit that appeared quite attractive
though there were occasions when the sidewheels for satisfying a parallel requirement (viz., to
and hub (Figures 11 and 12) became heavily entwined develop an engine and propulsion kit for indige-
with growths; likewise the steering which was ac- nous craft) which was subsequently cancelled.
complished by brpking one side of the differential These craft operated very well both in open water
was inadequate for tortuous creek and stream opera- and swamps; but their obvious 1-imitations in both
tion. size and power, coupled with the philosophy of
avoiding development costs, precluded further pro-
secutions of their evaluation.

Figure 9 Figure 12

As a result of these engineering design tests,(4)


the following conclusions were formed:

None of the craft under test and evalua-


tion met all requirements specified.
A deviation from conventional marine pro-
pulsion was mandatory if swamp negotiation were to
be achieved. In this respect, the two concepts ap-
pearing most likely to economicRlly satisfy require-
ments of swamp operation, open-water speed, and
draft were the waterjet-propelled craft and the
airboat. In both concepts, the entire underwater
surface of the hull could be kept free of projec-
tions and the propulsion system could be kept free
of the water vegetation. Developments of the
Captive Air Bubble and the Archimedes Screw pro-
pelled craft were closely followed, but development
lead time and low-water speed, respectively, dis-
couraged their serious consideration.(s)
Figure 10
IV. Development of Waterjet Boats and Airboat

Accordingly, a parallel development of the water-


jet-propelled craft and the airboat concept was
recognized as a necessity. Each was to be tailored
to the requirements and still represent a relatively
low cost item. The waterjet-propelled craft concept
was to be evaluated on the basis of two separate
approaches, one involving a boat propelled by twin
commercial waterjets separately powered, and the
other a boat propelled by one large commercial
waterjet equipping both types with weedautters.
It was anticipated that the incorporation of a weed-
cutter having an external rotary mechanism may
interfere with flow pattern resulting in entrained
air in the pump suction, aggravating cavitation at
the higher pump speeds. This latter condition would
certainly hinder peak performance during open-water
operation; but, no alternate solution was feasible
which would enable swamp operation. Again, in com,
pliance with Government restrictions, the boats will
Figure 11 be identified as boat H and boat J.

5
Boat H used a commercial fiberglass hull which providing thrust in any direction. During tests,
had excellent sea-keeping capability. Boat J in- it was determined that the boat could maintain
corporated a special design hull of welded alumi- course with only one waterjet operational.
num which was very mefleuverable and, in general,
quite satisfactory. 3oth boats had similar dis-
placements, approximately 3400 pounds in the un-
loaded condition, although the wider beam of boat
J provided less draft in the loaded condition
(9-1/2 indhes compared with 11 indhes). Further-
more, the concentration of weight in the stern
caused a navigational draft of 13 inches in boat H.
Boat H is 23V-7" lonq with an e-o"beam (Figure
13); boat J is 231-g long with a 9'-9" beam
(Figure 14).

Figure 15

Figure 13

Figure 16

Propulsion system for boat J is a single water-


jet powered by a gasoline engine rated 280 horse-
power at 4400 rpm (Figure 17). A reduction
(1.5;1) is provided to reduce impeller speed to
2900 rpm, maximum, and a combination gear and belt
take off from the drive shaft is incorporated to
drive a rotary weedcutter (Figure 18). The inlet
is a fabricated aluminum section bolted to a small
Figure 14 sea Chest with an opening of approximately 182 sq.
in. The 12-1/2-inch diameter impeller pumps ap-
Propulsion system for boat H consisted of twin Proximately 15 Cu. ft. per sec. flow through a
disdharge nozzle of 33 sq. in. area. The weed-
waterjets (Figures 15 and 16), each separately
cutter lats initially installed on the inboard side
powered by a gasoline engine rated 110 horsepower
of the intske housing plate, but due to its inef-
at 4000 rpm. Each waterjet consists of a multi-
intake (eight tube suction off a sea chest opening fectiveness in this position, it was eventually
supplemented by an additional cutter on the out-
for optimum flow) providing 56 sq. in. intake area.
(The inboard cutter was retained to
A 7-indh diameter impeller pumps a 9.1 Cu. ft. per board side.
sec. flow through exdhangeable diseh.rge nozzles aid in priming the pump). The weedcutter was
driven at a speed of approximately 1000 rpm at full
varying from 10 to 15 sq. in. Eadh waterjet is
directly driven by its engine and includes a engine speed. Deaerator strips (Figure 19) forward
of the intake were provided to reduce the induction
clutched take-off to energize a rotary weedcutter
fitted exterLally to the intake housing plate at of entrained air set up by hull interaction. Also
the location of the pump inlet had to be kept well
the waterjet suction. Speed of the weedcutter was
forward to avoid recirculation during reversing;
700 rpm at full engine speed for optimum pocket for
reversing is accomplished by a reversing gate, or
protection of the weedcutter blades when beaching.
Engine cooling was provided by a commercial keel clamshell whidh is inefficient. A high backing
thrust is especislly important for beach retrac-
cooler. Control of the craft was unique in that a
rotatable nozzle was incorporated in the design tion and swamp extrication. The size of the keel

6
cooler was kept small by augmenting the cooler with was superior in close-in maneuvering such as docking,
chine tubes on the hull. where it could be walked in a tight berthing with
ease. In swamp. operation, boat H was superior to
boat J because the inboard weedcutter of the latter
failed to chop up the Arrow Arum in short lengths,
which would then wrap around the cutter shaft until
the size of the wrapping began to restrict inlet
flow. Boat E negotiated some of the more dense
stands by providing a bow load so as to induce a
slight trim by the head, and then proceeding at an
engine speed of approximately 2000 rpm. A subse-
quent modification to boat J incorporated outboard
installad weedcutters since the inboard weedcutter
was still needed to accelerate pump prime; full
field tests of this modification will not be com-
pleted until the season of swamp growth occurs next
summer. The weedcutters of both boats are left in
operation during open-water operations since the
loss in power from weedcutter engagement is negli-
gible in clear water.

In 1964, development of what is probably the


Figure 17
largest Inland-water airboat was initiated to meet
the requirements of this program. During the ori-
ginal phase of this program, airboats were not
considered since the user reportedly objected to
their use primnnily because of foiling by overhead
foliage and because of noise. Nevertheless, a de-
velopment was undertaken due to the airboat capa-
bility of negotiating gumbo mud and dense water-
growths. The airboat concept of course materialized
from the necessity to travel over the Everglades
country of Florida, the bayous of Louisiana, and
Texas swamps. Subsequent use over snow and ice
broadened its application and opened up areas pre-
viously believed impractical both here and in
foreign countries. The growth of the airboat paral-
lelled that of fast seagoing boats for the 1920 rum-
runners in that the element of lawlessness provided
a stimulus for improvement. Circa 1930, poachers
took a dim view of laws which limited moonlighting
for alligator hides. The Game Commission in Flori-
da took exception to their operations and a "Key-
stone Cops" chase resulted. Since the airboat was
the only vehicle that could traverse the shallow
swamps and grassland of the Florida Everglades, a
backyard design race ensued that culminated in the
air-cooled-engine powered craft we recognize today.
The typical airboat is a very low freeboard boat,
designed for calm waters,which is noisily driven by
an air propeller permitting a smooth underwater hull.
The propulsion assemblage is usually protected by
a framework bushguard to which a large grid wire
mesh is attached for protection from foliage. In
heavy, tall sawgrass a bow guard is also provided
and the operator is usually seated four to five
feet high for the necessary visibility. Hull ma-
terial varied over the spectrum, depending on
market economics and ground environment the boat
was expected to traverse. Initially wood and
riveted light-gage hulls of oversimplified box-type
hulls kept costs low despite high mortality rates,
and powering came from second hand engines and
airplane propellers which sometimes matched. There
were considerable differences of opinion as to the
optimum hull material which could skid over dams,
Open-water performance left little to Choose dikes, and even roads -- stainless steel bottoms
from since speed of both boats was approximately were preferred by the more affluent; galvanized
30 mph maximum and 20 mph in the loaded condition. steel sheet was generally usedi and aluminum --
Bollard pull for boat H was 1400 pounds and boat J despite its lightness -- had a tendency to drag
was 1800 pounds. However, the difficulty of con- in grass and sand more than other available ma-
trolling boat H during tight maneuvering was ex- terial. The advent of fiberglass, which lends
tremely poor due to force required to swivel these itself so well to mass production for small boats,
jets when under power. Boat J, on the other hand, found its way in the airboat market by its advan-

7
tage over austere metal hulls in permitting some tions and to insure successful swamp operations; a
initiative in hull design and, of course, providing flat spoon bow was incorporated, and turning chines
a hull material easily repairable. The latter ad- aft completed the only deviations in the box-like
vantage is significant since mad dashee over un- shape. The large beam was selected to provide
familiar swamp vegetation concealing logs, rocks positive transverse stability to oppose the large
and stumps exact their *11 of the hull, usni,ily overturning couple created during a hard turn by
in sone remote location. The exhilaration of this the high thrust line. The wide beam and flat bot-
contagious madness to coax out the last bit of tom caused some difficulties in using conventional
power during these spurts is further heightened by speed and powering predictions. Parameters gov-
the knowledge that one's destiny rides on quick erning powering predictions were a 35 mph speed for
and proper reaction. When on collision course, a a flat bottomed hull weighing 3000 pounds and
choice of stop or steer remains and -- if time carrying a 2000-round payload. Neither Taylor's
permits -- a one-word prayer. (A reversing capa- series, nor NAGA s Seaplane Coefficient were appli-
bility is seldom provided due to cost and inef- cable due to the low aspect ratio of this hull
ficiency.) Without strong propeller blast on the (1;2). Further, the speed-length ratio(X., 7.8)
rudders, steerage is sluggish. On the other hand, and the displacement-length ratio 1:
steering is hieily responsive at the upper propel- L - 625,000 )
ler speeds which can be adverse when a hard helm (i--/oo)
is applied at full boat speed; either a spin out caused this hull to be outside Allen NUrray's pow-
will result with the boat wallowing in its own ering curves. However, the classic Crouch and
wake, or the hull will skid and trip. The tech- Hacker formulae (modified planing hull) was rela-
niques of airboat operation can be mastered only tively accurate when gross installed power was
through experience with that particular airboat. reduced 50% for a pusher-type air propulsion.
Assuming a constant of 180-200 for a cargo carrier
Prior to availability of high-powered aircraft having a wide, flat bottom and solving by the Crouch
engines, airboat accidents could be blamed on formula
violations of accepted airboat practices. It was P
v'w (35)2(5000) 19 0
not unusual for a veteran operator to have been C4 (180)a
flipped out of the airboat a few times during his
-
hP
apprenticeship, nor did it discourage him from con- correcting for air propulsion
tinuing operations, asguming he avoided the pro-
peller teeth. However, refinement in later airboat
P-19°
0.50
- 380 hp
design was reflected in lighter boats and greater Checking by the Hacker Modified formula where B =
power as industry improved its products. The in. 7.5
crease in power was warranted to improve amphibious Va(10)1N (35)2(10)(5000)
P = = 2 0 3 hp
capability -- denser swamps penetrated and longer B(404300) (7.5)(40,000)
stretches of dry land negotiated. But a hot hand correcting for air propulsion,
at the throttle demonstrated the folly of using
that reserve power for water speed after the p 203= 406 hp
disastrous results of becoming air-borne were ex- 0.50
perienced. Table 2, below, contains a synopsis of The agreement in results from the two formulae pro-
selected airboats. vided the basis for selection of a 400-horsepower
engine. Based on the rule of thumb that a well-
The airboat hull is a ealm-water boat. Low designed pusher propeller in an alrboat produces
freeboard of most commercial airboats encourages about three pounds of bollard thrust per horse-
flooding from following wake on engine shutdown power in free air, approximately 1200 pounds of
even in calm water. It also allows shipping solid thrust would result. Predicated on prior swamp.
water over the bow from random swells and.wakes test data, this thrust would be apple to power a
of preceding craft, or when attaining the planing boat of this size over dense watergrowths. The
attitude when overloaded. engine selected was an 8-cylinder unit, rated 400
horsepower at 2650 rpm, air cooled; weight of this
The airboat development (Figure 20) for this well-proved engine was approximately 600 pounds.
program was constructed under contract to the A cowling was provided the engine to insure adequate
Engineers Research and Development Laboratories. cooling during sustained, slow-speed, swamp opera-
The hull was constructed of welded aluminum and tions. In mating the propeller to the engine, it
had a length of 20 feet, beam of 9 feet, and depth was decided to incorporate a direct engine cou-
of 33 inches. The beam and length were estab- pling to avoid development costs and weight of a
lished by the required draft. The high freeboard gearbox (Figure 21). A four-bladed wooden pro-
was incorporated to provide a dry ride. A cargo peller of 6-1/2 feet diameter and 44-inch pitch
well of 11-feet length and 7-feet width was lo- was designed for the boat. The diameter of the
cated amidships which, in addition to carrying propeller was limited to this dimension by hull
cargo, accommodated the operator's console and clearance and in order to avoid exceeding critical
troop seats located outboard which folded up snug tip speed of Mach 0.85 at engine speeds up to 2650
to the gunwhale. Forward of the cargo well, under rpm. The propeller was pitched at 44 inches to
the bow deck was a void originally used for stor- load the engine at 2600 rpm; the pitch was devel-
age and subsequently used for fuel tanks to reduce oped at a radial rate which would encourage good
the hazard associated with the proximity of fuel flow characteristics over the full length of the
to hot exhaust pipes. Aft of the well on the deck, blade for engine cooling. During run-in operations,
the propulsion plant was installed and immediately the ERDL airboat confirmed calculations indicating
below, the fuel tanks and batteries. Steering was dynamic instability by porpoising at approximately
provided by two large ruadars of 22-square-foot 2200 engine rpm. It was originally believed that
area, each. A bushguard was added for propeller the high longitudinal thrust line of the alrboat
protection. The hull approximated a box form would form an effective couple to dampen porpoising.
with a flat bottom to keep within draft limita- However, despite the inclusion of engine shims to

8
angle the thrust line down from approximately two ance imposed for overland operations, and increased
to five degrees from the horizontal, porpoising was hull costs. Consequently, the flat bottom was re-
not eliminated. Consequently, a three-quarter inch inforced by reducing spacing of the longitudinals
wedge, two-foot square, was applied at the stern from 15 inches to 9 indhes to reduce span of the
which did correct the problem. Contrary to appre- bottom panelling subjected to pounding and to in-
hensions -- and on the brighter side -- the proba- crease section modulus. The continuous two-inch
bility of kiting, or becoming air-borne, did not channel longitudinPis were strengthened by trans-
occur even in the face of 20-knot winds. The test verses spaced three feet apart, which were of
bed airboat lived up to expectations during concept identical chs,nel, cut and butt-welded between the
evaluation tests, attaining a light displacement longitudinals to form the frames to strengthen the
speed of 43 mph and a loaded speed of 37 mph. Swamp 1/8-inCh bottom. Section modulus was predicated on
operations were outstandingly successful (Fig 22); a 3G loading. Both TIG and MIG processes were used
and the bonus benefits of gumbo-mud operations to weld the hull, but inadequate weld preparation
(Figure 23) provided a mobility that had been lack- caused early failures as explained below. Also
ing. Maneuverability was excellent except at low incorporated in the redesigned hull was the relo-
engine speeds as expected where the propeller wash cation of the fuel tank from under the engine on
was insufficient to enable good rudder thrust. the aft deck to the bow compartment; although the
Furthermore, the lack of a reversing capability -- performance which resulted was more sluggish, the
deliberately omitted due to cost, complexity and boat became a safer draft to service. Shortly after
inefficiency -- caused docking to be difficult. tests had begun in earnest, welding failures in the
Still, for its intended use in relatively primitive transverses began to appear in the vicinity of the
areas, the diversified capability of the airboat center of bottom skin pressure at the outboard
concept for the cost-per-ton-mile of cargo moved sides. The pattern of failure was one of tension
far exceeded any other medium in effectiveness. It in the upper part of the weld joint, confined to
was believed that sophistication of the design by the weld itself. A direct snAlysis of the problem
incorporating nice-to-have features such as propel- was complicated by abnormal usage of the boat
ler shrouding, controllable pitch propellers and wherein impact loads and racking stresses set up by
sound attenuation devices would have nlillified the limited sand-bar and mud-bank hopping exceed normal
austerity targeted. It wss event,.11y deterrained design criteria. However, since failure occurred
that experienced operators could effectively work in the weld and not the heat affected zone, indi-
the boat despite the lack of those features. cating incomplete fusion, the weld procedure became
.....
BOAT DESCRIPTION --- E.- N

HULL .1; 2§m-


TYPE LOA BEAM ENGINE PROP DESCRIPT

SWAMP GLIDER 130 hp 6'-0" D Semi-V 30


(Mahogany & Oak) 18' -8" 7' -6" @ UNK UNK 1700
1954 2800 rpm 2 Blades (600)

RESCUE BQAT '


18, ..7u 7, 130 hp 5'-10" D
(Fiberglass) -7 Semi-V 9 360 675 2770
30" Pitch
1957 2800 rPm 2 Blades (600)
STORM BOAT 75 bP 6'-o" D
(Mahogany & Birch) 16' -10' 5'-11" @ 40" PitCh V-Bottom 20 UNK UNK 1300
1942 3000 rpm 4 Blades (1300)

ERDL AlRBOAT 400 hp 6'-6" D Flat


(Welded Aluminum) 20' -0" 9' -0" @ 44" Pitch Bottom 30 1180 430 3200
1966 2650 rpm 4 Blades (2000)

FLORIDA AlRB0AT
180 hp 5'-6" D
17, _ou 7, _3,, @ 44" Pitch Semi 32 600 UNK 1450
(Fiberglass) 2650 LI., 2 Blades Inv-V (Zoo)
1966
TABU 2 SYNOPSIS OF SELECTED AIRBOAT
Data is approximate

But the relatively good success realized with suspect. Consequently, weld specimens were pre-
operational Characteristics was not achieved with pared duplicating construction welds by little
some of the meptuRniaal aspects of the design. The surface preparation; i.e., minim1 wire brushing
extremely light weight construction m.nifested the and grease removal. The specimpns were made from
need for local reinforcement by failures of welds two-inch wide samples of 5086- 11112 base metal,
which occurred at the longitudinals near the center 1/8-inch thick, butt-welded together on one side
of pressure. Also, the proximity of the fuel tanks only by MIG method with 5356 filler rod. The
to the engine exhausts constituted a potential ultimate tensile strength realized ranged from 8500
hazard- Subsequently, in transition from the test psi to 12000 psi, with the failure duplicating the
bed to prototypes for more extensive tests, a pattern occurring on the hull; confirmatory tests
slightly redesigned boat resulted. A departure performed on the base metal validated the tensile
from the geometry of a flat bottom hull was not strength of 45,000 psi before welding. Tensile
considered due to draft limitations, high resist- tests conducted on a properly prepared weld sample
of identical material provided an ultimate stress
9
of approximately 41,000 psi with failure occurring used since the re-forming of the oxide film occur-
in the heat-affected zone, as could be expected. red quickly and storage time of the cleaned plate
was unknown.) Distortion waz controlled by
welding sequence and chill bars rigidly clamped to
the metal. Also, to avoid a pocket at the end of a
weld pass, back welding -- one to two indhes -- was
included. As a result of these weld details, the
restructured hull (Figures 24 and 25) withstood 170
hours of rigorous testing without failure.

-
Figure 20

The conclusions were obvious -- better preparation


for welding was mandatory. Fortified with this
knowledge, the next step was to confirm bottom
skin loading. Hydrodynamic pressures were obtained
by use of open-ended stand pipas installed in the
hull bottom and recording the head of water stand- Figure 22
ing in the tube for various operations. Prior data
relative to bottom pressures considered rough open-
water operation and recommended design values of 15 The forward location of the fuel tanks raised
psi. Values, observed for the airboat in calm, considerable objections by the user, reportedly
protected water ran as high as 36-1/2 inches of due to slowness in attaining a planing attitude and
difficulty in extrication when grounded. Conse-
water, approximately 1.6 psi. Using this design
loading and increasing for the 32 loading, the hula quently, rubber fuel cells tailored to fit amid-
structure was calculated on the basis of 17,000 psi ships were incorporated. This location served to
allowable stress. Calculations indicated that, provide a better trim by the stern and still pre-
for the transverses in the vicinity of the center served the safety feature of remoteness from the
of bottom pressure, a 4- x 3-inch tee was adequate. hot exhaust pipes.
The four-inch height was selected to allow the
transverse member to be continuous over the longi-
tudinal cutout, permitting a better weld design.

Figure 23
Figure 21

At the outboard sides, the transverses were faired One of the principal objections is the high-
with generous radii to act as hull stiffeners noise level. Measurements by an Octave-Band Noise
formed by the same web of the fabricated tee. The Analyzer indicated 135 decibels (db) at the opera-
flange of the fabricated tee then became merely a tor's seat. Attenuation is provided by earmuffs
three-inch strip welded to the web over the entire which tend to prevent ear damage, although pre-
periphery of the transverse. Weld surfaces were venting voice communication and perception of enemy
vigorously cleaned by stainless'-steel wire brushing; action. In a cUrrent study under contract to these
removal of the entire oxide film was signaled by LaboratoriesM, a reduction in the noise level has
increasing resistance offered the brush by the been implemented by use of a multi-bladed propeller
metal. (Chemical means for oxide removal were not

10
Figure 24
Figure 26

and shroud (Figures 26 and 27). NASA studies


indicated that propeller noise could be reduced by
increasing the number of blades, and use of a shroud
or nozzle encasing the propeller would increase
thrust twenty to thirty percent, thus allowing a
decrease in propeller speed with attendant decrease
in noise. Engine noises were not the principal
offenders in this application based on srnlysis of
the data; and, of course, hull slap could not be
eliminated. Since the study is incomplete, little
more can be said other than, that for a reduction
in sound level of from 135 to 115 db, considerable
cost, weight and complexity must be incorporated.
In recognition of the impossibility of obtaining a
"silent patrol type craft with this method of pro-
pulsion, tactical significance of the noise level
was ignored. It has been observed, however, that
in Florida Everglades although the sound of the
boat is quickly picked up, the direction is not. Figure 27

horsepower bundle of power, mobile over most type


terrain, excellent fuel consumption and good for
transporting a ton of payload -- the water buffalo."

References

1 "Evaluation of Pneumatic Boats for Limited


Warfare," USA TRECOM Technical Report 63-20,
May 1963.
2 "Theoretical and Experimental Investigation
of Disc Propellers," Report No. 368-1, Hydronautics
Inc., 7 June 1963.
3 a "Model Tests with Paddlewheels," Report
No. 176, US Experimental Model Basin, Navy Yard,
Washington, D. C., September 1927.
b "Experimental Towboats," Document No. 857,
63rd Congress, 2nd Session, 1914.
4 "Shallow Draft Boats for Limited Warfare:
Engineering and Environmental Test Report," USA
TRECOM Technical Report 62-77, July 1962.
5 "Final Report of Military Potential Test of
Marsh Screw Amphibian," USA TECOM (Uap, GETA) Proj-
In summary, this is the current status of the
ect No. 7-5-0524-01-9, December 1964.
Shallow Draft Boat Program. Evaluation of the
airboat concept and a parallel development of 6 "Airboat Noise Reduction," Report No. 532-3,
Hydronautics, Inc., Laurel, Maryland.
waterjet propulsion is continuing. For the diver-
"US Army Airboat Design Notes," Franklin
sified requirement, both concepts fill a need.
GNO Corporation, West Palm Beadh, Florida
However, in the words of a highly knowledgeable
(McCarthy), 1964.
officer recently returned from SE Asian jungle
"Lesign Study of Waterjet Propulsion for
environment "it will be most difficult to replace
Sbnllow Draft Boats," Report 516-1, Hydronautics,
the standard means of transportation acceptable to
Inc., Laurel, Maryland, April 1965.
indigenous personnel of that area -- a fifty-

11
No. 61359

PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF A CATAMARAN SUBMARINE RESCUE SHIP (ASR)


by

HERBERT A. MEIER
Department of the Navy
Washington, D. C.

Paper No.
67-359

AIAA/SNAME Advance marine


vows meeting
NORFOLK, VIRGINIA/MAY 22-24, 1967
First publication rights reserved by American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1290 Avenue of the Americas, New York, N. Y. 10019
and Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, 74 Trinity Place, New York, N. Y. 10006
Abstracts may be published without permission if credit is given to author and te AIAA/SNAME. (Member Price-75c; Nonmember Price-61.50)
L08,3.08.1031
PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF A CATAMARAN SUBMARINE RESCUE SHIP (ASE)

Herbert A. Meier
Advanced Concept Section
Ship Concept Design Division, Naval Ship Engineering Center
Naval Ship Systems Command, Department of the Navy
Washington, D. C.

Abstract recovery in the ocean and found it to be meager.


The Deep Submergence Systems Project (DSSP) was
The submarine rescue ship has as its primary created as an organization within the Special
mission the handling and support of a new design Projects Office to develop new systems for search,
rescue submersible. The catamaran appeared to be rescue, salvage, and man-in-the sea. The FY 1967
ideally suited to handling large heavy weights and ASR will constitute the first fleet operational
hence was investigated as a suitable configuration deployment of several of these systems: Small
for this ship. It was found that in addition to submersibles for rescue, towed platforms for deep
simplifying the hoisting problem the catamaran has ocean search, and decompression chambers for deep
superior low speed maneuverability and, when com- diving.
pared to a single hull of approximately the same
displacement, had a 40% increase in deck area. Selection of the Catamaran Hull Form
These advantages were felt to justify the exten-
sive model testing necessary to insure a The catamaran hull form selected for this ship
structurally and hydrodynamically sound final represents a major innovation in naval construction.
design. Both symmetrical and asymmetrical hulls It was chosen for the following reasons:
with varying hull spacing were tested resulting in
the selection of the asymmetrical hulls with the The problem of handling 30-ton Rescue
spacing selected soley on the basis of handling Vehicles (60 tons with entrained water) was felt to
requirements. Resistance was found to be insensi- be the most demanding requirement on the ship. The
tive to hull spacing over the practical range of use of a catamaran permitted vehicle handling at a
spacing. Strain gauge instrumented models were point of minimum motion - amidships between the
run in waves and it was determined that the maximum hulls where roll and pitch would cause no vertical
loading on the bridging structure, from the point motion and where some shielding from the seas
of view of vertical shear and moment loads, occurs would occur. Mechanical hoisting devices could be
in beam seas at zero speeds, and for torsional simpler and lighter.
loads, at zero speeds in quarter head seas.
The high metacentric height and good roll
Background damping of a catamaran hull could eliminate the
heavy roll which is typical of the smaller auxil-
The existing submArine rescue ships (designated iary ships. It would also solve a very severe
ASRs)are of two classes: The CHANTICLEER (ASR 7) problem anticipated in the stability of the ship
class, a ship 251 feet long over-all, displacing because of the heavy vehicles and deck equipment
2,300 tons and the PENGUIN (ASR 12) class, 205 feet required.
long, displacing 1,700 tons. These ships carry the
McCann rescue chanter and the anchors and buoys for The low speed maneuverability would be
mooring over a sunken submarine. The McCann cham- greatly enhanced by the large separation of the
ber was used to remove survivors from the screws on the catamaran hull form. This maneu-
submarine SQUALIS in 1939 and is still the only verability is important in submarine rescue and in
operational device for removing personnel from a most low-speed work accomplished by an ASR at sea.
sunken submarine. In addition to being called on
to perform rescue functions in the event of a sub- The catamaran hull form provides a major
marine disaster, these ships accompany submarine increase (about 40 per cent) in deck area, both
squadrons to act as escorts and serve as targets open and enclosed, compared with a single hull
for practice torpedo firings and torpedo recovery. ship of the same displacement. This space advan-
tage was expected to be important in view of the
The original requirement for the FY 1967 ASR increased deck handling requirements and new ship
arose from the need to replace the existing sub- functions, including the provision of a helicopter
marine rescue ships, all of which were constructed landing platform.
during or shortly after World War II. A total of
ten ships of this new class have been programmed Considerable confidence was felt in the
for construction over the next decade. Several ability to design a seaworthy twin-hulled ship
years ago, it was felt that this ship would be a because of the successful catamarans in commercial
close replica of the FY 1966 ATS, an enlarged ver- use throughout the world.
sion of present auxiliaries such as ARS, ATF, and
ASR. However, this was not to be the case. DSSP Requirements

The tragic loss of THRESHER in 1963 set into The following requirements of the Deep Sub-
motion a chain of events which was to have a pro- mergence Systems Project have had a major impact
found effect on the new ASR. The Navy's Deep on the configuration of the ship:
Submergence Systems Review Group examined the
national capability for search, rescue, and

1
Rescue Vehicle Handling
inary design approach used and a presentation of
The Rescue Vehicle is a submersible which is data developed at the David Taylor Model Basin in
designed to rescue submarine personnel up to sub- support of the design work. The following data is
marine collapse depths. On I March 1966, proposals for an early version of the design. The beam and
were being evaluated by the Special Projects Office draft of each hull was increased during the pre-
for design and construction of the prototype. It liminary design stage to compensate for weight
is expected to weigh about thirty tons out of the growth and the final version of the contract design
water, and 60 tons with entrained water. Needless was increased in length to accommodate an increase
to say, the devising of a method for the safe in length of the rescue vehicle. Figure 1 shows
handling of such a large object in a seaway is a the ship at the completion of the preliminary
formidable design task. The Naval Ship Engineering design.
Center conducted a thorough feasibility study which
proposed a platform lift system located in the cen-
ter well. The design objectives of this system ASR FY '67
were:

No divers should be required in the water to


make the lift attachment.

The vehicle should not be damaged by lateral


impact against the ship while in the water or being
hoisted.

The vehicle should be precisely located so


that its strengthened sections would be aligned for CHARACTERISTICS
lifting with a platform. LOA 234Le DRAFT 19'-0"
LBP 210-0" LIGHT DISP..... 2575 TONS
The vehicle should receive no damage from
BEAM I MAX.) 8e-0" FULL LOAD A ....3200 TONS
vertical impact with the platform.
BEAM EACH HULL) ... 26'-0" SPEED SUS... 16 ETS.

The vehicle should be under positive control MAIN 0K. *8V W L 16-0. ENDURANCE/ IX KTS 10,000
at all times when it is in the air with no pendu-
lous swinging.

The system should be simple. Figure 1


Vehicle Support Hull Form
The requirements for vehicle support - checkout,
maintenance, and replenishment - are unique in In view of the meagerinformation on the resis-
auxiliary ship design. The basic philosophy of tance and motion characteristics of catamarans it
vehicle support is that each vehicle be accompanied, was decided to initiate model...tests on hull forms
by a support van. Maintenance for the vehicles sized on very preliminary weight and space informa-
will also be accomplished with the facilities of tion. Two hull forms were tested at David Taylor
the various shops aboard. Model Basin, a symmetrical configuration and an
asymmetrical one with sides of least curvature
Advanced Diving System inboard. The body plans of these models are shown
This system consists of installations in the in figure 2.
port and starboard hulls, each consisting of two
chambers for diver support plus a center access
chamber, a mixed gas system, and a control console.
This system is designed for saturation diving,
that is, diving and living under constant pressure
for periods of as long as a week. It can support
eight divers to depths of 850 feet.

DSSP Ship Electronics


The Rescue and Operations Control Center on the
ship will control the rescue evolution, with under-
water communications and vehicle tracking.

Towed Search Sensors


A towed platform for deep visual, photographic,
and acoustic search is being developed under DSSP.
It is intended that this system be operated from a
van of the same size as the vehicle support vans.

Design Approach

Although the catamaran is very old historically


and many ships of this type have been constructed,
A S R BODY PLANS
very little data useful in design work exists;
hence the adoption of this configuration for the
ASR posed many unique naval architectural problems. FIGURE 2,
What follows is a brief description of the prelim-

2
The principal dimensions and coefficients of these
hulls are identical and are as follows: PERCENT
INCREASE
LBP = 210' 10 IN EHP
Beam each hull = 24' OVER EHF
Draft = 18'
AT 38'
Displ each hull = 1,397 tons SW
Designed speed = 16 knots
SPACING
cP = .55
= .98
LCB = 0.502 aft FP
24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38
HULL SEPARATION IN FEET

EFFECT OF HULL SPACING ON POWER


ASR: 9000
ASYMMETRIC HULLS - Figure 4
SYMMETRIC HULLS
I

TAYLOR E H P :
CATAMARAN
1 cum Both the symmetrical and asymmetrical hull forms
SINGLE HULL -
1
were tested in head and following seas at speeds to
16 knots and sea states up to seven to observe
COMPARISON OF
1
7000 motions and wave formations particularly between
i the hulls. Experience with other catamarans indi-
CATAMARAN POWER
cated vertical magnification of waves passing
i 6 000 between the forward walls of a symmetrical configu-
ration. This was not observed in these tests.
However, at the design speed an extreme pileup of
water between the symmetrical hulls at the after
5000
/ quarter point was observed. This phenomenon had
also been observed during the powering tests.
Since this pileup of water did not occur on the
4 000 asymmetrical configuration and there appeared to be
little to recommend the symmetrical hull from the
/
,4/ , 3 0 00 i
1
powering standpoint the asymmetrical form was
selected.

111/11
Model tests were also conducted on the asymmet-
rical catamaran to determine full scale motion
2 0 0 0 1
characteristics. The model was tested in irregular
uni-directional seaways at various headings corres-

2. 9,,
ponding to five and fifteen knots and sea states
from low five to high six. The natural motion
....---
..----->" periods for the ship as obtained from model tests
are as follow:

8 10 12 16 18 Natural heave period Sec = 5.35


SPEED M KNOTS Natural pitch period Sec = 5.35
Natural roll period Sec = 6.17

FIGURE 3 The predicted significant motions obtained from


model tests are shown in figure 5.

Figure 3 shows a comparison of the horsepowers Propulsion


for the symmetrical and assymetrical forms. Also
shown is a comparison of Taylor's standard series The propulsion system selected for the new ASR
calculations for both a catamaran and a single hull is based on geared diesel engines developing 6,000
ship of the same length, draft, displacement, and SHP with controllable pitch propellers on two
coefficients. This comparison necessitated con- shafts. The propulsion system can be controlled
siderable extrapolation of Taylor's data with from several topside operating stations.
respect to beam/draft ratio for the catamaran and
displacement length ratio for the single hull ship One problem associated with a catamaran is the
and hence is not precise. need to have two remotely located machinery spaces
resulting in increased complement and some dupli-
The effect of hull separation was investigated cation of equipment. This can be avoided by
and found to be insignificant over the practical putting all the machinery in one hull and using
range. Figure 4 shows the results of these tests. electric drive; however, in this ship, the initial
cost was unacceptable.

Turning and maneuvering tests were conducted


early in the design to insure that this was not a
major problem area. Of particular concern were the
handling characteristics with machinery in only one
hull operable. The results of these tests were

3
very encouraging and are best summarized by quoting the existence of six main transverse structural
the conclusions of the DTMB test report: bulkheads, three forward and three aft in addition
to the longitudinal bulkheads port and starboard
1. The ship will be directionally stable and that are extensions of the inboard sides of the
should have good coursekeeping characteristics. hulls.

It will have overshoot angles in zigzag However, these restrictions were more than out-
maneuvers which compare favorably with conventional weighed by the existence of very large and usable
ships. deck area for a ship of this size resulting in
ample space to accommodate the vast increase in
Its turning characteristics will be accept- requirements imposed on this new ASR as compared to
able; the tactical diameters at 16 knots will be its predecessors.
5.2 and 3.7 ship lengths for rudder angles of 25
and 40 degrees, respectively. Structure

The ship can be kept on a straight course at In the early stages of design before model tests
low speeds astern by using about +10 degrees of were available it was necessary to make an estimate
rudder. of the torsional loading imposed on the bridging
structure when the ship is oblique to the waves.
It will be possible to control the ship on For these preliminary calculations it was assumed
straight course even if both the power and steering that the ship was supported on the bottom forward
systems of a single catamaran unit are disabled. end of one hull and the stern of the other hull,
at stations four and eighteen, respectively.

Sea *Heading Speed Heave Roll Pitch A model of the catamaran was constructed and the
State Deg. Kts Ft... Deg.., Deg... cross structure instrumentated with strain gages in
order to determine the loads to be expected in the
5 180 5 10.59 1.44 10.48 full size ship. This was accomplished by measuring
15 12.11 3.68 7.80 the total vertical end moments (port and starboard),
6 180 5 13.29 1.48 11.00 the total torsional moment, and the total vertical
15 17.62 1.24 7.96 shear force acting on the cross-structure configu-
5 210 5 11.20 8.28 6.48 ration during model tests in random seas for
15 10.53 4.60 6.36 various model speeds, and headings. Spectral
6 210 5 13.06 5.44 9.72 analysis of the response were performed and response
15 15.71 5.96 8.64 amplitude operators (RA0s) were derived for each
5 225 5 8.11 6.80 7.56 test condition. The RAOs were then employed
15 11.43 7.48 5.56 together with theoretical Neumann sea spectra to
6 225 5 12.78 19.84 9.00 obtain prediction curves for extrapolating the
15 15.32 20.92 7.16 responses to more sea conditions.
5 0 5 6.81 .96 5.44
15 5.52 .96 2.72 The following conclusions were reached from
6-7 0 5 9.52 1.36 6.24 these tests:
15 11.09 1.28 4.40
5 45 5 7.60 6.76 5.68 The most severe operating condition, from
15 7.04 3.60 3.84 the point of view of vertical shear and moment
6 45 5 11.94 6.76 6.24 loads on the cross structure, is with the ship
15 11.43 5.32 5.20 operating at zero speeds in beam seas.
5 270 5 7.21 20.52 3.76
15 6.48 15.36 2.68 The most severe torsional loads occur with
the ship operating at zero speeds in quarter head
.. Double seas.
00 Stern Seas Amplitude
900 Port Beam Seas 3. The measured responses agree well with the
180° Bow Seas loads predicted on the basis of response amplitude
270° Stbd Beam Seas operatoPs and Neumann theoretical sea spectra for
the severe operating conditions cited above, there-
Figure 5 fore lending support to the extrapolations of these
loads-to the higher sea states.

Arrangement It was encouraging to note that the final


scantlings of the main transverse structure are not
To minimize the effect of pitch motion the res- excessive when compared to those normally associated
cue vehicle handling area was located slightly with bulkheads and also that they are very close to
abaft amidships. As a consequence of this arrange- the scantlings resulting from designing to the very
ment, the superstructure is broken into two early load estimates.
separate blocks forward and aft. The forward
superstructure and the space in the hull below it Because of the extreme depth of the individual
houses the entire complement and complement associ- hulls with respect to length the hull girder
ated functions in addition to the command and stresses resulting from positioning the ship on a
control spaces. The after superstructure, and standard wave are extremely low and consequently
space below it house the workshops and spaces hull scantlings are governed by local strength
associated with the DSRVs, including the support requirements.
vans. The arrangement of spaces in both the for-
ward and after superstructures was restricted by

4
Intact and Damaged Stability The following modes of attaching the rescue
vehicle to the boom are envisioned and will prob-
All catamarans are characterized by high initial ably be tried out full scale to determine the best
stability which in this ship is illustrated by a operating procedure.
G.M. of 45 feet and maximum righting arm of 22 feet.
However, this maximum righting arm occurs at a 300 The rescue vehicle is surfaced and the ASR
angle of heel and falls off rapidly thereafter. overtakes and straddles the rescue vehicle which is
The characteristics for the ASR require a two com- proceeding on a steady course at very low speed.
partment standard of subdivision and this standard The attachment to the rescue vehicle is made by
can be met under the assumption that the watertight remote manipulation of the boom.
doors on the second deck are closed. . For the worst
case of two compartment flooding the resulting The rescue vehicle is submerged and approach-
angle of steady heel with a 33 knot beam wind is es a weighted cable attached to the boom. This
100. cable will have a light and sound source attached
to aid the rescue vehicle in homing on it. Once
Rescue Vehicle Handling this cable has been located the rescue vehicle
attached itself and is towed at low speed by the
As was mentioned previously, the catamaran form ASR to insure proper orientation before ascending.
was chosen primarily to facilitate handling the
rescue vehicle which, because of its size, weight When the rescue vehicle is at main deck level,
and fragility, presents a unique handling problem. it can be moved laterally on rails to a point over
the decompression chambers in either hull for
In extremely calm weather, as an emergency back- transfer of rescuees directly into these chambers.
up, and when transferring from dockside, it is
proposed to use the bridge crane that traverses the Conclusions
midship work area. This crane, which will be used
primarily for handling the McCann rescue chamber The primary reason that the catamaran configu-
and the personnel transfer capsules, will have ration was adopted to solve the unique handling
adequate capacity to lift the rescue vehicle by problems associated with the rescue vehicle. The
attachment of cables to its topside hard spots. other advantages of increased deck area and man-
The rails for the bridge crane will have extensible euverability are important but would probably not
portions port and starboard to permit operation have justified selection of this configuration in
over the side as well as through the well. view of the unknown existing with respect to struc-
ture and motion. The structural problems have prove-n
Normally the rescue vehicle will be launched and to be readily solvable and while there are some
recovered by a separate hoist built into the under- gains in motion characteristics the high accelera-
side of the well. This hoist consists of a powered tions associated with the rapid roll period are
platform riding on vertical rails that can be undesirable and future research could profitably be
lowered into the water at low or zero speed. In directed toward solving this problem. In this
addition to the hoist there is a trolley that moves regard anti-roll tanks should be investigated.
forward and aft on the underside of the bridging
structure between the inboard shells of the ship. It is hoped that the information being developed
This trolley has an extensible boom to which the in support of this first military application and
bow of the rescue vehicle is attached. Once this the several commercial catamaran designs will ulti-
attachment is made and the ship attains a moderate mately result in enough data upon which to base a
speed such that the rescue vehicle will trail its rational decision, early in the design process, on
attachment point the rescue vehicle is moved aft whether a catamaran or a single hull is more appro-
over the platform hoist. priate for a given set of operational requirements.

5
No. 61-360

ASPECTS OF PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF WATERJET PROPULSION


SYSTEMS AND A CRITICAL REVIEW OF THE STATE-OF-THE-ART
by

JOHN H. BRANDAU
Naval Ship Research and Development Center
Washington, D. C.

Paper No.
67-360

AIAA/SNAME Advance marine


vehicies meeting
NORFOLK, VIRGINIA/MAY 22-24, 1967
First publication rights reserved by American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1290 Avenue of the Americas, New York, N. Y. 10019
and Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, 74 Trinity Place, New York, N. Y. 10006
Abstracts may be published without perrnission if credit is given to author and to AIAA/SNAME. (Member Price-75c; Nonmember PriceV.50)
5.08
ASPECTS OF PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF WATERJET PROPULSION SYSTEMS
AND A CRITICAL REVIEW OF THE STATE-OF-THE-ART

by

John H. Brandau
Naval Ship Research and Development Center
Washington, D. C.

Abstract

Characteristics peculiar to waterjets may H_ Net positive suction


make this type propulsion capable of overcoming sv
head (npsh) (ft)
some of the problems facing high-speed marine pro-
pulsion. As a basis for judging the potential of Advance ratio (V/nd)
waterjets in relation to other propulsion methods, KH Head rise coefficient
a study was conducted to determine the state-of-
the-art of waterjet technology. Available litera- (gH/N2d2)
ture was surveyed with particular emphasis on: KL System loss coefficient
(1) performance criteria and performance data,
and (2) performance evaluation and experimental (HL/Vs2/2g)
techniques. A review of the existing work indi-
cates a general lack of definitive experimental Torque coefficient
data. Although the greatest apparent need is for (qiN2d5)
experimental information on the design of efficient
and cavitation-free high-speed inlets, work is also
Kt
Thrust coefficient
needed on light-weight pumps which are capable of
sustained high performance under relatively severe (TiN2d4)
cavitation conditions. It was also found in the
Jet velocity ratio
literature that thrust efficiency was usually con- (V./V)
fused with propulsive efficiency. Propulsive effi-
ciency is equivalent to-the product of thrust effi-
Jet velocity ratio
ciency and the hull/waterjet interaction effi-
(V./V.)
ciency. Therefore, propulsive efficiency is a more 1
definitive performance parameter but is inherently
Length (ft)
more difficult to obtain. The requirement of
separatirg resistance and propulsive forces in Mach number (1/7/1E)
determining this efficiency leads to model experi- N Rpm or rps (rev/sec) 1/T
ments. A review of model experimental techniques
and facilities shows the capability for carrying N Pump specific speed
S
out the necessary experiments.
(NQ1/2/ (gH)3/4)
Notation
NVA Jet loss energy (ft-lb)
Symbol Quantity Mass Length NVK Additional loss energy
Time Dimen- (ft-lb)
sions
Propulsion loss energy
P
o
-P NVT
(ft-lb)
'ask

1 2
2p V NT
Thp energy (ft-lb)

O.P.C. E
Diameter
e Mean roughness height PB
pressure (lbs/ft2) M/LT2
E Euler number (4771:7) Effective horsepower ML2/T3
2 Z1p
(R x V/550) (ft-lbs/sec)

Fn
Froude number (V/153) Brake horsepower ML2/T3
Gravitational accelera- L/T2 (2 ft-lbs/sec)
bigbrake/550)
tion (ft/sec2)
Propeller horsepower ML2/T3
Pump head rise (ft) (delivered)
Power input (ft-lbs/sec) ML2/T3
He
Exit nozzle head (ft)

H. Inlet head (ft)


Power output (ft-lbs/sec) ML2/T3

Absolute pressure at Pump horsepower ML2/T3


H1
shaft centerline - vapor (pgQH/550) (ft-lbs/sec)
pressure (ft)

1
Ps
Shaft horsepower (ft,lbs/sec) ML2/T3 Coefficient, kinematic L2/T
viscosity (ft2/sec)
Thrust horsepower (T x V/550) ML2/T3
PT
(ft-lbs/sec)
Angular velocity 1/T
Vapor pressure (lbs/ft2) (radian/sec)
V
Po Freestream static pressure (1b/ft2)
0 Flow coefficient (Q/Nd3)
Volume flow rate L3/T
Mass density (slugs/ft3) M/L3
(ft3/sec)
a Cavitation index
Shaft torque (lb-ft) ML2/T2
/V2/2g)
Resistance (lb) ML/T2 (H1

Re Reynolds number (VZ/v) thoma Thoma cavitation number


(H /H)
Impeller radius (ft) sv

Thrust (lb) ML/ T2 To Shear stress (lbs/ft2) M/LT2


Thrust deduction (1-R/T)
Surface tension (lbs/ft) M/T2
Axial velocity (ft/sec) L/T
ua
Tangential velocity L/T
ut
(ft/sec)
INTRODUCTION
V Ship velocity (ft/sec) L/T
An increase of interest in waterjet propulsion
Vi Inlet velocity (ft/sec) L/T
of marine craft has been noted in the past few years.
V, Jet velocity (ft/sec) L/T This type of propulsion is not new since, as pointed
Velocity through pump (ft/sec) L/T out by Taggart,(1) evidence exists of experimental
V
evaluation of a jet-propelled craft in England as
Weber number (pRV2/C) far back as 1661. Taggart states that, by 1900,
Wake fraction (1 - Va/V) certain inherent disadvantages of hydraulic jet
wl Weight rate of flow (lbs/sec) ML/T3 propulsion regarding ducting losses and weight were
Free stream velocity L/T recognized. Moreover, performance improvements
o
within the succeeding 60 years have not been impres-
(ft/sec)
sive, and the attractive advantages of waterjets
Propeller speed of advance L/T may not yet have been fully realized. Extensive
Va
(ft/sec) historical surveys have also been made by Papir(2)
and Schuster, et al.(3) Another brief history of
Advance angle (deg)
waterjets(4) was published in 1962 by Engel, et al.,
Ft Hydrodynamic pitch angle in a paper "Axial Flow Pumps for Waterjet Propulsion."
(deg) By waterjet is meant a marine propulsor in
which water is fed to internal pumps which add
i
(He - H.) (ft)
energy and expel the water aft through a nozzle.
AY (Y, - Vi) (ft/sec) L/T The water is exhausted at a higher velocity than
that of the incoming stream and tbrust is achieved
nA External efficiency through the resulting momentum exchange. It can
also be classed as an internal ducted propeller for
nhull Hull efficiency (1-t/l-W) which the duct is long. The waterjet system, by
nid Jet efficiency definition in this study, is that system using water
alone as the working media, as opposed to those using
Ideal jet efficiency water-gas mixtures.
nj pr Real jet propulsive A waterjet propulsion system, in distinction
efficiency from all other types of shipboard jet propulsion
systems, is located mostly within the hull of the
np Propeller efficiency ship. Therefore, it must, of necessity, have three
T x Va /550 basic elements: (1) an intake duct which inducts
fluid from outside the ship's hull, (2) a pump for
PD transmitting energy to this fluid, and (3) an ex-
haust duct and nozzle which guide the jet of fluid
npump Pump efficiency back out of the hull.
ns System efficiency It could be expected that a waterjet-propelled
ship, having no elements protruding beyond the
ltr Internal efficiency limits of the ship's hull lines, would have less
Specific weight (lbs/ft3) M/L2T2 drag (other things being equal) than a hull i_tted
with a conventional propeller. On the other hand,
Linear ratio as/m) however, the flow of fluid through the internal
Coefficient, dynamic vis- M/LT
1References are listed on page 23.
cosity (lbs-sec/ft2)

2
waterjet system is accompanied by additional hy-
draulic losses, The resistance may change sig- An annotated bibliography and appendices containing
nificantly when the hull is propelled since pertinent background material will complete the
operation of the propulsion system changes the paper.
distribution of pressures on the hull. The in-
take opening in the stern of a ship's hull can General Considerations
strip off the boundary layer which conceivably
On the Consideration of Existing Waterjet Literature
could decrease frictional resistance.
other hand, a force reacting opposite to the
intake induction momentum can suck the hull A major portion of this study involves a con-
down with possible increase in trim and thus form sideration of the available literature regarding
drag. Also, ejection of the jet in the vicinity hydrodynamic performance evaluation of waterjet
of the ship's wake can change the magnitude of propulsion systems. The main purpose of the study
the useful thrust. These examples are given as was the determination of and suggestions for find-
possible interaction effects of hull flow on ing solutions to the problems facing the task of
waterjet flow and vice versa. Determination of acquiring efficient reliable waterjet propulsion
the reaction coefficients for such a problem systems for special types of marine craft.
with experimental verification is a prime need The papers and reports surveyed for this study
in waterjet propulsion research. are varied in their treatment of aspects of water-
The importance of waterjets for marine pro- jet propulsion. Some are feasibility studies, some
pulsion can be ascertained by consideration of are general studies proposing procedures for water-
what this form of propulsion has to offer to the jet propulsion system design, and others fall into
ship designer. It is found to be generally more the category of theoretical and/or experimental
expensive, less efficient, heavier, and the pro- investigations. The experimental work lends itself
pulsor itself is more complicated that a conven- somewhat to a tabulation of variables considered
tional propeller. However, for certain special and measurements made (see Table 2 in the Appendix).
purposes such as shallow-draft operation or high- The information obtained from the literature pertains
power, high-speed operation, waterjet propulsion to the theoretical and experimental treatments of:
may permit the elimination of, or may diminish, (1) waterjet propulsion system components, includ-
unavoidable disadvantages inherent with the use ing pumps, inlets, and ducting; (2) complete water-
of a propeller. (Detailed advantages and dis- jet propulsion systems; and (3) waterjet propulsion
advantages of waterjets will be enumerated in the system installation in a hull including efficiency,
section on General Considerations.) model and prototype testing.
Although waterjet propulsion systems may offer As far as those papers dealing with theoret-
attractive features which would be highly desir- ical approaches or in feasibility studies, an
able for certain marine applications, a number of attempt has been made to briefly present their sig-
significant development problems have to be solved nificant points in the text of the survey chapter.
before the full use of such propulsors can be An annoted bibliography is included to concisely
realized. These problems areas will be discussed provide some insight to the reader on the surveyed
in detail later on in the paper, but to mention a material considered to lie within the scope of
few, they include: (1) proper design of hull this study.
inlet to prevent separation and cavitation, es-
pecially during yaw and heave conditions; (2) op- Applications
timization of system ducting and pump location to
minimize friction losses and pump elevation losses; Emphasis of Important Differences between
(3) design of high-speed axial-flow,waterjet pumps Waterjet Application to: Planing Boats,
capable of meeting cavitation, efficiency, and Hydrofoil Craft, and Captured Air Bubble
off-design performance required for vehicle take- (CAB) Craft
off and cruise conditions; and (4) adequate methods
and techniques for model-scale performance evalua- Current U. S. waterjet propulsion applica-
tion and prototype system performance evaluation. tions include small pleasure .N_aning craft, small
This paper presents a critical survey of the military river patrol boats») and hydrofoil
technical literature currently available on water- craft. Serious proposed applications include
jet propulsion of marine craft. Emphasis is plac- larger military patrol planing boats, high-speed
ed on the real problems which exist today in this hydrofoil and captured air-bubble craft.
area. First, a discussion of naval applications The bulk of the small pleasure boats are of
for waterjet propulsion in light of the advan- the 200 to 300-horsepower range. Several thousand
tages and disadvantages of this type of propulsion are now in service, with propulsors of the Bueh-
is given. Secondly, theoretical treatments and ler,(6) Berkeley, or Jacuzzi design, for the most
experimental performance techniques for evaluating part. European manufacturers have comparable units
system components, and complete installed systems, available. Some idea of the qualitative operational
are discussed. Discussion of performance evalua- performance of complete waterjet-propelled hulls
tion information found in the literature is in- can be obtained, taking into consideration the
cluded here. The literature pertaining to general mission of the craft, by studying reports of owners
waterjet propulsion considerations is treated and operators. Efficiency is not a prime require-
next. This is followed by a list of unsolved ment for private water ski or sport runabouts of
problems existing in light of the conclusions the present waterjet era, and manufacturers rarely
reached by theory and experiment. A recommenda- take pains to determine real efficiency. Instead,
tion for performance parameters and modeling characteristics such as speed, maneuverability,
tdchniques is included. boat handling, noise and vibration, and desire to
Based on this information, conclusions will be eliminate the external propeller for safety's sake
drawn regarding what are felt to be the knowns are stressed.
and unknowns (problems) in the state.of the art. At the present time some of the in-service
designs are good as far as ahead maneuvering and

3
handling, but efficiency is lower than comparable Most statements regarding disadvantages must
conventional propulsion installations. also be qualified in light of application and com-
Recent attention has been given to the use of petitive propulsors. However, it can be stated that:
waterjets for high-speed oceangoing ships,(7,8) of Waterjet systems have higher weight than
the nondisplacement type. At present, serious most other practical propulsor systems. Note that
consideration in this area is mainly limited to the weight of the water in the system above the free
hydrofoil craft and, more recently, air-cushion surface must be included in the system weight.
vehicles including the captured air-bubble (CAB) In general, a waterjet system will not be
type. Certain major design tradeoffs for these as efficient as a propeller system; i.e., more
ships are highly dependent on mission cruising horsepower will be required to perform a particular
range. For the smaller high-speed but short-range function with a waterjet system.
(cruise range duration of a few hours) craft, it The possibility of cavitation at the water-
is essential that the weight of propulsion mach- jet inlet and other places in the inlet system,
inery be kept low; however, high-system efficiency which can adversely affect performance, means that
may not be a critical requirement. High-system there are several sources of cavitation to be con-
efficiency becomes increasingly important as the sidered.
ratio of fuel weight to gross weight increases Impeller access compared with conventional
and, in the case of a long cruise range ocean- propeller designs is poor, making inspection, re-
going craft, fuel weight is significant. At the pair, or removal of debris difficult.
present time, consideration is being given to the
use of CABS, displacing several thousand tons.
for long-range oceangoing service, with hydrofoil System Component Performance
craft, limited to short-range missions. In this
respect, the CAB sidewall configuration is encour- Efficiency
aging with respect to achieving a more efficient
water ducting system than can be realized with a The overall propulsion performance of special-
hydrofoil craft, up-the-strut configuration. mission, high-speed craft is dependent on a number
of significant factors. For a specific mission, at
Apparent Advaftages and Disadvantages a specified design speed, consideration should be
given to: payload, horsepower, specific fuel con-
The selection of any propulsion system is
sumption (SFC), range, dash capability, and gross
based on a value judgment of the advantages and weight, among other factors.
disadvantages of that system. Following is a list
A number of special performance coefficients or
of advantages and disadvantages inherent in water-
merit factors have been proposed to lump together
jets: however, the final application will deter- these variables into a meaningful parameter.
mine how these are weighed and compared with other Examples are the so-called Karman-Gabrielli factor(9)
systems. and Telfer's merit factor. (10f The Karman-Gabrielli
Although practically every publication found factor is defined as:
in the literature of waterjet propulsion mentions 1
certain advantages inherent in waterjets over MKG1 = 8800
--x (equivalent ratio) x
other forms of propulsion, very few unqualified
statements can actually be made in this regard. wpayload
This is due to the fact that a possible advantage x V (1)
of a waterjet is dependent on the particular winitial
application and also must be compared with all The merit factors utilizing total craft weight or
other existing propulsor types. Advantages of displacement, suggested by some authors, are not
waterjet are: as meaningful as those using Wpayload .

With a waterjet, it is possible to eliminate


external underwater appendages. The following discussion pertains to the
A freer choice of location of the propul- choice of a meaningful or definitive hydrodynamic
sion machinery than is normally found. propulsion parameter. On normal conventional pro-
Elimination of complex transmission peller-hull installations, overall powering per-
machinery where right-angle drives are required, formance of the craft is based on:(1°, 11)
such as in hydrofoil craft strut-propeller applica- effective horsepower E _ RV
0.P..
C - _
tions. brake horsepower
Possible alleviation of underwater radiated PB PB
propeller cavitation noise through more control n x (2)
over cavitation and removal of the propeller from nhull
the main body of water.
Steering and maneuvering control directly where PB = brake horsepower measured at the out-
from the propulsor (note, however, that this is put of the prime mover,
done by attaching control surfaces to the waterjet R = towed hull drag (sometimes utilizing
nozzle which is effectively calling the rudder bare hull drag and at other times using
part of the propulsor). It should be noted that appended hull drag),
right-angle drive units have been successfully
built for 360-deg directional control. T = required thrust,
Detrimental effects of propeller vibration t = thrust deduction, and
may possibly be alleviated due to control of the
impeller inflow characteristics over that of an n = propeller efficiency in the "behind
open propeller. P ship" condition.
For towing boats and for icebreakers, the Reference 10 by Rossell and Chapman and Reference 11
waterjet can produce greater tow-rope pulls than by H. E. Saunders point out in detail the terminol-
an open propeller; however, a Kort nozzle, in this ogy and usage of O.P.C. and propulsive efficiency
regard, will be more efficient. (quasi-P.C.) in conventional marine propulsion

4
applications. between the point of measurement and the impeller.
For purposes of discussion of the efficiency This term can be referred to as thrust efficiency
of propulsion in this paper, the term overall pro- nT since it is clearly not equal to the standardized
pulsive coefficient (0.P.C.) will not be used.
propulsive efficiency. So
Instead, the quasi-propulsive coefficient, some-
times called propulsive efficiency ID will be
n= TV
(5)
used.

D
=
PEPB
PD
= (0.P.C.).
PD
(3)
PS
T

One reason that nT has been widely used in


waterjet analyses is that it is relatively easy to
measure during sea trials and another is that it
where
is of the form corresponding to the expression for
PE = effective power to overcome resistance,
Ideal Jet Efficiency nrni is sometimes also
PB = brake power measured at output of known as Ideal Propulsive Efficiency or Fraude
prime mover, and Efficiency. (12, 13)
In attempting to improve the propulsive per-
PD = power delivered to propeller.
formance of a system, it is necessary to relate the
overall propulsive efficiency of a waterjet-pro-
PD pelled craft to the aggregate of the propulsion
is termed transmission efficiency and reflects
17' component efficiencies. In conventional propul-
;
the power losses occurring between the prime s ion
mover coupling and the propeller due to shafting,
bearings, etc.
RVT(1-t)V
n = - -
D npropeller "behind"
It is more expedient to use P0 model PD PD
testing usually involves the measu'rement of PD
(6)
rather than PB' On the other hand, in full-scale
rhull
trial work, power Ps is normally measured by means
of a torsionmeter on the inboard shafting, inter- where R = bare hull resistance (since R.
bare hull
mediate between the propeller and the prime mover. is the base drag)
(See sketch below.)
TV(1-w)
rpropeller "behind" PD
1-t
rhull =1-w

PRIME 1-t = thrust deduction.


MOVER
The term (1,,w), which is called wake gain, is not
meaningful for waterjet pumps because w, the wake
fraction, is without specific meaning since the
impeller is located in a long duct. Therefore,
rhull is not applicable to waterjet systems. In-
SCHEMATIC OF POWER TRANSMISSION
stead, for a waterjet n must be defined.
' hull/inlet
A reasonable choice of form for relating the
system component efficiencies to the overall pro-
The normal procedure at the Model Basin is to
measure PD in model tests and correct this to pre- pulsive efficiency is as follows:
dict the Ps of the full-scale ship. Because of Equating
RV T(1 -t)V
the variation in possible locations for measuring (6)
Ps and since PB would not correlate directly from repeated
model to full scale, it appears sensible to utilize
PD throughout this discussion. to
Propulsive efficiency ID is also, by x
definition,* equal to -
pump rsystem
xr jet rhull/inlet

RV where
%= (4) is essentially equal to
pump rjet
depending on the
where R = resistance, in general. npropeller,
A rather interesting situation exists here way the flow velocities are
in that this definition of propulsive efficiency chosen;
is not the definition of "propulsive efficiency" by definition is proportional
used by many workers in the field of waterjet nsystem (rS)
to the ratio of internal
propulsion. The expression most commonly found in ingestion and ducting pressure
the waterjet literature is equal to losses to the free stream dynamic
TV pressure; and

Ps
which characterizes the
where Ps = shaft horsepower = PD + shafting losses nhull/inlet (nh/i)
effect on powering per-
formance of the interaction of
the inlet and hull, and which
* ITTC Standard Symbols, National Physical Lab
herein will be defined as
Ship Report 77, September 1965. (1-t) where

5
R
(1-0 = 'T since the propulsor produces drag over (V. - V)

and above the bare hull drag.


V
P
= V + 3
2
-
v
2
+JV.

Now if and
T =T
T(1-t)V/550
- npump x njet x nS x nhii (7) Therefore
PD
T(1-t)V/550 pgQH/550 V
X ns x (1-0 (8)
PD PD V+--
2
V.
where v
+
2 2
T = craft thrust,
V = craft velocity, and indicating that ns is chosen to be independent
AV =v -V of the external intake and jet conditions.
jet
But equivalence of the left-hand and right-hand
sides of the equality can better be visualized
if the pump efficiency
Since
T V /550
nhull/inlet
= (1-0 (9)
pgQH/550
is written as P P

nDx
PD PD
The result is
Solving for ns
npump
n.jet x n
system
x (1-0
waterjet
(10)
T(1-t)/550
PD = The determination of true np for a waterjet-
n
S
- T V /550 propelled craft requires a series of experimental
P P V
(1-t) tests of bare hull, appended, and self-propelled
(V. - V)
PD 3
conditions. This will be discussed later under
V + the section on model and prototype testing. How-
2
ever, in regard to propulsion efficiency, the
references pertaining to experimental evaluation
T(1-t)/550 (boat tests)(Refs. 3, 14, 15, 16, 17) provide data
PD
on
nT. Only Reference 16 attempts to correct jet
(T V /550)(1-t) thrust to effective thrust with the reduction of
P P
PDV, V
2 +2
V

_j_
thrust by inlet drag. Reference 18 is a report
on a water channel test of a stationary waterjet
propulsion system which also provides nT results.
nT is inadequate to completely describe the
Cancelling like forms
performance of a marine craft for the following
reason. Conceivably, the magnitude of propulsor
TV
P P thrust for a particular propulsor can be large in
V. comparison to the thrust of a second propulsor and,
V
T
J consequently, PT would be high. However, a sig-
nificant percentage of the propulsor thrust may be
Now for a simple pump (ducted propeller) required to overcome the increased hull resistance
which the propulsor itself adds to the bare hull
resistance. Thus, it is possible to have a high
propulsor PT but, at the same time, a high Ps to
propel the craft at design speed. Although the
resulting nT might be comparable with that of
another propulsor or propulsion configuration, the
P required could be considerably larger. This
S

conclusion was borne out in waterjet system com-


puter trade-off studies at Boeing.(Ref. 19*)
Consequently, if one is comparing various propul-
sion system installations on a particular craft,
the most meaningful comparison parameter is P.

V Vp Vi In several of the reports, an attempt is made


to calculate a propulsive efficiency for a water-
PUMP VELOCITY SCHEMATIC jet installation either as a product of pump, jet,
system, and hull interaction efficiencies, or as

* For further interesting information on this sub-


ject, refer to discussion of Reference 14 by
Dr. C. Kruppa.

6
a product of external, internal, and jet effi-
ciencies. As far as overall waterjet propulsion
system installations are concerned, momentum con-
siderations are used in the majority of cases for
C= 12
T
p -1°V A
performance prediction (References 3, 4, 14, 2 p
19, 21-28). since

Use of Ideal Propulsive Efficiency (Ty Tp =Ap x 1


p(V.2 - V2)
2 j

Consideration of n, can provide insight into then


the ideal performance of a particular waterjet TV 2
which - -
system in stages of preliminary design. nI P V.
The derivation of n1, based on momentum 1 +
V
theory with the assumption of one-dimensional flow Now
and referring to the figure below, is as follows: 2
n - (13)
1 + 1 + CT

which indicated that n, depends only on the pro-


peller load coefficient:

The expression for Ideal Jet Efficiency n1,


Equation (12) indicates that a maximum efficiency
exists for a specified system loss at a particular
value of pump head or of the velocity ratio. If
SCHEMATIC OF WATERJET INSTALLATION
for high jet propulsion efficiency, a low Av/v is
adhered to, one must be satisfied to pump a large
quantity Q (rate of flow in CFM or GPM), because
T = o(JAv. A high Q through a pump requires either
high flow velocity or large flow passages. Thé
latter is advantageous as far as keeping pump pres-
sure losses low; however, large pump dimensions
mean a high fluid weight in the pump. Thus, com-
promise, adjusting to optimum conditions for a
If it is assumed that V = specific pump application is required.
Vcraft = Vinlet water,
n/ is defined as:
Real System Propulsive Efficiency
power out
nI - power in It can be seen from the derivation of Equa-
tion (12) that ai
is dependent on the ratio of jet
work per unit time by thrust velocity (nozzle exit velocity) V. to ship velo-
work per unit time by ideal pump - city V. If the jet efficiency isjcalculated for
the case where the thrust and velocity developed
PO (T x V)550 are again a measure of the power out, but where
the power in is increased to overcome real system
PI PI
loss, and if no assumption about the internal
o Q Vi (Vi - vi) system head loss is made, the following approach
can be taken:
1 2
PQU -"1/ J .21 Total loss = inlet duct loss + exit duct loss +
nozzle loss; h = hi + he
ButV.=V
1
and V. - V = AV The pump output power P,ump is:
1 2 1
w1
2 2
P Q VA v = -mV = - (V. - V ) + Wi + W
pump 2 2 g 3 h he
I 1 pQ (12 + 2VAV4 AV2 - V2) where w/ = weight of water/unit time.
Therefore
VAV H (V. - V) V

AV2
n.jpr - g
(17.2
1

v.2 4_ 2 gh)
n
I system
VAV + g j
2

Ideal Jet Efficiency


2 VAV 1 2 (Vi - V) V
(12)
nI 1 AV
2 VAV + AV2 1 +
V 2 - V2 -F 2gli V.- 2 1/2 2gh
The ideal jet efficiency can also be con-
V2 - V2 V2
veniently expressed in terms of the propeller
thrust coefficient defined as

7
2 (V. - V)
J
V 2 (k - 1) Hatte-Davis (Ref. 19)
n. (14)
V.2
k
2
+
2gh
- 1 k2 ( 12 (DLF1 L.
.7
HL = L 2
--- +2gh - 1 V2 k-1) 2g
V V2
2 (k - 1)
n.
= real jet efficiency JP'Hatte-Davis k2(1+K2) - 1 + W1)2 DLF
where k = VJV = jet velocity ratio.
(17)

where K2 = nozzle loss coefficient, and


DLF = duct loss factor.

Although any estimated or assumed system The Hatte-Davis expression (Ref. 19) for nipr
losses should be verified by experimental deter- is based on an approach wherein the inboard losses
minations, the establishment of probable ranges
are not lumped together and are not made propor-
of waterjet efficiency can be looked at by making tional to either inlet velocity or jet velocity,
preliminary estimates of component losses, and as is the case of the Levy or Johnson approaches,
toward this end, it is interesting to make a com- constraints whith are considered unrealistic.
parison of expressions for waterjet system effi-
Thus, it is suggested that for jet efficiency of
ciency of real systems as proposed by:
a real system, Expression (17) should be used in
preference to the others.
Joseph Levy (Ref. 21) v.2
Assuming H = K A type of plot of jet efficiency versus velo-
A 2g
city ratio for various values of the sysem loss
coefficient KL, which is familiar in jet propulsion
2(k - 1)
n. (15) technology (Ref. 26) is shown below (Figure 1).
- k2
k (1
(l + KA) - 1

I0
\\ EQUATION [15] WITH KA=0
KL
I

I
i
01

0203 \\
04
110. vi
05 \ SYSTEM
All ,

\\
LOSSES
---
-
o INCREASING
1

\\
eill=111
.

03
\ i

where lc = 04
r , \
_/1111111111 \I
V = craft velocity,
V. = jet velocity relative to craft,
2

LOCUS OF OPTIMA
\ \\
!
.

HL = system head loss, and


\\
KA =
!I_ o e
\
v 2
pv (Vi-V)
2g v OR
V
V. Johnson (Ref. 24) FIGURE I-EFFECT OF SYSTEM LOSSES
Assuming HL =
V2 AV
K.13
2g ON OPTIMUM
V
2(k - 1)
njpr (16) Once the n. is obtained, it must be multiplied
Johnson jpr
k2 - 1 + KB by in order to yield the propulsive effi-
npump
ciency of the overall propulsion system. The
accuracy of prediction of the propulsive efficiency
by the above methods can be no better than the

8
accuracy of the loss coefficients used in the tion has been given to show that "long life" high-
calculations. speed pump impellers will not face the same prob-
lems.
Comparison of Ideal Propulsion and Ideal Pro-
peller Efficiencies
Surniar
One other interesting area pertinent to this
discussion is the relational-lip of Ideal Propulsive
This then is an attempt to show how thrust
Efficiency and Ideal Propeller Efficiency. It efficiency nT compares to np as a performance
is interesting to note that the uppermost curve of
Figure 1 is a plot of Ideal Propeller Efficiency parameter and, further, to explain why nT is so
(propeller without viscous and rotative losses). often found in use in the waterjet literature
(although it is usually misnamed). Its limitations
By simple momentum theory
should be recognized, however, and the extent to
1 (12) which predictions of "propulsive efficiency"
n -
based on simple momentum ¡et efficiency calcula-
1 +12 --
AV
V
repeated
tions tempered with estimated system losses should
By referring to Figure 2, it can be seen that be carefully controlled.
this can be written as
Some type of analytical treatment can be
applied to a prediction of performance of each
major component of a waterjet system, i.e., the
pump, inlet, etc. Some of the references present
analyses (in varying degrees of complexity) of
the performance of system components and compare
the results with experimental data; e.g., Refer-
ence 20 on impellers.
FLOW
By far, however, the bulk of the available
theoretical work included in the present litera-
ture relies on simple momentum considerations of
ideal jet efficiency and, further, real system
efficiency by introduction of system losses ob-
tained from experimental, empirical, or "crystal
Fig 2- PROPELLER VELOCITY SCHEMATIC ball" sources.

The inherent limitations in the use of thrust


efficiency, even when measurement of the variables
included in
nT is very accurate, should be recog-
nized. Further PT magnitudes can vary depending
on whether thrust is jet thrust (often calculated
from measured momentum variables of mass flow and
jet and inflow flow velocities) or actual effective
1 1
or propeller propulsion reaction thrust. The authors of Ref-
1 AV 1 W
1 +
2 V
1+ 2
a
.-7-
efficiency erence 17 attempted to measure reaction thrust
using pump-mounted load cells in their boat-testing
program.
nI can also be derived from a considera-
propeller In summarizing the discussion of the problems
tion of the velocity vector diagram for a blade involved with the efficiency of propulsion, the
element (Ref. 70). following points appear to be significant:
Meaningful propulsion efficiency evalua-
tion for waterjets should, as in the case of more
Some confusion may exist in reference to mag-
conventional propulsion, involve determination of
nitude of comparative hydrodynamic performance of
propellers and waterjets as applied to high- nD nD is given by Equation (10) and
waterjet
speed hulls. Certain statements existing in the by Equation (9). When
literature (Ref. 4) imply that propeller effi- nhull/inlet interaction
ciency drops off at high speed while waterjet circumstances require the determination of the pro-
efficiency increases. Such arguments tend to pulsion system component efficiencies, as in the
neglect the fact that supercavitating propellers case where performance improvement or research is
whose hydrodynamic efficiencies do not degrade the goal, rip broken down in this way is a satis-
with increased speed should be utilized in the
factory parameter.
supercavitating speed range. It is well known
that the performance of a subcavitating propeller
will fall off at high speed, and knowledgeable 91) provides more definitive information
designers would not attempt to use it at high than does nT in a performance comparison of two
speed. The actual reason for performance of some
different propulsors applied to a particular hull.
supercavitating propellers to be less as speed
A familiar example here is the comparison of a
increases is that optimum blade geometry has to
waterjet with a conventional propeller. If R is
be sacrificed due to structural problems in
chosen to be the bare hull towed resistance (i.e.,
overstressing the material. No positive indica-
without any propeller system appendages or, on the

9
other hand, waterjet inlet or exhaust ports), succeeding stage, and rpm is lower than that re-
then a ratio of ns turn out to be simply a ratio quired by a single stage. In a parallel pump
of Ps's at any particular speed. As pointed out design, each pump develops the same head but the
earlier, a comparison of n, for the two systems flow is shared. These pumps could be of the same
would not be a valid indication of relative pro- type as a single large pump but would have a higher
pulsion efficiencies. rotative speed. Parallel pump arrangements usually
require complex plumbing systems.
Ideal jet efficiency and ideal propeller
efficiency are shown to be mathematically equiva- The basic pump type can be based on the
lent. In both cases, corrections must be made required head and flow rate which are determined
for losses in order to achieve the actual effi- from the thrust-speed requirements of the craft.
ciency of a propulsor. Since the waterjet, by However, certain design innovations are usually
design, has more sources of losses than the open required to adapt a design to specifically conform
propeller, it is generally less efficient. to a waterjet propulsion application. One major
consideration here is the establishment of off-
Accurate predictions of waterjet pro- design conditicos which will affect the cavitation
pulsion efficiency will generally not be obtained performance of the pump. Pump cavitation becomes
by applying estimated or empirical system loss a major problem at two operating conditions for
performance data to a jet efficiency figure hydrofoil and planing-type hulls: (a) at or near
calculated by simple momentum theory. takeoff (Figure 3) when the pump impeller is turn-
ing at a high rotative speed and the total inlet
static head is low due to a low ram head, and (b) at
THE WATERJET PUMP cruise or very high planing speed when the impeller
tip speed is at its highest. This second condition
The pumping machinery is a very important corresponds to the conventional subcavitating pro-
component of a waterjet system. Proper design peller limiting speed condition, but in the water-
of the pump requires not only a thorough under- jet case, control of the local pressure at the Dump
standing of the general characteristics of various can delay cavitation inception.
type pumps but, in addition, requires the water-
jet propulsion pump design to be in accord with
the design of all the other components of the pro-
pulsion system. The scope of this report permits
only a brief coverage of the subject of pumps
for waterjet application. An attempt is made to
put forth the major considerations of pump
requirements and characteristics (which are
treated in References 2, 21, 22, 23, and 24) along
with some discussion of performance criteria.
There is much published literature on pump research
and application. The references cited herein do
not form a complete list, but are given with the
SL.
intention of guiding the reader to pump literature.
Fig 3- TYPICAL THRUST - SPEED RELATION

The function of the pump in a waterjet system


is to accelerate the surrounding fluid medium
or increase the energy of the flow, thereby pro-
ducing thrust. This, of course, is also the func- The operating requirements of waterjet pumps
tion of an open or ducted propeller. for high-speed marine vehicle applications result in
their cavitation parameters falling in the same
From the section of the paper on propulsion range with cavitation characteristics of space
efficiency, it will be remembered that the optimum rocket turbo-pumps. Consequently, work has been
jet velocity ratios corresponding to practical done in the development of waterjet pump impellers
waterjet system efficiencies are relatively low. very similar in design to rocket pump inducers.
Thus, a pump having characteristically high mass It should be noted, however, that rocket pumps
flow rate and low head performance is a major have limited life. This is not to say that all of
requirement for efficient operation. However, a the existing axial or mixed flow pumps now being
high-speed pump will keep the duct size and weight used in waterjet systems employ inducer type
of the waterjet small. impellers. The Buehler "turbopower" units and
the Hamilton waterjet (from which both the Buehler
The types of pumps (broadly classified under and the British version Dowty-Hamilton designs
turbo-machinery) utilized by various experimenters were evolved) are examples of axial flow pumps
and propulsion system designers of waterjet systems employing multi-blade impellers, single and multi-
include: staging being available. On the other hand, inducer
type rotors are being developed by Curtiss-Wright
centrifugal (radial flow) - high head, (Ref. 29) and Pratt-Whitney (Ref. 30), Division
mixed flow - intermediate head, and of United Aircraft. In addition, other roc,ket
axial flow (propeller) - low head. pump manufacturers are experimenting with either
subcavitating or fully-cavitating inducer designs,
Waterjet systems may employ one or more pumps for especially suited to high-speed waterjet propul-
each separate ingestion and discharge ducts. sion. The Aerojet General Corporation has developed
Several pumps used in series or in a multi-stage a type of waterjet propulsion pump in which the pump
pump cause the same mass flow to be handled by casing or volute is made also to function as the
each stage, but the head increases with each jet nozzle with the idea of direct conversion of
mechanical energy to jet kinetic energy with

10
minimum conversion to potential energy first between the pressure rise and the rate of flow
(Ref. 31). must exist if dynamic similitude of the hydrodynamic
pump action is maintained from prototype to model.
A good percentage of the pump experimental In pumps, pressure rise is usually spoken of in
research is being complemented with theoretical terms of head.
pump design approaches. The basic analytical
methods follow either a classical approach in However, viscosity cannot be neglected in the
which momentum relations are utilized (see Ref- case of pumps; it is a more important considera-
erences 2, 22, and 31) and textbooks (References tion here than in the case of open propellers. The
13, 32, 33, 34, and 35), or a procedure involving ability of a pump to develop thrust T can be
lifting-line or lifting-surface theory. Certain thought of as being achieved through the pumphead
simple cavitation analyses can be made by apply- rise H and the volume flow rate Q. The head is
ing cascade techniques (References 30, 36, 37, dependent on the density p and viscosity u of the
and 38) to a classical solution. For a more de- pumped fluid, the volume flow Q, the impeller
tailed consideration of blading and internal flow, diameter d, and rotation speed N. By treating the
however, lifting-line (Ref. 37) or lifting-surface product gH (g being acceleration due to gravity)
(Ref. 20) approaches are useful. as the dependent variable and assuming

Experimental work is being done on pumps, gH = fl (p , u, Q, d, N) (Ref. 13)


especially designed for waterjet propulsion or
on types whose characteristics make them suitable dimensional analysis, as used above, reduces this
for possible waterjet application. As can be function to the simpler dimensionless relationship:
determined by considering Table 2, actual experi-
mental pump hydraulic performance is reported in gH f [_a_ pNd2"
References 14, 15, 20, 29, 31, 36, 37, 38, 40, 41, 2 2 2 3 '
JA.
d Nd IN
42, and 43. In addition, certain ones of these
references contain cavitation data on the pump These three dimensionless groups are termed head
performance (References 14, 15, 29, 37, 38, 40, coefficient (Kb), flow coefficient 0, and Reynolds
41, 42, and 43).
number, Re, respectively. The choice of certain
Most of this testing has been performed in performance parameters in propeller and pump work
pump cavitation loop facilities in which impeller rests mainly on convenience. In propellers, V and
scaled models are used in the prediction of im- T are easy to measure, whereas in pumps, Q and H
peller performance. Such facilities usually pro- are more readily determined. For a propeller, a
vide a means for visual observation of cavitating brief review of the performance parameters usually
phenomena. Several large-scale static pump test used may be in order.
stands capable of supporting fairly high-power
prototype waterjet pumps are now in operation; T = KTpN2d4
e.g., at Aerojet General Corporation (Ref. 31)
in Azusa, California, and at Pratt-Whitney Divi- and
pN2d5
sion in West Palm Beach, Florida. 2T'N Ktorque
PS - 550
It was stated previously that good waterjet
propulsion pump design will vary from stationary
n _ PT _ KT J
type pump design (Ref. 32, 35, 44) due to a dif- propeller K 27
PS torque
ference in the basic requirements of the two
machines. It is possible that, in like manner, where
the ideal terminology and performance coefficients V(1 -w)
utilized for many years in pump technology are not Nd
ideal or optimal for the technology of waterjet
On the other hand, slightly different performance
propulsion pumps (Ref. 33). In addition, values
coefficients turn out to be the most useful for
of performance coefficient limits published in
pump performance evaluation:
reference sources, e.g., Standards of the Hydrau-
lic Institute (Ref. 45) ,should be reanalyzed
in light of new pump technology. A short analysis pump hp 1:..

based on the pump and waterjet pump performance pump = Ps


Ps
parameters, dimensional analysis, and a comparison
with those coefficients used in propeller tech- p pg0H
nology follows.
P 550

At corresponding points in the full-scale (or 27N Torque


large scale) and model flows, the flow should be P -
S 550
geometrically and dynamically similar (Ref. 46).
Relating the pressure differences through a simple where Torque = pN2d5.
Ktorque
pump to the pertinent variables, it is assumed
that significant pressure differences in the pump Now Pp and Ps can be related to the dimensionless
are produced by mass forces of the fluid, and the
head, flow (as derived from the dimensional analy-
following relationship between the variables is sis), and torque coefficients, respectively, just
obtained (Ref. 32).
as in the case of a propeller. Thus
Nd3
= --- p POH pQ gh
p V2 Q P550 550

Thus, it is apparent that a definite relationship where gH = KHN2d2 and Q =0 Nd3

11
Therefore to pump head rise. Unfortunateiy, it is usually
used in a form which has not been made dimension-
PO Nd3 KHN2d2 PO KR N2d5 less, a factor causing some confusion in pump
Pp =
550 550 research work. Despite this, it is a very useful
parameter for comparing performance of different
Likewise
pumps or of pumps with their models. Specific
27N K jN2d5
torque speed involves only the pump operating conditions
Ps - 550 by means of eliminating impeller diameter between
the head and flow coefficients. By the provision
Therefore, dividing Pp by Ps, that rotational speed be a linear variable, spe-
cific speed can be obtained (Ref. 32) as:
P PO KH N3d5
mn1/2
pump Ps 550- Ns - (22)
H3/4
This form is not dimensionless but, by utilizing
550 gH as the term in the denominator instead of H,
a dimensionless form of specific speed is:
27N Ktorque oN2d5 1/2
NQ
dimensionless N - (23)
S
KH (gH)3/4
OKH 0
(21)
K 2r Addison (Ref. 33) suggests that tLe dimensionless
npump 27Ktorque torque form of specific speed be called characteristic
shape number to distinguish it from the more com-
where
mon form, and the word shape is appropriate be-
gh cause modelling of the pump requires geometric
0 = -QT similarity or, in other words, retention of pump
Nd- "H N2d2 shape.
Thus, it can be seen by comparing (19) and (21)
that By substituion of the coefficients 0 and KH
KT
into (23), Ns can be written as:
(19)
npropeller K 27
torque repeated 1/2
0
KH NS - , 3/4
0 ,H
(21)
nwaterjet pump 27
Ktorque repeated If it would serve any useful purpose, a
characteristic shape number could likewise be
Later it will be shown that n can be written
pump defined for propellers as:
in a form which when multiplied by the jet nozzle
1/2
efficiencyn.is physically equivalent to
NS -
For propeller performance evalua- KT3/4
npropeller.
tion, KT and KQ are usually plotted against J.
but the need for such a parameter is not apparent.
For a waterjet pump, Km and KQ could be plotted
Another point of interest, alluded to earlier,
against 0 or against V,/V, the jet velocity ratio which arises when comparison of propeller and pump
if the pump is running in a moving craft. performance efficiencies are attempted is exempli-
fied by the case of a ducted propeller for which
The major deviations in the use of these efficiency has been calculated by, first, a pro-
specialized performance coefficients occur be- peller efficiency philosophy and, second, by a
cause pump and propeller engineers utilize the pump efficiency philosophy. The difference occurs
performance variables which are most easily meas- in the use of different velocities in the expres-
ured in their respective tests. Many variations s ion
in parameters could be derived from the basic TV
variables as measured. np = 550 'D

Pump designers for many years have used a For the propeller V = V, speed of propeller ad-
parameter termed "specific speed" which originally
vance; for the axial flów pump, V = Vd, velocity
was introduced by a German, R. Camerer, in 1915 inside the duct.
for describing the hydraulic type of water tur-
bines. Each of the three types of pumps mentioned Since the induced velocity inside the duct
above covers a range of specific speeds Ns, and causes the pump flow velocity to exceed free-
attains its maximum efficiency at a point some- stream velocity, the "apparent" efficiency of the
where in thi, range, efficiency dropping off on pump will be higher. Figure 4 shows a set of
both sides of this particular specific speed. comparative efficiency curves for a ducted pro-
Geometrically similar pumps of different sizes peller (Ref. 47), calculated by the two methods
will have similar head flow performance character- and showing a significant difference in magnitude.
istics if operated at the same specific speed
(assuming viscous effects are small). Ns is a Note that n_and
propeller pump
are only
n
number which is proportional to impeller rotative different by the difference in Va (speed of
speed and rate of flow, and inversely proportional advance) and Vd (speed of flow at propeller disc).

12
Vd =V
a
+wa
2
TVd
T [V
a
+ 111.]
2
npump - 550 550
where
S S
wa = total axial induced velocity component
or A V.
npropeller Va

'propeller
. TVa
550
(27) pumpAV
+ - V
a 2

Ps where

Va
-
AV njet
V +
a 2

Cavitation will play an extremely important


role in waterjet propulsion pumps. Cavitation may
affect the pump hydraulic performance as severe
cavitation will cause pump erosion and degradation
of pump performance. Because waterjet propulsion
As pliMUMEAW MOM AS PROPELLER pumps will, at times, be required to work at rela-
IMM111111111111
tively low suction heads, cavitatIon of the pump
iiSEMPUEUMEEMENIIMMEIS.
raesidtaallsomeemsobramiolsimmul impeller will be a problem (Ref. 37). One advant-
magmemininsommanutowlimmem
ifietinsunimiassimarrailoss age which the axial flow pump possesses is that
multi-staging of impellers can be used to reduce the
tendency for the main load-carrying impeller to
cavitate. The technique of utilizing an in-
111111MIMMEMIERVINIMINIMMENIMEMNIIIMMILIME ducer stage in which the static pressure is
111111111111IPMESIMMINNI1M11111111MMIEN1111 increased with very little kinetic energy
1110NOTAININIMEME011111111111111111M increase has been used to provide a sufficiently
EIIMENIPIMMUNIIIIIMIIM11111111111111111111111
11111/MISONEVINEMEM111111111111=11111111 high suction pressure to the main flow accelerat-
ing impeller stage to prevent blade cavitation.
11111111111111111111111111111§11111 A comparison of cavitation inception criteria
WIROMME11111111MMEMINNEIHME111111111111111111111
MIV/211MEIME1111111111=111101111Z1111111111 for pumps (Ref. 35) and propellers now follows.
Since pumps are usuaily used to produce a
.1 1, 1.0 1.1 pressure rise through the impeller, the Thoma
FIGURE - EFFICIENCY OF A DuCTE0 PROPELLER CALCULATED BY 121 METHODS
cavitation parameter (aThoma) defined as

anet suction head


Thoma - pump head produced (30)

is in general pump usage. Here, het suction head

H (or npsh) = hatmospheric + hdepth +


sv

y.2
2g
in feet of water (31)

in which V = the velocity in the flow approaching


the pump. The Thorne parameter is dimensionless,
and if its constancy indicates cavitation similar-
ity, then increased pump head would require increas-
ed suction head.

In propeller work, the cavitation parameter


or cavitation index normally used is defined as

H1
a - (32)
V2/2g

where H1 = (absolute pressure at shaft centerline -


vapor pressure of water) and V can be either free-
stream velocity or the inflow velocity at the center
section of the propeller. This approach is taken
since propellers inherently are not used to pro-
duce pressure rise (potential energy) but rather
kinetic energy.

For cavitation effect on propeller performance


KT, Kq (torque), and efficiency versus J curves are

13
obtained at various values of a from tests con- WATERJET INLET
ducted in a cavitation tunnel. These tests are
in addition to the open-water performance tests. This section and the following section of
the paper deal with the intake of and the internal
In pump procedures, a single cavitation flow of water in the waterjet system. Waterjet
parameter is used to relate the inlet flow con- propulsors require optimization from the inlet to
ditions to the pump speed and hed rise. This the exhaust nozzle. As pointed out previously, it
parameter is a direct extension of the specific does not particularly pay to strive for a high
speed Ns, and is defined as system efficiency through low jet velocity unless
system losses are also minimized (refer again to
1/2 Figure 1). The attainment of low loss or high
NQ
S - (33) efficiency flow transmission components is a prime
goal. The system component losses which are in-
(gHsv)3/4
volved consist of inlet/diffuser (which can run
where H has replaced H. S is termed suction from 10 to 30 percent), internal ducting (2 to 10
sv
percent), and nozzle (1 to 3 percent).* These loss
specific speed and, when defined in this way,
values are usually expressed as percentages of the
appears to be a valid dimensionless parameter.
ram head V2/2g.
Note that the Thoma cavitation indext is The inlet or scoop location depends on the hull
an expression which is dependent on the pump and waterjet propulsion system configuration.
itself; specifically, it is the ratio of the net Most hydrofoil waterjet foilborne systems incor-
suction static head supplied to the pump to the porate ram-type inlets mounted in the pod at the
pumping head actually developed. Thus, at can bottom of the strut (Ref. 24). Planing boat and
displacement craft usually employ flush or scoop
be seen to be equal to the ratio of Ns and S or
intakes in the hull bottom. Schemes have been
Gt = proposed for side or bow located inlets (e.g.,
see U.S. Patent Office Patent disclosures
In contrast, the propeller cavitation index
2,884,889 and 3,188,997). The major design loca-
a is an expression dependent on the condition of
tion considerations appear to be in keeping thE
the flow; specifically, it is the ratio of the
vertical distances which produce elevation losses
static head to the dynamic head of the free-stream short, keeping the inlet in "green" water to pre-
flow.
vent aeration, providing sufficient water flow
to the pumps to produce the required thrust, and
However, a can be expressed in terms of VR
preventing or delaying the inception of cavitation.
(resultant). The use of Va makes Good inlet system design requires low internal
losses and high resistance to cavitation during
Po Pv the takeoff mode and low external drag during
a -
R 1 2 cruise. From a takeoff mode cavitation considera-
pVR
tion, the critical parts of the inlet are the
analogous to pump at. scoop (water entrance) and the transition from
the inlet to the diffuser duct. The scoop
Summary obviously must capture the free-stream flow effi-
ciently under a range of operating conditions
In summary, the points pertaining to per- between takeoff and cruise.
formance evaluation of waterjet pumps which should
be reviewed are as follows: During takeoff, the ratio of inlet to free-
stream velocity is high (pressure levels in the
Pump efficiency must be multiplied by scoop are low), and internal cavitation is the
p. before direct comparison can be made with primary concern. During cruise, on the other hand,
3 this velocity ratio is relatively low (pressure
conventional propeller efficiency. levels in the scoop are thus relatively high),
and resistance to internal cavitation is therefore .

Pertinent performance parameters for high. But in the cruise mode, susceptability of
waterjet pumps will include flow rate 0, head external lip cavitation may be a significant fac-
coefficient KB, and torque coefficient K tor.
characteristic shape number (nondimensional
specific speed) and a nondimensional form of The net effect of cavitation in and around
suction specific speed. Pump-flow variables such the inlet is two-fold. Cavitation can produce sig-
as flow rate and head will continue to be measured, nificant erosion (cavitation damage) of the inlet
since they are more directly attainable than the material; however, the more important consideration
variables commonly measured in propeller testing.

Cavitation number can be defined in * The magnitude of the loss coefficients stated
various ways (this variation usually arising in here are estimates representative of a range cover-
propellers because of choice in where velocity ing typical planing hull, CAB, and hydrofoil water-
is measured), but for propulsion pumps will jet systems. A sharp bend just behind the inlet
probably be most meaningful if it is based on the and long vertical strut duct, as is required for
ratio of suction head H to head developed by a hydrofoil craft, produce higher losses.
sv
the pump H.

14
is degradation of pump performance due to excessive solutions to the potential flow problem, both
inlet/diffuser head loss and, ultimately, complete linearized and nonlinearized techniques now exist-
choking of the flow which starves the pump. ing. A twq-dimensional method litilizes a distribu-
tion of sources on the mean camberiine of the lip
(See Ref. 48). A more general result applying to
From a momentum exchange standpoint, the
relationship of thrust required and inlet area is; the nonlinear problem can be achieved with a dis-
tribution of sources along the surface of the model.
T = PA. Vi (Vi - Vi) An example of this is the Douglas-Neumann type of
approach applied to arbitrarily shaped inlets (Ref.
where 22, 49, and 50).

Ai = Ks di When the pressure distribution is available


from one of the above techniques, it is very use-
ful in affirming the character of the streamline
flow and shows whether smooth or sharp peaks exist
in the pressure distribution which could indicate
separating flow. However, viscosity effects are
not included as part of the potential flow solution
and viscous effects must be considered by correc-
.1. 111111"
tions, based on empirical data, being made to the
potential flow results.

It seems practical to also utilize the portions


of existing empirical data which are considered
reliable on marine condenser scoops (Refs. 23, 24,
51-54) and aircraft oil cooler scoop testing (Refs.
55 ane 56), specially in the preliminary inlet
V. designs.
Letting m w-1- (jet velocity ratio)
vi
It is possible that some inlet designs (when
T = PA. Vi (mVi - V i) considered integrally with a particular hull f.l_ow
field) could be low in internal loss but have high
or external drag effects. A certain amount of experi-
T = PA. V.2 (m - 1) (34) mental work is required in determining the net
performance of such designs. References 14, 19,
For a fixed geometry exhaust nozzle, m is 22, 23, and 24 are valuable in pointing out means
fixed, thus A. and V., which are interdependent, for system performance prediction using existing
are the only controllable parameters for varying empirical data.
the thrust.
Practically all of the inlet studies carried
Variable geometry inlets could be used to out so far have been slanted toward hydrofoil inlet.
assure sufficient flow to the pump at low ram-head The biggest present need is for comparable studies
speeds (takeoff) and allow the pump to work at its for flush planing hull scoops and ram or flush CAB
best point of design over a fairly broad range. sidewall-type inlets.
However, the mechanical complexity of such an
inlet in a sea water environment and cavitation The amount of ram recovery or captured free-
problems of the fairing appear to be significant. stream dynamic pressure through the inlet can be
determined by measuring the characteristics of the
Definitive evaluation of inlet performance water approaching and leaving the inlet. An inlet
involves the determination of: (1) how efficiently with poor flow will experience a large energy or
the water can be "captured," over what range of head loss.
2
velocities inlet cavitation will not significantly 1
degrade this "capturing," and (2) how much the hull 2g -s
drag is affected by the presence of the inlet. A
brief analysis of the pertinent parameters required where Hs is the static head, which is atmospheric +
in model scaling of the hydrodynamic forces on sub- depth head. This should be measured before and
merged bodies is given later under the section on after the flow passes the inlet lip and turn/vane
model testing. (if turn/vane exists).

Now from a consideration of what useable work Experimental data (Table 2) obtained in
is available from the literature, it is noteworthy relatively recent testing specifically regarding
that examples of both older published empirical waterjet propulsion system inlets can be found in
information reviewed for waterjet inlet application References 14, 16, 18, 22, and 57. The waterjet
and some original new analytic approaches to the propulsion system reported on in Reference 14 employ
problem exist. The theoretical work, for the most dual wake intakes in order to provide a more uniform
part, involves attempts to predict the effects of inflow to the pump. The work reported by Lockheed
the flow field impinging on the inlet by calculat- in Reference 22 was obtained from hydrofoil craft
ing the pressure distribution in the external and ram-type model tests in the Lockheed Underwater
internal areas adjacent to the inlet lip. These Missile Facility (LUMF) at Sunnyvale, California
particular analyses do not yield the inlet loss (variable-pressure towing basin). The data of
coefficient but serve to aid in lip and entrance Reference 57 were obtained from scale-model inlet
angle design.
tests of a strut-type inlet in the Hughes Aircraft
(Tool Division) free-jet facility at Los Angeles.
Methods currently in use are based on

15
The quantities or variables normally measured Froude and cavitation numbers simultaneously.
in experimental inlet studies include: craft velo-
city V, inlet velocity Vi, inlet geometry (lip, Empirical condenser scoop and aircraft oil
angle, size), guide vane geometry, static pressute, cooler scoop data are useful during preliminary
pressure distribution, and velocity profiles. From design.
these data, the following typical parameters are
derived: A quantity of hydrofoil (ram) inlet data is
pressure loss coefficient, velocity ratio (V./V), now available, and the need for CAB or planing
boat-type hull inlet data is evident.
geometry, drag coefficient, pressure distribútion,
velocity profile, critical cavitation number (ac),
and net positive suction head (npsh).
WATERJET DUCTING
A method of displaying inlet performance is to
plot the inlet loss coefficient K, In a waterjet propulsion system, a certain
(as a percent-
amount of ducting must be installed tc move the
age of free-stream velocity head) versus cavitation water from hull inlet to pump and from pump to
exhaust nozzle. Hydrofoil boats with waterjet
number for a family of inlet velocity ratios
V. systems utilizing strut-pod inlets and deck-
mounted pumps require a relatively extensive duct-
This produces characteristic
.

ing arrangement. On the other hand, small planing


vfree-stream
"break" curves of the type described in Reference boat installations can have very short connecting
19 (see Figure 5). ducting, and most commercial waterjet propulsors
incorporate inlet, diffuser, pump casing, and
exhaust nozzle in only two or three castings.
Captured air bubble craft will require waterjet
ducting systems which are slightly more extensive
than for planing boats but less than those for
hydrofoil craft.
TEST I
TEST II A number of system layout studies aimed at
optimizing system designs have been made for
Vi
specific type hull waterjet installations by Hydro-
V -al nautics for CABS (Ref. 59) and Pratt-Whitney Divi-
VI
+ + V
-0, sion for hydrofoil craft, air-cushion craft, and
large displacement-type ships (destroyers)(Ref. 60).
CAVITATION NUMBER e In addition, Lockheed has published some system
layout work (Ref. 22) and Reference 24 by Johnson
Fig 5- INLET INTERNAL PERFORMANCE of Hydronautics contains some hydrofoil craft duct-
ing system layouts. Kim, in Reference 23, treats
the problem of the tradeoff of benefits of single
ducting versus multiple ducting systems, the rela-
tive importance of bends, straight lengths, vanes,
etc.

Some inlet data instrumentation was avail-


The function of the duct is to deliver the
able for the boat testing reported on in References
3, 14, 15, 16, 18, and 58. correct quantity of water to the entrance of
These reports include
a presentation of the data acquired. the impeller efficiently (with minimum pressure
Note again
loss) and with a reasonably uniform velocity dis-
that the Hydronautics tests (Ref. 18) are from
tribution, and to exhaust the water efficiently.
stationary model tests with moving flow.
The efficiency of the ducting system, as in any
piping system, is dependent on the length of the
Summarizing the areas discussed in this sec-
pipe, number and type of transitions, and pipe
tion points to the following high points:
roughness. In general, a duct system should be
The waterjet hull inlet is a critical light-weight (including weight of water) and have
area in regard to both external and internal flow low hydrodynamic loss. Considerations of low
performance. weight and vibration (structural and internal
hydrodynamic) will not be dwelled upon here. The
Analytical methods exist which can
hydrodynamic losses which will be discussed here
greatly aid in the design of lips, inlet angles,
involve friction losses at internal ducting walls,
etc., in predicting pressure distribution.
mixing losses (pressure loss and friction loss)
Inlets for craft which operate from a in areas where transitions such as enlargements,
displacement to a planing condition may require contractions, and turns exist, and velocity pro-
variable geometry designs to accommodate both files at sections approaching the impellers and
takeoff and cruise requirements. stator vanes. An example of a condition which
might cause significant problems is that of the
Takeoff - internal inlet can choke the
impeller shaft of an axial-type pump passing
pump due to cavitation.
through the supply duct causing nonuniformity to
Cruise - external inlet can cavitate,
the impeller inflow.
thereby increasing drag.
A good inlet should provide adequate The flow of an incompressible fluid inside a
flow, have low KL, and be cavitation resistant. filled pipe or duct produces certain hydrodynamic
forces. The significant forces in this case are:
Definitive inlet testing requires holding of inertial, gravity, friction (viscous), and

16
pressure. Surface tension as characterized by
Weber number and compressibility by Mach number
can be ignored for water flow in waterjet piping
systems. It is common practice to use the follow- V [1 - am] 1/2
T 1/2
ing dimensionless parameters associated with the
-
above forces: vm
inertial pVZ Po Pv
R - - , Reynolds number where a -
e viscous m 2

inertial v2
, Froude number
Fn - gravity
gZ Po Pv
a -
P 2
V
inertial 1
C = -
P pressure pressure coefficient 1 2
p V
and if a = a (equality of cavitation numbers)
m
Po - p
, pressure coefficient which is Froude scaling.
1 2
Then V /V
pm = (T)1/2
pV
2

where i = characteristic dimension; for pipes In the preliminary design stage of waterjet
is the pipe diameter, and systems, use can be made of published empirical
data on pressure loss coefficients of straight
p = local static pressure. ducting, turns or elbows, vanes, nozzles, and other
transitions. References 13, 22, 23, 24, and 34
The aforementioned dimensionless parameters are good sources of this type of data. Waterjet
provide a basis for establishing dynamic similitude ducting losses are included in the system perform-
of the flow in models of ducting systems. The ance measurements obtained during the boat tests
geometric similarity between a prototype and model described in Reference 14 (British). References
should extend to scaling the roughness of the 50 and 61 by Gibbs and Cox, and Reference 60 by
internal duct wall. Nondimensionally, this would Arcand of Pratt-Whitney utilize published experi-
make relative pipe roughness (e/d) equivalent for mental ducting loss data in arriving at predictions
model and prototype. Relative to the viscous and of system efficiency. Johnson, in Reference 24,
pressure forces which are produced, gravity forces suggests some ranges of magnitude for system loss
are of minor consequence in the flow of fluid coefficients which are apparently based on pub-
through a filled pipe. lished empirical data. The data available in
Consequently, Froude
number can usually be ignored in model studies these references are summarized in Table 2. It
of this type. However, in certain instances can be seen by studying such loss data that fric-
Froude number may be of significance. Although tional resistance is more significant in internal
this parameter is most often associated with free waterjet systems than in the case of an open or
surface gravity effects on flow about bodies, it even conventional ducted propeller.
should be remembered that to have the correct
pressure coefficient or cavitation number over the In summary, it appears that the ducting per-
vertical extent of a model, Froude scaling must formance problem is less critical at the present
be maintained. Thus in cases where the vertical time than that of the inlet. Published empirical
dimension of the body is large relative to the loss data for piping and transition ducting can
depth of immersion, it may be necessary to con- be used in making estimates of losses during system
sider Froude number in order to have the proper layout design. Performance tests of complete inlet
scaling of the pressure coefficient. Con- and ducting systems, or models thereof, should
sidering the diagìam below and setting C definitely be conducted when high propulsion system
of model and prototype equal: efficiency is a requirement. Details of such test-
ing are discussed below in the section on waterjet
propulsion testing.

WATERJET PROPULSION TESTING


Performance Considerations
Experimental determination of the performance
of either waterjet components or entire waterjet
propulsion systems can be accomplished by applica-
tion of the proper experimental techniques to tests
of the prototype or scale model. In cases where
prototype testing is impractical, or undesirable,
model experiments will generally produce satisfac-
tory performance data if geometric and dynamic
AP similitude are maintained. The type and scope of
C = 2-
1 2 - C -
1
Apm
2
the performance testing on a particular propulsion
Pprototype 7 pVp Pmodel pV system will depend on the intended use of the data
2 m
Z, obtained. The requirements for most performance
If P = P and H = TH
m
where T= r-- evaluations will fall into one of the following
1, m P Rm categories:

17
Type of Study Requirements trials, of the propulsor reaction thrust by means
Performance Determination of the horse- of, for example, pump support load cells is helpful
power required to propel a in cases where very precise performance determina-
particular craft at certain tion is required. Assurance that the direction of
speeds. Also comparison of the jet reaction is collinear with the path of the
two or more propulsion boat is sometimes in question. In addition, it
system designs. should be kept in mind that waterjet thrust will
generally have to exceed towed hull drag; by an
Design Determination of the per- amount equal to the additional drag induced by the
formance of various com- propulsion system flow.
ponents of a system in
order that the design of Model Testing
components may be improved
so as to ultimately pro- The principle of model testing is based on
vide improvement in over- the prediction of prototype performance from models
all system performance. by judicious application of various scaling para-
meters. The previous sections on pumps, inlets,
Research Determination of perform- and ducting contain the development of the scaling
ance characteristics parameters which should be considered in the
of system components in a evaluation of each component when modelling. In
systematic program of some cases, it is not possible to simultaneously
experimentation, but in maintain equivalence of all the scaling coef-
which the components are ficients which might be applicable to a particular
not related to a particular component.
design or system.
Pump models should be tested at the specific
Performance testing of complete propulsion speed Ns, suction specific speed S, and Thoma
units under full-scale speed and load conditions cavitation number of the prototype to assure
finds wide application in the range of low horse- cyt

power waterjets. On the other hand, high-powered that dynamic similitude at corresponding points in
units requiring high efficiency and reliability the model and full-scale flows is achieved. How-
necessitate the expense of constructing models ever, experience in pump testing indicates that
and using specialized testing facilities such scale effects can produce significant correlation
as variable-pressure water channels, high-speed problems if the physical size of a model is very
towing basins, and cavitation tunnels. Several small relative to the prototype (Ref. 33).
static waterjet test facilities (Ref. 31) have
been put into operation by industry. Regardless Model testing of inlets can be satisfactorily
of whether testing is accomplished on a prototype accomplished by considering one or more scaling
or model, certain performance parameters presented parameters, depending on the design and application
in the previous discussions on pumps, inlets, and for the inlet. The full-scale boundary layer
ducting are required to characterize performance. existing at the inlet should be modelled when
Table 1, which appears below, is intended to definitive model experiments are conducted. It
present the pertinent parameters which was shown that similarity of the pressure
characterize hydraulic performance and to coefficient and thus the cavitation number at all
list the measurements required in evaluating points of the inlet flow will require Froude scaling
such parameters for the components of a in addition to maintaining the cavitation number of
waterjet system. the prototype. This is important when the vertical
dimension of the inlet is large relative to the
Table I should be used as a testing guide. depth of submergence or dynamic head, or when it
Straightforward performance evaluations (study is desired to scale the pressure gradient in a
Type 1) on protot3pe craft may require only a diffusing inlet. The internal inlet flow depends
limited number of measurements such as ship primarily on testing above a critical Reynolds
speed, payload, shaft horsepower, and fuel con- number. In internal flow, it is apparent that the
sumption. On the other hand, performance evalua- duct wall frictional stress T. is dependent on
tions aimed at the achievement of high perform- Reynolds number and relative pipe roughness coef-
ance designs (study Type 2) will require the ficient (e/d).
acquisition of most of the measurements and para-
meters listed in Table 1. In most cases, such Eventually complete systems or subsystems must
measurements can be made while testing components be built and tested. Sometimes, components such
or systems either as prototypes or scale models. as the inlet and the supply ducting are tested
In general, experimental data are more difficult alone (Refs. 19 and 22), and in other cases the
to obtain in dynamic testing than in static entire waterjet system is performance tested in
testing. However, all of the suggested data have an open-sea test boat. Reference 22 by Lockheed
been obtained successfully in tests of proto- presents results of inlet and ducting performance
types and models of waterjet-propelled craft. measured on one-tenth scale models of subcavitating
These include photographic data on cavitation and supercavitating hydrofoil boat ram induction
phenomena at the hull inlet. systems tested in LUMF basin. Indications are that
the inlet and turning losses are high relative to
The use of an accurately measured jet velo- duct losses for this type of ingestion system.
city for calculation of waterjet thrust from Reference 19 by Boeing describes cavitation inlet
measurements of tt-e system mass flow rate is, in testing on one-half scale model ram-induction
general, a satisfactory means for obtaining systems on the hydrofoil test craft LITTLE SQUIRT.
thrust. The additional measurement, during Ducting losses are included in these measurements.

18
TABLE 1

Type Testing Measurement Range Derived Function


Performance
Parameters

Pump static net positive suction Design range Flow coefficient (0), Statis pump per-
head (Hsv)*, static head coefficient (KH), formance and
pump head, flow rate, mechanical
torque coefficient (Kg),
rpm, shaft torque, reliability,
impeller inflow, static nimpeller' npump' cavitation break-
thrust, velocity dis- specific speed (Ns), down
tribution. Also, if
suction specific
pump intake pressure is
speed (S), Thoma
controllable, cavitation
cavitation number (ad
effect on performance,
cavitation breakdown
Pump Hsv, pumphead, flow rate, Design rpm Same as above Overall system
dynamic rpm, cavitation observa- range, range performance and
tions under transient of inlet velo- reliability
intake flow conditions city ratio under real en-
(Vi/V), range vironmental
of exhaust conditions
nozzle areas
Water hull- Head loss (pressure drop), Hi-Suction/Low Inlet velocity ratio Optimization of
inlet dynamic cavitation inception head at take- (Vi/V), cavitation inlet geometry
speed, inlet velocity off to maximum number (a), inlet loss to provide re-
ratio (V./V), inlet drag, ship speed or coefficient (KLi) quired flow, low
inlet préssure distribu- cruise and dash internal losses,
tion, visual cavitation condition low drag, high
observations, pre-diffu- cavitation re-
sion and boundary layer sistance
ingestion
Internal Head loss, flow velocity Over speed Duct loss coef- Optimization of
intake ducting profiles, cavitation range ficient (Ku) size and geo-
observations metry for pump
inflow velocity
profile and
minimum duct
losses
Internal Head loss Over speed Duct loss coef- Optimization of
exhaust range ficient (Ku) size and geo-
ducting metry for mini-
mum duct losses
Nozzle Head loss Over pump 7. Optimization of
speed range size and geo-
or jet velo- metry for opti-
city ratio mal nozzle-pump
(V/V.) over matching
J '
range of
nozzle exit
areas
Net positive suction head (He) is equivalent to the total static head at the pump entrance.

Extensive instrumentation must be installed in the pump operates in, and, as in most endeavors, time
the ducting system to separate the various losses and economics available to particular propulsion
produced by the inlet, the diffuser, the pump, system development. Perhaps the first choice to be
and the other components of the system. made is that of deciding to test a model rather than
the prototype hull installation. In general, model
Testing a Water-jet System testing allows closer control of test conditions
There are a number of alternate methods of but requires that proper scaling procedures be
performance testing a complete waterjet propulsor, implemented. Modelling is often undesirable if the
which vary in technique and scope. In addition prototype system is itself small in size and power,
to the criterion of study type mentioned above, and involved in low-budget development programs.
choice of methods depends on the answers to such But considerable model testing should be performed
in cases where the propulsion system is relatively
questions as what performance criteria are de-
large and must meet stringent requirements of
sired, how large the hull is, what power range

19
performance as in important military craft applica- References 3, 19, and 22. Actual prototype craft
tions. installations have been tested and the results re-
ported in References 3, 14, 16, and 17, all of
For really definitive propulsion performance which contain static and dynamic test results,
determination, resistance and propulsion tests except Reference 3 which contains only dynamic
must be run separately. In general, this requires results. Reference 18 presents an example of test-
some type of towing tank facility (Ref. 3). A ing a unit in a stationary condition in a flow
normal resistance test should be conducted with- channel. The boat tests reported in References
out appendages called for by the propulsion system 14, 16, and 17 are relatively complete in the
at various trim angles, corresponding to the anti- measurement of dynamic waterjet performance.
cipated propelled trim. A second resistance test
aimed at establishing the static effects of the Experimental Procedures
waterjet hull openings on drag could be run with
all propulsion system appendages in place, but The following are examples of methods of
with the propeller or impeller not rotating, re- determining hydrodynamic propulsion performance
peating the trim angles of the first test. Fin- characteristics of installed waterjet systems,
ally, a propulsion test should be run to ascertain listed along with the type of study for which the
the overall effective trim and resistance which procedure is applicable.
the craft experiences under the action of all
drag and lift forces produced by the hull, the Design. Test a waterjet-propelled hull
propulsion system, and the interaction of these model having both hull and internal pumping system
forces. Testing should include effects of turning scaled to the same linear ratio. This procedure
and sideslip on waterjet performance. In the case is often impractical because of the expense in
of small planing boats, it is possible to test the complete modelling of pumps. In addition, although
prototype craft in a towing basin over the actual scaling hull speed by Froude number and machinery
range of design speeds. From the standpoint of speed by specific speed are compatible as far as
achieving an ideal propulsion analysis, this type producing the proper scaled internal-flow velo-
of testing involving the prototype craft is ideal city, the range of model ducting Reynolds number'
if all pertinent parameters are measured. How- will be lower than full scale and must be main-
ever, the self-propulsion testing of a waterjet tained above 1 x 105 (based on pipe diameter) in
prototype craft in open-sea conditions (which is order to keep the model internal-flow pressure
the case for a great percentage of actual installed drop reasonable.
waterjet performance determinations)(Refs. 3, 14,
16, and 17) usually does not furnish sufficient Design. Test a hull model having the
information, mainly because it is difficult to proper external propulsion system characteristics
separate resistance and propulsion forces. It of the inlet. This procedure is recommended for
should be realized that it is much more difficult propulsion tests of the hull inlet/diffuser com-
to obtain detailed performance data on waterjet ponent. It requires the use of a "sucker" pump
systems than on propeller systems since the re- which establishes the correct scaled flow velocity
quired appendages can be removed easily in the at the waterjet inlet and means to maintain the
latter case. Further, the conducting of bare hull full-scale cavitation number as well as to simulate
resistance tests and the determination of the pro- the full-scale boundary layer. LITTLE SQUIRT
pulsor thrust add to these difficulties. As (Ref. 19) tests and tests of the hydrofoil craft-
stated earlier in the section on efficiency, if type inlets in the LUMF facility utilized this
the goal is to compare propulsion efficiencies of technique.
two different propulsors, a comparison of shp's
should suffice. Design. Test a prototype craft at full-
scale speeds in a towing tank and measure towed
Some difficulty exists when attempts are and propelled performance separately. This method
made to separate dynamic testing of the propulsor has the advantage of alleviating scaling problems.
and hull. Testing complexities will vary depend- However, for most testing tanks, it is limited to
ing on whether a test is being conducted to pre- boat hulls no greater than about 20 feet in length
dict the overall performance of a waterjet-pro- and 8- to 9-foot beam, and to waterjet-system horse-
pelled model which is free to trim and heave or powers of about 200 to 300.
to characterize the propulsor perfumance, in
which case the hull (or portion of the hull) is Design or Research. Test a prototype
restrained in trim and heave. From the section waterjet propulsion system mounted on a "mockup"
on efficiency, it was concluded that a definitive of a portion of the prototype hull which is fixed
performance criterion, nil , is: in trim and heave. Such a test could be run in a
waterjet towing basin or a circulating free-surface channel.

nD
waterjet pump
xxnjet system
x (1-t)
An example of the latter is reported in Reference
18. This procedure requires that the hull-inlet
flow conditions be known and simulated on the
= "mockup."*
nT(1-0
* A very important consideration is involved.in
Any good prediction of the performance must include testing waterjet ingestion systems in hull models or
a reasonable estimate of (1-t). References 3, 4, mockups mounted stationary in flow channels. Unless
14, 19, and 21 through 26 which contain perform- the transverse hull dimension is small compared to
ance data include calculations of nT but not rip. channel width, it is doubtful that meaningful mag-
nitudes of the added hull drag from interaction
The experimental work which has been done, of the induced flow by the waterjet system will
as listed in Table 2, includes the hull-inlet be obtained.
sybsystem which has been investigated by the

20
Performance. Test a prototype installa- self-propelled mode for a waterjet propulsor.
tion in open sea and measure Ps and PT (by jet
flow). Most of the published data available in Experimenters might be encourated to
this study pertaining to installed propulsion attempt full-scale testing in order to alleviate
performance were acquired by this method. It the problems of modelling. However, full-scale
is the cheapest and easiest test procedure. Ad- testing provides significant measurement diffi-
vantages include the fact that there are no scal- culties such as separating resistance and propul,
ing problems; disadvantages are that there is less sion factors.
control of weather and test conditions, and it is
not possible to separate xtsistance and propulsion A type of "open-water" propulsion test
forces from these measurements. Hence it is more for a waterjet propulsor could be run with a
difficult to improve performance. suitable hull simulation inlet. It requires test-
ing a prototype waterjet over a range of trims,
Performance or Design. Test a prototype boat speeds, inlet velocity ratios, and yaw con-
craft in open-sea conditions and measure thrust ditions in order to provide adequate performance
reaction and inlet drag, in addition to the other data from which extrapolation can be made when
usual pertinent quantities. This approach would actual hull dynamic characteristics become known.
provide significantly more data for determining
rip than would Method 5. (See References 16 and Several waterjet test stands have been
specifically built for testing a complete propul-
17.)
sor under simulated inflow conditions, prior to
dynamic testing.
Performance. Test a prototype system or
component on a hull on which auxiliary propulsors GENERAL AND FEASIBILITY LITERATURE SURVEY
such as engine/propellers or aircraft deck-mounted
jet engines can very effectively be used to help
A large portion of the existing waterjet pro-
propel the hull so that the water pump can be
pulsion literature deals with general considera-
tested at various combinations of thrust and ship
tions of and feasibility studies for the applica-
speed. This provides performance data on the pump
tion of waterjet systems to various types of marine
or inlet of a general nature with less dependence
craft. At the same time, considerable emphasis in
on the hull than for a fixed thrust/speed character-
the area of military ship and boat designs has
istic test setup.
recently been placed on feasibility studies which
attempt to consider all significant engineering
In summary, the significant points of this
aspects of a design, integrally with the intended
section are:
mission of the craft. As in many associated areas
of technology, it is obvious that the availability
Model testing or testing of waterjet
of high-speed computers has encouraged designers
propulsion system components in cavitation or other
and planners to conduct more studies of this type.
specialized facilities becomes feasible during
Certainly, feasibility studies which consider
preliminary design of systems requiring high
mission, structures, propulsion, etc. are necessary
efficiency.
at some point in the technological development
process. Consequently, without well thought-out
Modelling of entire installed waterjet
sound scientific-type feasibility considerations
propulsion systems is made difficult, or impossible,
for specific applications, the full effectiveness
if requirements include scaling of Froude, cavita-
of the waterjet propulsor cannot be realized.
tion, and Reynolds numbers simultaneously.
The waterjet propulsion systev is a special-
The inlet and critical hull section can
purpose propulsor which is probably superior to
be model tested independent of the rest of the
other types for some specific applications, but
waterjet propulsion system if an auxiliary
with the passing of time, "tradeoff" analyses
"sucker" pump is used.
become more critical to good system application.
Thus the reports and papers on waterjet propulsion
If Froude and cavitation numbers are
dealing with application feasibility studies are
maintained, proper C distribution of the model
worthwhile, but:
inlet and diffuser Pwill result.
Systematic theoretical and experimental
Internal flow scaiing should entail
work now needs to be done on system design and
holding C and Reynolds numbers simultaneously
performance evaluation.
for scaling pressure and viscous forces.
Feasibility and general studies need
Shear stress scaling depends on the
factual, verified scientific evidence for perform-
Reynolds number and relative roughness (e/d)
ance factors such as loss coefficients, efficiencies
effects on the dynamic pressure pV2).
of systems, etc.
For installed waterjet propulsion systems,
Indeed, in a final analysis, a system may or may
a definitive test of performance requires separa-
not be "feasible" for a particular application
tion of resistance and propulsion forces.
depending on the actual system efficiency, and it
is unlikely that this can be determined by "guess
A waterjet propulsion system may create
work." Some of the papers are inherently limited
a more significant overall effect on hull per-
in value since they contain unproven overly-
formance than does a more conventional propulsor.
optimistic or overly-pessimistic performance coef-
Thus resistance measured in nonpropelled drag
ficients; however, practically every reference
tests is less indicative of the actual dynamic
resistance which the hull experiences in the makes some contribution to the technology.

21
References 22, 23, 24, and 61 relate to studies Momentum theory has been used to show that
of feasibility of applying waterjet propulsion high ideal jet efficiency requires a low ratio of
to certain mission craft. A much larger number jet velocity to craft velocity as well as low
of the references were found to contain informa- system (inlet and ducting) losses. The calculation
tion on general considerations for application of real jet system efficiency by simple momentum
of waterjet propulsion to various types of craft. theory is not an accurate approach to the deter-
These reports include References 1, 3, 4, 7, 8, 9, mination of system performance.
19, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 50, 58, and 60 through 67.
A brief summary of each of these reports is con- Certain misconceptions pertaining to
tained ir the annotated bibliography list at the various efficiencies have been noted in the litera-
end of the paper. ture which tend to confuse proper performance com-
parisons. These include the misuse of propulsive
CONCLUSIONS RV
efficiency (n = - ) with thrust efficiency
D PD
In the Introduction a statement of the scope TV
(n = - ) as well as of pump efficiency (n pump )
of this paper included: T
Ps
with propeller efficiency (np). Actually
A critical survey of the pertinent tech- -
nical literature with emphasis on the significant np
=n pump x
njet
.

problems known to exist.

A discussion of theoretical and experi- As in the field of propeller technology,


mental techniques required for the determination- the choice of performance measurements and para-
of performance of components and complete water- meters tends to depend greatly on the relative
jet systems. ease with which these terms can be obtained. It
is recommended that good waterjet parameters
A review of the state of the art regard- include dimensionless: flow coefficient 0, head
ing the knowns and unknowns of waterjet perform- coefficient KH, torque coefficient K specific
ance. Recommendations for the use of performance suction
speed or shape number N ,

parameters and techniques for evaluating perform- 'dimensionless


ance. specific speed Ss , and for pumps,
dimensionless
An annotated bibliography of the refer- Thoma cavitation number at*
ence material pertinent to the technology of
waterjet propulsor. The design of specialized waterjet pro-
pulsion pumps is needed to provide pumps which con-
Certain conclusions drawn from the survey, vert the mechanical energy of the prime mover
which pertain directly to the above goals, are directly to kinetic energy with little increase of
set forth below: potential energy, as is found in conventional civil
engineering pumps. Considerable efforts are being
Waterjet propulsors are a special type
made to develop waterjet pumps with rocket-inducer
of marine propulsive device. They possess certain impellers due to the comparable range of cavitation
advantages over conventional propellers, including numbers required of pumps for these two applications.
the elimination of underwater appendages, the
elimination of complex right-angled transmission Considerable research is urgently needed
systems in certain craft, and in general, a freer in the area of waterjet inlet technology. This
choice of propulsion location. need focuses on the requirement for hard (experi-
mental) data for flush inlets of the planing boat
The disadvantages of waterjets as com- type and semi-flush/ram inlets designed for high-
pared to conventional propellers include generally speed CAB ships, such data to include effects of
higher weight, more horsepower to perform a par- yaw and sideslip on inlet performance.
ticular powering function, and by nature of the
hull inlet, they provide an additional area of Good inlet design encompasses: providing
potential cavitation problems. of adequate flow, having low internal loss coupled
with low hull drag, and having high resistance to
Hydrodynamic performance of waterjet- Inlets for craft which plane from an
cavitation.
propelled craft should be based on determination initial displacement condition must perform satis-
of propulsive efficiency, nip, which is defined as factorily at takeoff during which internal lip
cavitation is likely and at high-speed cruise at
PE RV
x nsystem x n hull/inlet which external lip cavitation can cause high drag.
= = n x
pump njet The use of variable geometry inlets may alleviate
PD PD .

the design problem.


where
nhull/inlet = (1-t) = ,-r-
Although certain craft application
designs necessitate extensive water ducting for
Precise determination of nip is difficult systems requiring high overall efficiency, careful
and is not necessary for comparing hydrodynamic consideration must be given to minimization of
performance of two or more competitive propulsors ducting. Considerable published empirical data will
cin the same hull, in which case shaft horsepowers aid in this respect in preliminary design.
Ps should be compared. However, high rip becomes
The determination of waterjet performance
critical in designs wherein the ratio of fuel of a jet-propelled hull requires special considera-
weight to gross weight is high, as in long-range tion. A waterjet may create a more significant
ocean vehicles.
22
effect on hull performance than does a propeller. outlines the problem of waterjet propulsion
As in the case of conventional propulsion, a and then treats pump to comply. Considers
definitive performance evaluation (breaking down momentum theory, blade design, cavitation,
losses, etc.) necessitates the separation of modelling and pump testing, pump parameters,
resistance and propulsion forces. Depending on proper drive system, rotor forces, and
the size and power range of a particular craft, lattice.
definitive evaluation may be accomplished by
model-scale or full-scale testing. Schuster, S., et al., "On Certain Problems of
Waterjet Propulsion," DTMB Translation 306 (Aug
It is felt that satisfactory modelling 1962).
of the hull inlet-diffuser subsystem can be
achieved if a suitable auxiliary suction pump Lecture. History of and design principles
is used to provide internal inlet suction. This of waterjet propulsion. Survey of intermit-
pump should be operated to provide a flow rate tent water propulsion systems. Considerations
of model testing discussed and a curve of
Q = A V where A4 /A4 results for a model test presented. Graphs
'model 'prototype of several European waterjet installations with
sparse static and dynamic performance results.
= 1/A and V
im
/V = 13/7 .

Engel, Cochran, and Delao, (Buehler Corporation),


"Use of Axial Flow Pumps for Marine Propulsion,"
A type of "open-water" propulsion SAE, Detroit Meeting (1962), Paper No. 4420
test of a waterjet propulsion system could be (Jan 1962).
run with a suitable hull simulation inlet. It
requires running over a range of trims, boat Contains statements of the relative merits
speeds, inlet velocity ratios, and yaw conditions of waterjet propulsion when compared with
in order to provide adequate performance data propellers. General performance curves and
from which extrapolations can be made when hull conclusions are presented. Good discussion
dynamic characteristics become known. of waterjet history and boat testing pro
cedures are included. Some of the problems
Several commercial waterjet propulsion still facing waterjet propulsion development
test stands have been specifically built for are listed.
testing a complete propulsor under variable
simulated inflow conditions, prior to dynamic Cobb, B., "Jr., "River Patrol Boat for Viet-
testing. nam," Yachting (Dec 1966).

Two basic shortcomings were found to prevail Historical note on the development of this
within the existing waterjet literature. First, important craft.
a lack of experimental data and synthesized design
methods was noted and, second, a number of design Smith, M. S., "Tomorrow's Water Craft will
parameters were found to be loosely defined. Use Water Jets - How and Why," Great Lakes Section
Suitable progress in the improvement of waterjet of Society of Small Craft Designers (Apr 1965).
propulsion performance will require extensive
research and development work in the areas of A short, interesting discussion of waterjet
propulsion system and hull design. This work propulsion of small craft. The paper makes
should be built upon the proper use of performance reasonable statements on the advantages and
parameters and evaluation techniques. It is hoped disadvantages of waterjets.
that the attempt made here to survey the state of
the art will provide some guidance to workers in Wechsler, L., "Where Are Marine Power Plants
the field of technology of waterjet propulsion. Headed?" SNAME Paper No. 20, Spring Meeting
(May 1966).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Paper discusses extent to which power plants,
Appreciation is expressed to Dr. Wm. B. transmission systems, and propulsors limit
Morgan for his interest and his numerous helpful speed of: 100-ton Gems, 100-ton hydrofoils,
suggestions offered during the writing of this 5000-ton CABS, 5000- and 10,000-ton displace-
paper. The author is also grateful to Mrs. ment ships; claims state of the art can pro-
Shirley Childers for the typing of the manuscript. vide machinery needed in next 10 years if
developmental work is done on turbines,
reduction gear, propellers, and pumps.
LIST OF REFERENCES AND ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Sheets, H. and Mantle, P., "Air Cushion Craft
Taggart, R., "Special Purpose Marine Propul- Propulsion," AIAA Paper No. 66-731, Los Angeles,
sion Systems," ASNE Journal, Vol. 71 (Aug 1959). California (Aug 1966).
Interesting historical summary of marine
Electric Boat Company engineers discuss ad-
propulsors.
vantages of various propulsion devicds for
air-cushion craft.
Papir, A. N., "Axial Pumps of Waterjet Pro-
pulsion Systems," Shipbuilding Publishing House
Gabrielli, G. and von Karman, T., "What Price
(translation), Leningrad (1965). Speed," Mechanical Engineering (Oct 1950), p. 775.
(Russian). An extensive coverage of axial
This interesting paper presents a graphical
pumps of waterjet propulsion system. Paper

23
representation (Karman-Gabrielli line) of tested (single and dual). Static and under-
minimum power requirements for given maxi- way tests were conducted, including a powering
mum speeds of a wide range of vehicles. comparison with a propeller. Engine ratings
ranged from 188-238 horsepower for these
Rossell, H. E. and Chapman, L. B., "Prin- tests. A discussion of the practical problems
ciples of Naval Architecture," SNAME Publica- encountered, including: hydraulics, hull/pump
tions, Vol. II (1955). interaction, weeds, and instrumentation.
The measured horsepower data are poor, as
Authoritative textbook on naval architecture. stated by the authors.
A useful reference containing standard
definitions of performance parameters. Aschauer, G. (Twin Disc Clutch Company),
"Waterjet Propulsion Tests," (Three reports:
Saunders, H. E., "Hydrodynamics in Ship October 1962 - Apr 1963).
Design," SNAME Publications, Vols. I and II
(1957). Cooperative testing was conducted by the Twin
Disc Clutch Company and Sewart Seacraft Inc.
Authoritative textbook on ship hydrodynamics; Experimental tests were run on a commercial
valuable reference book. waterjet propulsion system (conventional and
much-modified). A three-volume report
Kuchemann and Weber, "Aerodynamics of Propul- covering tests of September 1962, November
sion," McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York 1962, and April 1963 was written. These
(1953). appear to be the same type of tests as re-
ported in Reference 16. The present setup
A textbook containing a complete treatment included thrust-load cells mounted under
of propulsion analysis momentum methods. the pump mounts.

Vennard, J. K., "Fluid Mechanics," Fourth Contractor, D. N., "Experimental Investiga-


Edition, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York tion of a Waterjet for Shallow Draft Boats,"
(1963). Hydronautics Report TR 516-2 (May 1966).

Textbook containing empirical hydraulic Appears to be a good treatment of a small


loss data and procedures for the treatment boat WJP installation in a "mock" test of a
of duct losses. Classical pump theory. U.S. Army 1-ton payload, 20-knot boat.
Dimensional and nondimensional performance
Gasiunas and Lewis, "Waterjet Propulsion: curves are presented covering inlet condi-
A Theoretical and Experimental Investigation tions, drag, thrust, trim, effect of inlet
into Propulsion of Seacraft by Waterjets," British vanes and reverser, SHP, and RPM. Recom-
Institute of Mechanical Engineers, Vol. 178, mended boat installation and design. Tests
Part I (1963-64). conducted in Hydronautics high-V channel.

Runs two prototypes in open water and measures Hatte, R. and Davis, H., "Selection of
gross performance and comparison between Hydrofoil Waterjet Propulsion Systems," AIAA
test results. P.C. is looked at. A stimu- Paper No. 66-732, Los Angeles, California
lating discussion by several noted British (8-10 Aug 1966).
engineers is included.
Hydrofoil boats - selection method for a
Delao, M. M., "Experimental Results on Low waterjet propulsion system - recommendations
Speed Waterjet Propulsion Systems," (Buehler for waterjet propulsion system selection
Corporation), AIAA Paper No. 66-718, Los Angeles, criteria. Discussion of trade-offs and
California (Aug 1966). system considerations. Considerable experi-
mental 1/2-scale model hydrofoil inlet data,
A Buehler pump built for hullborne propul- acquired on Boeing's LITTLE SQUIRT, are
sion of a Navy hydrofoil craft is described. known to exist. Discusses ducting loss and
Static and dynamic experimental performance problems facing waterjet propulsion inlets
tests on the 16 1/2-inch diameter pump and describes LITTLE SQUIRT.
designed for the 9-knot craft were conducted.
Specifications included a direct 2500-rpm Dumov, A., "Calculation of Pressure Head
drive, 175-horsepower, specific speed Characteristics of Axial Helical Impellers,"
above 26,000, suction above 21,000. Problems Foreign Tech. WPAFB, FTD-TT 63-497 (Jun 1963).
of flow choking and head reduction by cavita-
tion were experienced. The design approach Russian method of calculation for design of
is given with test results for 5- and 7- axial-helical impeller, pressure head
bladed rotors that were tested. characteristics and rate of flow from impeller
configuration, lifting-line theory used in
Price, H., "Development Testing of M-185 internal hydraulic calculations; short
Aquajet in the Penn-Yan Boat," Curtiss-Wright experimental correlation test.
Corporation (WAD) Report No. 2 of Project XE-726
(17 Jan 1963). Levy, J. (Aerojet-General), "The Design of
Waterjet Propulsion Systems for Hydrofoil Craft,"
The report describes Curtiss-Wright Penn- SNAME Presentation, Southern California Section
Yan boat waterjet tests. It appears to be (May 1964).
a good experimental analysis of the perform-
ance of a 25-ft boat at speeds in excess Discusses the duct losses. Optimization
of 34 mph. Several inlet designs were process for general waterjet propulsion

24
installation; paper considers in general: Discusses P.C. in general terms.
struts, ducts, scoops, velocity ratio,
nozzle depression angle, possible pump Jackson, S. B., "Some Considerations of Jet
configurations, and states: "Propulsion Propulsion of Ships," Shipbuilder and Marine
pumps, unlike civil engineering pumps, Engine Builder (May 1960), pp. 324-327.
require output as kinetic energy." .

Discusses thrust versus speed and cavitation. General waterjet propulsion considerations.

Winslow, L. (Curtiss-Wright), "Report on Per-


Brown, J. and Traksel, J. (Lockheed), formance of PBI Pump," Report 700-14 (Oct 1961).
"Waterjet Propulsion Study," Report LR-17885
(Parts 1 through 5) (1963). Pump "loop" tests of PBI waterjet pump
impeller (M-185 WHP). Good tests of head,
Analytical study (internal flow) for pump flow, impeller efficiency, and cavitation.
selection. Experimental design study Unit run at 78 horsepower.
(Byron Jackson) in a loop facility. Ex-
tensive system design procedure; feasibility Arcand, L., "Parametric Study Seajet 12-1
studies and system layouts for hydrofoils Pump Design," Pratt-Whitney, Report FR-1950
and large displacement ships. Empirical (Jul 1966).
duct data presented. Analytic computer
pressure distribution study. Inlet flow Theoretical parametric pump study, internal
tests, analytic and experimental. Con- pump geometry and blading, generates curves
sidered lip design. Enclosed cavitation of pump flow-head performance with cavita-
facility ram inlet tests (LUMF). tion effects.

Kim, H.C., "Hydrodynamic Aspects of Internal Aerojet-General Corporation, "Experimental


Waterjet Propulsion," Marine Technology (Jan Tests on Waterjet Propulsion Pumps," von Karman
1966). Center Report UW-65403 (Jan 1965).

Gives condenser scoop data and discusses Testing done on Aerojet-General's waterjet
inlet parameters and wake intake. Empirical propulsion test stand (Report 2798, Jan 1964).
curves presented and recommendations for "Hydrocket" and "nozzle pump" were tested,
applying the data to-examples of waterjet hydraulic theory presented, and performance
ducting systems discussed. Looks at tests varying relevant parameters: flow rate,
application to large, ocean displacement suction pressure, velocity distribution,
vessels (shown to be less efficient than speed, torque, thrust (test stand reaction),
propeller); author gives a practical design etc. Includes experimental curves.
procedure.
Wislicenus, G., "Fluid Mechanics of Turbo-
Johnson, V., Jr., "Waterjet Propulsion for Machinery," Vols. I and II, McGraw-Hill Book Co.
High-Speed Hydrofoil," AIAA Paper No. 64-306, (1947), Dover Publications (1965).
Washington, D. C. (Jun-Jul 1964).
Textbook. Refers to existing classical pump
Good discussion of duct losses and other theory.
system losses. Design procedure for water-
jet propulsion on hydrofoil craft. An 80- Addison, H., "Centrifugal Pumps and Other
knot, 500-ton craft example. Interesting Rotodynamic Machines," Third Edition, Chapman-
pump discussion, practical considerations Hall Ltd., London (1965).
of size, speed, cavitation, single and
double suction; discusses off-shelf state- Textbook. Refers to existing classical
of-the-art pumps and hydrofoil waterjet pump theory.
propulsion configurations.
Hunsaker and Rightmyer, "Engineering Applica-
Traksel, J. and Beck,W..,"Waterjet Propulsion tions - Fluid Mechanics," McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
Marine Vehicles," AIAA Paper No. 62-245, San New York (1947).
Diego, California (Mar 1965).
Textbook. Refers to existing classical
Optimization study of a waterjet propulsion pump theory. Gives empirical data and ways
system using internal and external energy to treat duct losses.
balance. Discusses mission, payload,
thrust vectoring, waterjet propulsion Stepanoff, A. J., "Centrifugal and Axial Flow
system design for hydrofoil based on Ref. 2. Pumps," John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York
(1948).
Gongwer, C. A. (Aerojet-General), "Influence
of Duct Losses on Jet Propulsion Devices," Textbook. Refers to existing classical pump
Vol. 24, No. 6 (Nov-Dec 1954). theory.

This paper shows the effect of system losses - Acosta, A. J., "Hydrodynamics of Turbo
on. njpr
Machines," California Institute of Technology,
Report 79.9 (Nov 1965).
Kilgore, U., "The Propulsive Coefficient for
Jet Systems," Great Lakes Section of Society of Summarizes experimental study, intent to
Small Craft Designers (Apr 1965). understand turbo-machinery flow, and uses

25
results in developing design theory; Textbook. Refers to existing classical
cavitation tunnel was built. This paper pump theory.
and its references (1,2,3,4,5) considered
cavitating inducer, scaling, and cascades. 45. Hydraulic Institute, "Standards of Hydraulic
Series should add considerably to pump Institute."
technology.
Handbook of empirical pump data.
37. Stripling, L. and Acosta, A. J., "Cavitation
in Turbo Pumps," Transactions ASME (Sep 1962). 46. Laverne, M. E., "New Similarity Parameter for
Jet Pump Cavitation," ASME Cavitation in Fluid
Good experimental study along with an Machinery, Winter Meeting, Chicago (7 - 11 Nov 1965),
analysis of cascade flow representing a
simple cavitation model. Estimates of A dimensionless similarity parameter for a
cavitation loss and cavity shapes made; jet pump is derived. (Uses a high velocity
model tests done at Rocketdyne. Conclusions jet injection versus rotating impeller.)
contain pointers on blade profiles and Similarity parameter includes cavitation and
suggestions for better performance. is analogous to S.

38. Wong, G., et al (Rocketdyne), "Suppression Van Manen, J. D., "Propellers in Nozzles,"
of Cavitation and Unstable Flow in Throttled International Shipbuilding Progress, Vol. 1,
Turbo Pumps," Journal of Spacecraft, Vol. 2, No. 1 (1954).
No. 1 (Jan-Feb 1965).
Ducted propeller efficiency shown to vary
Theoretical and experimental check on with definition of efficiency.
method to suppress cavitation and unstable
flow in throttled turbo-pumps. Critical S Rasmussen and Chisholm, "Calculation of
increased by 20 to 50 percent. (Critical S Pressure Distribution of Inlets for Hydrofoil
is 2 percent loss in pump head due to Craft Waterjet Propulsion Systems," TM 55-21-17,
cavitation.) High energy fluid bled from LMSC/805078 (Apr 1965).
turbo-pump discharge and injected upstream
of inducer. Uses water in testing. Analytic, inlet parameters studied, Smith-
Pierce, pressure distribution. Reference
39. Hale, M. R., "Design of Ducted Impellers Douglas Aircraft Report ES 26988 (Apr 1958).
Using Vortex Line Analysis and Optimizing Com-
puter Techniques," University of Adelaide, Hess, J. L. and Smith, A.M.O., Douglas
M. E. Report R 65/2 (Mar 1965). "Hydrojet Aircraft Engineering Report 1528, 17th Meetting
Ducted Propulsion System - Impeller Induced of ARS (Nov 1962).
Vibratory Pressures and Performance Character-
istics," Thesis, University of Adelaide (1967). A practical method for the calculation of
two-dimensional distribution of bodies in
Design of ducted propellers using vortex fluids.
line. Computer program included.
Doyle and Hynes (Gibbs and Cox), "Procedure
40. Guinard, F. and Acosta, A., "Experimental for Preliminary Design of Waterjet Propulsion
Study of Axial Flow Pump Cavitation," California System for Hydrofoil Ship," G&C M-66-2 (Mar 1966).
Institute of Technology Report E-19.3 (Aug 1953).
Inlet data generated by Reference 2 are
41. Jekat, W. K. (Worthington Pump), "A New tabulated here. Includes Lockheed's
Approach to Redesign of Pump Cavitation, the waterjet design procedure.
Hubless Inducer," ASME Paper No. 66-FE-8, Denver
(Jan 1966). Dudley, S. A., "Flow Characteristics of Main
Condenser Injection System Based on Ship Board
Similar to Reference 37 except on a Tests," New England Section SNAME Paper (May 1958).
"hubiese' (inside-out) inducer.
Compilation of accumulated condenser scoop
42. Jekat, W. K., "R and Incidence Effects inlet test data.
on Inducer Cavitation,' ASME Paper No. 66-WA/FE-31,
New York (27 Nov - 1 Dec 1966). Hewins, E. F., "Condenser Scoop Design,"
SNAME Transactions, Vol. 48 (1948).
Follow-up on Reference 41 in presenting
additional experimental results. Dated but valuable inlet design reference.

43. Miller, M. J. (Crouse and Sandercook), Weske, J. R., "Investigation of Suction Con-
"Summary of Experimental Investigation of Three denser Scoops, Based on Model Tests, Journal
Axial Flow Pump Rotors Tested in Water," ASME ASNE, Vol. 51, pp. 191-213 (1939).
Paper No. 66-WA-FE-24, Winter Meeting (27 Nov -
1 Dec 1966). Valuable condenser inlet model study which
includes effect on hull drag.
Experimental work on rotors downstream of
an inducer. Schmidt, H. F., "Theoretical and Experimental
Study of Condenser Scoops," Journal ASNE, Vol. 42,
44. Addison, H., "Pump User's Handbook," Isaac pp. 1-38 (1930).
Pitman and Sons Ltd., London (1958).

26
A dated but interesting study. Arcand, L., "Waterjet Propulsion of Small
Craft," Pratt-Whitney Report FR-1813 (Apr 1966),
Frank, J. L., "Pressure Distribution and Ram Also presented to SNAME, Florida Section, Spring
Recovery of NACA Submerged Inlets at High Sub- 1966.
sonic Speeds," 'MCA RM A-50E03 (Jul 1950).
Study of waterjet propulsion application to
This report presents ram recovery and mass small planing boats up to 50 feet and 40
flow ratios for NACA submerged inlets for knots, gives design procedure for power
aircraft air ingestion. Plots of pressure requirements.
distribution over the ramp and the inlet
extreme given. Angle of attack was 0.2 to Dunne, J., "Hydrofoil Propulsion System and
1.2 deg, M 0.3 to 0.875. Maximum ram Design," Hydrofoil Symposium No. 2G, SNAME,
recovery ratios were at M = 0.6 to 0.8. Seattle (May 1965).

Nichols, M. R. and Pierpont, P. K., "Pre- Hydrofoil propulsion systems, machinery pro-
liminary Investigation - Submerged Air Scoop pulsion plant, general discussions on various
Utilizing Boundary Layer Suction for Increased forms it can take. Papers states that "pump
Pressure Recovery," NACA TN 3437 (Apr 1955). model testing may be very costly."

Results of low-speed tests of a submerged Meyers, G. R., "Observations and Comments


inlet consisting of a convention air scoop on Hydrofoils," Hydrofoil Symposium No. 2A,
in a dimple in an aircraft fuselage. SNAME, Seattle (May 1965).
Boundary layer control systems tested showed
performance increase. Discusses instability' Relates Boeing's hydrofoil experience mainly
in twin internally coupled inlets. in regard to structure, propulsor, hydro-
dynamics, and automatic control. LITTLE
Hinch and McJones (Hughes Tool Company), SQUIRT's model-test bed is described -
"Hydrostreak Water Scoop Study," Hughes Tool 110 hours of foilborne operation in May 1965.
Report HTC 62-42 (Jul 1962).
Thurston, S. and Amsler, R., "A Review of
Static experimental study in which ram Marine Propulsion Devices," AIAA Paper 65-482, ".
inlets are subjected to free-stream jet. San Francisco, California, Meeting (Jul 1965).
Data include drag, pressure coefficient,
and inlet velocity ratio. A good general treatment and review of
major marine propulsors, including
Delao, M.M., "Practical Consideration of waterjet.
Waterjet Propulsion," Buehler Corporation, SAE
Vancouver No. 650630 (Aug 1965). Hale, M. and Norrie, D. H., "Hydrojet Pro-
pulsion Reduces Vibration," Engineering (Jul
Simple momentum theory and interesting dis- 1964).
cussion on practical waterjet propulsion
considerations, experimental curves compare Adelaide University, Australia, Mechanical
WJP's, conventional, and supercavitating Engineering Department. This study considers
propellers. Uses a term "overall pressure the vibration advantages of waterjet pro-
ratio" and concludes that WJP's have more pulsion. Discusses system loss and effi-
cavitation control. ciency. Relates vibration with hull forms.

Contractor, D., "CAB Inlet Layout Study," Taggart, R., "A Development Program for an
Hydronautics TR 656-1 (Sep 1966). Improved Hydraulic-Jet Propulsion Device,"
Trelor Contract, ASNE Journal, Vol. 71 (Aug 1959).
Conceptual design layout to optimize ducting
for a large CAB ship. U.S. Army Transportation Corps contract
prompted the author to do a development
Arcand, L., "Evaluation Study of Waterjets program study for waterjet propulsion. Paper
for SES, Destroyers, and Hydrofoils," Pratt- lists practical problems including hull
Whitney Report GP-64-126 (Jan 1965). design. Includes considerations for design
of hull duct, impeller machinery, and control
General layout studies for hydrofoils, CABS, systems, and recommends brief experimental
destroyers, and planing boats. Analytical program for tests of hull model, duct model,
curves of gas-turbine water-pump installa- and impeller.
tion presented.
"Hydrojets are Here to Stay," Rivers and
61. Doyle, J. P. (Gibbs and Cox), "Study of Harbors (Feb 1961).
Propulsion Transmission System for 500-Ton,
60-Knot Hydrofoil," Report M-62-19 (Nov 1962). A spirited, but naive, presentation of
purported success of a device called "hydro-
Comparison study of the feasibility of hydro- jet." It does not appear to be very factual.
foil propulsion (500-ton, 80-knot) by:
Lorenz, E., "Comparison between Two Methods of
waterjets, 90-deg drives, MARJET, air props,
Marine Propulsion," Great Lakes Section, Society
gas turbines, electric motors, chain drives,
of Small Craft Designers (Jun 1963).
tape drives, inclined shafts.

27
This short paper by a Michigan Wheel
Company representative compares a
waterjet installation with a conven-
tional propeller installation and presents
very limited data indicating superior
efficiency of the propeller system.
70. Lerbs, H., "The Present Status of Theoretical
Research on Ship Propellers with Respect to its
Technical Application," David Taylor Model Basin
Translation 243 (Jan 1952).

TABLE 2

1111111
Summary of Experimental Waterjet Work
16666s6 Ms 123452 7flIOLLl2t3441324I1tI 19 20 1 22 3 24 25 26 27 209304233343533333339401424344434447193043233343336 57 se 59 eo 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 SO 69 70

DIIIIIIIMICKIMUDOEMENIEEMMINOCEMOINEMIIMERIONEMIENIMIEMOIMOMILIM

IIIMEME11
1111111111EMEGEEEMOMMINEMME
aM11111111110010111M13111111MIIIMIMMOODEMEIMMI1111111111111111011111111111
1111111111113111131111111MINEMINEINIMEMMINMEMIIMIIIII
..,........-,. , .
r"-- .,,,c->. ,
^-., 13911
11191111111111MMIIIIIMMEN
011111111111111111111111
.1011................................................................O
i ".
SKP

011111111111111110
MIIMMIIMMEM1111111111111111111111111111
13OEIDENIMM1111101
MMMMMMEIMIMIEIIIIIMIIMMMMOIOIIIIMEEEIIMOMMMMMEMMMIIEMMMEIMMIIIMMOMMIIMIMIIMEMIIMIIO

IIIIIIIIIIIIIMAIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMI IIIIIIIIIIIIIIII41111111111
i :::. MIIIMIIIIIII1111:1111111111.11
1113000EIIIIINIM111101111111111.11111101
MEIIMI1111111111111110131:1131311111111111111111111111
.r.
SUP

1110111111111111=1131301
111011111111XIMOOMINMIIIIIIINIMMIIIMMINIMMIIMMIEMMENEENIIIMM
11101111111111190000M111111111111111111111111131
NIEMIIIIIMIIIIIMODEIE113M111111111111111111
.1146146 C66.14.46 5644.4, 4St -tsp. 141141.

28
No. 61-361

WATER JET PROPULSION


by

D. N. CONTRACTOR
and
VIRGIL E. JOHNSON, JR.
HYDRONAUTICS, Incorporated
Laurel, Maryland

Paper No.
67-361

AIAA/SNAME Advance marine


venicies meeting
NORFOLK, VIRGINIA/MAY 22-24, 1967
First publication rights reserved by American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1290 Avenue of the Americas, New York, N. Y. 10019
ond Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, 74 Trinity Place, New York, N. Y. 10006
Abstracts may be published without perrnission if credit is given to author and to AIAA/SNAME. (Member Price-75c; Nonmember Price$1.50)

5.08
WATER JET PROPULSION

D. N. Contractor, Research Scientist


and
Virgil E. Johnson, Jr., Chief Engineer
HYDRONAUTICS, Incorporated
Laurel, Maryland

Abstract Current reasons for water jet propulsion not being


adopted more extensively are its relatively low overall
The status of water jet propulsion in the marine field efficiency, the cost of the unit and its weight and space
is reviewed. A brief review of the design principles is penalties. Current water jet designs have indicated that
presented so that an optimum choice of water jet param- efficiencies of 40-50 percent are easily attainable. There
eters may be made. The procedure for the proper selection are reasons to believe that the efficiency can be increased
of the type of pump for a given application is described. by proper design of the inlet and matching of pump and
The application of water jet propulsion to three different water jet parameters. The cost, size and weight of the
types of water craft is presented. The first application is water jet unit can also be reduced with proper design and
related to the propulsion of a 20 foot planing boat, the development. We believe that the best water jet systems
Ski-Barge, at a speed of 20 knots and with o payload of have yet to be developed. This future development will
one ton. The results of an optimization scheme are given determine whether water jets will be reserved for special
whereby certain appropriate design parameters are se- applications or will find more common and extensive usage.
lected so that minimum power is required to propel the
boat. The results of experimental tests on a water jet unit Figure 1 shows three different geometric configura-
are presented and discussed. The second application is tions in which water jets are currently used. Each layout
related to the propulsion of a 500 ton, 80 knot hydrofoil has its own advantages and limitations. Figure 1(a) is a
craft. The advantages of a system previously proposed by common design for boats operating in shallow water. Such
Johnson are presented. The final application is related a layout can have high efficiencies and can operate in
to high speed captured-air-bubble vehicles. The problems weed-infested areas if a weed chopper is located at its
associated with propelling these craft by water jets are inlet. With a slight sacrifice in efficiency, a small,
presented and possible solutions suggested. light-weight, outboard unit of this type can be designed
for small craft. Figure 1 (b) shows a system in which
Introduction maneuverability of the craft is of prime concern. The
frame in which the guide vanes are held can be swiveled
Water jets have, in recent years, been used exten- to direct the jet in any direction. The system in Fig-
sively as the main propulsion system for a wide variety of ure 1(c) illustrates one way in which a hydrofoil boat can
water craft. They have been used in small pleasure craft, utilize water jet propulsion. The design of water jet
high speed coastal patrol boats and have been considered systems for high speed hydrofoil craft has been presented
for propelling hydrofoil craft and "captured air bubble" in considerable detail in Reference 1. A prime reason for
vehicles. As the cruise speed of water craft continue to considering water jet systems for the propulsion of a high
increase, water jets will be used more frequently, as their speed hydrofoil craft (as opposed to supercavitating pro-
efficiency becomes comparable to that obtained by con- pellers) is that the complex right angle gear drive required
ventional or supercavitating propellers. Water jets are for the propeller system is eliminated.
preferred over propellers when the boat has to meet certain
specifications. For example, it may be required that the Review of Design Principles
boat be capable of operation in shallow waters and hence
the thrust producer must not protrude below the keel . Thrust
Water jet systems with flush inlets have been known to
operate successfully in very shallow waters. If the boat The thrust developed by a water jet system is equal
is required to operate in weed-infested waters, a chopper to the change in momentum of the water entering and
operating at the water jet inlet can make this possible. leaving the jet system. The momentum of the water
For the propulsion of small pleasure craft, that operate entering the system may be expressed as
close to swimmers, water jets are chosen for their obvious
safety. In a craft that has to be extremely maneuverable,
water jets can be used very effectively. Maneuverability 2
dA
can be achieved either by directing the main jet at any
angle to the boat centerline or by having auxiliary side A.
jets for turning the craft. Another special requirement
that can be met with water jets is the reduction of the where
radiation of underwater noise. A cavitating propeller
produces noise that can be detected at considerable dis- p is the density of water,
tances from the boat. The noise of a water jet, being of
a quadrupole nature, will not radiate as efficiently and A. is the area of the stream tube entering the
.
hence is quieter than a cavitating propeller. inlet, and

1
V. is the velocity of the water in the stream Energy Equation
tube.
The energy equation for a streamline passing through
The momentum of the water leaving the system may be the pump is:
expressed as
HR+H-H
L
-h =H.j s
[4 ]

fpV.2 dA
A. In the equation above, HR is the total head re-
covered by the inlets and is equal to the total head Ho of
where
the approaching flow minus the head loss of the inlet. The
V. is the jet velocity, and total head of the approaching flow Ho can be written as
is the area of the jet.
V2
Thus the net thrust of the boat is ho +C2 2g

A.
fpV.2dA - f
Ai
pVi2dA [1]
where

'A. dA
C2 2 r
VdA
In most cases, the jet velocity is uniform over the A.
area of the jet and hence the first term of Equation [1]
pQV., here Q is the discharge. If the flow
wbecomes

and ho is the static pressure of the approaching flow.


approaching the inlet is also uniform and equal to the
boat speed Vo, the second term becomes pC)Vo and If the approaching flow has a uniform velocity Vo, then
Equation [ 1 ] can be simplified to the following C2 is unity. The head loss of the inlet is obtained from
equation:
experimental data and is expressed as R (V2/2g), where
Thrust T = pQ(V.
j - Vo ) = pA.V. (V. -V ) jj j o R is a coefficient that depends on the geometry of the
inlet, the ratio of inlet velocity Vi to boat speed Vo,
V
and on the velocity distribution of the approaching flow.
= pA.V.2 i - v!)-)
V.
[ 2] Thus,
JJ

y2 y2
o
However, the inlet of the water jet system may be H =ho+C
R 2
°
2g 2g
located in a place where the boundary layer along the
hull may have a substantial thickness. In this case, the
momentum of the inflow to the system can be written as Or
V2
Cl pOV0 , HR =ho + (C2 -
R)
2g
[5]

In Equation [ 4] , HL is the internal head loss


where
f V2dA
that occurs in the water jet system and is expressed as
A.
(V02/2g) or as K2 (V.2/2g). In the design of a water
VdA jet system, it is generaily convenient to let
A.
HL = KI(V02/2g). H is the total head developed by the
Equation rl 1 can now be rewritten as pump and H. is the total head of the jet and is equal to
V.2/29 when discharging into the atmosphere. In water
T = pQ (V. - CThrust, Vo) = pA.V.(V. - C1 Vo) jet systems for hydrofoil boats the water has to be lifted
JJJ from the inlet to the centerline of the pumps. This
vertical distance is represented by hs. Substituting these
= pA.V.2
ji (1 - C 1 V . values into Equation [ 4] we get,

2
Thus, it can be seen that the overall efficiency of
V2 V.2
a water jet depends on the following quantities; the pump
ho + (C2 - R) + H - K1 zg - h =
2g s efficiency q , the loss coefficient K, the velocity ratio

[ 6]. -
V.2 V2 0 j
A'. and the velocity distribution of the flow approaching
the inlet. In order to study how the efficiency varies with
H = h -ho + 2g
- (C2 - R -
these parameters, Equation [91 is presented in Figure 2
s zg
for different values of the loss coefficient K. Curve 1
Or
V.2
shows how 171 varies with 0V N., for K = 0.
j This curve
H - (C2- R - K1) +h shows that even under ideal conditions the efficiency q
2g 2g
will be 100 percent only when VA'. = 1.0. The overall
0 j
efficiency hi is obtained by multiplying q by the pump
where
efficiency n. The remaining curves show the effects on
h =h -h . Ti of varying values of K from 0.1 to 1.0. In Figure 2
it can be seen that .r71 reaches a maximum value at a

Overall Efficiency
j
particular value of 0V /V.. At low values of V N.,
the curves for different values of K essentially coincide
0 j
with each other, indicating that q is only a function of
The overall efficiency n is defined as the ratio of
N. and q and is independent of the loss coefficient
output energy to input energy. Thus, o
K. At high values of V AL, is a function of both
0 J
/V. and K.
TV
o
0j
- [7]
pgQH
p
The optimum value of and the value of VA'.
0 j
at which it occurs, is obtained by differentiating Equa-

Substituting for T and H from Equations [3 1


0 j
tion [ 9] with respect to (V /V.) and equating the result
and to zero. Thus,
[6] , we get

o 1

[10]
2
V
° ( 1 -C V) nopt. VV.
J opt. +
V V 1

- - [8 ]
2
V From Equation [101 , it can be seen that the
1 - (C2-R -K - 2 V. locus of points of optimum efficiency is a straight-line as
o
shown in Figure 2.

The influence of the inlet operating in a boundary


When the flow ahead of the inlet is uniform and the layer flow on the overall efficiency is difficult to as-
velocity is equal to Vo, Equation [81 can be simplified certain precisely. However, its influence can be com-
to the following equation pared to that of a propeller operating in a ship's wake,
and the overall efficiency of the propulsion system can be
expected to increase.
( V )
2 Vo1
V.
- In the consideration of the overall efficiency of the
water jet, one additional factor has to be taken into ac-
"r1
J._
[91
V 2 count. This factor is the interaction of the water jet sys-
{1 - (1-K ) ( ) tem with the boat. The thrust T required of the water jet
system is made equal ta the resistance R of the boat at the
J
design speed. The resistance R is generally obtained from
where tests on a model of the boat. When the tests are conducted,
the model does not have a propulsion system in it. The
K =R + K1 + 2gh/V 2 .
presence of a propulsion system in the boat may increase
or decrease the resistance of the boat at the same speed.
Whether such an interaction between a water jet system
and the boat occurs and what the magnitude of the inter-
action will be, is not yet known, Detailed tests on a
model with a water jet propulsion system in it, will reveal
this influence. Obviously, such tests are extremely im-
portant to the development of detailed design methods.

3
Pump Selection where
NPSH Net positive suction head,
The head and discharge requirements of the pump = Total head of flow at the entrance
required in a water jet system must be obtained from the to the pump.
thrust and speed requirements of the boat. The general
layout of the water jet system is decided upon from the It has been the experience of pump designers that
special requirements of the btsat such as shallow-water when pumps are designed to operate at N 8,000,
operation, maneuverability, inboard or outboard con-
figuration, etc.. An initial value of the loss coefficient they are likely to cavitate resulting in vibration, noise,
K, is estimated from the layout. The optimum value of impeller damage and a drop in the efficiency. By careful
j
V /V. is obtained from Equation [10]
o
and from a
know[edge of Vo, the design jet velocity V. can be ob-
design, this critical value can be raised slightly. The net
positive suction head should not generally be determined
when the boat is operating at the cruise condition. This
J
tained. Equation [21 can then be used to determine consideration results because the net positive suction head
A. and Equation [6] to obtain the pump head H. The is lower during boat speeds which are lower than the
maximum or cruise speed. Thus, most displacement type
pump discharge Q is equal to A.V.. These values should boats require a large thrust under static conditions or very
JJ
be used to re-evaluate the loss coefficient K. If it is low speeds to accelerate quickly to their design speed.
different from the assumed value, the procedure should Since the NPSH is a minimum under static conditions, the
be repeated. pump should be designed to operate at its maximum rpm
without cavitation occurring in the pump under this low
The head and discharge requirements thus derived value of the NPSH. Certain high-speed craft, for ex-
can be met by a single pump or by multiple pumps in ample, hydrofoil craft and captured-air-bubble vehicles,
parallel or series. The type of pump most suitable for a have cruise speeds considerably above the speed at which
given application depends on the value of a parameter a ''hump" occurs in their speed-resistance curve. It is
called the specific speed essential in the design of propulsion systems for such craft
to provide adequate thrust at the 'take-off' speed and
hence the pump is designed to operate cavitation-free
N V-Q- under these conditions.
N '
H3/4 Application of Water-Jet Propulsion to Small Boats

where HYDRONAUTICS, Incorporated has designed and


is the pump speed in RPM, tested a water jet system to propel the Ski-Barge, a 20
foot, shallow-draft boat at a speed of 20 knots while
is the discharge in gallons per minute, and carrying a one-ton payload. This project was sponsored
is the total head developed by the pump in by the U. S. Army Engineer Research and Development
feet of water. Laboratories, Ft. Belvoir, Virginia under Contract No.
DA 44-009-AMC-893(T). The speed-resistance curve of
The following ranges of N, specify the three types of this craft indicated that at 20 knots, the required thrust
is equal to one sixth of the total displacement. Thus for
pumps generally used. an estimated displacement of 4800 pounds, the propulsion
system should deliver a thrust of 800 pounds. The aim of
Centrifugal PuMps, N, < 4,000 the design was then to deliver 800 pounds of thrust with
Mixed-Flow Pumps, 4,000 < N, < 10,000 a minimum power requirement. This required an optimiza-
tion procedure to be initiated whereby a design with
Axial-Flow Pumps, N, > 10,000 minimum weight and maximum efficiency could be
determined.
The rotational speed N of the pump is generally
dictated by the available drive. In general, this speed The optimization procedure involved carrying
is kept as high as possible so that the diameter of the pump through a large number of designs, in which certain im-
required to develop the required head and discharge is portant parameters were systematically varied. The design
small . An upper limit on the rotational spe.ed is imposed with the minimum horsepower requirement was then se-
by cavitation considerations. One method of selecting lected as the optimum design. The important parameters
the maximum rotational speed such that cavitation does that were varied are listed below:
not occur in the pump is to maintain the suction specific
speed N a certain critical value. The suction Number of water jet units in parallel ,
Number of stages used in each water jet
specific speed N defined by the following equation uni t,
Design barometers of water-jet components.

N - NVQ
ss
(NPSH)3/4

4
Width to depth ratio of inlet, under laboratory conditions. When the pump is in the
Ratio of inlet velocity V1 to boat water jet, the inlet to the pump is different from the lab-
speed V., oratory test conditions and hence its performance will be
altered. Because of these uncertainties, it is advisable to
Ramp angle of inlet.
test a model of the prototype in a water channel.
Use of multiple parallel units instead of a single
Accordingly, one of the water-jet units designed for
water jet unit results in an Obrall weight reduction.
the Ski-Barge was fabricated, installed in the Variable
Pump rpm can be increased when using multiple units
Pressure, Free Surface Water Channel at HYDRONAUTICS,
while keeping the suction specific speed constant. Thus
Incorporated and tested for its performance characteristics.
smaller pumps can be used and the gear reduction between
A general description of the High Speed Channel at
the engine and the pumps can be smaller. The reduction
HYDRONAUTICS, Incorporated, and its capabilities is
in weight of the water jet units must be balanced against
given in Reference 3. The details of the tests of the water
the increase in engine weight that might occur due to the
jet unit for the Ski-Barge are presented in Reference 4.
use of multiple engines.
A schematic drawing of the experimental set-up in the
channel test section is shown in Figure 5. The following
Multi-staging, the practice of using pumps in series
quantities were measured to evaluate the performance:
influences the geometry, weight and efficiency of the
water jet system. It influences the geometry of the system
Net thrust of the water jet, T.
since two or more axial-flow pumps may be used instead of
a single mixed-flow pump or two or more mixed-flow pumps Channel velocity V.
can be used instead of a single centrifugal pump. In gen-
Jet velocity V. and jet area A.
eral, multi-staging has a tendency to increase the overall
weight of the system and in the particular studies of the Pump rpm
Ski-Barge, multi-staging required more power for the some Torque on pump shaft.
mission.
These quantities were measured with the model op-
The variations, that can be studied in the optimiza- erating under three different conditions. First, the per-
tion procedure of the design parameters of the water jet formance of the model under static conditions was studied.
components are limitless. the influence of the water jet Second, the performance of the model at different channel
inlet on the overall performance is particularly significant. speeds was evaluated. Finally, the static reverse thrust
For the Ski-Barge, it was determined from the optimization performance of the model was measured.
studies that the following inlet design required a minimum
of power: When a boat is operating under static conditions,
the efficiency of its propulsion system is, of course, zero.
Width to depth ratio = 2.0 Thus, another parameter must be used to compare the per-
Inlet to boat velocity ratio =1.0 formance of different systems. Such a parameter is CM,
Ramp angle =15°.
the figure of merit, defined as:
The final design of the water jet unit for the Ski-
Barge is shown schematically in Figure 3. The design con-
T3/2
sists of four water jet units, two on each side of the boat. Cm - 12
Two marine engines are to be used as the prime movers,
each engine being coupled to two water jet units. De- NrpA P
tails of the machinery layout in the boat are shown in
where
Figure 4. These water jets have been designed to provide
enough thrust to propel the boat at 20 knots. Under static T is the thrust in pounds,
conditions, a total thrust of 1400 pounds will be available. p is the density of water,
A reverse thrust capability is obtained by deflecting the A is some representative area, e.g. pump area,
jet through an angle of 150° - 180°. In this manner, a and
reverse thrust of 70-80 percent of the forward thrust will P is the power absorbed.
be achieved. The weight of water jet propulsion systems
can range in general from 5 to 15 percent of the total dis- This parameter is independent of the rpm of the pump ex-
placement of the boat, the lower figure being applicable cept for Reynolds number effects, but will vary when the
to large boats. The weight of the propulsion system for geometry of the system is changed. Changes in the jet
the Ski-Barge is about 12 percent of the boat's displace- area can be considered to be changes in the geometry of
ment. Details of the preliminary design of these units the system and the figure of merit Cm can be used to
are presented in Reference 2.
determine the optimum jet area. The figure of merit for
The need for testing models of water jet systems can- the water jet unit tested ranged from 0.6 to 0.7 for dif-
not be overemphasized. In the design of the water jet sys- ferent jet areas. At the optimum jet area, the unit was
tem, the loss coefficients of the components are not always capable of delivering 400 pounds of thrust at 2320 rpm
available and engineering judgments mus4 be made. Pump and absodoed 28 hp. The same parameter Cm is used to
characteristics are known only from experiments conducted evaluate the static, reverse thrust capability of the unit.

5
The area of the jet and the inclination of the jet maximum efficiency occurs can be used to obtain V. and
to the keel of the boat were changed systematically and the pump speed at which that jet velocity can be achieved
the jet area and inclination that resulted in the maximum
value of Cm were selected as being optimum. Thus, it
can be obtained from the curves of V/nD versus V /V..
o o j
The absolute values of the thrust and power under these
was found that the optimum jet area was 12.0 sq. ins, and conditions can then be calculated from the thrust and
that the optimum inclination was 20 degrees with the
keel of the boat. The figure of merit Cm was calculated
power coefficients at the same value of V /V..
o j
to be 0.53, when operating at the optimum settings. Thus, As explained previously, the overall efficiency of a
it is possible to achieve up to 80 percent of the forward
thrust in the reverse direction.
water jet unit operating at a small value of V A/.
o j
(soy 0.2) is dependent only on the pump efficiency and is
independent of the internal loss coefficient. Hence, a
By far, the largest number of tests were conducted knowledge of the measured overall efficiency enables the
under dynamic conditions, that is, with water flowing in
pump efficiency to be estimated. It is to be expected that
the channel at velocities up to 20 knots. this efficiency will be lower than the efficiency measured
in a laboratory test because of the non-uniform inflow
The performance characteristics of water jets are
conditions to the pump when operating in a practical water
presented in much the same way as for propellers. Thus,
jet unit. Knowing the pump efficiency, the loss coef-
a thrust coefficient, a power coefficient and overall ef- ficient may be estimated from the peak overall efficiency.
ficiency are defined in exactly the same way as for pro- These values are helpful in determining whether the water
pellers, and these parameters may be examined for various
jet unit is performing according to design expectations.
values of the advance ratio. The advance ratio may be
o o j
defined as V/nD or V / v.. The use of Vo/V. as the ad-
j The inlet of the water jet unit is of the flush type
vance ratio is more desirable, since the curve of efficiency since the Ski-Barge is designed to operate in shallow water.
versus V /V. provides some indication of the pump ef- In order to improve the flow into the inlet, a series of
o j vanes were installed to direct the flow properly into the
ficiency and the loss coefficient of the system. inlet. These vanes were adjustable and both static and
dynamic tests were conducted with the vanes set at dif-
The test program for the water jet unit was con- ferent angles. Under static conditions, the optimum vane
ducted over a wide range of variables. The procedure angle was 150 to the horizontal and under these conditions,
adopted was to maintain the channel velocity at a constant the figure of merit Cm increased by 15 to 20 percent above
value Vo and to increase the pump rpm from 1000 rpm to
the value obtained without vanes. Under dynamic con-
2500 rpm in steps of 250 rpm. At each rpm, the thrust, ditions, the efficiency of the system increased 2-3 per-
torque and jet velocity were recorded. These tests were centage points above the efficiency without any vanes.
repeated for channel velocities from zero to 35 fps in Thus it can be stated that vanes in the inlet improve the
steps of 5 fps. This procedure was repeated for several performance of the craft.
jet areas, with and without vanes in the inlet of the water
jet, and with and without any trim of the boat. A few tests were conducted with the model at a 20
trim. These results indicated that a slightly higher thrust
Providing a water jet system with a variable area and efficiency were obtained at 2° trim than at e trim.
nozzle is the most effective method of operating a water A better performance is to be expected since the losses in
jet system at its peak performance for different operating the inlet decrease with increasing trim.
conditions of the boat. Thus, for the cruise condition,
there is one area of the jet for which the overall efficiency The tests on the water jet unit showed that all design
is a maximum. However, this same jel area will in gen- criteria were met for the different operating conditions of
eral, not be the area which produces a maximum value of
the boat.
Cm under static conditions. Generally, a larger ¡et
area is required under static conditions than during cruise. Application to High-Speed Hydrofoil Craft

Figures 6 and 7 present the performance character- In the design of a water jet propulsion system for
istics of the water jet unit for the Ski-Barge. Figure 6 large, high speed hydrofoil craft, certain special problems
shows how the thrust and power coefficients vary with are encountered and the following section deals with pos-
V /V.. For small changes in the jet area, the thrust and sible solutions to those problems. The problems relate to
o j keeping the efficiency as high as possible while minimizing
power coefficients do not change significantly. However, the weight of the propulsion system. As explained in a
for large changes in the jet area, say greater than 35 per- previous section, the peak efficiency depends on the loss
cent, the thrust coefficient will decrease and the power coefficient K and the pump efficiency. The pump effi-
coefficient will increase. Figure 7 shows how the effi- ciency for large hydrofoil cr rrt can be expected to be 85-
ciency varies with V /V. for different jet areas. It can
o j 90 percent because of the high Reynolds number at which
they operate. Obviously, the loss coefficient K must be
be seen in Figure 7 that there is one jet area which results
in the maximum efficiency, and this area should be chosen as small as possible. It should be recalled that the value
of K is not just due to the energy loss in the system but also
j
for cruise operation. The value of Vo /V. at which this

6
includes the term 2gh/V.2 where h is the height of the minimum and hence the weight of 'on-board water is
very low. Deflection of the jet by means of flaps is easy
centerline of the pumps above the free water surface. In
to accomplish to maneuver the hydrofoil craft. Because
the case of high speed hydrofoil craft operating in sea
of these outstanding features, such a design concept or a
states as high as 6, h can be large and this height con-
similar one merits the consideration of everyone interested
tributes to a larger K and lower peak efficiency. Despite
in high speed hydrofoil craft.
this increase in the value of K, an examination of the
minimum losses that occur in such a system indicate that
Application to High Speed 'Cab' Vehicles
an overall efficiency of approximately 60 percent is en-
tirely possible.
In recent years, considerable interest has been given
to the design of high speed 'Captured Air Bubble' vehicles.
The weight of a water jet system can become ex-
Water jet propulsion is a strong contender for the propulsion
cessive and is a handicap that must be overcome. The
of these vehicles. HYDRONAUTICS, Incorporated has
weight of the system consists of the weight of the water in
made a series of conceptual design studies of water jet
the system, the weight of the pumps and ducting and the
propulsion systems for a 'CAB' vehicle. These studies
weight of the reduction gears between the prime mover
and the pumps. The weight of the water in the system can were made for the David Taylor Model Basin under Con-
be reduced by decreasing the path of the water from inlet tract number NI 67-413(X) and the details of this work are
reported in Reference 5. The particular 'CAB' vehicle
to outlet consistent with maintaining a low loss coefficient.
for which these studies were made has a displacement of
There are several known methods of reducing the weight
of pumps and these methods must be used to the maximum
4000 tons and is shown schematically in Figure 9. The
extent to minimize the weight of water jet systems. These water jet propulsion system is designed to fit into the two
methods will now be discussed. First, use of an aluminum side skegs of the vehicle. Six marine, gas turbine engines
alloy for fabrication will reduce the weight, without were selected as the prime movers to drive six pumps. The
sacrificing stre'ngth. The use of multiple pumps in parallel design requirements for these pumps were estimated on the
is a well known method of reducing the weight. For ex- assumption of a certain loss coefficient and overall ef-
ample, a single double-suction centrifugal pump is pre-
ficiency. It is anticipated that these pumps would each
ferred to two, single suction centrifugal pumps. This be about 5' in diameter. The purpose of the studies con-
weight reduction is partly due to the fact that when pumps ducted by HYDRONAUTICS, Incorporated was to deter-
are used in parallel, the total discharge is divided between mine whether the assumed loss coefficient was realistic,
the number of pumps. Because of the lower discharge, the to indicate the design problems and to suggest solutions.
pump speed can be increased to maintain the same suction The layout of the three water jet systems and the gas
specific speed. Furthermore, it is known that pumps that turbine engines in each skeg was also considered to be a
operate at higher speeds will be smaller to deliver the same problem. The hydrodynamic problems that must be solved
head and discharge. Increasing the rpm of the pump also for this "CAB" vehicle will now be discussed.
reduces the weight of the reduction gears between the
prime mover and the pumps. Inlet Design

The design of a water jet system for a hydrofoil craft In the design of water jet propulsion systems for high
as shown in Figure 1(c), though simple, will be very heavy. speed water craft, special attention should be given to the
If the methods of weight reduction enumerated in the last design of the inlets because the inlet loss is higher than the
paragraph are to be utilized, a new system would have to loss in any other component, and at high speeds, the inlet
be designed. One such design has been presented by is likely to cavitate. The inlet must be designed in such a
Johnson in Reference 1. The design described in Reference way that it provides enough water for the pumps under all
1 is for a 500 ton, 80 knot hydrofoil craft. An anal ysis of operating conditions of the ship, with a minimum loss of
a water-jet system similar to that in Figure 1(c) reveals energy and without cavitation occurring anywhere in the
that its weight would be about 150 tons. This weight is inlet. Another requirement of a satisfactory inlet is that
prohibitive and to be practical should be reduced to 5-10 it should add as little drag to the ship as possible.
percent of the total displacement of the craft. This novel
design presented in Reference 1 and shown schematically There are two operating conditions of the ship that
in Figure 8, consists of placing multiple, double suction are critical in the design of inlets: (a) the cruising con-
pumps in the struts connecting the hydrofoils to the hull of dition and (b) the take-off or "hump resistance" condition.
the craft. All the pumps are located in the struts and have The inlet should perform satisfactorily under both con-
a common shaft parallel to the strut. The inlets to the ditions. Two types of inlets have been considered for the
pumps are located near the leading edge of the strut and 'CAB' vehicle. The first is the submerged or flush type and
the discharge is directed back through the trailing edge of the other is the scoop type. Each of these inlets is de-
the strut. The drive shaft terminates in a right angle gear scribed in the following section along with advantages and
box at the top of the strut. This design of a water jet sys- disadvantages of each.
tem has several advantages from the point of view of ef-
ficiency and total weight. The efficiency will be high Submerged or Flush-Type Inlet
because the overall loss coefficient K will be small . Since
there is little or no static lift, the NPSH will be high and This type of inlet has been studied in considerable
for the same suction specific speed, a higher pump speed detail for use in aircraft engines and Reference 6 is a de-
and hence a smaller pump diameter can be used. The path tailed report on its experimental performance. The vari-
of the water from the inlet to the outlet is reduced to a ables that influence the performance of a flush inlet are

7
the ramp angle a, the width-to-depth ratio w/d, the Scoop-Type Inlets
planform of the inlet and the ratio of inlet to approach
velocities VI/V. An examination of a large amount of Scoop inlets have been used in the past in ships
ta supply water for condensers and in airplanes as the
experimental data reveals that an inlet with a curved
main air-induction system for jet engines. Performance
diverging planform, a 50 - 70 ramp angle and a w/d
data of scoop inlets for specific applications are available
ratio of 3-5 offers optimum performance. The loss coef-
in technical literature such as References 7 and 8. A
ficient of such an inlet is shown in Figure 10, as a func-
more general report similar to Reference 6 on submerged
tion of V1/V. In order to check on the possibility of inlets is not known to exist for scoop-type inlets. The
cavitation occurring in the inlet, the measured pressure inlet loss of a scoop inlet is much lower than that of a
distributions must be examined. For the 'CAB' vehicle submerged inlet and this is one of its advantages. How-
under consideration, the minimum allowable pressure ever, the drag of a scoop inlet depends on the shape and
coefficient length of the fairing behind it and will in general be
larger than the drag of submerged inlets. The problem of
hv -h a -h cavitation occurring on the scoop is similar to that on the
p des.
- lip of the submerged inlet and an adjustable lip is the
vo solution to that prob1em. The final choice of inlet must
2g be made only after experimental studies of both internal
loss and external drag are conducted on both types of
has been calculated to be -0.12 during cruise and -0.5 inlets.
during take-off. There are two regions in a flush inlet
where negative pressures are to be expected. The first The conceptual studies conducted revealed that
location is along the inner surface of the ramp and the the losses can be kept low enough so that an overall ef-
second is on the lip of the inlet. By selecting a small ficiency of 60-65 percent can be realized. The problems
enough ramp angle, the minimum pressure coefficient that must be faced include the proper choice of the inlet,
C along the ramp can be made greater than -0.12. cavitation-free design of inlet and perhaps of the jet
Pmin nozzle, and the arrangement of the systems in the skeg.
It is a much more difficult task to keep the lip from The overall weight of the system can be kept between 5
cavitating. and 10 percent of the displacement of the craft.

For a given ramp and lip geometry, the pressure


Conclusions
distribution on the lip changes radically with the velocity
ratio VIA/0. Thus, the lip will cavitate on the outside It has been shown that water jet propulsion sys-
surface for low values of V1/4'/0 andan the inside for tems are particularly suited for certain applications,
e.g. shallow-water craft and high speed craft. Water
large values of V1/V. It should also be noted that the
jet systems for small craft currently have overall ef-
flow into the inlet is not two-dimensional and hence ficiencies of approximately 50 percent. This efficiency
there is a variation of pressure along the width of the in- can be increased to 60 percent for large, high-speed
let. For the cruise condition, the ratio V1/V0 is se- water craft. Some development effort has to be made
to reduce the overall weight of water jet systems. This
lected to be the one for which the loss coefficient is a
effort has to be directed towards the development of
minimum. From Figure 10, this ratio is 0.5. An ex- low weight, multiple, parallel pumps. For high speed
amination of the pressure distribution on the lip at
craft, the design of cavitation-free inlets and nozzles
VIA/0 = 0.5 (see Figure 11) reveals that cavitation will
may present some problems.
occur along the outside surface of the lip. In order to
eliminate this cavitation, the shape of the lip will have The problems associated with water jet propulsion
to be modified. When this is accomplished, the inlet are not insurmountable. A program of experimental re-
will operate satisfactorily during cruise. However, search can make water jets an efficient, light-weight
during take-off, the same inlet will operate at a VI/V0 and practical form of marine propulsion.
ratio of 1 .0, since Vo during take-off is generally only
References
half of Vo during cruise and since V1 remains constant.
Johnson, V. E., Jr., "Water Jet Propulsion for
Under these conditions, the lip will begin to cavitate
High Speed Hydrofoil Craft," AIAA Paper No.
along the inside surface. To avoid this cavitation,
64-306, First AIAA Annual Meeting, Washington,
either of two methods may be employed. First, the lip
D. C., June 29 - July 2, 1964.
incidence may be changed so that the stagnation point
lies exactly at the leading edge of the lip. Figure 11 2. Contractor, D. N., "Design Study of Water Jet
shows how C varies with lip incidence for flush
Propulsion Systems for Shallow Draft Boats,"
Pmin
HYDRONAUTICS, Incorporated Technical
inlets. The second method is to decrease the value of Report 51 6-1, April 1965.
VIA/0 by a slight change in the geometry of the inlet.
These changes in geometry and performance can best be
studied by experiment.

8
Johnson, V. E., Jr., and Goodman, A., "The
HYDRONAUTICS Variable-Pressure, Free-Surface,
High-Speed Channel ASME Symposium on
'Cavitation Research Facilities and Techniques,'
1964.
(o)

Contractor, , D. N . , 9'Experimental I nvesti gati on


of a Water Jet Propulsion System for Shallow Draft
Boats,'' HYDRONAUTICS, Incorporated Technical
Report 516-2, May 1966.

Contractor, D. N., ''Conceptual Design Studies V


of Water Jet Propulsion Systems for 'CAB Vehicles,"
HYDRONAUTICS, Incorporated Technical Re- (b)

port 656-1, September 1966.

Mossman, E. A., and Randall , L. M., "An


Experimental Investigation of the Design Variables
for NACA Submerged Duct Entrances," NACA RM
A7I30, January 1948.

Hewins, E. F., and Reilly, J. R., "Condenser


Scoop Design," Trans. SNAME, p. 277, 1940.

Watson, E. C., "Some Low-Speed Characteristics (C)

of an Air Induction System Having Scoop-Type


Inlets with Provisions for Boundary-Layer Control ,"
NACA RM A51F15, August 28, 1 951. FIGURE 1 - GEOMETRIC CONFIGURATIONS OF WATER JETS

1.0
CURVE I
K=0

0.8

K = 0.1

0.6
C

K 0.

/ LOCUS OF PTS.
/6./1- OF MAX .
02

02 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0


VeNi

V
FIGURE 2 - PLOT OF n- VERSUS .-N ° FOR WATER JET SYSTEMS

9
DIFFUSER OUTLET
/6-1/2" DIA. NOZZLE DIMEN.

ligra
DIFFUSER INLET SHAFT HOUSING 4" X 3"
3" X 6"

SHAFT TO
4"

,dilrIENIESM1111*-A
R =4-1/2" GEAR BOX

PUMP DETAILS: INLET LENGTH =1.5. -.14- DIFFUSER LENGTH = 1.5' -44- PUMP AND NOZZLE = 1.5'
INLET TIP DIA. = 6-1/2"
OUTLET TIP DIA. = 8" 4.5'
SPEED = 2300 RPM
HEAD =41.5 -H20 ELEVATION SIDES ADJUSTABLE TO CHANGE
JET VELOCITY IN MAGNI TUDE
DISCHARGE = 1700 GPM
AND DIRECTION
PROPULSION SYSTEM DETAILS:
VVV. =1.0
w /d =2.0
3"
= 1 5°
SHAFT HOUSING---''
611

PLAN

FIGURE 3 - DESIGN DETAILS OF FOUR-JET PROPULSION SYSTEM FOR THE SKIBARGE

NOZZLE PA E COMP. UNPAGIS El

PROFILE CIECEEZCIM
Et,

13121S11
lo) EII=2: 1101
13122SCIIIIIMICI
EICTUMMEME1111
1210=12231IN
I . nI/
,W.ct ED4EC,U.7/. ,,,[1:

El
ENGINE LOOP -GSOLNE
P CA SOLI

FIGURE 4 - MACHINERY LAYOUT IN SKI-BARGE

10
RIGHT ANGLE SCREW JACK
GEAR ROX (2) ( TO CHANGE SUPPORTED ON TOP OF
TRIM ANGLE) HIGH SPEED CHANNEL

POWER DRIVE TO
75 H.P. MOTOR TO MANOMETER
FRAMEWORK TO
SLUICE GATE SUPPORT WATER JET
TOTAL HEAD TUBE
THRUST AND FOR JET VELOCITY
TORQUE GAGES
BAFFLES

LINEAR
BALL BEARING

PITOT-STATIC TuBE FOR


FORWARD VELOCITY

CHANNEL BOTTOm

FIGURE 5 - SCHEMATIC DRAWING OF EXPERIMENTAL LAYOUT

I-2

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

02 04 06 08 1.0
/6.

FIGURE 6 - PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF A WATER JET UNIT FOR THE


SKI-BARGE. K AND K VERSUS V /V
2 P2 o j

11
PUMPS
PLENUM /JET DERECTION FLAPS

PLAN VIEW

HULL

32 PUMP UNITS

JET DEFLECTION FLAP

WATER ROM
SCOOP INLET

02 0.4 06 08 ELEVATION VIEW SECTION


BACK VIEW
Vo/V.
AT STRUT CENTERLINE

FIGURE 7 - PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF A WATER JET FIGURE 8 - MULTIPLE IMPELLER PUMP ARRANGEMENT WITH PUMPS IN STRUTS
UNIT FOR THE SKI-BARGE. EFFICIENCY AND OF HYDROFOIL CRAFT
V /nD VERSUS Vo /V.
o j

r- A

AFT FLAP
AIR BUBBLE

ELEVATION
L- A

SECTION A-A

FIGURE 9 - SCHEMATIC DRAWING OF 4000 T "CAB" SHIP

12
0.5

Vi
d
a
CURVED DIVERGENCE; :J., = 0.4

RAMP ANGLE a <1 Vo


0.4
0 5°

0.3

0.2

0.1
0
..,
6
z
o
u

,5
'-'

,..,
ca

>
.
o 02 0.4 06 08 1.0 12 4

/Vo

FIGURE 10 - VARIATION OF INLET LOSS FOR FLUSH INLETS

CURVED DIVERGENCE ; g = 4.0


C CRUISE CONDITIONS
P

-0.2

LIP INCIDENCE
-0.4 (ROTATING ABOUT
POINT A)
C de,. AT TAKE-OFF
0-5°
Oe
-0.6
\ OUTSIDE SURFACE
---- INSIDE SURFACE

-0.8

-1 2
o 02 04 06 08 10 1.2 1 4 1.6

V1/Vo

FIGURE 11 - VARIATION OF C p min


. WITH LIP INCIDENCE FOR FLUSH INLET

13
No. 61362

THE WATER-AUGMENTED TURBOFAN ENGINE


A NEW CONCEPT IN MARINE PROPULSION
by

W. RICHARD DAVISON and THOMAS J. SADOWSKI


United Aircraft Research Laboratories
East Hartford, Connecticut

Paper No.
67-362

AIAA/SNAME Advance marine


whims meeting
NORFOLK, VIRGINIA/MAY 22-24, 1967
First publication rights reserved by American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1290 Avenue of the Americas, New York, N. Y. 10019
and Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, 74 Trinity Place, New York, N. Y. 10006
Abstracts may be published without permission if credit is given ta author and to AIAA/SNAME. (Member Price-75c; Nonmember PriceS1.50)
5.08
THE WATER-AUGMENIED TURBOFAN ENGINE - A NEW CONCEPT IN MARINE PROPULSION

W. Richard Davison and Thomas J. Sadowski


United Aircraft Research Laboratories
East Hartford, Connecticut

ABSTRACT Studies of methods to improve the performance of


turbojet and turbofan engines were initiated at the
This paper describes a novel lightweight propul- United Aircraft Research Laboratories more than
sion scheme, based on the injection of large amounts three years ago. It was believed that if the mass
of water into the fan discharge duct of an aircraft- flow of a turbojet or turbofan engine could be
type turbofan engine, for use in high-speed surface increased with no accompanying increase in fuel
effect ships. Theoretical design and off-design flow the thrust and propulsive efficiency could be
performance estimates for this water-augmented tur- improved. Previous studies have proved that jet
bofan engine are presented for boat speeds from 25 engine thrust can be substantially augmented by
to 100 knots. In addition, thOeffect on ideal injecting water into the compressor inlet and
performance caused by variations of injection water burner. This is done to boost thrust on present-
flow rates as well as the reduction in ideal per- day aircraft, particularly during hot-day con-
formance caused by two-phase flow losses are indi- ditions. However, each of these methods requires
cated. The results show.that in many marine vehicle the use of high-purity water, since the use of
applications the slightly lower performance of the water containing large amounts of contaminants
water-augmented turbofan engine, relative to more (i.e., dissolved salts) severely limits engine life.
conventional propulsion systems, is more than
compensated for by its extremely low system weight. Therefore, the object of the present approach was
to determine what performance improvements would be
INTRODUCTION attained if water, divided into small particles by
mechanical forces, were injected into and mixed
With speed becoming increasingly important in only with the engine exhaust air. Theoretically,
air and land transportation, it is only natural the exhaust air should exchange its momentum and
that some of the impetus for higher speeds would energy with the injected water, exhaust velocities
eventually find its way into the field of marine should be reduced, and propulsive efficiency should
surface vessels. This increased emphasis on high- increase. In addition, the water, whether contain-
er speeds has forced the marine architect to resort ing contaminants or not, should contact no moving
to unconventional ship designs (such as the captured engine parts, and therefore the system should be
air bubble, hydrofoil, and planing types) cavable suitable for operating indefinite periods of time.
of attaining cruise speeds up to 100 knots. (1,2,3) The results of these detailed studies conducted at
Of equal importance to the development of new ship the United Aircraft Research Laboratories are the
designs, however, has been the development of light- subject of this paper.
weight propulsion systems which not only must be
matched with these new designs to operate efficiently CONCLUSIONS
over a wide range of speeds,but which also must
attain this operation with a high degree of reli- Theoretically, the design thrust of turbofan
ability. Two of the most frequently mentioned pro- engines incorporating a 4.0-to-1.0 bypass ratio and
pulsion systems which have evolved from studies of a 1.5-to-1.0 fan pressure ratio can be increased by
advanced marine vessel systems are the waterjet and amounts varying from 380% at 25 knots to 90% at 100
supercavitating propeller, each driven by a shaft- knots when water taken directly from a ramscoop is
turbine engine. In many applications, however, injected at high rates of flow into the fan dis-
these propulsion systems are plagued with the dis- charge airstream.
advantage of high weights, i.e., the waterjet pump
components and the supercavitating propeller blade In general, the water weight within a water-
and gearbox, which tend to offset the attractive augmented high-bypass-ratio turbofan engine and its
features of the lightweight shaft-turbine engine. inlet system is a small portion of the total weight
From time to time lightweight aircraft-type turbo- of the marine vehicle within which it is installed.
jet and turbofan engines have been suggested as
potential propulsion systems for high-speed marine Low system weight coupled with good perfor-
systems, but unfortunately their characteristically mance makes the water-augmented turbofan quite
high jet exhaust velocities result in low propul- competitive with the waterjets and supercavitating
sive efficiencies which preclude their direct use marine propellers driven by shaft-turbine engines,
in marine vessels over the speed regime under particularly in hydrofoil and planing boat ap-
present consideration. plications.

1
PROPULSION SYSTEM DESCRIPTION possible, however, the results are presented in
ratio form, so that the conclusions reached are not
Early evaluations indicated that water injected limited to this particular engine.
into the relatively high-temperature exhaust gas of
a turbojet causes the net thrust to decrease The design point performance studies were con-
because the water vaporizes in the hot exhaust gas, ducted for a speed range from. 25 to 100 knots.
absorbs energy in the form of latent heat of vapor- Engine net specific thrust was calculated as a
ization, and thus subtracts from the available function of the mass ratio of water to the gas gen-
energy in the exhaust which is recoverable as use- erator airflow. This ratio was systematically in-
ful thrust. Similarly, water injected into the creased until a continuous decrease in specific
exhaust of a mixed-flow turbofan engine results thrust was obtained. J13-type gas generator mixing
calculations were based on the use of property data
only in a small thrust increase.(4) This single,
most important fact essentially eliminates turbo- from the Gas Tables and Steam Tables. 6,7)
jets and mixed-flow turbofan engines from consider-
ation as potential marine propulsion systems using A ram pressure recovery (RPR) factor, defined as
the momentum exchange water-injection concept. An the fraction of the dynamic pressure head (created
alternate system is the turbofan engine where the by the forward velocity of the vehicle) recovered
fan and the gas generator flow streams are dis- In the ramscoop water inlet, of 0.70 was used for
charged through separate exhaust nozzles. all cases. This factor, although low by aircraft
practice, is presently representative of the frac-
tion of the free-stream dynamic pressure head that
is recovered after water has passed through the
WATER MANIFOLD

r SPRAY NOZZLES
ducts and elbows of the water inlet system. (8,9)
The total pressure in the water inlet ducts was
MIXING DUCT FAN EXHAUST NOZZLE
assumed equal to the free-stream static pressure
INLET
plus the pressure recovered from the inlet kinetic
Low'rn
PREssuRE
BURNER

energy. No pressure losses due to elevation cor-


L-0WruPARBEZURE
0M-PRES;TR
rections were included in this analysis, since
HIGH PRESSURE TURBINE
these corrections are usually small relative to the
NG DUCT FAN EXHAUST NOZZLE
total pressure of the inlet water and are also a
HIGH PRESSURE COMPRESSOR
function of vehicle design.

RAMSCOOP
BOTTOM HULL LINE --
WATER In all cases it was assumed that the fan dis-
iNLET
charge air velocity is diffused to Mach 0.20 by the
FIG. I- SCHEMATIC LAYOUT OF A HYPOTHETICAL HIGH-BYPASS-RATIO time it reaches the water injector location. It was
TURBOFAN ENGINE WITH FAN DUCT WATER INJECTION
also assumed that the injected water and the fan dis-
charge air are thoroughly and ideally mixed within
the mixing duct before reaching the discharge nozzle
A schematic diagram illustrating the use of inlet plane. Further, it was assumed that kinetic
water injection in a turbofan engine with separate and thermal equilibria are attained in the mixing
exhaust streams is shown in Fig. 1. The fan dis- duct before the exhaust nozzle inlet plane. Thermal
charge duct (comprised of the mixing duct and the equilibrium was not assumed to be attained within
exhaust nozzle) is necessarily larger than those of the fan exhaust nozzle, but rather, the air temper-
a conventional turbofan engine because of the in- ature drop was assumed to be 10 F greater than for
creased mass flow and the reduced velocities of the water. However, kinetic equilibrium of the
the two-phase air-water mixture. A ramscoop water mixture was assumed within the exhaust nozzle.
inlet, through which the injection water enters
the system, is located below the water level. A Both specific thrust and system propulsive ef-
duct leads from this inlet to a water manifold ficiency were calculated at each water-injection
surrounding the engine, and appropriate water- rate. Specific thrust is defined as the total
injection nozzles extend from this manifold into engine net thrust divided by the gas generator mass
the fan discharge duct as shown. No pump is in- flow and includes thrust losses due to the momentum
cluded in this system, since its use would not only drag of the water and air captured by the water and
add mechanical complexity and weight but would also air inlets, respectively. System propulsive effi-
result in performance levels no different from ciency is defined as engine thrust horsepower
those produced by a shaft-turbine-driven waterjet. divided by the gas horsepower available at the exit
of the gas generator. System propulsive efficiency
PERFORMANCE ASSUMPTIONS as defined in this paper is slightly different from
the more conventional efficiency term propulsive
The characteristics of the gas generator selected coefficient (PG). Propulsive coefficient is defined
for the study were assumed to be those for the as the system propulsive efficiency divided by the
Pratt & Whitney JT3-type engine.(5) It was further power turbine adiabatic efficiency. Power turbine
assumed, for the majority of calculations made, adiabatic efficiency was assumed to be 0.85. This

that the bypass ratio of the fan was 4.0-to-1.0, is primarily a bookkeeping difference resulting
from the fact that the water-augmented turbofan
and its pressure ratio 1.5-to-1.0. Wherever

2
engine produces no net shaft work output. The ad-
RESULTS BASED ON USE OF A JT5- TYPE GAS GENERATOR
ditional drag due solely to locating the ramscoop FAN PRESSURE RATIO.15-TO-1.0
inlet below the waterline was not charged to the FAN BYPASS RATIO . 4.0- TO-1.0
propulsion system, since this drag varies with
operating conditions and therefore must be con- 600
sidered separately for each particular vehicle ap- BOAT SPEED 25 KNOTS
plication. A complete list of assumptions and E
specifications used in the analysis is presented in ti 500
Table 1, while a discussion of the results obtained
from a detailed analysis of the two-phase flow be-
4.1
WATER- TO -GA S GENERATOR AIR
havior in the fan mixing duct and exhaust nozzle is 3 400- PAASS RATIO CORRESPONDING
TO ONBOARD VATER WEIGHTS
presented in Appendix I. OF
co 50 KNOTS A - 5,000 LB
Comparative performance levels and weights for B-KpooLe
-7..!
(SEE TEXT)
shaft-turbine-driven waterjets and supercavitating
marine propellers used tu evaluate the water7aug-
mented turbofan are based on published data.°-°, 11)
m 200
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
HIGH-BYPASS-RATIO TURBOFAN
X 100 - WITHOUT WATER INJECT ION
The following section contains a detailed dis-
cussion of the theoretical design performance char-
acteristics of the water-augmented turbofan engine Z.3

I i I
at speeds from 25 to 100 knots, the off-design per- a 1

400
1

500 600
U) 0 00 200 300
formance of this propulsion system at 50 knots, and WATER-TO-GAS GENERATOR AIR MASS FLOW RATIO-LB/LB
the results of an illustrative hydrofoil boat ap-
FIG.2-PERFORMANCE VARIATION OF A TURBOFAN ENGINE
plication. In addition, discussions of the per- WITH WATER INJECTION RATE AND BOAT SPEED
formance characteristics of gas-turbine-driven
waterjets and supercavitating propellers used in
marine vessels similar to those considered for the
water-augmented turbofan engine are presented. of gas generator air, respectively. The shapes of
the curves illustrated are typical of design-point
curves which would occur at other speeds. The
Engine Design-Point Performance
The theoretical design-point specific thrust of initial increase in thrust results from the in-
the water-augmented turbofan engine is shown in creased mass flow through the fan duct. As the
Fig. 2 as a function of water-to-gas generator air water-to-air mass flow ratio increases, however,
mass flow ratio and vehicle speed. The maximum diminishing returns are experienced, and the spe-
values of specific thrust are 576, 341, and 192 lb cific thrusts eventually decrease from their re-
thrust/lb/sec of gas generator air for vehicle spective maximum values because of the increasing
influence of the inlet water momentum drag. It
speeds of 25, 50, and 100 knots, respectively.
These values compare with the dry engine specific should be noted that the high levels of thrust can
thrust ratings of 121, 118, and 106 lb thrust/lb/sec be partially attributed to the fact that little

25, 50 and
Boat Speeds
100 knots
Compressor Pressure Ratio 13.8
Compressor Efficiency (polytropic) 90%
Fan Bypass Ratio 4.o
Fan Pressure Ratio 1.5
Fan Efficiency (polytropic) 90%
Turbine Efficiency (adiabatic) 85%
Nozzle Velocity Coefficient (exhaust) 0.98
Inlet Air Temperature 60 F
Inlet Water Temperature 60 F
Static Pressure in Mixing Duct 21.2 psia
Water Ramscoop Pressure Recovery Factor (RPR) 0.70
Wáter-to-Fan Air Exhaust Nozzle Velocity Ratio 1.0
Temperature Difference Between Air and Water
at Exit of Fan Exhaust Nozzle 10 F
Mixing Duct Drag Coefficient O

TABLE 1 LIST OF ASSUMPTIONS AND SPECEFICATIONS USED IN


ANALYSIS OF WATER- INJECTED TURBOFAN ENGETES

3
FAN BYPASS RATIO 4.0 -TO-1. 0 Since the inlet water duct would most likely be
FAN PRESSURE RATIO 1.5-T0-1.0 a fixed-geometry design sized for a particular boat
SYSTEM PROPULSIVE EFFICIENCY PROPULSIVE speed, some performance compromises will have to be
COEFFICIENT X POWER TURBINE EFFICIENCY made to operate the water-injected turbofan engine
CALCULATIONS BASED ON USE OF P IS WA J13-TYPE GAS GENERATOR
over a range 6f boat speeds. For example, if the
water-inlet duct were sized to handle the water
50
flow corresponding to maximum specific thrust at 50
knots, this duct would be approximately 4 times too
large to handle the water required for maximum spe-
**** 40 cific thrust at 100 knots (see Fig. 2). Conversely,
)- WiTH FAN DUCT WATER INJECTION
a duct sized at 50 knots would be only the size
o
2
la
/ necessary to handle the water flow necessary to
5
iiu. 30 // achieve maximum specific thrust at 25 knots. In

w / this illustration the factors of approximately 4


w
/ and result because water flow into a fixed-area
duct varies directly as boat speed, while the water-
Zri
-1 20 i to-gas generator air mass flow ratio required to
D
a. 1 attain maximum thrust varies approximately as the
0
cc
a
/ reciprocal of boat speed (see Fig. 2). In the
WITH NO WATER INJECTION
2 i design of a particular boat and propulsion system
w 10 combination, the weight of onboard water may be a
>. critical factor, and therefore the inlet water duct
areas will probably have to be determined for water
0 -, I I I I
flow rates less than those corresponding to maximum
0 20 40 60 SO 100
attainable specific thrust at a given speed. In
BOAT SPEED - KNOTS
this situation, the engine performance would be
FIG. 3 SYSTEM PROPULSIVE EFFICIENCIES OF A compromised (relative to the maximum attainable
HIGH -BYPASS-RATIO TURBOFAN ENGINE specific thrust), but the diameter of the inlet
water duct could be made smaller, and the weight of
onboard water would be significantly decreased.
The extent of this weight-performance compromise is
(less than 1%)of the injected water is vaporized discussed more thoroughly in the following section.
in the relatively cool (approximately 160 F) fan air
stream. The exhaust flow, therefore, consists Off-Design Engine Performance
primarily of liquid water droplets and air. The Two examples illustrating specific compromises
fluid dynamic behavior of the two-phase flow is between engine performance and onboard water weight
similar to that experimentally observed in the two- are shown along with the curve of maximum thrust in
phase flow studies reported by Elliott.(12) Fig. 4. Each of these curves corresponds to the
performance of a single engine system with variable
The theoretical system propulsive efficiencies exhaust nozzles and fixed-geometry inlet water and
corresponding to the points of maximum specific mixing ducts, each of which is sized for a 50-knot
thrust are shown in Fig. 3 as a function of vehicle design speed. Because of these design criteria
speed. It can be seen that the system propulsive limitations, the performance of each of the systems
efficiency increases at a decreasing rate with in- illustrated is less than the maximum attainable
creased boat speed but is still considerably better thrust throughout the entire speed range. The
than that of the same turbofan without water aug- points A.and B in Fig. 2 illustrate the degrees of
mentation as shown in the lower curve. The results specific thrust compromise involved at a speed of
show that the maximum theoretical propulsive effi- 50 knots. The water-injection rates selected
ciency is greater than 42% at 50 knots and over 46% correspond to onboard water weights of 5000 and
at 100 knots. 10,000 lb, which in combination with an assumed
10-ft-long inlet water duct, result in inlet water
Onboard Water Weight Considerations duct diameters of 2.4 and 3.4 ft, respectively.
The results presented in Fig. 2 indicate that These are nominal dimensions, since it is recognized
relatively large water flow rates are necessary to that the ramscoop inlet, capable of handling large
attain maximum system performance. This is partic- rates of water flow, is a critical area which may
ularly true at 25 knots where the water flow rate require special attention during the development
necessary to attain the maximum theoretical specific and testing of the propulsion system. Although the
thrust of 576 lb/lb/sec of gas generator airflow amounts of water within a system with fixed-geometry
exceeds 80,000 lb/sec while the onboard water weight inlet water and mixing ducts may vary somewhat with
(within the engine and inlet ducts) exceeds 45,000 speed, these slight variations of total onboard
lb. These extremely large onboard water weights water weight are of minor importance. The water-
would, in all likelihood, preclude operation near handling capability of each system was based on the
the points of maximum thrust, especially at speeds use of a ramscoop capture area ratio of 1.0, and at
below 50 knots. all speeds, no variations were considered in engine
aerodynamic design or operation.
FAN BYPASS RATIO - 4.0- TO -1.0 VEHICLE SPEED -50 KNOTS
FAN PRESSURE RATIO - 1.5- TO -1.0
JT3 - TYPE GAS GENERATOR
ENGINES INCLUDE VARIABLE EXHAUST NOZZLES
INLET WATER DUCT LENGTH - 10 FT w 400
WATER AUGMENTED THRUST
600 (MAXIMUM VALUES)
Cr
I-

MAXIMUM PERFORMANCE WITH xxo 300 U-1 L,

500 FAN DUCT WATER INJECTION


1- 1-
cr oc;,
w
CD 3t
-.J
z
ow 200
400
cr cr
0
co ce
zw 300 DRY ENGINE THRUST
I-

ONBOARD WATER WEIGHT.


x lopoo LB o
o 2 3 4 5
200 5000 LB 1

BYPASS RATIO
11-
o
FIG. 5- MAXIMUM SPECIFIC THRUST ATTAINABLE AT VARIOUS
o. BYPASS RATIOS WITH A JT3 -TYPE GAS GENERATOR
100

the performance of the water-augmented turbofan


varies considerably with bypass ratio. This
20 40 60 80 100
variation is shown more clearly in Fig. 5 where
VEHICLE SPEED - KNOTS
the maximum theoretical specific thrust is pre-
FIG. 4 - OFF-DESIGN PERFORMANCE OF HYPOTHETICAL sented as a function of turbofan bypass ratio for a
HIGH -BYPASS-RATIO TUROFAN ENGINES marine vehicle speed of 50 knots. Upon review of
WITH WATER INJECTION the data presented in this figure it appears de-
sirable to select a high bypass ratio in order to
attain higher specific thrust levels and propul-
sive efficiencies. The increase in specific thrust
The off-design water-augmented turbofan perfor-
is due not only to the use of water injection but
mance levels shown in Fig. 4 indicate that at ve-
also to the increase in dry thrust with bypass ratio
hicle speeds lees than 50 knots the performance of
as shown by the lower curve in this figure. The
the water-augmented turbofan engine is reduced results shown in Fig. 5 were calculated for engines
relative to its maximum thrust capability. The using a JT3-type gas generator as described pre-
results also indicate that at a fixed vehicle speed, viously. However, it is interesting to note what
the weight of onboard water increases much more approximate theoretical thrust levels might be
rapidly than does the corresponding specific thrust. attainable if fan duct water injection'were adapted
This can be illustrated by another example. At 25 to turbofan engine models now in production or
knots the theoretical specific thrust associated development, namely the Pratt & Whitney JT3D-,
with a system that is sized (at 50 knots) to accom- JT8D-, Ja9D-, TF30-, and TF33-type engines.
modate only 5000 lb of onboard water is 335 lb/lb/
sec, while the specific thrust of an engine with Vehicle Applications
ducts sized to accommodate 10,000 lb of onboard A smooth-water hydrodynamic drag curve and a
water is 375 lb/lb/sec. This corresponds to a per- turbofan installed thrust curve are shown in Fig. 6
formance improvement of approximately 12% for a for an illustrative 76-ton hydrofoil ship. The
100% increase in water weight. Notwithstanding the available thrust curve shown in Fig. 6 corresponds
compromises that must be made, the general results to the estimated total thrust output of a water-
indicate that sizable thrust augmentation levels augmented turbofan engine with 10,000 lb of onboard
still can be realized over the entire vehicle speed water and is based on data from Fig. 4 and Appendix
range with relatively minor penalties due to the I. Although the hydrodynamic drag is estimated for
weight of onboard water. This effect is further a hypothetical hydrofoil ship, the data used to
emphasized in a later section of this paper where generate this curve were based on that by Gill.(13)
it is shown that the onboard water weights for tur- The intersection of the thrust and drag curve in-
bofan engines, designed to attain slightly less- dicates that this ship should be capable of attain-
than-maximum performance through the use of fixed- ing a maximum smooth-water speed of approximately
geometry inlet water and mixing ducts, are a small 69 knots. Thrust requirements at take-off were
portion of the total vehicle displacement. based on an assumed requirement of a 40% margin of
available thrust over take-off drag to allow for
Performance Variation with Bypass Ratio sea state conditions.
Results of associated studies have shown that

5
ONBOARD WATER WEIGHT- 101)00 LB
The performance of a waterjet propulsion system
HYDROFOIL BOAT DISPLACEMENT- 76 TONS
TURBOFAN USES JT3 -TYPE GAS GENERATOR installed in the hydrofoil ship whose drag curve is
70 shown in Fig. 6 was also estimated in order to com-
pare it with the water-augmented turbofan engine.
The design thrust of the waterjet system at 69
-J 60 knots was specified to be the same as that of the
o water-augmented turbofan. The waterjet pump is
estimated to weigh 8400 lb, the shaft-turbine engine
z 50 11,800 lb, the water within the pump and its ducts
20,000 lb (essentially double the dry system com-
8 ponent weights), and the total system weight,
4o
42,220 lb.(14, 15) By comparison, the dry weight
of the water-augmented turbofan engine is estimated
4 to be approximntely 9800 lb. Upon adding the on-
g
board water to the turbofan weight the total system
weight is approximately 19,800 lb. A weight break-
CC 20 down for each propulsion system is shown in Table 2.

The payload fraction and range characteristics


10 of the illustrative 76-ton hydrofoil ship propelled
either by a water-augmented turbofan engine or by a
waterjet driven by a shaft engine are shown in Fig.
o 7 for a cruise speed of 69 knots. Since this point
o 20 40 60 80 100 120
of engine operation is beyond the point of maximum
BOAT SPEED -KNOTS thrust with an onboard water weight of 10,000 lb
(see Fig. 6), the propulsive efficiency of the
water-augmented turbofan was estimated to be only
FIG.6- HYPOTHETI CAL HYDROFOIL BOAT DRAG AND WATER-
AUGMENTED TURBOFAN INSTALLED THRUST

Water-Injected Turbofan

Component Weight - lb

JT3-Type Gas Generator 4,200


Power Turbine (4 stages) 1,866
Fan (4.0-to-1.0 Bypass Ratio, 1.5-to-1.0 Pressure Ratio) 195
Fan Mixing Duct (13 ft long, stainless steel) 1,470*
Water Inlet Duct (10 ft long, stainless steel) 360*
Spray Nozzles 200
Subtotal 8,891
Supports, etc. (10% of subtotal weight) 889
Total Dry System Weight 9,780

System Weight with Onboard-Water Weight of:


2500 lb 12,280
5000 lb 14,780
10000 lb 19,780

Gas-TUrbine-Driven Pumpjet

Component Weight - lb

FT3-TUrbine Drive 11,800


Pumpjet (dry) 8 400
Subtotal 20,200
Supports, etc. (10% of subtotal weight) 2,020
Total Dry System Weight 22,220
Weight of System with Onboard Water (20,000 lb) 42,220

* Based on use of 1/8 in. sheet thickness

TABLE 2 ESTIMATED WATER-INJECTED TURBOFAN AND PUMPJET WEIGHTS

6
DISPLACEMENT -76 TONS results serve to emphasize that onboard water con-
CRUISE SPEED-69 KNOTS
ONBOARD WATER WEIGHTS. stitutes a relatively small fraction of the total
TURBOFAN - 10,000 LB
WATERJET -20,000 LB displacement. Although the hydrofoil ship selected
PROPULSIVE EFFICIENCIES.
TURBOFAN - 36% was relatively small, a similar advantage is shown
WATERJET -50%
HYDROFOIL DRAG SHOWN IN FIG. 6 when multiple units of the water-augmented turbofan
engine are compared with waterjets driven by shaft-
0.5
turbine engines in larger hydrofoil ships.

The total machinery weight of a gas-turbine-


driven supercavitating marine propeller system
capable of propelling the same hydrofoil ship
illustrated in the preceding example is estimated
WATER AUGMENTED TURBOFAN
o to be over 40,000 lb. This weight estimate is
o based on a gearbox weight of 2 lb/hp,(11) an
I- optimistic figure relative to the rather severe
0.2
service and extended lifetime required of a hydro-
u.
WATERJET
o foil ship. Although model tank tests indicate that
o a PC of 0.70 to 0.75 can be attained by super-
52 OA
a cavitating propellers, installed PC will probably
be no greater than approximately 0.65 (correspond-
ing to a propulsive efficiency, as defined in this
paper, of approximately 0.55). The payload fraction
1 1 1 1

100 200 300 400 500


RANGE-NAUTICAL MILES for this system is close to that of the waterjet,
'out still far below that of the water-augmented
FIG. 7 -PAYLOAD CAPABILITY OF HYDROFOIL BOATS
turbofan when installed in the illustrated hydro-
foil ship example.

36%. The assumed waterjet design point propulsive CONCLUDING REMARKS


efficiency is 50% at 69 knots. In this example the
increased waterjet propulsion system weight appears The results of this analysis show that the
to influence payload fraction more than propulsive thrust of a water-injected high-bypass-ratio turbo-
efficiency, and therefore throughout the entire fan theoretically can be increased by up to 280%
range the payload fraction for the waterjet-pro- relative to the thrust of this engine without water
pelled hydrofoil ship never equals that of the injection when it is installed in a boat with a
hydrofoil ship propelled with the water-injected design speed of 50 knots. Although the amount of
turbofan engines. The component weights of the water that must be injected is considerable at the
hydrofoil ship propelled with a water-injected tur- points of maximum thrust, lower water-injection
bofan engine containing 10,000 lb of onboard water rates will still result in sizable thrust aug-
weight are shown in Fig. 8. The curves in this mentation at this ship speed. The results presented
figure are typical of the weight fractions which in this report indicate that the specific weight
were allocated to the various boat components. The of a water-augmented turbofan engine is approxi-
mately 0.33 lb weight/lb thrust at a speed of 50
knots. This appears to be quite attractive relative
PROPULSION ONE WATER AUGMENTED TURBOFAN to the specific weights of waterjets (0.70 lb wt/lb
WITH 37,800 LB THRUST clopoo LB ONBOARD WATER) thruSt) and supercavitating marine propellers (0.76
CRUISE SPEED - 69 KNOTS
DISPLACEMENT- 76 TONS lb wt/lb thrust).

The methods of the analyses utilized in the per-


160
-.-- DISPLACEMENT
formance and two-phase flow calculations presented
in this paper are in close agreement with each
other when the dispersed water phase consists of
PAYLOAD droplets of small diameter, viz., diameters less
oIA-120
than 40 microns. As the diameters of the droplets
CI FUEL
z increase, the two-phase flow calculations indicate
ZA
that lower values of thrust augmentation will be
D80
o ONBOARD WATER obtained. This reduction in performance is due to
ENGINE
frictional and acceleration effects between the
FOILS twm phases. But, due to droplet shattering effects,
040 _ STRUTS performance values become relatively insensitive to
OUTFITTING, AUXILIARIES,
ANO FIXTURES droplets injected with diameters greater than 400
HULL ANO STRUCTURE PAYLOAD-LIMITED microns. Therefore, to realize the full potential
RANGE
O
I I I
I I -'I of the water-augmented turbofan concept consider-
O 100 200 300 400 500 6°P able attention must be given to the development of
RANGE-NAUTICAL MILES
a successful injection scheme. On the other hand,
FIG.8 -ESTIMATED HYDROFOIL BOAT COMPONENT WEIGHTS
a relatively small price need be paid in performance,

7
approximately a 25% reduction in the theoretical net turbofan engine with respect to all the loss mecha-
specific thrust for the example presented in this nisms inherent in the two-phase flow behavior in
study, when large-capacity, present-state-of-the-art the fan discharge duct, but it means to provide an
spray nozzles are used in which mean droplet diame- indication of the representativeness of the results
ters greater than 400 microns are obtained. of the system analysis presented in this paper.
Specifically, it is desired to know the relative
The use of a water-injected turbofan engine can importance that the mean droplet diameter of the
benefit the payload and/or the range of a hydrofoil dispersed liquid and the air-water injection
ship propelled by a waterjet or supercavitating velocity ratio have on the obtainable thrust aug-
marine propeller. An advantage of the water-injec- mentation of the turbofan engine. Therefore, the
ted turbofan system not previously discussed is that specific geometry and set of flow conditions con-
it is a low-draft system with only the water ram- sidered below are but an example and not an optimized
scoop inlet protruding below the hull line. In configuration. More extensive design considerations
addition, this system is one in which propulsive may lead to a different fan discharge duct geometry
engine power, although considerably reduced rela- and flow conditions and, most likely, to lower per-
tive to design conditions, is still available if formance losses than estimated here.
the primary ramscoop inlet areas should become
congested with foreign matter. The use of this The propulsion system considered for the two-
unaugmented power may be beneficial in certain phase flow analysis is illustrated in Fig. 1. The
types of landing craft where movement beyond the specific design conditions used in the analysis are
beach area is required. A further subtle advantage given in Tables 1 and 3. In addition, the length
results from the fact that occasional air ingestion of the mixing section and the convergent half-angle
through the water ramscoop will not unload the of the exhaust nozzle of the fan discharge duct were
turbine, as might occur in a waterjet, and thereby chosen arbitrarily to be 9.2 ft and 30 deg, respect-
cause shock loading on the pump and drive shaft ively. The length of the exhaust nozzle was chosen
parts when the water flows through the ducting. to give complete expansion of the mixed stream to
atmospheric pressure. The selection of the above
conditions is believed to be representative of a
APPENDIX I typical configuration.

Two-Phase Flow Analysis The analtical study of the air-water flow be-
The preceding analysis of system performance was havior in a fan discharge duct was completed through
based on a number of simplifying assumptions with the use of an existing computer program which solves
regard to the air-water flow behavior in the fan the system of differential equations describing a
discharge duct. The principal uncertainties of this one-dimensional, two-phase flow model. These
analysis lie in the lack of knowledge of the thermal equations, which form the basis for the theoretical
and velocity lags between the two phases and the performance levels of all water-augmented turbofan
effect of droplet size and air-water injection propulsion systems in this paper, were taken from a
velocity ratio on these lags which, in turn, affect paper by Bailey, et al.(16) The model includes a
the net specific thrust of the propulsion system. momentum and heat balance based upon the velocity
The object of the analysis described herein is to and temperature differences which Occur between the
investigate the air-water flow behavior in a fan continuous gas medium and the droplets of the
discharge duct by means of an analysis which in- uniformly dispersed liquid medium. It is assumed
cludes more detailed consideration of the effects that the total energy of the two-phase system is
of momentum and heat transfer between the two phases fixed, that the gas is nonviscous except insofar as
of the exhaust stream. it exerts a drag force upon the particles, that the
transfer of heat between the particles and the
It is not the purpose nor within the scope of the adjacent gas occurs by convection, the droplets are
present analysis to optimize the water-augmented uniformly sized, and that each droplet has the same

Boat Speed 50 knots


Inlet Air Temperature 130 F
Inlet Water Temperature 60 F
Air Velocity at Droplet Injection Plane 119 ft/sec
Water - Gas Generator Air Mass Flow Ratio 8o
Water - Fan Air Mass Flow Ratio 20
Mass Flow Rate of Gas Generator Air 188 lb/sec
Flow Area of Fan Discharge Duct
at Droplet Injection Plane
62.9 ft2

TABLE 3 LIST OF ASSUMPTIONS AND SPECIFICATIONS


USED IN T0-PHASE FLOW ANALYSIS

8
uniform temperature. The relative volume occupied for 100-micron diameter droplets. In this case no
by the droplets is assumed to be negligible. The droplet shattering took place and both thermal and
effects of variable gas properties and particle dynamic eqUilibrium between the two phases is essen-
drag and heat-transfer phenomena, not restricted to tially achieved before they reach the exhaust nozzle.
Stokes flow, are included in the computer program. For droplets having initial diameters greater than
4o0 microns droplet shattering was normally achieved
One aspect of the flow of liquid droplets in a before leaving the duct. This would give an
flowing gas stream which is not included explicitly enhancement in performance because of the resultant
in the computer program is droplet shattering. The smaller size of the droplets leaving the duct. How-
condition at which liquid droplet shattering occurs ever, this effect was offset somewhat for droplets
is specified by a critical value o the WTber number, having initial diameters greater than approximately
viz., We = Pg (vg-vi)2 D9/20 , 6. 02, 17) Whenever 250 microns because dynamic equilibrium was not
this criterion was fulfilled within a flow calcula- normally achieved for these droplets within the
tion, it was arbitrarily assumed that the droplets mixing section of the fan discharge duct. The
took on a new diameter equal to one-fourth of their final exhaust velocities of each phase are shown
initial.value whereas all other conditions remained in Fig. 10 as a function of initial droplet diameter,
unchanged at that location. The computer calcula-
tion was stopped and restarted as required until v9, , .119 FT/SEC
the end of the exhaust nozzle was reached. PO - MICRONS

The assumptions that a truly dispersed flow


100 ---500 -- 1000
360
pattern should be developed under the flow condi- C.)

tions specified in Table 3 and that wall friction cr,

losses due to two-phase flow are negligible are


based upon approximate calculations and inferences cc 300
drawn from several sets of published experimental
data at comparable flow parameters. (12, 18, 19, 20)
The above assumptions are reasonable for the in- o
240
dicated flow conditions if the principal require-
ment of uniform liquid spray dispersion at the
droplet injection plane is satisfied.
u_
o 180
A typical result of the two-phase flow calcn1R-
tions is shown in Fig. 9. In this figure the axial
velocity profiles of the two phases in the fan dis-
o
W- 120
charge duct are shown as a function of duct length

= 100 MICRONS x 60
VIN= 2

BOAT SPEED= 50 KNOTS


250 O
AR-WATER MIXING SECTION EXHAUST O 2 4 6 -8 10
NOZZLE

AIR-WATER INJECTION VELOCITY RATIO


200
10-VELOCITIES OF AIR AND WATER PHASES LEAVING
EXHAUST NOZZLE OF FAN DISCHARGE DUCT
Vg

Ui
150
Dee, and the ratio of the air and water velocities
AIR VELOCITY, Vg Vg at the droplet injection plane, Viej. A similar
plot is presented in Fig. 11 for the net specific
thrust obtainable from the specific water-augmented
WATER VELOCITY, V,
turbofan engine configuration chosen for this study.

The results of the two-phase flow calculations


50 indicate (a) that the effect of the air-water
injection velocity ratio on performance is greatest
at the smallest droplet diameters, i.e., less than
approximately 100 microns, and (b) that the effect
1
of droplet diameter on performance is negligible
0o 2 4 6 8 IO 12
for diameters greater than approximately 400 microns.
DISTANCE FROM DROPLET NJECTION PLANE -FT
For a 50-knot ship the available pressure heat will
not allow the value of 17.1fli to be much less than
FIG. 9-AXIAL VELOCaY PRORLES OF GAS AND LIQUID
PHASES N FAN DMCHARGE DUCT 2.0 and droplet diameters much less than 400 microns

9
DESIGN CONDITIONS SPECIFIED IN TABLE IC
BOAT SPEED 50 KNOTS
Properties of Steam. John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
420 New York, 1950.

360 8. Engel, W. N., R. L. Cochran, and M. M. Delao:


Use of Axial Flow Pumps for Marine Propulsion.
5 300 2 Paper 442A, presented to SAE, Detroit, Michigan,
0 January 8-12, 1962.
en I 3
15 240
6
z 9. Landerman, A. M. and W. R. Davison: Interim
180
Report on Performance Evaluation of Tip-Driven
Q 120
DRY FAN Helicopter Rotors. UA Research Laboratories
Report UAR-A185, November 19, 1962.
60
s- 10. Arcand, L.: Waterjet Propulsion for Small
o Craft. Paper No. F presented to SNAME, South-
40 100 400 1000 4000
west Section Meeting, Miami, Florida, May 26-28,
iNIT1AL DROPLET DIAMETER -MICRONS
1966.

FIG. II- PERFORMANCE OF WATER-AUGMENTED TURWOFAN ENGINE 11. Carstens, J. P.: Preliminary Evaluation of Gas
Turbine-Powered High-Speed Planing Boats. UA
Research Laboratories Report B,110052-21,
November 1963.
can be achieved only with very fine nozzle orifice
diameters. These nozzles would be low capacity and 12. Elliott, D. G.: Analysis of the Acceleration
a prohibitively large number may be required to of Lithium in a Two-Phase Nozzle. Proceedings
produce the desired liquid flow rate. On the other of 1963 High-Temperature Liquid Metal Heat
hand, large capacity spray nozzles, although they Transfer Technology Meeting. Oak Ridge,
would give relatively coarse sprays, would degrade Tennessee, December 1964.
system performance to only a small degree relative
to 400-micron particles. This relaxes considerably 13 Gill, J. D.: The Hydrofoil Commuter. Boat
the design criteria of the liquid spray nozzles to Construction and Maintenance, February 1965.
be used to inject water into the fan discharge duct.
Thus with relatively little effort, the thrust of 14. Fact Sheet, FT3C-9 Marine Gas Turbine. Pratt &
the water-augmented turbofan may be as much as 100% Whitney Aircraft, East Hartford, Conn., May 17,
greater than that of a dry turbofan engine. 1965.

REFERENCES 15. The Boeing Company: A Parametric Study of


Hydrofoil Ships. US Navy Bureau of Ships
1. Chaplin, H. A. and A. G. Ford: Some Design Report D2-20671-3, December 1963.
Principles of Ground Effect Machines. Section
A - Introductory Survey. David Taylor Model 16. Bailey, W. S., E. N. Nilson, R. A. Serra, and
Basin Report 2121A, April 1966. T. F. Zupnik: Gas-Particle Flow in an
Axisymmetric Nozzle. ABS Journal, 31, pp. 793-
2. Meyers, G. R.: Observations and Comments on 798, June 1961.
Hydrofoils. Paper No. 2a, presented to the
SNAME at Seattle, May 13-14, 1965. 17. Lane, W. R., and H. L. Green: The Mechanics of
Drops and Bubbles. Surveys in Mechanics, pp.
Savitski, D.: Hydrodynamic Design of Planing 162-215 Edited by G. K. Batchelor and R. M.
Hulls. Davidson Laboratory Report No. 1000. Davis, Cambridge University Press, London, 1956.
Stevens Institute of Technology.
Scott, D. S.: Properties of Cocurrent Gas-
Davison, W. R.: Thrust Augmentation of Turbo- Liquid Flow. Advances in Chemical Engineering,
jet and Turbofan Engines by Water Injection Vol. 4, pp. 200-278, Edited by T. B. Drew, J. W.
into the Exhaust. UA Research Laboratories Hoopes, Jr., and T. Vermeulen, Academic Press,
Report D-110278-6, July 27, 1965. New York, 1963.

) Military Turbofan Installation Handbook, JT3D Martinelli, R. D., and D. B. Nelson: Prediction
Engine. Installation Engineering, Pratt & of Pressure Drop During Forced-Circulation
Whitney Aircraft, East Hartford, Conn., April Boiling.of Water. Transactions ASME, 70, pp.
1959. 695-702, August 1948.

Keenan, J. H. and J. Kaye: Gas Tables. John Vance, W. H., and R. W. Moulton: A Study of
Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York 1956. Slip Ratios for the Flow of Steam-Water Mixtures
at High Void Fractions, A.I.Ch.E. Journal 11,
Keenan, J. H. and F. G. Keyes: Thermodynamic pp. 1114-1124, November 1965.

10
No. 61-363

ELECTROMAGNETIC PROPULSION FOR CARGO SUBMARINES


by

S. WAY
Westinghouse Electric Corporation
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania

Paper No.
67-363

AIAA/SNAME Advance marine


vehicies meeting
NORFOLK, VIRGINIA/MAY 22-24, 1967
First publication rights reserved by American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1290 Avenue of the Americas, New York, N. Y. 10019
and Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, 74 Trinity Place, New York, N. Y. 10006
Abstracts may be published without permission if credit is given to author and ta AIAA/SNAME. (Member Price-75c; Nonmember Price$1.50)

1.08, 5.08
ELECTROMAMETIC PROPULSION FOR CARGO SUBMARINES

S. Way
Westinghouse Electric Corporation
Research and Development Center
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15235

Abstract 500

In this paper the application of electro-


magnetic propulsion to large submarine tankers is
discussed. This system may lead to some increase 400

in propulsion efficiency and thereby contribute an


added advantage to the submarine tanker concept. Surface Tanker
The general theory of external field DC electro-
300
magnetic propulsion is discussed and propulsion
efficiencies are deduced for 2, 4 or 6 pole config- Submahne
urations. Application for submarine tanker hulls
of L/d . 8.75 and prismatic coefficient 0.6 is then
discussed, for cases of 4 poles or 6 poles, and a; 200
submerged displacements of 25,000, 50,000, and
100,000 metric tons. For the 6-pole, 100,000 ton
vessel, the thrust power is estimated to be 86% of
100
the electric power supplied at 29 knots. The value
falls to 83% for 50,000 tons and 80% for 25,000 20000 DWT
tons. Values over 90% are reached at 20 knots.
Arrangement of equipment inside the hull is dis- o
cussed. In particular, attention must be given to 10 15 20 30
the method of supporting the coils of the super- Speed, knots
conducting magnets. Separating forces are very Fig. 1-Resistanceofsurfaceandsubmarine
large, and the restraints must not give excessive tankffsofsamedeadweight
heat leakage. Other problems treated are those of To realize the full advantage of the reduced
the magnetic field inside the hull and the attrac- resistance at high speed the submarine must cruie
tion of iron bodies on the bottom or in the vicinity. at a depth of about four hull diameters or more,l3)
to eliminate surface disturbances and wave forma-
1. Introduction tion.

Use of large submarines for cargo transport A further advantage of the submarine tanker is
has been frequently suggested. Of particular that an economical cruising speed may be maintained
interest is the tanker application, where loading even in very rough seas. The surface ship must
and unloading operations and cargo storage are reduce its speed, the wave resistance increases,
simplified. and there are the usual dangers and ship damage
that may attend bad weather at sea. The hull
The submarine tanker offers certain advantages design, for these reasons, may also be lighter for
over a surface ship.l1/2) The principal gain comes the submarine than for the surface tanker.
from the reduced resistance at high speeds, due to
the absence of wave drag. A comparison is shown in These apparent advantages of the submarine
Fig. 1, for vessels of 20,000 dead weight tons.* tanker are offset by several disadvantages. Chief
The point of breakaway of the drag curves depends of these is the requirement of larger draft. A hull
on the Froude number u2/g4,1/3, so that for larger of circular section is desirable to minimize re-
tankers this point shifts to higher speeds. Gen- sistance, but since the diameter may be as large as
erally, however, at speeds above 20-22 knots the 80 feet for a large submarine tanker, the draft at
submarine would have an advantage, and at a speed the normal surface condition may approach 65 feet.
of around 30 knots this advantage is quite This is considerably more that is allowed in many
appreciable. (Fig. 1 based on Ref. 2 data.) channels and estuaries. Passage in Panama or Suez
canals would be restricted for the larger tankers.
It should be kept in mind in such comparisons To reduce draft, an elliptical or rectangular hull
that the ratio of dead weight tonnage to displace- could be used(2) but then there appears to be a con-
ment will be less for the submarine than for the siderable increase in resistance. Even with the
surface ship because of the main ballast tanks circular hulls the resistance goes up due to bottom
(about 10% of submerged displacement). This means effects in shallow waters. The submarine tanker is
that the submarine hull displacement tends to be only feasible with a nuclear power plant**, and the
larger, for given dead weight tonnage, than for the initial capital cost of the vessel may be consider-
surface ship. Drag comparisons should therefore be ably higher than that of a surface tanker of the
on the basis of the sane dead weight tonnage, as is sane dead weight.
the case in Fig. 1.

Dead weight tonnage usually refers to cargo (pay load) plus useful load.
**
Further developments may indicate some possibilities for fuel cell systems.

-1-
1-
In the present paper the possible application magnets, and requiring large energy storage in the
of electromagnetic propulsion to the submarine electrical circuits.
tanker is discussed. Electromagnetic submarine
propulsion has been considered by several investi- The internal duct direct current System, while
gators(4-9). It held little promise till it became simple in concept, leads to a water jet of high
evident that large electromagnets could be made velocity, and gives a jet efficiency
from superconducting metals. Analysis shows that
by means of electromagnetic propulsion it might be
2
possible, for large submarines, to realize a sig- I, - u.
(1)
nificant increase in propulsive efficiency, thereby 1 + j
giving additional advantage to the submarine tanker u
concept. However, it is very clear that there are
many difficult problems that arise in construction where.isjet velocity and u is boat speed. This
and applying the electromagnetic propulsion system. jet efficiency must be multiplied with the electro-
It is the intention of this paper to be descriptive magnetic pump (duct) efficiency, To, to obtain the
and to highlight the problem areas, emphasizing the propulsive efficiency
difficulties as well as some of the advantages of
the electromagnetic system of propulsion. No at- = lj ID (2)
tempt is made to evaluate economic factors.
Since ui/u must be about 1.4 to 1.5 for a duct of
2. Electromagnetic Propulsion Methods reasonably small size, ni becomes about 0.8; the
product in Eq. 2 then becomes less than 0.7 in most
Electromagnetic propulsion of a submarine can cases, and this propulsion system is not attractive
be effected either with an internal flow or exter- from the efficiency standpoint.
nal flow arrangement, and either by use of a direct
current system or an induction system. These The external field system, by virtue of apply-
several methods are shown schematically in Fig. 2 ing small body (Lorentz) forces to a very large
a,b,c,d. The internal flow systems use an electro- expanse of surrounding water, can achieve an ni
magnetic pump, either in simple crossed field(7,8) essentially unity, and the propulsive efficiency 71
arrangement, 2a, or in the form of a linear in- can be quite high. The magnetic field, however,
duction motorl9), Fig. 2b. The external field spreads out from the hull into the surrounding sea,
method may also use either direct currents and a factor which could, under certain circumstances,
crossed fields(6), Fig. 2c, or a varying magnetic be troublesome.
field with induced currents(9), Fig. 2d.
Advantages and disadvantages of the several
schemes are indicated below:*
B
Internal, d.c., Fig. 2a
---.,
f----
-F -
U--.',-----
ji 98
1
___ ---'
1

-i
_ -.c::-___',..,,
ui u ------
,
r
,, o ,,
,

Advantages:
Disadvantages:
Compact, slight external field
Low larger power plant
u.
l

a. b. Internal, a.c., Fig. 2b

Advantages: Compact. No electrodes


Disadvantages: Low n. Non-superconducting magnet

External, d.c., Fig. 2c

, - B

CZ=
Advantages: Good 1. Low flow disturbance

(MN Disadvantages: Spreading magnetic fields

External, a.c., Fig. 2d

Advantages: No electrodes
C. d.
Disadvantages: Low n. Non-superconducting magnet.
Spreading magnetic fields

Fig. 2-Methods for electromagnetic propulsion The implied advantage of no electrodes for 2b
and 2d should not be taken too seriously, as pre-
In the induction method, a magnetic field of liminary experimental studies have shown that pola-
intensity proportional to sin 2v(x-ct)Ps. is provided rization losses at the electrodes are negligible.
by energizing a number of magnet coils successively.
Circulating currents are induced in the conducting For the ensuing discussion in this paper it is
sea water that interact with the magnetic field to assumed that an external flow dc arrangement is
provide rearwardly directed forces on the water. used.
No electrodes are necessary. The magnetic wave
speed, c, must be larger than the water flow speed.
This induction motor method has the disadvantages
of not being amenable to use of superconducting

*These advantages and disadvantages refer only to the relative merits of schemes of Fig. 2, not to
the merits of electromagnetic propulsion vs. propeller drives.

- 2 -
3. Theory of the External Field The curvilinear coordinates p and * are derived
Direct Current System as the real and imaginary parts of a function of
the complex variable x + i y:
A multipole system may be used as indicated in k
Fig. 3. A 6-pole arrangement is preferred because w = 9 + i* = Ln -
it leads to an acceptably good efficiency while (vb)k + (5)
keeping the stray field inside the hull'reasonably
low. A simple 2-pole configuration could yield The magnitudes of the gradients of T and * are
higher efficiency, but tife problem of shielding
against the internal field is more serious. equal and are denoted by h:

dw
h = laT . Igrad pl = i grad * (6)
a

magnet Coil
The magnitudes of E and f then become
2b
veh bh
E.- --__ , = R
ok (7)
e
Magnet Conductors
Parameter pe is the value of 9 on the electrode
= kJ,
2k = No. of Electrodes
k = 3 in Case Shown
surface, the latter being chosen to conform to a
Electrode surface of constant T in order to insure that E
and f are perpendicular vectors. There is a rela-
e tion of Te to the angle 6e where the electrode
surface meets the hull (see Fig. 3):
Fig. 3Electromagnetic submarine configuration I Schematicl

Te = - tanh-1 (sin k 6e) (8)

At the outset, we shall summarize certain re- The active field region is assumed to be of
lations that apply for the case of 2k electrodes length "a" along the middle section of the hull.
and exciting conductors': The assumption is made In this region the current density is expressed as
that the field configuration has an active length
at least four times the hull diameter. The equa- 3= (f + 171 x f) (9)
tions are given in two dimensional form, neglecting
end effects. The water flow along the sides of the Since vectors f, T1, f are perpendicular and since
hull in this active field region is assumed to have 3 x S (the Lorentz force) is to be in the same
uniform velocity u. The latter assumption is justi- direction as it follows that 1.1 x f is oppo-
1-1,

fied on the basis of the use of the center section sitely directed to E. Since the ratio of magnitude
only for the Propulsion system, and the relatively of B and E is a constant, we may introduce the
small momentum changes given the water in the constant parameter, n:
'"stream tubes" by the sm.11 applied Lorentz forces.
There will be reduced velocity in the boundary u-f-
B Bo b
layer, of course, and this will tend to lead to n - u Irv- pe
larger dissipative joule losses. It is possible that e
Icertain design measures can mitigate the latter
losses. In any case, the theoretical limitations Uxf= -nf
in the present treatment may be removed in ensuing
more detailed analyses. The magnitude of the current density is then ex-
pressed as:
The electric and magnetic fields for a confi- (12)
guration as that in Fig. 3, but with 2k electrodes, j= E(1-n)
are described in terms of-two conjugate harmonic Or
functions p and which are proportional to the
electric and magnetic potentials: (1-n) (13)
e Te

V Bb Note that parameter Te isnegative. Parameter n is


- grad p_ k gr
ad (3) positive and less than unity. It is the ratio of
Te Lorentz force work to electrical work, per unit
volume.
Expressions for p and * are as follows:
The Lorentz body force per unit volume in the
r2k - 2rkbk sin ke + b2k sea water is
p= Ln
r2k 2rk.n k sin
2 + b2k h2 a Bo b (1-n)
(4) jB - Ve
-1 k
* . tan
-1 rksin .
- bk tan r ksi.n ke + bk
rk cos ke rk cos k6

3
Integration of j B in the external region, and the electrode shell, depends on considerations
consisting of the 4k sectors, gives the total of the limiting critical field B for the super-
propulsive force: conducting material. Figure 3 shEws, schematically,
in section, the outline form of the magnet winding,
o o which is circular in cross section, and the
electrode. The field B exists at the point
F 4 ka j B 4 t* (15) r b, e. A/2k - 6. Calculation of B at r b
leads to the relation
-g/ 2
Pe
B B sin k 6 (25)
o cr
Substitution from (14) gives directly
The angle Oe where the electrode intercepts
F = 2A Ve a Bo a b (1-n) (16) the hull is slightly removed from the periphery of
the magnet coil, as indicated in Fig. 3. We may
relate 5 and ee by means of a multiplier w:
The thrust power then becomes
e . - w 5 (26)
Fu . 2g u Ve a Bo ab (1-n) (17) e 2k
PT
In this way we obtain the relation of ye and 6, in
The current, I, from one electrode to its
place of (8):
neighbor, on one side, is found by integrating
current density j along the + x axis fram b toco: -1
-tanh o cok 6) (27)
(cospe

0Ve The efficiency n may also be formulated in an


I = a-Jr (j)y_odx . - ia (1_) (18) expression alternatively to Eq. 23.
?e
2
2a a
1 Bcr (28)
11= a k CD - pu
Here, the integrand is found by making use of the
expression for h at e = 0: 1
2
2 pe sin k 5

_1 2rk -1 k bk I Parameter w determines the space available for


(h)(9.o (I) 0.o I r2k + b2k
(19)
thermal insulation (vacuum space and radiation
shields) around the magnet conductors. The value
co= 1.1 would be appropriate for large submnrines.
Having the current, I, we may express the
electric power PE: For any value of w there is am optimum k 5,
2
a and a corresponding optimum pe, that makes 1
4 I Ve k - 2ga e k(1-n) (20) maximum. The optimum values are k 5* . 0.805 and
PE Actually, it is unlikely
Pe (Pe* *
- -0 747 for w . 1.1.
that in a vactical design 5 could be chosen as
The propulsive efficiency is the ratio P_/P large as 5 , because this would imply excessively
E' large coil and electrode dimensions, with correspond-
and one sees that
ing excessive heat infiltration into the very cold
(21) magnet windings. Only for cases of very large k
(many electrodes) mignt 6 approach the value 5*.

The propulsive efficiency in an operating sub- Design calculations may be made as follows:
marine is determined by the condition that the
voltage Ve is sufficiently high to make the thrust Assume hull form, dimensions L, b, a and
equal to the hull drag. This means that coefficient CD, and determine a.
Select an appropriate value for Ber, and
1
2g Ve a Bo a b(1-n) 7 pu2 S C, (22) electrode number 2k.
Calculate V for various speeds u.
Select w and 5 and determine Te.
where CD is a drag coefficient based on wetted Calculate 71 for various speeds u.
surface, S. Calculate drag for each speed from

Combination of (10)(21) and (22) now gives


1 2
D . 2-pu S CD (29)
1
(23)
1 - a CD k
2 t (g) Calculate PT and PE from
Pe
where PT
PT = D u ; PE . (3o)
2a a Bo2
- pu
;a_ ---7
S
(24)
b (h) Calculate voltage 2Ve between electrodes
from
Choice of an appropriate value for Pe, which -2u b pe Be,. sin k 5
(31)
determines the relative size of the magnet winding 2Ve -

- 4 -
(i) Calculate current 21 from one anode by However, in order to avoid excessively large
diameters for hulls of large displacement, a larger
value will here be assumed. It is also advantageous
PE
21 . (32) to have an approximately cylindrical portion of the
2Ve k hull amidship to facilitate application of electro-
magnetic propulsion. The hull form adopted for the
If we compare designs with different k-values, present study is similar to that treated by Russo,
several alternate assumptions could be ri fie. One et al(2) for the 30,000 DWT version, designed for
possibility is to hold 6 constant while varying k. 30 knots. (Table 4 of Ref. 2). This hull has a
This procedure leads to higher efficiencies with cylindrical center body of 20% L, and a ratio Li2b
larger k values; however, by holding 5 constant or 8.75. The combined length LE of the fore and
while increasing k the amount of superconducting aft figure of revolution portions is 80% L and the
material is considerably increased, and also surface area of these portions is 0.7374 (2x b LE).
refrigeration power requirements. Therefore, one The total hull wetted surface is
may proceed on another assumption, namely, keep the
product 0th constant while varying k. It then turns S . 0.7874 (22 b L) (33)
out that the amount of superconducting material
remains constant, as well as the total electrode The prismatic coefficient of the hull is 0.60. The
surface area. In this case, better efficiency is profile of the hull is shown in Fig. 5.
realized with small k-values.

Curves are shown in Fig. 4 for ri vs. Cn/C for


three values of k, for a). 1.1, a . 27.6 an1
0th = 0.20 and 0.15.
1.0

Lc

0.9 f Vol. = 0.600k


Bare Hull t
Surf. = 0.787412obli

5-Assurried ha form
0. 8
111111111 Hull dimensional parameters for submarine

\ mum
11521 tankers of three submerged displacements are given
in Table 1. In this table LEF and LEA are the

mill
0.7 lengths of the figure of revolution forebody and
afterbody, respectively, and Lc is the length of the
cylindrical center body.
0.6
\ Table 1

D. 5 metric tons 25000 50000 100000


meters 157.6 198.5 250
111111111 a
2b
meters
meters
78.8
18
99.2
22.7
125
28.6

-
0. 4

0.

----
kb= 0.2
kb= 0.15
MEN 3
LE?
LEA
Lc
meters
meters
meters
meters
50.6
75.6
31.5
9 11.35
63.6
95.1
39.7
14.3
80.2
119.8
50
S meters2 7025 11180 17780
0. 6 metric tons 22500 45000 90000
O .002 003 . 004 .005

D/E The surface displacement, Ls, is that which


corresponds to 10% reserve buoyancy. The sum of
F ig. 4-Propulsive eft iciencies for Si db2 = 27.6 and u = 1.1
Lz,,F and LEA is equal to LE, which is 80% of L. The
parallel center body length Lc is 20% of L. The
4. Application to Submarine Tankers
active field length, a, is chosen somewhat, larger
than Lc, but the hull is actually very nearly
It will be assumed that the hull is of circu-
cylindrical over the length a.
lar cross-section and that 4 or 6 electrodes are
used. Althougn an elliptical or rectangular cross- The drag coefficient CD for the complete hull
section would lead to a smaller and more favorable with appendages may be estimated from towing tank
draft, the increase in resistance tends(2) to results. The value adopted for the hull configura-
nullify any advantage of the submarine tanker.* tion of this study is

The optimum hull configuration, with considera- CD


0.00156
tion, of appendage drag, is one with Li2b approxi-
mately 7, with maximum diameter at about 40% of L. This value is based on values**deduced from data

It is possible that an elliptical hull section of beam to depth ratio 2:1 could be applied without
excessive increase in drag, but for the present discussion the circular form will be assumed.

ActpPlly a slight reduction is introduced into CD to allow for the possibility of future refinements
of hull forms. This should, of course, be taken into account, along with the lower roughness
contribution, in making comparisons with conventional submarines.

- 5-
given by Russo, et al(2) and Todd(3), but with the The general arrangement of the submarine tanker
modification that a smaller roughness contribution for the Case (a) or (b) configuration is shown in
is assumed, 0.0001 being used instead of 0.0004. Fig. 7. The magnet coils, of long rectangular
We assume that the electromagnetic submarine tanker form, lie along the sides of the hull, the
is built with an exceptionally smooth hull, free electrodes forming slightly protruding bulges which
from plate overlaps and other sources of parasitic run axially.
drag. A 15% allowance has been used for appendages,
as in Ref. (2). The aft section of the hull might be used for
the power plant. Far astern it would also house
In Eq. 28, parameter a appears. The value of steering motors and aft trim tank. The latter
a for the assumed hull configuration is 27.6. could be placed in the vertical and horizontal fins.
Number 3 main ballast tank might be in the forward
For the specific tankers under consideration part of the aft section.
we make assumptions as follows:
The forward section could contain crew's
Case (a) Case (b) quarters, control and navigational aids, stores and
supplies, the No. 1 main ballast tank and the for-
CD . 0.00156 = 0.00156 ward trim tank. Also, air conditioning equipment
CD
k =2 k =3 and trim pumps could be located here.
Rcr = 7 tesla B. . 7 tesla
a . 4.5 mho/m a = 4.5 mho/m., A tubular passage way, or tunnel, with steel
p = 1030 kg/m3 p = 1030 kg/m' walls, running through the center section, would
=1.1 cc=1.1 connect fore and aft sections of the hull. This
=27.6 =27.6 tunnel might be of radius about 0.3b, and could
6 =0.10 6 =0.08 have at least two decks. Refrigeration equipment
k6 . 0.20 k6 . 0.24 for the cryogenic system could be located in the
Bo = 1.39 tesla = 1.664 tesla lower portion. The steel walls would constitute a
Bo
9e = -2.203 9, = -2.019 pressure barrier against the sea pressure, and
0.428 4- =o.1+28 would also serve as magnetic shielding.
FWD Trim Tank Cargo Tanks
1 Control RM Reactor Mach. Shop
1_ - u
Tunnel
Aft Trim
1 + 1.157 i 1 + 1.322 T.

Values of ri for both cases for the three


vessels are plotted in Fig. 6a and 6b. Values of 1, Steering Motors

PT, PE, 2Vh and 21 are given in Tables 2a and 2b for /1 MBT - 112 MBT I3MBT Engine RM
the tankers of three displacements, and for three Refrig. Equipt.
Air Cond. System
speeds of 5, 10 and 15 meters/sec (9.7, 19.4 and
-Stues
29.1 knots). Knts reW OmierS
lO 20 30 Fig. 7-Disposition d tanks and eqwpment in hull
1.0

The main cargo space would lie in the center


section of length a, between the tunnel of radius
19 ',amoot - about 0.3b and the inner face of the double wall of
500 the hull, of radius about 0.9b. Thus, the cargo
storage volume is approximately
18
Case I.
V = 0.72 m a b2
0.7
0 5

Speed, u meters/sec
10 15 If a is L/2 and if we have prismatic coefficient 0.6,
Knots
then V is about 0.6 of the hull displaced volume.
10 The liquid cargo would exist at a pressure equal to
1.0
that of the sea, at the hull bottom.

0.9 - To blow the main ballast tanks, it is possible


that chemical gas generation might be used. Com-
pressed air could be used to regulate the water
0.8 - contained in variable ballast tanks. These tanks
are used for a "fine adjustment" of buoyancy, and to
Caselbl
compensate for weight losses overboard.
0.7
0 5 10 15
Speed, u meters/sec Cargo expansions and contractions, and storage
6-Effidmcies
of cargoes of different densities, may require also
assignment of a certain portion of the tankage space
The design speed of 15 meters/sec is of prime
as "variable cargo tanks." This subject is discussed
importance since it determines the size of the
further in Ref. (2).
power plant. Note that for given l, k and 5 we are
giving results for the same submarine operating at 5. Problems of the Electromagnetic
various speeds, rather than for different vessels Submarine Tanker
designed to operate at different speeds.
The Superconducting Magnet
Though detailed calculations have not been
made, the dead weight tonnage would be expected to Great progress in the technology of large
be about 50% of the submerged displacement. superconducting magnets has been made in recent

6
Table 2 (a)

Results for Submarine Tankers with w . 1.1, k 2,


5 . 0.1, a = 27.6, CD = 0.00156, Bcr
=
7 tesla

6. met. tons 25,000 50,000 100,000


L meters 157.6 198.5 250
a meters 78.8' 99.2 125
2b meters 18 22.7 28.6
u meters/see 5 10 15 5 10 15 5 10 15
0.932 0.872 0.820 0.944 0.895 0.851 0.956 0.915 0.878
1
10-3 .D newtons 141.1 565 1270 224.8 899 2022 358 1430 3220
PT kw' 706 5650 19,060 1124 8990 30,400 1790 14,300 48,300
PE kw. 758 6480 23,250 1191 10,040 35,700 1873 15,630 55,000
2VE volts 147.4 315.2 503 184 388 612 229 478 748
21 amps 0 2570 10,270 23,100 3240 12,960 29,200 4090 16,190 36,750
(1/2)pu2 newt./m- 12,880 51,500 115,900 12,880 51,500 115,900 12,880 51,500 115,900

Table 2 (p)

Results for Submarine Tankers with w = 1.1, k 3,


6 = 0.08, a.
27.6, CD = 0.00156'and Ber a. 7 tesla
Dimensions L, a, 2b same as in Table 2(a)

met. tons 25,000 50,000 100,000


u meters/sec 5 lo 15 5 lo 15 5 10 15
0.923 0.856 0.799 0.936 0.883 0.833 0.948 0.905 0.863
-3 1
10 D newtons 141.1 565 1270 224.8 899 2022 358 1430 3220
PT kw 706 5650 19,060 1124 8990 30,400 1790 14,300 48,300
PE kw 765 6600 23,860 1203 10,190 36,500 1880 15,800 56,000
2VE volts 109.3 236 378.5 136 288 458 169 354 557.5
21 amps 2330 9330 21,020 2945 11,790 26,600 3720 14,880 33,450

years(1o), in connection with MHD generator applica-


tions. In the construction of magnet coils as large
as those anticipated in an electromagnetically
propelled submarine tanker there will be further Outer.lack0
difficult engineering problems.
Composite of
The exciting current, J, in any one of the Shunts and
several coils can be calculated from the integral tSuperconductors
With Lig. Helium
relation / Circu lat ion

S.dg (35)
JI-Lo =

where the integration extends around the winding. ---- N Evacuated Space With
Outer Envelope
Evaluation is most simply made if the path of Radiation Shields

integration follows a curve of constant p, upon


which the magnitude of B is Bo b h/k. The path Fig. 8-Annular may. conductor

length increment is d 1V/h and the calculation leads


to the result,
combined density of around 3000 kg/m3. Current
25 b B sin k 6 density in the composite may be as high as 10,000
cr (36) amps per cm2. We thus have the relations,
ki.10

One sees that for small 6, the effect of neighboring meters2 ; b b meters ;
rm
windings disappears and the current J is related to
the field at radius b b by the usual relation. (37)
meters
To use the superconducting material most
rm
effectively, the winding should preferably be in
the form of a hollow annulus, in cross section, as Total mass of the composite material in the k
shown in Fig. 8. Outer radius of the annular magnet coils is given by
bundle is designated rm, and its thickness is t.
The conductors would be of composite construction; 3000 k At (2a + 2x b sin !y) (38)
with optimized design it is anticipated that the Wm
composite would consist of about 10% void for
liquid helium circulation, 81% shunt conductor Values are given in Table 3 of J, rm, Am, t and
material and 9% superconducting material with a Wm for the Cases (a) and (b). The thickness t

7
Table 3

Case(a), k . 2 Case(b), k =3
Il metric tons 25,000 50000
, 100000
, 25000
, 50000
, 100,000
b meters 9.0 11.35 14.3 9.0 11.35 14.3
rm meters 0.90 1.135 1.43 0.72 0.908 1.144
10-7 J amps 3.13 3.95 4.98 2.497 3.145 3.965
An meters2 0.314 0.396 0.499 0.250 0.315 0.397
t meters 0.0555 0.0555 0.0555 0.0554 0.0554 0.0554
Wm metric tons 372 589 940 419 665 1055
10-7 Fm newt.imeter 1.052 1.376 1.736 0.693 0.872 1.100
Fm lbs/in 60,200 78,600 99,600 39,650 49,900 63,000

Magnet Bed
remains nearly constant for all cases, a result
Magnet Bed
that may be anticipated from relations (56) and Insulating
(37). Spacers Electrode
U-Strap
The mass of composite magnet material varies Double Wall
as the square of the scale factor, while Csveries
as the cUbe. Hence, the larger the submarine, the
more favorable the situation as regards the rela-
tive weight of the magnet.

The most serious problem in regard to the


magnet design has to do with the coil support. The
annular bundle comprising the winding, held togeth-
er by the inner and outer metallic jackets, must be
held in a centrally located position within the
outer housing. The intervening space must be Bu lkhead
designed for the minimum possible heat transfer,
yet the forces to be transmitted across this space
are very large.

The force per unit length on the magnet lb) la)


winding due to interaction of current J and the
magnetic field is radially outward, and may be Fig. 9Techniques for magnet coil suPport
shown to be la) Tie Rods
lb) Spacers and U-Straps

F. . J2o
10_7 J2
7;7 newtons/meter (39)
The major advantage of the low conductivity
Values are given in Table 3 for the several cases. spacer method of support is that the casing
It is seen that F is extraordinarily large, but structure of the magnet can be fastened to the
that Case (b), wiTh six poles, has some advantage hull structure by simple tie-bands.
over Case (a) with four poles.
A rough estimate may be made of the refrigera-
There are two ways, illustrated in Fig. 9 (a) tion power requirement for the magnet. With well-
and (b), that might be considered to provide force designed thermal shielding and evacuated space in
transmission from the winding to the main hull the region between the outer jacket of the winding
structure. One involves the use of tie rods. The and the tubular casing, the heat infiltration due
other would use spacers of high compressive strength to radiAtion across this space will be about 0.14
and low thermal conductance. In both cases, the watts/m'. For the 50,000 metric ton submarine of
heat flow inwards must be carefully considered. In Case (a) the casing area is about 3900 sq. meters,
the case of tie rods, the heat leakage can be kept and for Case (b), about 4380 sq. meters. Corres-
within acceptable limits, but the structure is ponding heat leaks are 546 watts and 614 watts.
complex. In the case of the spacers the structure Refrigeration power required would be, for this
is greatly simplified, but it is not known whether portion of the heat leakage, approximately 546 kw
materials, and a design configuration, can be in Case (a) and 614 kw in Case (b). The other
found to keep the heat leakage within bounds. major part of the heat infiltration would be that
due to conductance along the tie rods. The tie rod
Calculation of required tie rod dimensions, heat leakage, with vapor cooling, and rods 3 meters
for rods running radially inward 72" apart, and long, would be such as to require an additional
assuming high strength material of 300,000 psi refrigeration power of 660 kw for Case (a) and 590
working stress, leads to 4.9" diameter-rods for kw for Case (b). Thus, for 50,000 tons,.the tie
Case (a) and 3.9" diameter rods for Case (b). The rod method of coil support could lead to combined
total number of tie rods for all coils is 271 for radiation and conduction refrigeration power re-
Case (a) and 382 for Case (b) including restraints quirements of about 1200 kw for either Case (a) or
on the end turns. Tie rod heat leakage will be ).
about 10% lower in Case (b) than Case (a).

- 8 -
With the use of insulating spacers, the final
solution would depend on the ratio of compressive m (42)
N u + 1
strength to thermal conductivity for the spacers.
Here also, two stage or vapor cooling would help For a spherical body the factor N is 4x/3. In
reduce refrigeration power requirements. The order to lift an iron object from the sea bottom,
feasibility of the spacer method of construction the value of f would need to be 6680 dynes/cm3,
from the standpoint of refrigeration requirements considering the buoyancy as well as the weight.
has not yet been ascertained. A design goal might (Electromagnetic units used in the present calcula-
be set at keeping refrigeration power less than 5% tion). The following lifting distances, d*, between
of the power PE, at the top speed of 29.1 knots. hull bottom and sea bottom are found by evaluation
The great simplification of structure and assembly of the r.h. member of Eq. 41 on the vertical axis:
could justify acceptance of higher refrigeration
power in the spacer support method than in the tie Table 5
rod method.
Lifting Distances for Steel Ball on Bottom
Stray Magnetic Fields
Case (a) Case (b)
For naval submarines the spreading magnetic met. tons 25000 50000 100000 25000 50000 100000
field outside the hull might be objectionable, and 2b meters 18 22.7 28.6 18 22.7 28.6
in that case a large k-value would be selected for d* meters 7.5 8.60 10.0 6.75 8.00 9.50
the design. For the tanker application, the
spreerling external field is chiefly of concern as it
may lead to unwanted attractive forces on iron It would be preferable to maintain a bottom clear-
objects, either boats on the surface, or debris on ance somewhat larger than d* to guard against metal
the bottom. pick-up. Elongated objects, oriented toward the
hull, will have an N-value somewhat smaller than the
The strength of the external magnetic field in value for the sphere.
teslas is given in Table 4, along lines passing
through windings (0 = W2k) or centered between The field inside the hull could prove hazardous
windings (e = o). to personnel unless shielding is used. The value of
B on a radial line passing through the center of a
Table 4 magnet winding (0 = W2k) is given by

External Magnetic Field. B-values, teslas


2B rk-1 bk+1
o
Case (a), k = 2 Case (2), k . 3 B= (43)
b2k -r2k
r/b e m o e. u/4 e.o e = si6
Numerical values for Cases (a) and (b) are given in
1 1.390 1.664 Table 6.
2 0.328 0.371 0.205 0.211
3 0.1017 0.1041 0.0410 0.0411 Table 6
4 0.0432 0.0435 0.0130 0.0130
5 0.0222 0.0223 0.0053 0.0053 Values of B in Teslas on Line at 0 . W2k
6 0.0129 0.0129 0.0026 0.0026
7 0.0081 0.0081 0.0014 0.0014 r/b 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
8 0.0054 0.0054 0.0008 0.0008 B, Case /1) 0 0.278 0.558 0.841 1.140 1.14.82
9 0.0038 0.0038 0.0005 0.0005 B, Case b) 0 0.033 0.133 0.299 0.534 0.845
10 0.0028 0.0028 0.0003 0.0003

With the cylindrical steel tunnel in the center


Expressions for the magnetic induction along section the B-value inside the tunnel will be greatly
these two axes of symmetry are given below: reduced. We note in Table 6 that for Case (a) the
flux density at 0.3b is 0.841 tesla, or 8410 gauss.
2 B r1-1 bk+1 To indicate the possible degree of shielding pro-
e= ic/2k ; B 2k° vided by a steel cylindrical shell, imagine that we
2k
r -b had a uniform field B', and in it placed a cylindrical
(40) shell of inner radius r1 and outer radius r2. If
p, is the relative permeability the residual field
2 B rk-1 bk+1 B1 inside the cylinder will be
o
. 0 B
2k
r +b 2k
4B'
Bi (14)
The attracting power of the exterior field for
an iron object depends on the induced magnetization (1 - r12/r22)
gi and on the vector field E. The force per unit
volume is This formula would indicate a shielding ratio BVB'
of about 0.1 for an iron cylindrical shell with
? (R.grad) E (41)
r]/r2 . 0.95. However, in the present case, Eq. 44
is hardly applicable on account of saturation.
The magnetization R induced in a body having Reference to Table 6 indicates that the shielding
"demagnetizing factor" N in a region of magnetic problem will definitely be more difficult for
field intensity R, is Case (a), with k 2, than for Case (b), with k = 3.

- 9 -
A cylindrical wall of thickness 0.01b at r2 0.3b enclosing jackets can be estimated from the
will probably suffice in Case (b). relation
, 1 aU
Gas Evolution (45)
= 2A Za'c
Gas will be evolved at the electrodes amounting
to one gram equivalent for each 96,500 coulombs of where a is the coil radius and U is the energy
electricity. At the anodes, 0.25 gram moles of 02 stored in the field.
are released, and at the cathodes 0.50 gram moles of
H2 If current 2kI flows out of the anodes and into
the cathodes, the number of gram moles released per
second is

0.75 x 2kI
n - _ 1.555 x 10-5 Ik
g 96,500

The total volume of gas evolved per second at STP is

v = 22.4 x 1.555 x l0

. 3.485 x 10-4 Ik 1iters/sec. la)

The volume of gas (at STP) left behind the submarine


per linear meter of ocean (i.e. in a "slice" of
water 1 meter thick, extending out in all directions,
and perpendicular to the direction of motion) may
vg*; it is vg/u. Values of I, v and
-11111_411111111111-
be*designated lb)
v for u . 15 meters/sec are given in Table 7.
Fig. 10-Self restraining magnet systems
Table 7

Gas Evolution at 29.1 Knots


The internal arrangement with the self re-
Case (b) (k . 3) straining coil is pictured in Fig. 10b. An electro-
Case (a) (k = 2)
magnetic pump is used, with circumferential flow in
met.tons 25000 50000 100000 25000 50000 100000 an annular torroidal passage. This arrangement is
I amps 11550 14600 18375 10510 13300 16725 relatively compact, would require smaller refrigera-
vg lit/sec 8.06 10.17 12.8 11.0 13.9 17.5 tion power than other schemes, and would not give
v lit/meter 0.538 0.678 0.854 0.733 0.927 1.167 rise to excessive internal or external fields. How-
ever, because it delivers a water jet, it is
handicapped by having a jet efficiency ni which is
At a cruising depth of 90 meters, the volumes vg and perhaps as low as 80%, and which must be applied as
* would be multiplied by 0.1, since the pressure a multiplier on the duct efficiency in accord with
vg
.

is then 10 atm. E. 2.
Preliminary experiments have shown that the in- 7. Model Experiments
sulating effect of the gas bubbles is quite negligi-
ble. Gas evolution would not appear to be a serious In 1966, at the University of California in
problem. Santa Barbara,* a model 10 feet long, of 900 lbs
displacement was constructed. This model had as its
6. Designs with Self-Restraining Coils objectives (1) demonstration of an operating ex-
ternal field electromagnetic submarine, (2) pro-
It is conceivable that the electromagnetically vision of an interesting design project for mechanical
propelled tanker could be designed with a self- engineering students.
supporting coil. In this case, the simplest con-
figuration would be a magnet coil in the form of a The model, designated EMS-1, was of bipolar
circular ring. The cryogenic chamber would be of field arrangement, as illustrated in Fig. 11.
torroidal form. 10001
We might here consider either an external field
or an internal duct arrangement. The external con-
figuration is pictured in Fig. 10a. The coil would
extend laterally outwardly, leading to a vessel of
quite a large beam. The draft might thereby be
slightly reduced, which would be an advantage.
There would be some lessening of propulsive efficiency Y
because of the relatively smaller active field region,
but this would be offset by a reduction of refrigera-
j;
tion power requirements because of the much simpler
ie'
problem of coil support in this case. Only the
weight of the coil would have to be carried by the
I- fiedroatoindIc sower.. mewl
supports.
The winding itself would restrain the electro- The author was serving as Professor of
magnetic forces. The tension in the coil and Mechanical Engineering during the period.
The center section consisted of a basic structure Todd, F. H., "Submarine Cargo Ships and Tankers,"
of 17 3/4" O. D. steel tube of about 1/4" wall 3rd Symposium on Naval Hydrodynamics,
(after machining) with recessed troughs on the side Scheveningen, Holland, September, 1960.
formed from half sections of 5" pipe. This
assembly formed a spool, on which was wound the Rice, W. A.; U.S. Patent 2,997,013, August 12,
magnet coil. The coil consisted of two windings, 1961.
about 1275 feet each, of No. 4 aluminum wire, plus
an additional 1200 feet of No. 12 coppdr wire. Way, S., "Examination of Bipolar Electric and
Magnetic Fields for Submarine Propulsion," Pre-
liminary Memorandum, Communication to U.S. Navy
Bureau of Ships, October 15, 1958.

Way, S., "Propulsion of Submarines by Lorentz


Forces in the Surrounding Sea," American Society
of Mechanical Engineers Paper 64WA/ENER7,
November, 1964.

Friauf, J. B., "Electromagnetic Ship Propulsion,"


Fig. 12-Electromagnetic submarine model of 400 kg displacement
Journal of American Society of Naval Engineers,
February 1961, pp. 139-142.
Nose and tail sections were made of molded
fiberglass reinforced plastic. A mast and "sail" Doragh, R. A., "Magnetohydrodynamic Ship Pro-
provided a mounting point above the water line for pulsion using Superconducting Magnets," Society
meters and starting switch, and a means for auto- of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, Annual
matic depth control, since the sail afforded -I- 8 Meeting, New York, November 14-15, 1963.
pounds buoyancy variation depending on submersion
depth. Phillips, O. M., "The Prospects for Magnetohydro-
dynamic Ship Propulsion," Journal of Ship Research,
The length of the active field region was March, 1962, pp. 43-51.
approximately 1 meter, and the hull radius b was
0.225 m. The B, design value was 0.015 tesla. Kantrowitz, A; Stekly, Z. J. J.; Hatch, A. M.;
Parameter cpe was -1.914 and, of course, k = 1. "A Model MHD Type Superconducting Magnet," Inter-
With an assumed drag coefficient of 0.09 based on national Symposium on Magnetohydrodynamic Electrical
hull cross section the design speed was 0.4 meters/ Power Generation. Salzburg, Austria, July 4-8,
sec. 1966.

Power for magnet and electrode circuits was Way, S. and Devlin, C., "Prospects for the Electro-
provided by five series connected 6-volt lead- magnetic Submarine." (Paper to be submitted to AIAA
acid batteries of 217 a.h. each. At the high Propulsion Specialists Conference, July 17, 1967).
current drawn by these two circuits, discharge time
vas about 20 minutes, and ampere hours available
fell to 72. Notation: (MES units, except as noted.
Vector quantities written with bar,
Tests were made of this model(11) and the magnitudes without bar, e.g. E and B)
design operating speed was realized. Separate
tests indicated negligible polarization effects at 5, j current density
the electrodes. S, B magnetic induction
P, E electric intensity
8. Concluding Remarks 11, H magnetic field intensity
M induced magnetization
The submarine tanker offers some advantages f force per unit volume on magnetized body
and some disadvantages; the principal disadvantage 171, u flow velocity, or ship speed
is the large draft in the normal surface condition. uj jet speed
With electromagnetic propulsion it appears possible x,y rectangular coordinates
to realize an added gain in propulsive efficiency r,0 polar coordinates
that should further enhance the competitive position k number of anodes or cathodes
of the submarine tanker. However, this will be V electric potential
possible only if (a) certain difficult problems of Ve half voltage between electrodes
magnet design and support can be solved, (b) the half current from one anode
refrigeration power can be kept less than about 5% current in magnet coil (amp. turns)
of the full load power, (e) economic considerations B, value of B at r b, 0=0
do not rule out the electromagnetic tanker on the critical B for superconducting material
basis of higher capital costs. Ecr
hull radius of submarine amid ships
hull length
Lc length of cylindrical center body
References length of forward figure of rev. section
IEF
LEA length of aft figure of rev. section
Sheets, H. E., "The Engineering of Submarines." LE= LEA + LEF
Mechanical Engineering, January, 1962, p. 37. A. cross-section of conductors in winding
rm radius of annular conductor
Russo, V. L.; Turner, H., and Wood, F. W., thickness of annular conductor
"Submarine Tankers," Transactions of the mass of composite material in mag. coils
Society of Naval Architects and Marine Wm
force per unit length on mag. conductor
Engineers. Vol. 68, 1960, p. 693. BT hypothetical B-value, uniform field

-11-
11-
Bi hypothetical B-value inside shielded region permeability of free space, 4g X 10-7
N demagnetizing factor of magnetized body relative permeability
d* lifting distance, iron body on sea bottom qV conjugate harmonic functions
ri,r2 inner and outer radii of interior tunnel W p + i* w()
ng gm. moles gas evolved per sec. x + iy
vg liters gas evolved per second interaction parameter 2aoBo2Lpu
U energy in magnetic field interaction parameter 2a0Ber-d/pu
ratio UB/E value of e where electrode meets hull
CD hull drag coeff. based on S, appended hull ratio x/2k-ee to
surface area of bare hull half angle subtended by mag. winding
drag of fully appended hull value of p on electrode surface
PT thrust power electrical conductivity of sea water
PE electric power to electrodes density of sea water
a length of active field region 8*,pe* optimum values for max. n
a defined by Eq. 24 submerged displacement, met, tons
rl propulsive efficiency, PT/PE E normal displacement at surface
jet efficiency Ve cargo storage volume
MHD duct (pump) efficiency value of dy/d0
I

4 magnetic permeability defined in text


vg

-12 -
No. 61364

LIFE SUPPORT FOR INNER AND OUTER SPACE VEHICLES


SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES
by

THOMAS V. BOLLES and HAROLD WALLMAN


General Dyncimics/Electric Boat
Groton, Connecticut

Paper No.
67-364

AIAA/SNAME Advance marine


whims meeting
NORFOLK, VIRGINIA/MAY 22-24, 1967
First publication rights reserved by American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1290 Avenue of the Arnericas, New York, N. Y. 10019
and Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engneers, 74 Trinity Place, t4ew York, N. Y. 10006
Abstracts may be published without permission if credit is given to author and to AIAA/SNAME. (Member Price-75c; Nonmember Price-61.50)
12.13, 12.15
LIFE SUPPORT FOR INNER AND OUTER SPACE VEHICLES
SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES
Thomas V. Bolles and Harold Wallman
Electric Boat Division of General Dynamics
Groton, Connecticut

Abstract

The life support systems and hardware It is necessary, therefore, to provide


used on modern military submarines, life support systems for both inner space
research submarines, and outer space and outer space vehicles to maintain the
vehicles are reviewed and compared. Among crew within their sealed environment. The
the life support systems and components required life support systems and their
discussed are: oxygen supply, carbon associated hardware for inner and outer
dioxide removal, trace contaminant space vehicles are similar in some ways, but
removal, temperature/humidity control, and differ in many respects. The differences
water/Waste/food management. The vehicles are the result of the differences in
employed for inner and outer space explora- environment and in the important criteria
tion both operate in hostile environments. for each mission.
Their required life support systems are
similar in some ways, but differ in many Within General Dynamics Corporation two
respects. The differences are the result of the divisions have performed the
of differences in external environment and functions of systems manager for manned
in the important criteria for each mission. vehicles, Electric Boat for inner space
For modern military submarines and research (both military and research submarines) and
submarines, minimum equipment volume is Convair for outer space. These two
usually the controlling criterion; for non- divisions, in fact, have worked jointly on
nuclear submarines electric power is also many occasions to solve the complex pro-
a controlling factor. For space vehicles blems of life support in sealed systems.
weight and power are usually the principal With this broad background of life support
controlling criteria. In the outer space system management in inner and outer space
environment life support systems must this paper reviews the various life
perform under weightless conditions. This support systems and hardware used on
requirement causes the most difficulties modern military submarines, research sub-
for systems involving gas-liquid separa- marines, and space vehicles.
tions. Life support systems for deep-
diving research submarines have the The life support requirements of man are
greatest similarity with space vehicle summarized in Table I. The oxygen con-
systems. Conclusions are reached on the centration for vehicles maintained at
reasons for the similarities and atmospheric pressure is normally maintained
differences in the methods and hardware at 21% or 3.1 psi partial pressure.
used. Vehicles operating at reduced pressures
have somewhat higher 0, partial pressures.
I. Introduction Carbon dioxide levels 'cpr vehicles at 1 atm
are usually maintained at 1.0% although the
The vehicles employed for inner space Navy is presently considering lowering the
and outer space exploration both operate in level to 0.5%. In vehicles at reduced
hostile environments. The crew members no pressures the CO, levels are maintained at
longer have an unlimited supply of oxygen CO partial pressures equivalent to 1% at
or a vast biological cycle to dilute and ambient,pressures.
remove their exhaled carbon dioxide. In
small, sealed systems the carbon dioxide The temperature and humidity require-
concentration can reach toxic proportions ments are closely related. The design cri-
in a matter of hours; likewise the oxygen terionis usually to maintain the environ-
concentration can reach the minimum value ment within the "comfort zone- spelled out
in a short time. Trace contaminants in a by these temperature and humidity ranges.
sealed atmosphere can become a serious
problem and inhibit the performance of the Trace contaminant removal requirements
crew or cause the abortion of a mission if or levels to be maintained are difficult to
not properly removed. Temperature and establish quantitatively since it is so
humidity of the sealed atmosphere must be difficult to measure the amount of con-
maintained within a comfort zone for taminant and its effect on man. However,
optimum performance by the crew members. it is very important to consider trace
Water must be provided (except for short contaminant control in the design of any
missions) for drinking, food preparation, sealed environment vehicle. This is
and general personal hygiene. Human waste especially true in systems with a small
products must be collected and disposed or crew where each individual must be at peak
stored. performance at all times.

1
Table I. considerably among these vehicles. In
Summary of Life Support Requirements military submarines (crew size - 70 to 130
men) this volume ranges from,about
orma 800 ft3/man to about 1200 fti/man while in
Requirement Design Point research submarines and space vehicles
(crew size - 1 to 7) it is as little as
Oxygen consumption 2.2 lbs/man-day 50 1t3/man.
Carbon dioxide expiration 2.4 lbs/man-day
Military submarines and research sub-
Water intake - food and marines have individual life support sub-
drinking 6.2 lbs/man-day systems whereas in space vehicles all life
support systems are integrated into one
Food intake 1.4 lbs/man-day loop to provide all functions of the
(dry basis) environmental control system (ECS). In
the case of the military submarine the
Waste output - solid and life support system is of secondary
liquid 6-7 lbs/man-day importance compared to the weapon system
and the power supply system. The life
Temperature range 60-80°F support components were developed
separately as the requirements developed
Relative humidity 40-70% and were located in the spaces available
after the primary systems were arranged.
Life support units are therefore at
The operating environments (external and different locations throughout the ship.
internal) of inner and outer space vehicles
are compared in Table TI. This table Research submarines are usually a one
illustrates some of the vast differences of a kind vehicle and must be designed and
that exist in these two hostile external fabricated at a moderate cost. This again
environments. leads to separate life support subsystems
rather than a completely integrated
Table III lists the design criteria in environmental control system.
order of importance for the three types of
vehicles under consideration. For modern In the case of space vehicles there are
military submarines and research subMarines, usually a number of vehicles of thesame
minimum equipment volume is usually the design. Weight must be optimized with
controlling criterion for non-nuclear sub- cost not as important. These criteria
marines electric power is also a con- lead to an integrated life support system.
trolling factor. For deep-diving research
submarines (greater than about 5000 ft.) Another general difference fs in the
minimum weight assumes increased importance. area of reliability. Ail systems of a
For space vehicles weight and power are space vehicle must be very highly
usually the principal controlling criteria. reliable. The present space missions have
Power is usually converted to an equivalent no time for performing maintenance and
weight penalty for space vehicles. emergency rescues would be most difficult
to perform. The crew is free to abort a
There are other general differences mission at only certain times during orbit.
between the various types of vehicles being
considered which are worthy of note. The Military submarines carry spare parts,
floodable or free volume per man differs perform maintenance on life support eluip-
Table II. Comparison of Environments

Submarines Space Vehicles

External: Normal gravity Weightless conditions


Pressure (ca. 45 psi/100 ft.) High vacuum
?5 to 85°F -10 to -110°F (earth orbit)
Good heat sink Poor heat sink
(1)
Internal: 1 atmospheve, 1/3 atmosphere (?)
91% oxygenkl) 100% oxygen(?)
Normal gravity Weightless conditions

Notes: (1) Except for high pressure He/Op mixtures used in some diving (Sea Lab
Project), salvage, and rescue-operations.
(2) Currently under review by NASA.

2
Table III. Controlling Factors for Hardware Selection

Modern Military Submarines Research Submarines Space Vehicies

Minimum volume Minimum weight


Minimum volume
Proven technology Minimum power Minimum power

Moderate operation and Moderate cost Very high reliability


maintenance requirements
Minimum weight Operational under weight-
less conditions

ment and have some emergency rescue or Active Chemicals


A large portion of the Active chemical compounds are available
escape capability.
time the submarine would be free to snorkel, for use as a source of oxygen supply and
surface, or abort the mission in case of a for the removal of carbon dioxide. These
life support system failure. Also, because active chemicals include the alkali and
of the relatively large floodable volume alkaline earth peroxides, superoxides, and
per man, the submarine can remain sealed ozonides. These compounds in the presence
for about 15 hours even with complete of water vapor and CO2 react to release
break-down of a life support subsystem: oxygen and absorb CO2, forming metal
this allows a reasonable amount of time to carbonates and/or bicarbonates. These
affect repairs. compounds are all strong oxidants and tend
to keep the atmosphere free of bacteria and
II. Oxygen Supply Methods to deodorize the atmosphere.

Some of the ways of providing the Table IV summarizes the types of oxygen
necessary oxygen for a closed system are supply utilized in the three vehicle
applications under consideration. In the
reviewed below,
summary tables in this review paper the
High-Pressure Gas Cylinders or Spheres research submarines include those that are
This approach to oxygen supply has been operational or under construction for which
Because of the
widely used on military submarines, researdh information was available.
submarines, and space vehicles. Gaseous long mission requirements of the modern
oxygen is stored at pressures ranging from military submarine, storage of the
2,000 to 7,500 psi and bled into the necessary oxygen is not feasible. The
atmosphere as required. power availability and the unlimited supply
of water make electrolysis a natural
solution to the oxygen supply problem. A
Cryogenic Oxygen Storage
Cryogenic oxygen may be stored in few weeks eqoply of oxygen is maintained in
insulated spheres either subcritically or oxygen flasks as a back-up to the electroly-
supercritically. Supercritical storage is sis system. (Some earlier submarines employ
usually used in space applications to oxygen flasks as their main source of oxy-
eliminate phase separation problems. gen and chlorate candles as a back-up.)

Chlorate Candles Table IV. Oxygen Supply Wthods


Chlorate candles liberate oxygen by the
thermal decomposition of sodium chlorate Modern military submarines:
(NaC103). The candles are available in Electrolysis of distilled sea water
various shapes and sizes. They are very (KOH electrolyte)
close in weight and volume to liquid Compressed 02 gas in flasks
oxygen but are much easier to store and use. Chlorate candles

Water Electrolysis Research submarines:


Oxygen is proariced from water electroly- Compressed 02 gas in flasks (1)
sis by passing a d.c. current through an (1800-3000 psi) - 13 vehicles'
electrolyte solution. Hydrogen, of course, Compressed 02 gas in spheres - J. vehicle
is a by-product of this process. If water Liquid (cryogenic) oxygen - 1 vehicle
and power are readily available, this Chlorate candles - 1 vehicle
oxygen supply method is most attractive.
Electrolytic oxygen generators have been Space vehicles:
developed for use on military submarihes. Mercury - compressed 0, gas (7500 psi)
Electrolysis units are also being developed Gemini and Apollo - subercritical
for future space application which impose storage in spheres
some rather severe restrictions - i.e.,
power penalties are severe, therefore, very Russian space vehicles:
efficient cells are required; zero gravity Superoxides
environment causes liquid-gas separation
problems. In spite of these problems, (1)Electric Roat's STAR series can use KO2
electrolsis of water (as part of a semi- as alternate.
closed cycle) is being developed to supply
oxygen for extended space missions.

3
For research submarines compressed oxy- Table V.
gen in conventional flasks is commonly used. Carbon Dioxide Removal Methods
The cost of this approach is moderate and
the logistics are not difficult at pressunm
of about 2000 psig. Also weight and volume Modern military submarines:
are not as critical for missions of less Monoethanolamine scrubbers
than 24 hours. For the longer missions (regenerable)
(and deeper depths) weight becomes much Back-up - LIOH absorption
more important and the use of liquid oxy-
gen, chlorate candles, or superoxides must Research submarines:
be considered. LiOH lAr/blower) - 9 vehiclesDI
LiOH passive) -'1 vehicle
For the Mercury space vehicle compressed Sodasorb w/blower) - 4 vehicles
oxygen at 7500 psi was used in weight Baralyme w/blower) - 1 vehicle
optimized (but costly) spheres. For the Baralyme passive) - 1 vehicle
Gemini and Apollo vehicle with their longer
mission, supercritical oxygen was used to Space Vehicles (Mercury, Gemini and
give a lower weight penalty and a one Apollo):
phase fluid. It is reported that the LIOH (w/blower)
Russian manned space vehicles use an
-active chemical believed to be super- Russian space vehicles:
oxides for the oxygen supply as well as Superoxides
CO2 removal system.
(1)Electric Boat's STAR series can use
III. Carbon Dioxide Removal superoxides as alternate.
Methods presently utilized for removing
CO2 from sealed environments are reviewed The military submarines with their long
below. missions require a regenerable CO2
removal system. Since ample power is
Lithium Hydroxide available, this also lends itself to a
Lithium hydroxide (Li0H) is used in a regenerable system. The use of a mono-
granular form and can absorb about 0.9 lb ethanolamine system is very difficult to
CO2 per lb of Li0H. It does tend to dust beat based on the volume required to
and an efficient filter must be used. provide a specific scrubbing capacity.
Although normally used with a blower, it Lithium hydroxide canisters are carried
can be used passively or by spreading on on all submarines as a back-up to the MEA
flat surfaces for a no-power, emergency scrubbers.
situation.
Lithium hydroxide, Baralyme, and Soda-
Baralyme sorb are all used on research submarines.
Baralyme is a trade name of a granular The LiOH is the best based on weight and
material containing approximately 80% volume requirements but its dust is very
Ca(OH)2 as the principal absorbent, plus a irritating. Baralyme and Sodasorb are
dye as a color indicator. It also contains frequently used for short missions (less
an "activator" (barium octahydrate) to than 2)4 hours) because they are somewhat
obtain gOod reaction rates with low CO? easier to handle. For longer missions
concentrations. LIOH is usually used to obtain minimum
weight.
Sodasorb
Sodasorb is similar to Baralyme in that All the U.S. space vehicles to date use
it also contains about 80% Ca(OH)2 and a LiOH for CO2 removal to obtain minimum
dye. Sodasorb (commonly called soda lime) weight. In the case of the Russian space
contains NaOH and KOH as an 'activator-. vehicles it is reported that they utilize
superoxides for both oxygen supply and CO?
Monoethanolamine removal to obtain minimum weight.
Since the advent of nuclear submarines,
much research has been done to optimize a IV. Trace Contaminant and Odor Control
CO2 removal system for submarine applica-
tion. Many liquid absorbents have been A large number and variety of contamin-
investigated and evaluated. The optimum ants are produced in a closed system by the
absorbent (for minimum volume) is a solu- crew members, machinery, and materials of
tion of monoethanolamine (TA) and water. conatruction. Many of these trace con-
MEA has the ability to absorb CO? when cool taminants are difficult to detect and/or
and to release it when hot, which allows a measure quantitatively. Methods used to
regenerative system. remove trace contaminants are summarized
below.

Activated Carbon
Table V summarizes the types of CO2 For any mission of more than a day,
removal systems employed in the three activated carbon filters are usually used
vehicle applications under consideration. to remove trace contaminants from the
atmosphere. Most carbon is located in a

4
main carbon filter. In research sub- a heavy CO and aerosol contaminant load.
marines and space vehicles this carbon is The inboard main storage battery gases
usually placed with the CO2 absorbent. In hydrogen when on charge. Cooking,
military submarines and some research sub- materials of construction, lubrication and
marines small carbon filters are also fuel oils all contribute to the contaminant
employed at spot locations such as the load of a submarine. Therefore, today's
sanitary tank vents. submarines have two catalytic burners,
about 1 lb carbon for every 75 ft3 of
Purafil floodable volume, and several electro-
Purafil is a trade name for a relative- static precipitators.
ly new odor control material consisting of
activated alumina in the shape of spherical Research submarines do not usually have
pellets impregnated with potassium perman- the contaminant problems of a military sub-
ganate. Purafil destroys odors by the marine. The crew does not smoke and there
processes of adsorption and chemical is usually no cooking. Batteries are
oxidation. usually stored outboard. The summary
table shows nine research vehicles with no
Catalytic Burners special provision for contaminant control,
Activated carbon filters effectively the others using carbon and Purafil. In.
remove the majority of trace contaminants: the case of one vehicle, with Inboard
the carbon, however, does not remove light batteries and a three day design mission,
gases such as hydrogen, methane, and CO. the explosive limit of hydrogen in air
Disposing of these light gases at a rea- could be approached under the worst condi-
sonable temperature can be accomplished tions. If the mission were to be several
only with the aid of a catalyst. days longer, a catalytic burner would
probably be required. All space vehicles
Electrostatic Precipitators use activated carbon even for short
ContamIñants can occur as aerosols, missions as little as one orbit. The
which are defined as particulate matter, difference between these short missions
either solid or liquid, s-spended in the and the inner space short missions is the
atmosphere, with particle sizes usually internal pressure. Since the space
less than 1 micron in diameter. Aerosols vehicles operate at reduced pressure, many
reduce cooling coil efficiency and increase of the materials of construction are sub-
electronic and fan failures by collecting ject to outgassing and therefore trace
on surfaces exposed to air flow. Electro- contaminants can become more of a problem.
static precipitators utilize electric However, there is a compensating factor in
forces to separate aerosols from a gas that space vehicles have a finite leak
stream. D.C. voltages as high as 15,000 rate, thus some purging of contaminants
volts ionize gas molecules, which impart naturally occurs. Submarines, obviously,
their charge to aerosol particles. The cannot purge atmospheric contaminants in
charged aerosols are then collected on a this way.
collecting plate.
V. Temperature and Humidity Control
Table VI summarizes the type of trace
contaminant control methods used in various The types of temperature and humidity
applications. control methods employed in various vehicle
applications are summarized in Table VII.
Table VI.
Trace Contaminant Control Methods With an abundance of available power and
an excellent heat sink, the modern military
submarine has no problem maintaining.
Modern military submarines: temperature and humidity throughout the
Catalytic burner ship at comfortable levels. Air condi-
Activated carbon tioning plants provide chill water to
Electrostatic precipitator cooling coils throughout the ship. Some
present day submarines have about 220
Research submarines: tons of refrigeration of the vapor-com-
No special provision - 9 vehicles pression type using Freon as the refrig-
Activated carbon - 5 vehicles erant. In addition, they have about
Purafil - 1 vehicle 210 tons of the absorption type with
Activated carbon + Purafil - 1 vehicle LiBr as the refrigerant.
Absolute filter - 1 vehicle

Space vehicles:
Activated carbon Research submarines usually cannot
afford electrical power for operating an
air conditioning unit. Many short-mission
The military submarine is sealed up for research submarines have no provision for
many weeks at a time, longer than any other temperature and humidity control other than
vehicles that are being compared. The heat transfer through the hull. Ambient
length of mission contributes to the con- temperature within these submarines depends
taminant load of a sealed system. The crew on a balance between the heat load within
members are allowed to smoke which produces the vessel and the temperature of the

5
Table VII. VI. Water/Food/Waste Management
Temperature/Humidity Control Methods
Water management is an important element
of any life support system. The minimum
Modern military submarines: water requirements for food and drinking
Freon compression and absorption purposes are about 6.2 lb/man-day. Thus,
refrigeration; sea water heat ex- it is the most important requirement from
changer for heat sink a logistic point of view.

Research submarines: The methods used for water/food manage-


Hull cooling and condensation(1) ment are summarized in Table VIII. Modern
(Passive) - 14 vehicles military submarines are equipped with a
Hull cooling and condensation 8,000 gpd sea water distillation system,
(Dynamic) - 1 vehicle hence there is ample fresh water for all
Freon compression refrigeration - purposes, including showers. Conventional
1 vehicle food with variety is used because of its
importance to crew Morale for extended
Space vehicles. missions. Galley facilities provide for
Mercury - Wáter boil-off all conventional forms of coOking and
Gemini and Apollo - Heat exchange loop baking (including an ice cream maker), but
with space radiator + water boil-off unfortunately, cooking is a major source of
atmospheric contaminants.
(1)Two vehicles have variable hull Table VIII. Water/Food Management
insulation; 1 has electric heaters.

Modern military submarines:


surrounding sea water. The humidity level Sea water distillation supplies potable
is controlled only by condensation on the water
hull walls. In warm waters this method is Conventional food with completely
unsatisfactory, and improvements are equipped galley
needed.
Research submarines:
For the longer-mission research sub- No special provision - 12 vehicles
marine, a forced-air circulation system is Emergency rations - 1 vehicle
sometimes employed to control temperature Stored water; stored food in ice chest;
and humidity. The system delivers air to hot plate - 1 vehicle
an annular slot between an insulating Freeze-dried food with hot and cold
shield and the hull on the upper portion water reconstitution - 1 vehicle
of the sphere. Condensate from the hull Freezer with frozen food and warming
walls is collected in the bilge. oven; stored water - 1 vehicle
In the Mercury vehicles the temperature Space vehicles:
and humidity in both the cabin and pressure Stored water
suit circuits were controlled by a heat Food tubes, bite size rations, and
exchanger of the water evaporative type. freeze-dried food
With the vacuum provided by space, the
water boiled at 35°F with the vapor being
discharged overboard. The condensing cabin Most of the research submarines have
moisture in the heat exchanger was then either no special provisions for water/food
collected by a water separator which was a management, or have minimal facilities.
sponge device to collect the water drop- Three of these vehicles with mission dura-
lets. This sponge device was squeezed tions of 3 to 42 days have stored food
periodically and the water collected in a (see Table VIII); preparation facilities
storage chamber. are minimal (warming only) because of
volume limitations and manpower limitations
In the Gemini and Apollo vehicles a with the relatively small crews.
heat exchanger loop with a space radiator
is utilized. Due to variations in the The space vehicles use specially pre-
sink temperature of space, the design of pared rations requiring no refrigeration,
spacecraft radiators become quite involved. and the packaging is designed for use under
To meet this sink temperature variation weightless conditions. These rations pro-
the Gemini thermal control system employs vide a well balanced diet with a minimal
a temperature-controlled mix valve that weight'penalty, but are too expensive for
maintains a constant temperature at the use in most underwater missions. Space
system outlet by by-passing cold fluid vehicles use wipes for personal hygiene,
from the radiator through a regenerative i.e., no wash water is used because of
heat exchanger. Condensate from the cabin weight restrictions.
atmosphere is stored and used for peak
loads by boil-off to space. The principal sources of waste to be
considered in waste management are
atmospheric condensate, used wash water,
urine and feces. In addition to the above

6
there are several other minor waste sources, Military Submarines
e.g., food scraps and packaging. The MEA scrubbers, as currently
designed, maintain a 002 level of about
Of the above wastes the sanitary waste one per cent. The Bureau of Medicine has
will be discussed since it is the most recently recommended a maximum level of
difficult to handle in a closed vehicle. 0.5 per cent CO2 for extended missions,
The methods used are summarized in Table and the Navy is endeavoring to develop
IX. Modern military submarines use fairly equipment to meet this level. As one
conventional flush (sea water) facilities. possible approach, General Dynamics is
The sanitary waste is collected in "hard" developing and optimizing a mixture of
tanks and blown over-board every 1-3 days sodium superoxide and sodium peroxide in
with compressed air. (Activated carbon is high density form for use in an all-
used in the tank inboard vent for odor chemical system for generating oxygen and
control). For research submarines of short removing carbon dioxide (see Figure 1).
mission duration (up to 2)4 hours) waste The high density chemical bricks are
management facilities are either minimal or stored in watertight and gas-tight con-
non-existant. For longer missions inboard tainers with a pull-tab on the bottom.
storage with a chemical disinfectant The containers are loaded into the unit
(phenolic or iodine complex compound) is with the bottom opening of each can over a
used. A special toilet design is used to spray nozzle. Water is then passed through
allow for odor control and use of minimal the spray nozzles against the bottom of the
flush water quantities. For space vehicles chemical bricks. Oxygen gas is released
the urine is vented; feces is collected and a sodium hydroxide solution formed
using a "glove" bag, mixed with a dis- which flows to the bottom of the reactor.
infectant (phenolic complex), and stored. This caustic solution Is then circulated
through a packed column to scrub CO2 from
Table IX. the air, which is also forced through the
Sanitary Waste Management packed column. This complete 02 producing
and CO2 removal system would require only
slightly more volume than one MEA scrubber,
Modern military submarines: plus storage volume for the chemical bricks.
Conventional flush facilities; waste The big advantage of this type of system is
stored and discharged out-board every its simplicity compared to the high
1-3 days Pressure electrolytic oxygen generator
and MEA scrubber.
Research submarines:
No special provision - 11 vehicles
Urine bottle + emergency bags -
2 vehicles
Chemical toilet - 1 vehicle
Chemical disinfection and storage -
2 vehicles

Space vehicles:
Urine vented; feces stored in bags with
disinfectant

It is interesting to note that water 2 NaO2 + H20 2 NaOH + 3/2 02


management problems in inner and outer H20 -11. 2 NaOH + 1/2 02
NO202 -1-
space are coming closer together. In deep- 2 NaOH + CO2 {1. No2CO3 + H20
diving submarines, hull penetrations are
very undesirable. A current submarine AIR (CO2 RICH)
concept will use only nine pounds of CHEMICAL
water per man-day for drinking, washing, BRICKS
and sanitary purposes, Although water
recovery systems will not be utilized, water
WATER
will be used for multi-purposes, e.g., used Na OH
AIR
wash water will be utilized for toilet (CO2 LEAN)
SOLUTION
flushing. Such a small water usage rate is
a far cry from the 30 to 100 gallons/Man- SUPEROXIDE SPENT
day used in modern military submarines. REACTOR SOLUTION
OVERBOARD
VII. What of the Future? CO2
SCRUBBER
Hardware for the next generation of
manned vehicles is under development and
should be available to meet mission require- FIGURE- I No0 - No202 CHEMICAL AIR REVITALIZATION SYSTEM
ments. Some of the methods that will
probably be used are summarized below.

7
Research Submarines VIII. Conclusion
As noted earlier, minimum weight
becomes very important as mission depth This brief review and comparison of the
is increased. To reduce weight (as com- various life support systems used on
pared to compressed gaseous oxygen) one of modern military submarines, research sub-
the following three approaches will marines, and space vehicles illustrated
probably be used: (1) chlorate candles plus some of the similarities and differences'.
Li0H, (2) liquid oxygen plus UGH, or (3) of these systems under various applica-
sodium or potassium superoxide (to both tions. The results of these comparisons
supply 02 and remove CO?). A two-man shows that there are many similarities in
superoxide system has been tested at the life support system of the inner and
Electric Boat in a sealed environment and outer space vehicles. ' It is concluded that
is presently designed for use in the STAR life support systems-for deep-diving
III research submarine. The use of regen- research submarines (except for heat
erative techniques for CO2 removal are not rejection) have the greatest similarity
anticipated in the next géneration research with space vehicle systems in that both
submarine because of the difficulty of dis- types of vehicles are usually weight
posing of the CO2 at deep depths. Oxygen critical, have a small crew, low volume to
recovery from the CO2 is not considered to man ratio, and low power availability.
be feasible because of the limited duration
of most underwater missions and the limited
availability of power.

In order to save weight multiple use of


water and water reclamation (from the less
contaminated sources) will be practiced for
missions of more than a few days duration.

Space Vehicles
A program recently completed by General
Dynamics Corporation (joint effort of
Convair division and Electric Boat division)
for NASA-Langley illustrates the integrated
life support system of the future. This
future system utilizes a semi-closed physio-
chemical approach. Carbon dioxide is
removed with Molecular Sieves (using silica
gel to pre-dry the air). The CO2 is driven
off by heating and is reduced in a catalytic FIGURE-2
reactor by either the Bosch reaction or the
MULTIFILTER WATER RECLAMATION SYSTEM
Sabatier reaction. Electrolysis of the
product water supplies 02 for breathing and
H2 for recycle.
For space missions beyond Apollo it is
anticipated that fuel cells (with their by-
product water) will not be used, therefore,
water reclamation will be utilized for all
waste sources except feces. A filtration
system suitable for reclamation of atmo-
sphere condensate or wash water is shown
in Figure 2. The unit illustrated weighs
only 10 lb and will produce 370 lb of pot-
able water; it is equally suitable for
space vehicles or for long mission, deep
diving submarines.

The waste management system used in


Gemini, although acceptable, leaves much to
be desired. A more advanced waste manage-
ment system, developed by Electric Boat
under Air Force contract, is shown in
Figure 3. The two desirable features of
this unit are (a) a single sphere is used
to collect, dehydrate, and store feces
(i.e., no handling or transfer is involved);
and (b) positive odor control is achieved
with a forced air flow exiting through an
activated carbon canister. For urination,
it is necessary only to lift the relief
tube from its storage rack; this auto- FIGURE - 3
matically starts the air blower and a WASTE MANAGEMENT UNIT FOR SPACE
liquid-air centrifugal separator.

8
No. 61365

THE EFFECTS OF SINGLE CURVATURE ON STRESSES


AT REINFORCED CIRCULAR HOLES
by

PETER VAN DYKE


Martin Marietta Corporation
Baltimore, Maryland

Paper No.
67-365

AIAA/SNAME Advance marine


vows meeting
NORFOLK, VIRGINIA/MAY 22-24, 1967
First publication rights reserved by American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1290 Avenue of the Americas, New York, N. Y. 10019
and Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, 74 Trinity Place, New York, N. Y. 10006
Abstracts may be published without permission if credit is given to author and to AIAA/SNAME. (Member Price-75c, Nonmember Price$1.50,
6.13, 6.14
THE EFFECTS OF SINGLE CURVATURE ON STRESSES
AT REINFORCED CIRCULAR HOLES
Peter Van Dyke
Specialist in Engineering
Martin Marietta Corp. , Baltimore, Md.

Abstract only one dimension, and thus serves as the


first step in determining these curvature ef-
The primary purposes of this paper are: fects. Several recent investigations2-5 have
first, to present a summary of the results of been concerned with determining the stress
recent investigations into the effects of the distribution about a circular hole cut in a shal-
curvature on the stress conditions at circular low cylindrical shell surface. The effects of
boundaries in shallow cylindrical shells; and the single curvature have been found to be of
second, to apply these results, in the form of primary importance, and additional efforts have
influence coefficients at the circular boundary
in the shell, to more complex problems of been directed 6, 7 toward the solution of cutout
practical importance which might be encount- problems with both added practical significance
ered in the design of advanced marine or aero- and complexity.
space vehicles. When the boundary conditions
at the shell edge specify either the stresses, The formulation of influence coefficients for
deformations, or mixtures of both, solutions a circular boundary in a shallow cylindrical
are obtained through direct use of the influ- shell forms the basis for solution of all types
ence coefficients. When the stresses and de- of problems concerning circular cutouts in the
formations are linked elastically, as exempli- shell. Problems where the boundary conditions
fied by problems concerning reinforced holes, at the shell edge are of either the stress, de-
solutions are more complex in nature. Results formation, or mixed stress and deformation
for stresses at the intersection of a shell with type can be solved directly through use of the
a flat circular reinforcement are presented influence coefficients. Under conditions where
here as a function of shell curvature for par- the stress and deformation quantities are
ticular material and geometric properties of linked elastically, as exemplified by problems
the shell and reinforcement. Also, the formu- concerning shell intersections and reinforced
lation of the problem where both reinforcement holes, solutions are more complex in nature.
and shell are curved-is included. The influence coefficients for the shell must be
employed in conjunction with the influence co-
efficients for the elastic body that is attached
Introduction to the shell, and this resulting system used to
describe the total stress conditions.
The determination of the effects of cutouts
of various kinds on the states of stress in flat The primary purposes of this paper are:
plates under particular loading conditions has first, to present a summary of the results of
been a subject of continued interest since the recent investigations into the effects of the
beginning of this century when the first theo- curvature on the stress conditions at a cir-
retical results were reported. Greater cular boundary in a shallow cylindrical shell;
demands imposed, for example, by high per- and second, to apply these results, in the form
formance pressure vessel design have taxed the of influence coefficients at the circular
ingenuity of the theoretical analyst concerned boundary in the shell, to problems concerning
with the problem of determining stress con- reinforced holes. The determination of the
ditions around cutouts in flat plates. An entire stress conditions at the intersection of a cy-
book1 devoted to formulations and solutions of lindrical shell and a flat circular reinforce-
problems concerned with stresses around holes ment, under a uniform tension loading, is
in flat plates attests to the magnitude, variety, considered in the present analysis. Results
and importance of these problems. are given for stresses as a function of shell
curvature for particular values of material
With the development of sophisticated vehi- and geometric properties of the shell and re-
cles designed to carry men into new environ- inforcement. As a further example of pos-
ments both above and beneath the surface of the sible reinforced hole solutions, the exten-
earth, the requirement for further understand- sion of this problem to the case where both
ing the basis for all aspects of the design of shell and reinforcement have equal curva-
these vehicles is increased. Thus, stress ture is formulated. A preliminary applica-
concentrations about a canopy cutout on a man- tion of the reinforced hole results to a practi-
ned re-entry space vehicle, or at the inter- cal problem is given for the intersection of
section of an observation port with the hull of a suction and discharge valves with the hull of
deep-diving submarine, are phenomena which a submarine.
must be well understood.
The theoretical investigations discussed in
This increase in the importance of cutout this paper are restricted by the assumptions of a
problems has necessitated development of uniform, isotropic, constant thickness, thin
mathematical models to aLlow the prediction shallow shell containing a circular boundary.
of the effects of the curvature on stresses in With the existence of the complete solution to
curved plates, or shells, as well as flat plates. this problem in terms of influence coefficients,
The cylindrical shell has surface curvature in consideration of problems not restricted by these

1
assumptions is feasible. In particular, investi- area which is within a small radial distance from
gations into the states of stress near general the hole; this region of the shell may be treated
as a shallow shell. Also, the shell thickness
curvilinear holes8 and reinforced curvilinear must be small to allow the use of a shallow, thin
holes9 in shells have been conducted. Approxi- shell theory.
mate methods involving perturbations of the
boundary shape are employed, and solutions are The behavior of the region of the shell which
formulated in terms of a series of circular is influenced by prescribed stresses and de-
boundary solutions. The applicability of the cir- formations on the circular boundary, based on
cular boundary results is thus extended to prob- linear, shaLlow, thin shell theory, may be de-
lems concerning other boundary shapes. scribed by the single complex nondimensional
differential equation
Many studies dealing with the problem of op- 4
timum reinforcement of circular cutouts in flat VO +gip2C, .0 (2)
plates have been performed (e. g., Ref. 10). No
attempt has been made in the present paper to The complex function is
define criteria for optimum reinforcement and
then study the effects of curvature on these
criteria, but an effort has been made to estab- = W - iF (3)
lish parameters and to present the results in a
form which might serve as suitable input for and
(4)
future optimization investigations of this kind. = a20/ aE2

Review of Influence Coefficient Derivation where W is the nondimensional normal displace-


ment and F is a nondimensional membrane stress
The configuration of the shell with a circular function. The lengths on the shell middle sur-
boundary is shown in Fig. 1. The problem of a face are nondimensionalized with respect to the
circular reinforcement with material and geo- boundary radius a; g'is the coordinate in the
metric properties different from those of the direction of the axis of the cylinder, and is the 71

shell is indicated in this figure, but for the deri- circumferential coordinate.
vation of the influence coefficients, only the prin-
cipal dimensions of the shell are needed. These A circular boundary implies that the boundary
are the shell radius R, uniform thickness t, conditions must be written for an edge of con-
boundary radius a, and material properties de- stant radius. It is therefore useful to introduce
scribed by elastic modulus E and Poisson' s the dimensionless polar coordinates defined as
ratio v. The curvature parameter is defined as
E= r cos rl =r sin El (5)
9
82 = a- [12 (1 - v2)] 1/2/8 Rt (1)
The stresses and deformations which describe
If the ratio of the boundary radius to the radius the conditions in the shell are shown in Fig. 2.
of curvature, a/R, is small, the effects of con- The definitions of these stress and deformation
ditions within the boundary may be confined to an quantities in terms of the normal displacement and
stress function are given in Appendix A, and the
bia relationships between the dimensional and non-
432-a2 [12/i -V211112/ 8R)
dimensional quantities are contained in Appendix
Y. E IE B.
2 //2)
p.2 (1.-v )/(1
T ° trIt Er, 1/, 77e

STRESS COUPLES
& ROTATIONS
e7)

STRESS RESULTANTS
& DISPLACEMENTS

--- SHELL MIDDLE SURFACE

Figure 2. Stress Couples and Resultants, Rotations and Displacements


Figure 1. Configuration of Shell, Hole and Reinforcement

2
Problems concerning the shell loaded by a uni- Once the unknown coefficients Cn and Dn have
form axial tension are symmetrical with regard been determined for a given unit periodic bound-
to both the g and r, axes, and so the solution to the ary stress quantity, and the solution function
governing equation, and the influence coefficients thereby determined, the influence coefficients are
obtained from this solution, will be required to given directly by the periodic edge deformations.
possess symmetry in g and n. The appropriate The quantities W and W, may be determined
solution to Eq. (2) which possesses the required
symmetry conditions and which is bounded at a directly, and the U and V displacements are de-
large distance from the boundary is termined by the procedure outlined in Appendix A.
The influence coefficient formulation may be
= (El -iE2 (An+il3n)H1n(pr(2i)1/2)cos ne written in matrix form as
n=0,2,4,...
N
Uo 11 12." rr0
+ (E3 - iE (An+iBn)H1n(pr(2i)2)cosne (")21

N
rr.
V2
The E functions are Nre2

+ e-(1-i)p)/2 ukk
E1 - iE2
Nre2
E3 - iE4 = (e (1-i)3g e-(1-i)P,F)(1 +0/4 W2
rro

H1 is the Hankel function of the first kind, and


rr.
An and Bn are the unknown coefficients to be de-
termined by application of the boundary conditions. W, ro Q'r2
The influence coefficient formulation is most
conveniently carried out by a periodic represen-
tation where the effects of applied unit periodic W, r0
stresses are determined in terms of periodic QTr
deformations L the circular boundary. The
stress quantities which are specified at the bound-
ary r = 1, in a form periodic with respect to the
hole center, are the radial membrane stress
N , the membrane shearing stress N where j is (k + 2)14, and j and k are even. This
rr re' the matrix will be abbreviated as
radial bending couPle Mrr and the radial trans-
verse shear stress Q; the deformations are the
periodic components of the radial displacement U N
Ti,circumferential displacement V, normal dis- rr
placement W, and radial rotation W,r.
Nre
The solution given by Eq. (6) may be resolved rr
into periodic components by writing the E func-
tions in terms of a periodic series of Bessel W,
r Q'r (10)
functions; and after using appropriate combina-
tion formulas, the solution may be written in
periodic form as
The normal displacement W can be determined
= ) cos ne only to within a constant displacement, as in-
(Cn +iD)(Gln+iG
n 2n dicated by Eq. (2), and so the constant W term
Wo has been dropped. Also, the constant trans-
where the coefficients Cn and Dn are combina-
verse stress Q' r is not an independent quantity,
but is dependent on the value of the membrane
tions of the coefficients An and Bn, the G functions stresses N rro , N rr2 , and Nr02*
are combinations of the Hankel and Bessel
*functions, and, because of the symmetry in g and
n, the solution function involves only even values Additional quantities not directly involved in
of n. The stress and displacement quantities are the boundary conditions may be of interest. An
also written in periodic form. example is the circumferential membrane stress

3
N00' which may be written as prescribed conditions at the boundary, with the
effects of these conditions disappearing at large
distances from the boundary. The total solution
[Nee N is then obtained by adding the uniform stress
rr state to the residual stress solution. Thus, for
the hole problem, when the uniform state of
Nre stress under axial tension represented by the
single stress N = 1 is subtracted from the
rr total solution, the boundary conditions for the
Qr total solution, which require that the stresses
vanish at the hole, imply that the boundary con-
ditions for the residual problem are, at r = 1
The influence coefficients have been obtained
for discrete values of ,3 of 1/4, 1/2, 1, 2, and 3,
where the periodic representations are carried Nrr = - (1 + cos 28)/2 M
rr =0
through enough terms to ensure convergence.
The corresponding values of k are 14, 14, 22, 26, Nr8 = sin 20/2 Q'r = 0 (13)
and 34.
When obtaining solutions for specific problems
involving circular boundaries in the shell, the For the rigid inclusion problem, the boundary
values of the stresses at the boundary will be of conditions restricting the deformations at the in-
primary interest. These stresses will be repre- clusion for the total problem imply deformation
sented in terms of ratios of the average stress boundary conditions for the residual problem
o-AV
to the stress in the shell far from the
boundary cr,,, and as a ratio of the maximum bend- U = -(1 -v)/2 - (l+v)cos 28/2 W=
ing stress crb -to cr Thus, in terms of the non- V = (1 + v) sin 26/2 W, =0
dimensional stress quantities, these ratios be-
come (14)

°-AVkle, Nb/a,, = 6M(D/Et3)2 (12) Results for the circumferential membrane and
bending stresses at a hole are shown in Figs. 3
with D and o- defined in Appendix B.
and 4. The maximum membrane stress con-
centration increases steadily with increased
curvature, while the bending stress concentration
Review of Previous Results increases much less rapidly.

The first investigations concerned with cir-


cular cutouts in shallow cylindrical shells treated 10
the stress boundary condition problem of deter-
mining the effects of curvature on the stresses 9.900
around a circular hole in the shell under various
loading conditions. With the derivation of the in-
fluence coefficients, problems with deformation
boundary conditions, such as determining the
stresses around a rigid inclusion in the shell, and
problems with mixed stress and deformation
boundary conditions could be solved.
The original work on the hole problem2 used
a perturbation solution to the shell equations 70° _
valid for small values of the curvature param-
eter f3 This perturbation solution has been
extended to obtain small 3 influence coefficients6
and the general range of applicability of these
results is a 3 of 1/4. In the problems to be
described here, however, only the results obtained 60° _
by numerical treatment of the periodic series rep- o°
resentation will be considered, where results to 10°
a ,3 of 3 can be obtained. Also, the case of the 2o°
shell under a uniform tension loading will be used 30°
as a basis for presenting the previous results 50°
which have been obtained. 40°

The method of applying the loading to the


shell involves a definition of residual problems 1 2 3 4
which describe the conditions in the shell with CURVATURE PARAMETER,
the uniform state of stress subtracted from the
total conditions. The residual problem then has Figure 3. Circurnferential Membrane Stresses at a Hole tinder Tension Loading

4
8.90o o
so

800

70°

-lo
b8
30°
o b."

cc

2 3 co

CURVATURE PARAMETER, i9

Circumferential Bending Stress at a Hole Under Tension Loading


t -20
Figure 4.

For the rigid inclusion problem, the stresses


of interest are the radial membrane and bending
stresses. The membrane stresses shown in
Fig. 5 are fairly constant in magnitude and do
not increase until 0 is greater than 2. The bend-
ing stresses, however, begin a steady increase
beyond a g of 1 as shown in Fig. 6. The magni-
tude of the bending stresses is such that they 1 2 3
dominate the total stress picture above a )3 of 2. CURVATURE PARAMETER,/3

Mixed stress and deformation solutions are Figure 6. Radial Bending Stresses at a Rigid Inclusion Under Tension Loading
also possible, and Fig. 7 shows the circumfer-
ential membrane stresses at a hole constrained
against normal displacement and rotation, but
allowed free surface displacement so that the
membrane stresses vanish. These results fall
between those of the completely free and complete-
ly constrained boundary.

CURVATURE PARAMETER, ß

Figure 7. Circumferential Membrane Stresses at a Constrained Hole Under


Tension Loading

The problem of the intersection of two cy-


linders has been formulated, 3 ' 7 and preliminary
results obtained using the shell influence co-
CURVATURE PARAMETER ,
efficients in conjunction with influence coefficients
Figure 5. Radial Membrane Stresses at a Rigid Inclusion Under Tension Loading for the intersecting cylinder. 3 These preliminary

5
numerical results are shown in Fig. 8, and the boundary conditions may be related through the
limiting cases with free and constrained bound- matrix.
aries are indicated. The reinforced hole problem.
that is treated in the next sections of this paper is N N
another example where shell influence coefficients, rr rr
used in conjunction with influence coefficients for
an attached elastic body, describe the complete Nr9 N
re r
stress conditions.
Ur Ur
Formulation of Reinforced Hole Problems
Vr Vr
The configuration of the shell and reinforcement
are shown in Fig. 1. Dimensionless parameters rr rr
which relate the geometric and material properties
of the shell are: the reinforcement width ratio QTr Q'r
= b/a (15)
Wr Wr
where b is the reinforcement radius and a is the r=1
radius of the boundary between shell and reinforce- Wr, r r = a
ment; the shell curvature parameter, ß defined by Wr, r
Eq. (1); the modulus ratio (19)

V= Er/E (16) For the problem where the inside of the ring is
unconstrained, the stress quantities at r = a will
be specified. By denoting these specified boundary
where the subscript r denotes the reinforcement; conditions by the column matrix T, the matrix I can
the Poisson's ratio parameter be partitioned to yield
v2r)
(1 (17) -^
N U
r-- rr r
and the thickness ratio II III V
(18) r9r r
=
tr/t
rr Wr
With the shell conditions represented by influence
coefficients which relate stress and deformation Qtrr Wr, r
quantities at the circular boundary, influence coef- r=1 r= 1
ficients which connect the conditions at the inner
and outer boundaries of the reinforcement will allow (20)
the determination of stresses and deformations at
each boundary as a function of the boundary condi- A modified form of the shell influence coefficient
tions at the inside edge of the reinforcement. The matrix u given by Eq. (10) can now be written to
stress and deformation quantities involved in the relate the boundary stresses and deformations,

1 I 1

f 1 f

y
b"
8
F4
V. 0.3

a121112
/
//,/ AV

XS

7
14
--- 21
o REF. 3

co e. 900
r AV

CIRCULAR
RIGID
HOLE
INCLUSION XC

Figure 8. Membrane Stresses at a Shell Intersection Under Pressure Loading

6
which are continuous across the boundary, where For the general problem when both the rein-
the shell quantities are written in terms of the forcement and shell have equal curvature, the
corresponding reinforcement quantities (see Appen- matrix I defined by Eq. (19) is determined by em-
dix B); thus ploying the total solution to Eq. (2). This total
solution involves the solution as represented by
N Eq. (5) with the addition of an equal number of
U
r rr terms involving the Hankel functions of the second
2
N kind Hn which do not decay with increasing argu-
V
r re r ment. After writing the solutions in terrns of the
unknown coefficients at both edges of the reinforce-
Wr rr ment r = 1 and r = a, the influence matrix I is ob-
tained by elimination of the unknown coefficients.
r, Q'r
r =1 r =1 The problem considered by this paper concerns
the case where the reinforcement is flat. The ma-
(21) trix I is then determined in two separate steps by
with employing the membrane and bending solutions for
a flat annular plate (see Refs. 11, 12). The influ-
w
lo -yT 0 ence coefficients are then written in two separate
equations for the membrane and bending solutions
O Ti..t
IL O l'7211

(2 2 ) N N
rr rr
The stress conditions at the boundary are then N N
rer re r
-1
N
rr Ur Ur

Nrer Vr r= vr r =1
11+111
(25)
rr and

Q'r
r =1 rr rr
(23)

Q'r Ib wrr
and the deformation conditions can be obtained
from Eq. (21). Additional influence coefficients Wr
can be obtained for other quantities of interest.
In particular, the circumferential membrane
stress N 00 can be determined in terms of other W,rr r = a rr r =1
stresses by _
(26)

N IV or V N
rr The matrices I and Ib are then used to obtain ma-
eer r = a or trices II and III in Eq. (20). The matrices IV and
r =1 N V as given in Eq. (24) are also modified, with only
rer the membrane stress and displacement quantities
being involved.
Ur
The prescribed boundary conditions represented
Vr by the T matrix are obtained by considering the
problem of a solid reinforcement in the shell under
a uniform tension loading. The residual problem
rr is then defined by applying stresses T at the bound-
ary r r a which are of opposite sign from the
stresses in the solid reinforcement at this radius.
Q'rr The total stress conditions are then obtained by
adding the solid reinforcement stress states to the
Wr residual stress solutions.
An alternative approach to the solution consid-
Wr'r r =1 ers only the required equilibrium at the boundary
between the reinforcement and shell (see Ref. 3).
(24) Specifying the stresses and displacements at r r 1
in the continuous shell with no reinforcement by S
where all the conditions at the boundary are known. and L, respectively, compatibility of the shell

7
and reinforcement deformations after applying an 16
additional residual loading is enforced by the equal-
ity
-6
14

N T.1 1L1
rrr 12
Y.1.833

1 II NrOr 0-7772
+ Sr r b8 10 REINFORCEMENT, r a
rrr SHELL, r 1

Q' 0.0961
rr _ 0.938
r=1 r=1 r =1 0.833

(27) _ --0.750
NO REINFORCEMENT
where Eq. (20) with T = 0 has been employed. The
residual solution is then added to the stresses and 4 0.0 961
deformations represented by S and U to obtain the 0.938
total solution. The advantage of this approach to
the problem is that the solution to the solid inclu- 2

sion problem is not required. 0.833


0.750

The circumferential bending and membrane oo


stresses in the shell are also of interest as these 1

CURVATURE PARAMETER,$
2 3

were the critical stresses in previous problems.


These stresses are determined from the separate Figure 9. Circumferential Membrane Stresses Under Tension
influence coefficients for the shell after the shell Loading for Y 1.833
boundary stresses are related to the correspond-
ing reinforcement quantities using the factors In the reinforcement, the stresses increase
given in Appendix B. steadily with increased curvature, but less
sharply for smaller a values. The bending
stresses shown in Fig. 10 exhibit rapid changes
with increasing curvature: the stresses in the
Results for Flat Reinforcements shell increase initially and then decrease, and
the reinforcement bending stresses, for the
most part, behave similarly; the bending stresses
Results have been obtained for the circumfer- in two cases begin to decrease but then increase
ential membrane and bending stresses in the shell again.
and its reinforcement for curvature parameter
values from zero to two. Because of the approxi- The Y = O. 546 case shows similar behavior:
mation of assuming that the reinforcement is flat, the shell membrane stresses, shown in Fig. 11,
it was felt that this range of values would give a increase less markedly with increased reinforce-
good indication of the effects of the curvature on ment width, and the reinforcement stresses show
the stresses without extending the results into a the same tendency (thus causing the cross-over
region where the bending stresses, in particular, at about ß = 1); the bending stresses, shown in
would differ greatly from those which would exist Fig. 12, exhibit behavior generally similar to
if both the reinforcement and shell were curved. the previous bending case, with all the shell
stresses increasing initially but then changing
Two examples were chosen to illustrate the direction, and the reinforcement stresses,
results: the first represents a copper shell with with one exception, reaching a peak value at
a steel reinforcement (Y = 1.833, p. = 1) of equal about a ß of 1.
thickness (7 = 1), with the maximum stress at
e = r/2 given for various values of the reinforce- The bending stresses are perhaps the most
ment width a; the second gives the same results important consequence of the shell curvature.
for a steel shell with a copper reinforcement An example which illustrates the effects that
(y = 0.546). These two examples were chosen the bending stresses might impose on a practi-
because of the existence of results for the flat cal reinforcement selection is shown in Fig. 13.
plate problem (see Ref. 1, pp 244 to 251). For this example, a constant weight reinforce-
ment, equal in weight to the missing shell ma-
The circumferential membrane stresses for terial (see Ref. 10), is inserted into a hole in
the case with a Y of 1.833 are shown in Fig. 9 a flat aluminum plate and into an aluminum
for four values of a between 0.75 and 1. The shell with curvature parameter equal to 1.
stresses at the inside edge of the reinforcement Three materials, aluminum, magnesium, and
and in the shell at the intersection with the re- titanium, are considered as the reinforcement
inforcement are shown, and the stress in the material. Because the moduli and densities
shell with no reinforcement (a = 1) is also shown. of these materials are proportional, no effect
The increase of the stress in the shell with in- of the material selection is evident for the flat
creased curvature is always less than in the unre- plate. For the curved shell, however, the
inforced case, and for the two largest reinforce- changes in bending stiffnesses for the three
ment width cases the stresses decrease slightly. materials cause a definite variation in the

8
o
T p, 1
T1 = 1 NO RE I NFORCEMENT
Y. 1.833
82 Y. 0.546
8.7172
REINFORCEMENT, r
2---- SHELL, r 1
a
NO RE I NFORCEMENT
-- REINFORCEMENT ,
SHELL, r =
r

8
0 0.833

Q. 0.750
0.833
03
0.938
0.961 -- 0. 961
0.938

1 2 3

CURVATURE PARAMETER, P
0.833
Figure 10. Circumferential Bending Stresses Under Tension Loading
for y1.833 3
2

CURVATURE PARAMETER,P

Figure 12. Circumferential Bending Stresses Under Tension


Loading for Y . 0.546

Mg

7 T1 1
c0-9 Al
ß1
NO REINFORCEMENT
Y. 0,546
I
-7T12

1 f Ti
6 24
8=72 I I

b8 00.961
-5 5
/3. 0
b21 0.938

4 16

a. 0.961 REINFORCEMENT r a
cc O. 938
0.833 12
roz. Ts:7- O. 833

0.750

REINFORCEMENT, r .0
SHELL, r 1
SHELL, r
31
= 1

20
o, 2 3 0.5 1.0
1

CURVATURE PARAMETER, P REINFORCEMENT WIDTH RATIO,

Figure 11. Circumferential Membrane Stresses Under Tension Figure 13. Maximum Circumferential Stress for Equivalent Weight Reinforce-
Loading for Y 0.546 ments in an Aluminum Shell

maximum stress at the inside edge of the re- problem concerns the effects of the suction and
inforcement, with an insignificant variation in discharge valves on the deformations of a sub-
the shell stresses. The bending stresses thus marine hull. The valves and adjoining hull were
become a factor when curvature is present. represented by a system of discrete elements,
and the deformations at distinct points on the
The reinforced shell model has been applied valve and hull were determined. Because of
to a practical problem which was approached the existence of two circumferential frames in
using a different method of analysis. 13The the discrete element model, a uniform axial
9
tension loading was used to compare the deforma- of the material and geometric parameters could
tions obtained in the shell at the valve intersec- then be generated. Weight minimization proced-
tion. The comparison of the two results is shown ures could also be developed, and the effects of
in Fig. 14, where the radial and normal displace- the bending stresses fully defined. The flat re-
ments are presented. Although the two models inforcement bending stresses could then be com-
did not exactly correspond, because of the frames pared to the corresponding curved reinforcement
and the fact that the reinforced hole model's param- stresses, and explanations of the erratic behav-
eters (a. = 0.75, T = 1.2) could only be estimated, ior of the flat reinforcement stresses could be
the agreement is still reasonable. found.
Additional symmetrical loading conditions,
in particular a uniform pressure loading, can
also be investigated by making appropriate
changes in the boundary conditions imposed by
the uniform stress states in the shell before the
i3 FL 1T 1. 2
effects of the reinforcement are considered.
1

-I a -0.75
Skew-symmetric problems, such as when the
MODEL
shell is loaded by torsion, can also be solved
by generating appropriate sets of skew-symme-
DISCRETE
ELEMENT
REINFORCED
HOLE
tric shell and reinforcement influence coeffic-
DIS PLACEMENT
ients. The necessary solutions to the governing
RADIAL - shell equations have been determined.3'4 The
NORMAL --- extension of the results for circular boundaries
in the shell to other curved boundaries is also
possible, 8, 9 and efforts toward their end would
o greatly extend the generality of the results.
Experimental investigations of the effects of
curvature on stresses at a circular boundary in
the shell have been restricted to problems in-
volving holes. A summary of some of the limi-
o ted experimental data is presented in Ref. 4 for
2
300 400 500 600 700 800 900
circumferential membrane stresses at holes
0 10° 200 under loading by tension, pressure, and torsion.
C I RC UMFERENT I AL COORD I NATE,
Additional experiments where membrane and
Figure 14. Displacements in the Hull at the Discharge Valve I ntersection
bending stresses at the hole and in the shell
were measured are reported in Ref. 3; the
loadings imposed were axial tension and tor-
sion. With the extension of the theoretical
investigations to problems concerning rein-
forced holes and shell intersections, the need
Conclusions for experimental correlation becomes evident.

Preliminary results have been obtained for the


problem of a reinforced circular hole in a shallow
cylindrical shell. As a first approximation, the References
reinforcement was assumed to be flat, and results
were obtained for values of shell curvature from
0 to 2. The results agree with existing data on
reinforced flat plates, and the effects of increas- 1Savin, G. N., Stress Concentration Around Holes
ing curvature on the membrane and bending (Pergamon Press, New York, 1961).
stresses in the reinforcement and the shell have
been demonstrated. 2
Lurie, A. I., Statics of Thin-Walled Elastic
.

Shells (State Publishing House of Technical and


The problem where both the reinforcement and Theoretical Literature, Moscow, 1947), Chap. 4;
shell are curved has been formulated, and it is transl. by Atomic Energy Commission, AEC-TR-
anticipated that results of solutions to this prob- 3798, 147-200 (1959).
lem will agree with the flat reinforcement problem
as the curvature parameter [3 becomes small.
Because of the expected divergence of the flat re- 3Lekkerkerker, J. G., On the Stress Distribution
inforcement problem from the curved reinforce- in Cylindrical Shells Weakened by a Circular Hole
ment problem in the region (13 > 1) where the (Uitgeverij Waltman, Delft, 1965).
curved reinforcement is a more realistic model,
results for the flat reinforcement problem were 4Van Dyke, P., "Stresses About a Circular Hole
obtained only to a (3 of 2. in a Cylindrical Shell," AIAA J. 1, 1733-1742
(September 1965).
The next step in the development of reinforced
hole problems would be the determination of nu-
merical results for the curved reinforcement 5Eringen, A. C., Naghdi, A. K., and Thiel, C.C.,
problem for the full range of curvature parameter "State of Stress in a Circular Cylindrical Shell
(f3= Oto 3) for which shell influence coefficients with a Circular Hole," Welding Research Council
are available. Engineering data for a wide range Bulletin No. 102 (January 1965).

10
= -(1 -1/)(W'9/r)'r (A-3)
6Van Dyke, P., "Stresses in a Cylindrical Shell Mre
with a Rigid Inclusion," AIAA J. 5, 125-137
(January 1967). where the Kirchhoff shear terms are defined

7ErMgen, A. C. and Suhubi, E. S., "Stress Q'r =Qr + (mre/r)' Q'e =Qe + Mre'r (A-4)
Distribution at Two Normally Intersecting The displacements are given by
Cylindrical Shells," Nuclear Structural Engi-
neering 2, 253-270 (September 1965).
'r =F '00 /r2 + F'r/r - vF , rr
2
U - 8 (3 sin 2
.
W
8Savin. , G. N. and Guz, A. N., "On the State of
Stress Near Curvilinear Holes in Shells,"
Izvestiya Akademii Nauk SSSR, Mekhanika V.e/r + U/r =F'rr -v(F'eeir2 + F'r/r)
Mashinostroyeniye, 7, No. 6 (1964); transl. by
NASA, Washington D. C., NASA TT F-423 (May
1966). 8 (32 cos2 W

9Guz, A. N. and Savin, G. N., "The Stressed


State Near Curvilinear Reinforced Orifices in
V,
r +U, /r - V/r =
Shells," Inzhenernyy Zhurnal, 5, No. 1 (1965);
transl. by NASA, Washington, D. C., NASA 16 sine cos@ 82 W-2 (1 +v)(F,e/r),r
TT F-424 (May 1966).
(A- 5)
1
°Reissner, H. and Morduchow, M., "Rein-
.

forced Circular Cutouts in Plane Sheets," The stress and deflection quantities are repre-
NACA Technical Note TN-1852 (April 1949). sented in periodic form by
11 Tirnoshenko,
.
S. and Woinowsky-Krieger, S.,
Theory of Plates and Shells (McGraw-Hill
Book Co., Inc., New York, 1959), Chap. 9. Nrr' N00' ,M ,M M00' Q'r
12
Timoshenko, S. and Goodier, J. N., Theory
.

of Elasticity (McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., cos ne


New York, 1951), Chap. 4. )Nrrn' Nee ' Mrr ' Mee , Q'r
13,,Analysis of Main Seawater Piping System
Suction and Discharge Valves in One-Third (Nre, Mre,Q,E) {Nre
Scale Model of SS(N)-637 Engine Room," = ,
Mre'n We n sin ne
Engineering Report ER 14430, Martin n=2,4,..
Marietta Corp., Baltimore Division(Novem-
ber 1966).
LI
{U,n W n cos ne
APPENDIX A

The nondimensional membrane stress result- V= Vn sin ne


ants, transverse shear stresses, and bending (A-6)
couples written in terms of the normal displace- n=2,4,.. .
ment and membrane stress function are The determination of the periodic stress quanti-
ties in terms of periodic solutions for F and W
comes directly from Eqs. (A-1) to (A-4). The
N
rr =F,r/r +F '00 /r2 displacement quantities are determined from
(see Ref. 3)
N00 =F'rr Nre = - (F/HP, Un = r(nLn + In - rKn, r )/(1-n2)
(A- 7)
Vn = (rKn - Un)/ta
=- (y2 w,r + (1 - v/r) (W, 88'r)
where the quantities I, K, and L represent
=- (72 W,e/r + (1 - v)(W,e/r),rr) In =Un,
r ,
K = - n Vnil' Unir
Mrr = (ITV' rr v(W'r/r W'001r2))
Lnn
=
vn,r - n un/r - vn/r (A-8)
Mee = (w'rr (wrir w'ee/r2))
and are the periodic components of Eq. (A-5).

11
APPENDIX B and the displacements by
The barred dimensional quantities are given = UaNref/Et = V aN ref/Et (B-4)
in terms of the dimensionless quantities W and
F by
The stress at infinity is defined in terms of the
F = F a2Nref reference stress by
= a2NrefWADEOli2
(B-1) =N refit (B-5)
Nref is a reference membrane stress, chosen as The nondimensionalization of the shell and
the axial membrane stress for the axial tension reinforcement quantities is carried out using the
problem; the bending stiffness is given by respective geometric and material properties.
The following examples illustrate typical re-
D = Et3112 (1 - v2) (B -2) lationships between dimensionless shell and re-
inforcement quantities
The dimensional stresses are given in terms of N =N U = Ur/yT
the nondimensional stresses by rr rrr
2
= NNref T\71- = MNref(D/Et)1/
M
rr = TM
rr W = Wr/}'T
(B-6)
= Q' Nref(D/Eta2)1i2 (B-3) where the subscript r denotes the reinforcement.

12
No. 61368

SELECTION AND UTILIZATION OF BATTERIES FOR


DEEP SUBMERGENCE VEHICLES
by

N. KUSKA and J. A. CRONANDER


North American Aviation, Inc.
Los Angeles, California

Paper No.
67-368

AIAA/SNAME Advance marine


volumes meeting
NORFOLK, VIRGINIA/MAY 22-24, 1967
First publication rights reserved by American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1290 Avenue of the Americas, New York, N. Y. 10019
and Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, 74 Trinity Place, New York, N. Y. 10006
Abstracts may be published without permission if credit is given to author and to AIAA/SNAME. (Member Price-75c; Nonmember Price-81.50)
5.08
SELECTION AND UTILIZATION OF BATTERIES
FOR DEEP SUBMERGENCE VEHICLES
N. Kuska and J. A. Cronander
North American Aviation, Inc.
Ocean Systems Operations

Abstract Characteristics of Candidate Cells

A brief review of battery Characteristics is pre- Lead-acid cells have been used on most deep submer-
sented. The mission of a deep submergence vehicle and gence vehicles where the batteries are located external
the parameters that affect battery cell selection are to the pressure hull. Unless low-energy density rules
mentioned. The proper choice of battery cells, as out the lead-acid battery, it will probably see extensive
related to power system optimization, is discussed in use for a long time to come. It is a proven, inexpensive,
the light of economy, weight and volume trade-offs. The rugged, reliable, and relatively easy way to service
conception and design of a battery power system is dis- source of power. It also has a high cell voltage, rela-
cussed, including electrolyte reservoirs, pressure tively long cycle life and trouble-free service life.
compensators and gas vent valves. The results of a There are no off-the-shelf units designed specifically for
battery system test program are covered including use external to the pressure hull. All installations have
capacity, charging, gassing and significant findings. been adaptations of automobile, truck, golf cart or
industrial cells. This has resulted in larger, heavier,
Introduction and in some cases shorter-lived installations than could
be obtained from cells especially designed for the ocean
Submersibles in the past were characterized by rela- environment. Table 1 presents some characteristics of
tively shallow dive depths requiring only highly buoyant candidate cell types.
pressure hulls due to the low hydrostatic pressures
encountered. As dive depths increased, so did wall
thicknesses and weight premiums, until the hull ratio of Silver-zinc cells are currently being developed for
weight to displacement became unity and above. Ways deep submersible use in the ocean environment. This
to reduce weight or increase buoyancy became para- cell type is characterized by its high energy density,
mount. This led to employment of power system storage tolerance to high rates of discharge and long dry storage
batteries external to the pressure hull. In this location life. Its disadvantages are high cost, short cycle life
they could be operated at ambient sea pressure wherein for deep discharge cycles, short wet storage life and
a savings in volume and weight could be realized. difficulty in determining state of charge.
Problems of temperature control and ventilation became
ones of pressure compensation, insulation and material
compatibility with a few added ones of maintenance, The silver-cadmium cell combines the high energy
control and reliability. density of the silver anode with the long life of the cad-
mium cathode. As was shown in Table 1, the energy
Enter now the desirability of using the more exotic density is somewhat less than that of silver-zinc, but
series of alkaline electrochemical couples such as silver- the increased cycle life may overcome this for some
cadmium and silver-zinc in lieu of lead-acid cells and the applications. Cost per cell is close to that of silver-zinc,
advantages to be gained may be somewhat offset by added but more cells are required because the nominal cell
problems of maintenance, cost and control. The primary voltage is lower. The silver-cadmium battery can be
reason for using these cell types is to obtain higher charged fast and has a long dry storage life.
energy densities than are available with the lead-acid
type. The disadvantages, on the other hand, should be
evaluated with care to ensure that not too great a penalty
is being paid.
NO. OF VOLTAGE
TYPES ENERGY DENSITY* CELLS FOR PER CELL EST**
W-hr/lb W-hr/in3 12 VOLT OPEN AV LIFE
BATTERY CIRC. VOLTAGE

LEAD-ACID 15 1. 3 6 2. 1 1. 9 50-300 Cycles


(AUTOMOTIVE)
3 yr

11 1. 1 6 2. 1 1. 9 1600 Cycles
LEAD-ACID 5-10 yr
(INDUSTRIAL)
50 3. 0 8 1. 86 1.55 100-200 Cycles
SILVER-ZINC 1 yr
1.58

30 2. 5 11 1.40 1.06 500 Cycles


SILVER-CADMIUM 1.12 2-3 yr
_

*CAN VARY CONSIDERABLY AS A FUNCTION OF DESIGN.


**CAN VARY CONSIDERABLY AS A FUNCTION OF DESIGN, USAGE AND MAINTENANCE.

TABLE 1. NOMINAL BATTERY CHARACTERISTICS

1
Mission Usage Data: Though excellent to project duty cycle
for a similar or expanded mission, usage data would
Factors in a deep submersible mission which can contribute only general information in regard to cell
affect battery selection are: dive depth, energy require- life due to the many variables encountered throughout
ments, response time, standby requirements and per- its operating life. Certainly usage data from a num-
missible maintenance requirements. ber of similar systems could prove valuable but to
date a fleet of deep submersibles with batteries
Required dive depth, if much over 6000 ft, and nomi- external to the pressure hull is not a reality.
nal energy requirements will place a premium on
available space and allowable weight. This generally In a general nature several factors do affect battery
will require a high specific energy, high-cost power life and should be optimized within the limits of other
system to prevent the round robin increase of buoyancy constraints to obtain as high a cell life as possible. Cycle
requirements, drag, and additional power requirements life sensitivity to depth of discharge is probably the most
that could accompany the use of a less compact power important, primarily for the silver-zinc combination with
storage system. silver-cadmium and lead-acid following in decreasing
order of vulnerability.
Energy requirements will determine battery size and
weight once the cell type and depth of discharge have Percent recharge is another factor which should be
been selected. This selection can have a direct influence neither too low, which would allow the battery to dis-
on hull size and configuration. Peak power drains could charge deeper each cycle, nor too high, which could
influence cell selection or affect choice of cell construc- damage the cell by over temperature and excessive water
tion after a specific couple has been selected. Some or active material loss. It has been stated that recharg-
cell types are less degraded by high discharge rates ing a cell each cycle to the value of the previous discharge
while others are more responsive to low rates. will shortly lead to cell exhaustion. This means that cell
inefficiencies are applicable, to some extent, to cycling
Mission response time or turn around time can at all states of charge and not just to overrate charge and
influence battery charge time which in turn could affect over capacity charge.
average power available, mandatory maintenance period
and cell life. Limitations on charge time tend to move By following all the guidelines of evaluation and
available capacity per cycle toward the discharge side of selection, one would expect to obtain a near optimum
the voltage time curve. This reduces voltage control battery power system within the framework of the design
and increases the likelihood of inadvertent cell requirements. To realize this goal, the finished system
reversal or premature dive termination to prevent it. must be operated within the established parameters. If
Reduced charge time may require charging at a high this is not the case, projected performance and cost
current rate which, if too high, can generate heat and should be re-evaluated in the light of the changes or the
produce gassing. Excessive heat and gassing will reduce system should be modified to rectify the discrepancy. In
cell life and can cause catastrophic failure if allowed to the event the system falls short of expectations whilebeing
continue. Excessive gassing will increase periodic operated within established criterion, the system suffers
maintenance requirements due to water loss by untimely derating. One instance of capacity deratinz
electrolysis. which occured on a contemporary submersible apparently
was due to the cell type selected.
Standby requirements will affect charge condition or
the procedure necessary to maintain charge. It can also Other reasons for derating after the fact could be:
affect per cycle cost if utilization rate is low.
Reduction of usable capacity to obtain more
Limitations on periodic maintenance can place con- reserve capacity.
straints on cell selection if power requirements are not
overriding and would certainly affect system design to Reduction of usable capacity (depth of discharge)
some degree. to extend cycle life.
Battery Cycle Life Reduction of usable capacity due to the replace-
ment of silver electrode cells with less expensive
Probably the most important factor affecting overall types as an economy move.
power system cost is battery cycle life which, anfor-
tunately, is one of the most elusive factors in the Reduction of usable capacity when compensating
selection and performance of electrochemical couples. oil is masking plate area because of lowering
The lack of data or, more specifically, the lack of electrolyte level due to lack of cell maintenance.
correlating data, lead to doubt or low confidence in
regard to the anticipated life of a given battery installa- Power System Optimization
tion. Several factors contribute to this situation probably
not the least of which are as follows: An optimum battery power system would be one which
offered the highest energy density, longest life, mini-
Test Method Variation: Due to the large variety of mum care and the lowest cost consistent with mission
battery cell constructions and sizes available, as well and configuration constraints. Unfortunately, not all
as the large number of usage criterion, manufacturers these attributes are enjoyed by any one electrochemical
and users are forced to test systems on the basis of couple. The primary difference is high energy density--
specific requirements and cannot obtain much gen- high cost on the one hand and low energy density--low
eralized data. Data is available but, though excellent cost on the other. This difference is accentuated more so
for the purpose for which it was taken, is not suitable when cycle life and wet shelf life are included. The
for accurate correlation. This is because depth or immediate effects of this dilemma are high costs if energy
rate of discharge is variable, criterion of failure is requirements are mandatory, and lower energy if cost
inconsistent, or cells failed due to inadequate charge factors are overriding. It is possible to reduce the cost
and, in reality, were recoverable simply by of a silver electrode system by reducing discharge depth
recharging. to gain cycle life. This will increase the size of the

2
battery in terms of rated capacity and increase the cost or potting the cell tops to provide the required insulation.
per battery, but may result in a net cost savings over the The oil should be one that is relatively unaffected by and
life of the submarine. Now an added constraint, wet non-miscible in sea water, weak sulfuric acid solutions
life, primarily for silver-zinc cells comes into the pic- for lead-acid cells or potassium hydroxide solutions for
ture and the desired cycle life may not be obtainable. the alkaline cells. It should also be unaffected by battery
This factor also precludes a smooth trade-off transition gases and possess good dielectric properties. The cell
between silver-zinc and lead-acid when cost, as well as top terminal potting should possess good dielectric
discharge depth and cycle life are involved. It is pos- properties and not absorb water at high pressures. It
sible to evaluate these factors for a specific couple and should provide good adhesion properties to cell top and
attempt a near optimum configuration on a cost basis if electrical insulation materials, and it should stand up to
some flexibility can be obtained on system size and the mechanical abuse it will experience in service.
weight.
The pressure compensator should consist of an elastic
CONSTANT ENERGY-SILVER-ZINC member which contains a sufficient volume of oil to sup-
,, --TDTAL ENERGY COST-4 x10-6
I FOR 80%
ply the battery throughout the extremes of pressure,
8 ..
LEAD ACID WT
DEPTH OF
CANSTANT REPLACEMENT RATE
temperature and entrained gas volumes to which the
-LEAD ACID VOLUME
FOR 33 -3 mscHaKE

KWH .7 2.1 CONSTANT CYCLE RATE


battery will be exposed. For the purpose of obtaining a
positive internal pressure to prevent ingesting sea water,
.6 1.8 it is possible to superimpose on the ambient sea pressure
FOR 100 %
KWH .5 1.5 10YEAR BOAT LIFE
the pressure generated by the spring rate of the elastic
member or of an auxiliary spring. It is also possible to
4 12 CYCLE LIFE=b9x103D 15
accomplish this by proper location of the compensator it-
.3 9 COST BASED ON self so that the differential density head between sea
CONSTANT UNIT PRICE water and compensating oil generates the internal pres-
.2. .6 sure. The pressure compensator fluid should be
.1-.3 associated with reservoirs which are attached to each
..--LEAD ACID COST
cell top in which the interface between electrolyte and oil
80 "4
occurs. The reservoir should be sized so as to maintain
10 20 30 40 50- GO 70 80 90 100 DISCHARGE)
the electrolyte-oil interface within prescribed limits at
PERCENT DISCHARGE all times. The outlet of the reservoir should contain a
Figure 1. Power Source Cost simple baffle system to enhance the removal of acid drop-
letts from departing gas bubbles.
Figure 1, is a plot of power system cost versus per- The system should contain pressure relief provisions
cent of discharge for a silver-zinc system. It depicts so that generated gases may be vented overboard. This
curves of constant replacement rate and constant cycle valve should be leakproof to prevent expulsion of the
rate for a constant energy supply. A minimum cost compensating oil over a period of time and jamfree to
silver-zinc system would occur where a utilization rate prevent cell or system damage due to gas-generated
curve intersects the applicable replacement rate curve internal pressure.
as continued reduction in discharge depth would result
in increased costs. It is interesting to note that high Cell Top Reservoir
utilization rates dictate shallow discharge for
economy and low utilization rates dictate deep discharge. Assuming that oil is not to enter the cell top where
Shown also are the limits where system volume or it could contact plates, the reservoir volume below
weight, with decreased depth of discharge, arrive at the acid removal baffles should include, as a
those of lead-acid. minimum, the following incremental volumes:
This plot was obtained by generating arbitrary Volume change due to compressibility,
replacement rate cost curves using current unit price
information. The constant cycle rate cost curves were c = V° 4.1)
obtained from life cycle test data from several sources,
(1), (2), and manufacturer's test data. The shaded area Dave
depicts the area wherein most systems would lie. The = Electrolyte Volume = Vcell
trend of the constant cycle rate curves can be a matter Vo Vfill
for conjecture and is certainly sensitive to additional
breakthroughs in cell cycle life of which we are not Bave = Average electrolyte bulk modulus
aware. Regardless of the exact trend, the utility of the
plot is not necessarily affected.
AP = Depth pressure
Design of Battery System
Volume change due to temperature,
With the selection of battery cell type, size and num-
ber to provide the required system energy, the task t = at Vo AT
becomes one of providing an appropriate insulation,
compensation and gas removal (ICR) system for the at = Volumetric temperature expansion
battery in order to function properly in the ambient coefficient of electrolyte
pressure and temperature cycling it will experience = Temperature change
throughout its usable life. The basic functions of an
ICR system of this nature are: to provide required Mechanically trapped gas volume,
electrical insulation, to compensate the battery to
ambient sea pressure, to prevent leakage, to provide Assuming all mechanically
electrolyte level control, and to provide efficient AVint =V
mto trapped gas is removed upon
removal of generated gases. The first can be accom- pressurization because of
plished by either placing the cells in an oil filled box solubility.
3
Residual gas volume, Boil = Bulk modulus of oil
Assuming all gas adhe.ring to cell AP = Dive depth pressure
Avr = vr o plates is removed upon pressuriza-
tion LIgcause of solubility. Reduction of battery box oil volume due to temp-
erature change,
Electrolysis of water volume lost due to gassing
overcharge. Av
ot =aotVot (Tcharge - Tmm.)
AVe
-= ae KCN
aot = Volumetric temperature expansion
coefficient of oil
ae
= .34 cc/Amp - hr
Required oil volume to compensate cells,
K = Gassing overcharge factor
Av
. cells = n ( Vfill - AV)
C = Cell Capacity
N = Cycles between battery maintenance. AV (See "Cell Top Reservoir"
Vfilland e .
discussion)
Volume change due to cell chemical change,
Required oil volume to accommodate oil lost thru
AVcc This volume can vary with cell conditions relief valve and thru leakage,
and contamination. Initially there is a
slight volume reduction upon discharge
but the relatively large loss of electrolyte Av1
volume is essentially made up by the
production of lead sulphate. Required oil volume to compensate mechanically
trapped gas,
The initial fill volume of the reservoir should be,
Van = AV afVo (Tfiff -T raid+ AVraf+ AVr Avtg = vtgo Assuming that all trapped gas is
removed upon pressurization
because of solubility.
+ Ave + Av cc
So, volume of oil compensator should be at least,
which is true if the cell is charged and known to contain
residual gas. The oil column above the electrolyte to yoc = Avop + Avot + Avcells + Av + Av tg
. 1
the acid removal baffles should be at least:
Vabove = at Vo (T -T- Tfill) The relief valve should be set so that its reseat value
is above the maximum compensator pressure so as to
minimize the amount of compensating oil carried out with
This volume should also include AV, if any doubt exists cell gas venting.
as to the presence of residual gas.
BLEED 4
Compensator and Relief Valve 1.1g FILL

The system pressure compensator should be sized BATTERY RELIEF


VALVE
to provide a compensating oil supply for the prescribed FILL Hg
dive depth and temperature. It should also provide a INERTING OIL VENT
reserve capacity to compensate for trapped gas volumes
and system or relief valve leakage. The minimum CI4ECK VALVE 4- OVERFLOW
compensation volume should be made up of the following -r= SUMP
incremental volumes:
PWR LEAD,,
1. Reduction of volume of battery box oil due to _BLEED LEAD

compression, _ DRAle
Vot LEAD-ACID1 ACID BOTTLE
Av
op
- AP [ CELLS W/ BAFFLES
B oil GAS-LADEN OIL
DRAIN
ELECTROLYTE
Where Vot = Total oil volume Vob + Voc COMPENSATING OIL RESERVOIR ED Ng COMPENSATING
0E
+ ri Ave + nVabove
Figure 2 . Industrial Cell Installation Schematic
yob = Volume of oil in battery box
Test Program
V = Volume of compensator
oc Figure 2 presents a schematic of a lead-acid battery
system meeting the basic requirements mentioned pre-
= Number of cells viously with the added provision of an internal manifold
system with check valve to prevent gas-contaminated or
AVe and Vabove (See "Cell Top Reservoir" acid-contarninated oil from contacting the cell terminals.
discussion) A configuration of this nature was constructed and tested

4
at pressures up to 2700 psi at the Hydromechanical The test program was conducted in three phases.
Laboratory Facility of North American Aviation's Los Phase 1, to establish the system's performance level
Angeles Division (see Figures 3 and 4). For testing, prior to submersion for the pressure testing; Phase 2,
this system contained a single industrial type lead-acid the pressurization tests in which the cells were dis-
cell of 780 amp-hour rating. A configuration was also charged at different rates and various pressures up to
tested which contained a 12-volt automotive-type battery 2700 psi (6000 ft dive); Phase 3, or post submersion
of 220-ampere hour rating. The terminals were potted
and a differential density head type compensator was
used. See figures 5 and 6.
PRESSURE TEST INSTALLATION SCHEMATIC

kI VF

Figure 5. Automotive Battery Installation Schematic

tests, in which the effects of Phase 2 testing could be


evaluated. Throughout the testing, data was obtained on
several aspects of cell and system performance, some
of which are as follows; capacity at temperature and
pressure; charging, schedule and acceptance., cell gass-
ing during charge, discharge and standby; management
of acid-oil interface level, residual gas retention-, and
management of compensator oil charge, relief valve
performance.
...
ON1t,
N N"N''''\\X* The immediate results of the test program were the
verification of considerable performance criterion. The
premium here is the fact that results were obtained in a
Figure 3. Industrial Cell Test Assembly deep submergence atmosphere with representative hard-
ware. It was then possible to correlate performance
deviations, when they occurred, with hardware degrada-
tion, when it was observed.

Figure 4. Pressure Test Chamber


Figure 6. Automotive Battery Test Assembly
5
Capacity um-S4C ), 'AMPS
D- AMP N. ASES FROM CELL

Preliminary testing on candidate cells was conducted I. CHARGE CURRO


t? TIME
Tim? ELICTROLr if
DRAV.Ty

to demonstrate their ability to arrive at advertised MX


DLit CASSINC POINTS
capacity values. In one instance this was not the case as or,K, ä
CHARD. DWI
4 CoG

several cells of the same type fell short of published ROOM TEMP -74T
values by as much as 21%. It was also possible to IUD
RI CiLL LOCATION

observe the initial capacity performance of the heavy bC0 is


duty industrial-type lead-acid cell as compared to the 5,0 AS
VOLTS -

automotive type. Cold temperature tests were also DASSiNG RAU

performed at atmospheric pressure to verify capacity 000

degradation at reduced temperature. SOG 33

40 AMPS FINISH PAT(


¿OD
Phase 2 tests, conducted at various pressures up to
2700 psi and at different discharge rates, generated a set 21

of capacity curves at increased pressures. Figure 7 70 o

shows the capacity versus discharge rate at 2700 psi HOURS

for a 780 amp-hour industrial-type lead-acid cell. This


data has been temperature corrected for comparison with Figure 8. Charging Characteristics
a standard capacity curve at 77F.
about 20% of theoretical maximum. The theoretical
yPERCENT OF 6 HR RATE CAPACITY curve follows the form:
130 -
2700 PSICAPACITY(TEMP I = Ce-t
120 - CORRECTED T017° F
FROM AVERAGE CELL where C equals t.he amp-hours removed. The maximum
110 TEMP) initial charge current for a 100% discharge would be
780 amperes. The accumulated capacity to the finish
100 current value was 737 amp-hours as compared to 741 for
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE integration under the exponential curve. This close
90 77°F correlation demonstrates that the two methods of charge
control are, in fact, the same and TVG control is defined
80 for chargers with maximum charge current less than
T- the "C" rate as well as not being dependent on previous
4 6 8 10
charge history. Cell gassing increase during charging
DISCHARGE TIME HOURS indicates that the ampere rate is exceeding the acceptance
rate. At the end of the finish charge, all of the charge
Figure 7. Pressure Effect on Capacity current would be producing gas (approximately 11 cc of
H2 & 02/ampere/min/cell). Note the gassing rate curve
After 17 cycles of deep discharge, six of which have was still increasing during the last hour of charge while
been at increased pressures, the industrial cell was still the voltage curve became quite flat. Subsequent discharge
delivering the rated capacity as was anticipated. The of this cell showed that the 100% capacity point had not
12-volt automotive-type battery capacity, after 15 cycles been reached.
of deep discharge, was 12% below anticipated capacity
from an initial high of 108%. One cell was acting up and Gassing
took charge with difficulty.
In addition to cell gassing during charge, gassing was
Charging also monitored during discharge and standby. Gassing
rate during discharge does not appear to be a steady or
Throughout a large part of the test program charge repeatable phenomena as data varied from cell to cell and
sequence was accomplished to the convenience of the from cycle to cycle, primarily in the earlier cycles on
discharge schedules. Charging was normally conducted each cell. Figure 9 shows a record of cell gassing during
overnight with one check and reset point. Final charge a 6 hour discharge cycle. It also depicts cell gassing
was verified by voltage leveling off above 2.6 and by
overcharge percentage. A charge test was conducted on 780 AMP HOUR LEAD-ACID CELL
the industrial cell in which the measurable parameters ,--6ASSING RATE - CC/MIN
of current, voltage, gravity, temperature and gassing 4.0
rate were monitored. The charge was manually con- DISCHARGE TEMP 79°F
j./DURING
CURRENT 130 AMPS
trolled throughout the sequence. A maximum capacity
charge current of 160 amperes was maintained for three 3.0
hours and forty-five minutes to reach the temperature
voltage gassing (TVG) point. TVG point defines the
charge voltage at a specific temperature at which cell 2.0 AFTER CHARGE TERMINATION
gassing commences. The charge current was then CELL TEMP.72°F TERMINALS OPEN
reduced in increments maintaining the voltage close to
the TVG value until the finish rate of cell capacity /20 1.0
or 40 amperes was reached. Figure 8 is a plot of the
charge parameters obtained as well as the theoretical
ampere hour curves (shown dashed). It should be noted
that the plot of test current almost perfectly follows the 10 25 30 40 50 60 10 80
theoretical curve, except it has been translated in time TIME- HOURS
to account for the fact that initial charge rate was only Figure 9. Gassing Characteristics

6
during standby conditions in which it reduced to a mini- During the Phase 2 testing of the industrial cell an
mum value several hours after charge termination where intentional malfunction test was performed. The purpose
it remained nearly constant. Standby gas was found to of this test was to simulate excessive gassing and test
be mostly hydrogen. One factor which has a large the elimination of same by the venting system. The
influence on cell top reservoir and compensator sizing gassing was produced by additionally charging the fully
is the residual gas retention of various cell types. Large charged cell at a 100-ampere rate for one-half hour while
volumes of gas can remain on plates, raising the electro- the cell and its ICR system were submerged and pres-
lyte level. Then vibration shock and application of surized to 2700 psi. As the system was de-pressurized,
pressure will reduce this volume, thus lowering the no malfunctions were encountered and 42,000 cc of gas
electrolyte level. Results of testing showed the residual were successfully expelled by the venting system.
gas retention of the industrial-type cell to not exceed
manufacturer stated values of 1/2 cc per ampere hour of Conclusion
cell capacity for this type construction. The gas reten-
tion by the pasted plate-type automotive battery, on the The results of this test program are encouraging in
other hand, was found to exceed this value so cell top that the performance of the industrial cell capacity was
reservoirs and compensator volumes would have to be commendable and that it showed good repeatability
proportionately larger for this type construction. throughout the testing. The performance of the cell's
insulation compensation and gas removal system was
Venting essentially as anticipated. It is felt that this system
concept, with minor modifications, is suitable for estab-
Two types of gas vent valves were utilized in the lishment of guidelines for the battery power system for
system test program. One was a poppet-type with a the North American Beaver Mark IV design now in
cracking pressure of 1 1/2 psi. To provide a back-up progress.
design for this conventional type, a heavy fluid trap valve
was constructed and installed in the industrial cell ICR
system. The problems that could be encountered with
conventional vent valves are sticking when operated in a
fouling atmosphere with the result of sea water entering
the battery box or loss of compensating oil if even a
small leak is maintained over a period of time. The References
advantages of a fluid trap valve are that it is leakproof,
jamproof and maintains an accurate cracking pressure. F. Solomon and G. W. Work "Present-Day Long
The conventional poppet-type valve permitted loss of Life Silver-Zinc Secondary Batteries" Pro-
compensating oil during Phase 2 system tests because of ceedings of the 4th International Symposium on
contamination of its poppet seat. Although the fluid trap Research and Development in Non-Mechanical
vent valve did not suffer this problem, it will have to be Electrical Power Sources. Brighton, England,
maintained periodically to ensure that the fluid does not Sept. 1964
oxidize excessively in the sea water environment. It is
possible to place a thin film of inert high density oil over J. A. Keralla and J. J. Lander "Sealed Zinc-
the trap fluid to impede any chemical action that may Silver Oxide Batteries" 16th Annual Power
OC CUT .
Sources Conference. May 1962

7
No. 61369

THE CHALLENGES OF OCEAN ENGINEERING OF THE FUTURE


by

A. H. KEIL
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Cambridge, Massachusetts

Paper No.
67-369

AIAA/SNAME Advance marine


vows meeting
NORFOLK, VIRGINIA/MAY 22-24, 1967
First publication rights reserved by Arnerican Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1290 Avenue of the Americas, New York, N. Y. 10019
and Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, 74 Trinity Place, New York, N. Y. 10006
Abstracts may be published without permission if credit is given to author and to AIAA/SNAME. (Mernber Price-75c; Nonmember Price$1.50)
1.08, 2.05
THE CHALLENGES OF OCEAN ENGINEERING OF THE FUTURE
A.H. Keil
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139

Abstract environment of air and outer space.


The paper discusses steps necessary to Engineering for the ocean environment,
identify and develop future ocean engineer- or briefly, "ocean engineering," is not a
ing. It points out the need to establish new field, but can look back at an evolu-
broad objectives for advances of ocean en- tion spanning many thousands of years. All
gineering capabilities on the basis not oceangoing vehicles from Noah's Ark to the
only of present technology but especially present commercial and military ships illus-
of projected technology. The interrelation trate this fact, and so does the develop-
of the engineering aspects of foreseeable ment of the fishing industry from its ear-
ocean engineering efforts is studied. Con- liest beginnings to its present level.
clusions are drawn on how ocean engineering Since World War II, the demands for
can be advanced in a systematic manner. advanced engineering for the ocean environ-
The needs for systematic technological de- ment has grown steadily as a result of re-
velopments in selected areas, for selected quirements for advanced naval warfare sys-
focus projects and for development of pro- tems, the intense interest of the oil in-
fessional resources are reviewed. dustry in offshore oil resources, the world's
I. Introduction increasing need for protein from the seas,
and the increasing demands of advancing
The purpose of this study is to attempt oceanography for more sophisticated measure-
identification of the challenges which ments. Acceleration of this growth of
ocean engineering of the future offers to ocean engineering is certain because of the
the engineering profession. As a prerequi- importance of the resources of the oceans.
site, it is necessary to clarify as closely In recognition of this fact, the Marine
as possible what future ocean engineering Resources and Engineering Development Act
probably will be. Efforts to answer such of 17 June 1966 has made it a matter of
questions as, "What are meaningful devel- national policy to fully explore the re-
opments in ocean engineering?" and "What sources of the ocean and develop the engi-
are meaningful areas of undersea technol- neering capabilities for utilizing these
ogy?" must therefore be preceded by at- resources.
tempts to answer such questions as, "What Analysts of State of Requirements for
Present State Need for Advanced
important present and future problems will of Art, Field I CapabMti. Art and identification
of Weak
Advancs In
Ocon Engineering
require ocean engineering?". Only when
the scope of future ocean engineering be-
Present State Need for Advanced Analysis of State of Requirements ton
comes somewhat better defined can we begin of Art, Flekl 2 Capabilities Art and identification Advancs in
of Weakn sssss Ocean Engineering
to gain insight into what scope of engi-
neering problems we will have to face and
which of these problems are the most impor-
tant.
For the purpose of this discussion, Pros. State Need for Advance Analym of State of RequImments for
of A, Field n Capabilities Art and Identification Advoncesm
ocean engineering is defined as comprising of Weakness. OctionEnginewl,
the engineering efforts in support of sys-
tematic exploration of ocean resources and FIGURE 1: FIRST ORDER APPROXIMATION TO FU-
related environmental effects; and the de- TURE OCEAN ENGINEERING
velopment of engineering capabilities, en- II. How to Identify Future Ocean Engineering
gineering products and undersea technology
required for the utilization of these re- Projections toward future ocean engineer-
sources. Ocean engineering is therefore ing usually start with specific require-
not
_ an engineering discipline of the type ments generated in existing active fields
which, for instance, electrical, mechanical, such as naval warfare and offshore oil dril-
chemical and nuclear engineering repre- ling; and those other fields where strong
sent. It is an engineering effort inte- needs for advances and improvements were
grating many engineering disciplines and recognized, such as commercial fisheries
directed at and controlled by the ocean en- and ocean transportation. In each case the
vironment, and is therefore similar to need (or desire) for advanced capabilities
aeronautical and astronautical engineering triggers a review of the state of the art,
which is directed at and controlled by the leading to identification of weaknesses

1
and gaps in engineering capabilities and Deep Submergence Systems Project; and a
technology, and being followed by system assembled ad hoc for a specific
requirements for specific engineering mission--the search and recovery system for
and technological developments (Figure 1). the lost nuclear weapon at Palomares,
Spain." The paper demonstrates the need
The importance of developing the for systems integration in order to suc-
capabilities for fullest utilization of cessfully and economically carry out the
ocean resources makes it mandatory to assigned mission; illustrates the signif-
review this process carefully. Such a icance of individual facets (such as navi-
review indicates two shortcomings. Pro- gation, underwater communication, logistic
jections of requirements for advances in support) for the effectiveness of those sea
ocean engineering based on "realization systems; and highlights the special problems
of gaps" is insufficient and too limited which arise when working at or near the
if it is based on present technology alone; ocean/air or ocean/ocean bottom interface.
that is, if the opportunities offered by
possible advances in ocean engineering The first two examples, the Polaris
and undersea technology are not taken into Fleet Ballistic Missile System and the
account when the need for advanced capa- rescue system of the Deep Submergence
bilities is established; and the conglom- System Project are excellent demonstrations
eration of the various requirements for of how engineering development was planned
advances in ocean engineering is not neces- and carried out in the direction which
sarily a meaningful set of overall require- appeared most promising for overall systems
ments. The following analysis of a few performance, for instance missile technol-
examples will substantiate these conclu- ogy and navigation for the FBM system; and
sions and bring out an additional important hull design, hull material and hydrodynamic
issue. control for the rescue vehicle: Application
of elements of technological forecasting can
Naval warfare underwent a drastic be found in both.
change beginning in World War II with the
realization of how underwater acoustics The perspective which technological fore-
can aid submarines and how powerful a help casting provides to planning for the future
it can be against submarines. This real- can be illustrated by the following example:
ization coupled with the application and If needs for advanced capabilities in aero-
development of modern technology and in- nautics had been established in the early
formation theory brought about the capa- 30's, they would in all probability have
bilities of modern shipborne sonars. We been for larger and faster airplanes with
see here a systematically planned evolu- longer endurance and better payload and
tion based on technology which was pushed the requests for engineering advances would
in the direction of the most promising re- have been primarily better reciprocating
turns, taking advantage, when possible, of engines, better aviation gasoline, and bet-
basic scientific advances such as informa- ter airframes. The possibility of estab-
tion theory and new technologies, such as lishing requirements for an "air trans-
the modern computers. However, two points portation system at supersonic and high
must be realized: That the key to ulti- subsonic speeds" would not have been no-
mate success for shipborne sonars is the ticed except if technological forecasting,
systems approach, not only for the sonar that is extrapolation toward future possible
system itself (transducer, receiver, data technology, had indicated such potentials
processing, display), but especially in as the jet engine and the new aerospace
the integration of the sonar system into materials.
the ship; and that the drastic advances in But the interplay between technological
naval sonar capabilities required and forecasting and establishing needs for
brought about extensive studies of sound advanced capabilities alone is not suffi-
propagation in the ocean, which in turn cient--except if basic policies exist which
lead to many studies in applied oceano- identify the urgency of the needs. It was,
graphy to explain observed performance and for instance, apparent in the early 1950's
to explore possibilities for further sonar that man could reach out into outer space
advances. if high thrust rocket motors, high energy
Three striking and very illustrative rocket fuels, precision space navigation
examples were described by Craven and systems, lightweight rocket structures,
Searle at the June 1966 meeting of the heat shiel4s for reentry vehicles, etc.,
Marine Technology Society. They are: "A were developed. If a decision to reach
system whose engineering is well advanced-- out into outer space had been established
the Polaris Fleet Ballistic Missile Sys- at that time, the process of technological
tem; a system in the process of engineer- forecasting,coupled with analysis of the
ing development--the rescue system of the impact of these projections on the ability

2
to reach the goal, would have caused the oceanography, but must include techniques
initiation of many relevant systematic for extensive surveys as well as the con-
developments which later had to be carried duct of such surveys (which are not neces-
out on a crash basis. sarily of scientific interest). These
surveys must include coverage of those
The marine Resources and Engineering physical characteristics which are control-
Development Act of 1966 provides the broad, ling for the actual work to be accomplished
forward-looking policy for ocean engineer- in the oceans. Specific examples are ocean
ing. Implementation requires proper per- bottom reflectivity with respect to sonar
spectives for establishing the specific applications, noise characteristics of
advanced capabilities with respect to the marine life, bearing strength of ocean
exploration and utilization of the oceans bottoms for erection of bottom installa-
and their resources. tions, settlement of bottom material which
This makes it mandatory, therefore, that has been stirred up by activities on or
the requirements for new developments be near the bottom, and fouling and stress
based not only on existing capabilities and corrosion for deep-sea installations.
technologies, but on technological fore- Non-Military Utilization of Ocean
casts which must not only be visionary but
Resources
credible. Only through the process of
carrying out technological forecasting and This objective concerns the utilization
exploring the impact of projected technology of ocean resources as, for instance, off-
on future ocean engineering capabilities shore oil fields, fish resources of the
does it become possible to determine what oceans, minerals in the ocean itself or
ocean engineering capabilities to ask for in the ocean bottom, or the energies in
and which developmental efforts to empha- tides; and the engineering for coastal
size. This process is shown schematically processes. Included here are the engineer-
in Figure 2. ing means toward utilization of the re-
tources as well as the planned development
of new resources as, for instance, in the
case of fish.
Broad Objectives Present Projected
for Advances of Technology Technology Ocean Transportation Systems
Ocean Engineering
Capabi I i es
i
This objective deals with shipborne
transportation systems, but must include
future oceangoing systems, which are based
Concept Formu lation on a technology quite different from the
for Projected Ocean
Engineering Systems present displacement ship technology.
This study must be closely interlocked with
projected world markets and projections in
the economic posture of the United States
and other countries. It must further be
Envisioned Scope of closely interlocked with land-based trans-
Ocean Engineer in g
of the Future portation systems including the harbors
and ports as links between the two.
FIGURE 2: IDENTIFICATION OF SCOPE OF OCEAN Military Utilization of Ocean
ENGINEERING OF THE FUTURE (SCHEMATIC) Environment
III. A Projection Toward Future This objective deals with naval systems
Ocean Engineering required to carry out the Navy's mission,
Ocean engineering of the future will be and making fullest use of the ocean
directed at the following four broad environment. These systems cover the
objectives: various areas of naval warfare and include
sea-based deterrence, ocean surveyance and
A. Exploration of Marine Resources military support to other nations, as well
This objective is aimed at expanding as policing and protecting future ocean
that knowledge of the ocean environment installations and ocean activities.
needed for accelerating the development of The following examples are offered to
ocean resources; and development and stimulate thinking in broad perspectives
provement of supporting vehicles, equipment required for determining the scope of
and instrumentation. This exploration of future ocean engineering. They also illus-
ocean resources is not synonymous with the trate the interplay of present and projected
scientific developments of the earth sci- technology, systems concepts and broad ob-
ences, but complements them. Exploration jectives.
of ocean resources is naturally dependent
on advances in earth sciences and especially Should we abandon the idea of expanding

3
existing congested harbors and ports (which a 95% reduction is necessary for applica-
may have been ideally located for the econ- tion to aircraft.
omics of the 19th century) and instead plan The question of whether such ships are
the creation of artificial harbors? With meaningful or not can only be answered by
the expected increase in traffic problems reviewing their possible use for naval
in our cities, why add to the problems? systems or ocean transportation systems.
Why not plan for new harbors surrounded by There is no question as to their signif-
new industrial centers (refineries, steel icance in the military sense because of
mills, shipyards, etc.) at strategic loca- They will, how-
their far superior speed.
tions which appear most desirable in light ever, also be meaningful in the commercial
of future urban development, future pat- sense for transport of high-speed cargo in
terns of land transportation and future the world market: Speed has always attrac-
industrial developments in the United
ted a market.
States?
Should we definitely plan to search for
The exploitation of the fish resources oil resources under the ocean bottoms, even
of the ocean has come to the point that at water depths of 1000 feet or more, or in
some of the species have been decimated the arctic? Should we prepare for commer-
drastically and some are close to extinc- cial exploitation of these resources?
tion. Should the United States, therefore, These questions have already been answered,
consider the development of fish and/or because the oil industry already invests
crustacea ranches on the continental shelf in such studies and it is of great value
for United States use; and off the coasts to analyze the progress this industry made
of underdeveloped countries for their use? because of determined efforts and the sure
This requires an analysis of whether such expectations of good economic returns.
a development is feasible in light of the Exploration of oil fields took advantage of
basic behavior of marine life; projections the technique of seismic soundings and the
as to what extent it might be possible to industry developed it further. Drilling
control the ocean environment in selected for oil at promising land sites was always
areas; and derivation of needs for specific an operation of chance--but offshore dril-
technological advances. It then requires ling increased the problems by an order of
an evaluation of whether such a development magnitude. Ingenuity, determination and
is politically feasible in light of inter- brute force have produced a variety of
national laws. Furthermore, the economic offshore drilling rigs and truly ingenious
aspects must be analyzed to determine techniques for drilling and tapping ocean
whether such a project is economically bottom wells. New problems arise as tech-
feasible (that is economical in terms of niques developed in this manner for such
returns) or whether it is of such impor- special applications as the offshore oil
tance that a large economic investment will fields in the Gulf of Mexico, are applied
become mandatory as a matter of national in different environmental conditions such
policy. as in the swells off the California coast
Should the United States establish a or in the icebound regions of the arctic.
new high-speed cargo capability (50-100 IV. Interrelation of Specific
knots) for ocean transportation, or a Ocean Engineering Efforts
capability for oceangoing naval ships in
this speed regime? Recent technological The wide scope and large diversity of
forecasting by the Maritime Administration applications of ocean engineering makes a
and the Navy made it clear that the prin- systematic review of possible advances
ciple of the air cushion vehicles seems to necessary. The following analysis is
make it technologically feasible to develop attempting a systematic approach, but does
large oceangoing surface ships with cruising not claim to be comprehensive.
speeds in the 80-120 knot range, if specific The first step consists in developing a
engineering developments are carried out. list of specific sdbjects in the four broad
These large surface effect ships appear areas of exploration of marine resources,
feasible with modern gas turbine propulsion non-military utilization of marine resources,
They cannot be used with existing nuclear ocean transportation systems, and military
power plants because of their specific utilization of marine environment (see
weight (lb/horsepower). However, with Figure 3). These subjects are then related
advances in design of nuclear power plants to specific mission oriented projects of
and with resulting reduction in specific broad nature. It should be noted that the
weight, the surface effect ships would be projects listed in Figure 3 are just a
the first mode of high-speed transportation few examples of the types which must be
to benefit: Only a 50% reduction of the considered. To further illustrate the
specific weight will permit use of nuclear content and flavor of these projects, a
power plants for surface effect ships while

4
few are discussed in more detail. Figure 4. Again it must be kept in mind
that the specific engineering developments
Specific mission oriented Vote.* listed are only selected examples of what
of brood nature .
must be considered. Again a few of the
*: : examples are discussed to demonstrate the
i 12 1 , g g i type of development of "engineering prod-
.I i
"Ir.

I -i 1 ot L.
-
ti i i 4 g.a s e ucts" envisioned here and to stress the
--
t-. w
/7.: 1. 1¡.,.1;
2
il I ! 1 "e a a- iw 0. ee j a
Li
need for imaginative thinking.
altZ.611"111: ...7
1 1 The FLIP SHIP, for instance, is a pro-
tilt gnerated jection beyond presently employed "spar
Genitra I requirertronto
by brood objectives in. IIi Ii .1 1
I I AS it
= io' E 8
rz buoy" type vehicles which offer the advan-
Group Specific Subject
Exploration of Applied Phyical Oceanography X X XXXX X
tage of very small response to ocean waves.
Mari. Rsources Applied Mar. Biology X X X X X This advantage has been dmonstrated by
Applied Marine Geology X X X X X X
Applied Chemical OceanagraPhY X X X Scripps' research platform FLIP; Cousteau's
Non - military Petroleum Product X X X X X
Utilisation of Fish and Other Protein Sources X X X X
Buoee Laboratoire; the SPAR of the Naval
Mar. Resources Plants X X
Minerals X XXX X
X
Ordnance Laboratory, White Oak; and the
Frosh Water X
Energy X Perpendicular Ocean Platform (POP) of AC
Ocon
Transportation
Improved Surface Ships
Submarine Applications
X
X X X X
X X X X Electronics Defense Research Laboratories.
Systems Novel Graf t X X X X However, all these applications are "small
Militar y Anti - submarine Warfare X X X X
Utilisation of Submarros Warfare X X scale" vehicles with no means of propulsion.
Marine Sea - baud Crotrronce X X X X
Environment Policing of Ocean Activi ti.. X X X X X The FLIP SHIP envisioned here is a new type
of self-propelled long endurance type ocean-
FIGURE 3: CORRELATION OF BROAD OBJECTIVES going surface ship which upon arriving at a
REQUIRING ADVANCED OCEAN ENGINEERING WITH desired location can erect herself to float
SPECIFIC MISSION ORIENTED PROJECTS OF A in a vertical position in the manner of a
BROAD NATURE (EXAMPLES ONLY) spar buoy. In this position about 75-80%
Underwater communication deals with the of the length of the ship is submerged,
determinatiOn and explanation of the acous- with only 20-25% of the bow portion remain-
tic and electromagnetic propagation in the ing above the surface. The ship in the
oceans as needed for sonar operations and vertical position is rather insensitive to
for all types of communication under water, surface waves, thus providing a working
and the coupling of this background with platform with very little motion in ocean
technology in producing efficient and waves. The propulsion of such a FLIP SHIP
reliable communication methods. could be two Voith-Schneider propellers
installed port and starboard near midships.
Fish ranching techniques are concerned This would not only offer the advantage of
with such questions as, "What are practical being able to turn the ship when in the
fences for selected species of fish?"; vertical position into any desired direction,
"Which valuable species of fish lend them- but would permit the generation of forces
selves to controlled breeding and raising in the vertical direction to eliminate the
in the ocean in a manner similar to chicken last amount of vertical motion. .Such a
raising?" and "Which ocean areas lend them- ship offers direct access to all types of
selves to such ranches and how can the undersea activities anywhere in the deep
natural food supply for the fish be aug- oceans, independent of wind and sea condi-
mented and controlled?". tions. It could be used in the "man-in-the-
Search and rescue capability addresses sea" project (with a sea-lab type structure
the problems which arise from greatly attached to or integrated into the FLIP SHIP)
increased activities in the ocean whether and many types of oceanographic research.
it be the submarine and small vehicle It could be used as mothership for search
operations, the man in the sea activities, and rescue as well as for a number of
the search for space project objects, etc. retrieval operations working with small
deep-sea vehicles or a tethered detachable
Harbor location and design were discussed capsule which could be lowered from the
before as an example of a radically differ- stern of the ship when the ship is in the
ent approach to harbor problems. Instead vertical position.
of starting with existing harbors and
improving them, why not analyze first what Small deep-sea vehicles are mandatory
the harbors of the future should be and tools for most undersea activities. Only
where they should preferably be located-- through their use can man operate in the
and then use modern excavation techniques deep oceans. They provide the key to search
to establish such a new harbor? and rescue operations, but will also be the
"work boats" for most of the future undersea
These mission oriented projects of activities. Vital for their application is
Figure 3 are related to specific engineer- the provision of reliable all-weather support,
ing developments in the matrix shown in because their endurance is inherently limited.

5
This stresses the need for reviewing con- V. Considerations for Advancing
cepts for such vehicles in the framework Ocean Engineering
of the system in which they will be used.
The preceding chapters proposed how the
As progress is made toward oceangoing plat-
content and scope of projected ocean
forms with practically no motion in waves,
engineering (that is, ocean engineering
new concepts for such vehicles may well
capability and undersea technology) could
emerge, as for instance, the tethered cap-
be derived through concept formulation
sule mentioned before in connection with
(which is based on existing technology and
the FLIP SHIP. technological forecasting) and system
Instrumentation for all undersea appli- analysis applied to specific projects aimed
cations is a wide and rapidly growing field at accomplishing the established broad
faced with a multitide of problems. The objectives for future new and improved
salt water environment makes it extremely utilization of the marine resources. It
difficult to use electromagnetic waves for also showed the wide spectrum of ocean
signal transmission within the ocean. engineering efforts and the importance of
Signal transmission, which is vital for specific ocean engineering advances to many
extensive instrumentation efforts, must areas of application.
therefore depend on underwater sound which The purpose of the following discussion
results in only moderate transmission ranges is to advance some thoughts to identify
and rather low information transfer rates; which steps will bring about advances in
or transmission via cables which imposes ocean engineering needed for the exploration
other severe problems which are also common
of ocean resources and the engineering
to most sensors, such as the large hydro- developments toward utilization of these
static pressure, the corrosion due to the resources (see Figure 5).
combination of sea water and stress, and
the secondary effects of marine life. The Envisioned Scope of
Ocian Engineering of
most common problems encountered with ocean the Future
instrumentation is the neglect to consider
the impact of the ocean environment and to lt
underestimate the problems of placing, main- Needed Advanced Capabilities
In Ocean Engineering and
taining and retrieving large and complex Undersea Technology
instrumentation arrays.
Review of Figure 4 indicates that many
Systematic Advances Focus Projects Development of
of the specific developments in ocean In Specific Fields Professional
engineering are common to several applica- Resources
tions and that they draw on advancing ocean
engineering capability and undersea tech- FIGURE 5: STEPS FOR ADVANCING OCEAN
nology as the common basis for the achieve- ENGINEERING ON A BROAD FRONT
ments to be expected from ocean engineering A. The Need for Systematic Development
in the future.
Advancing Ocian Engineering Capability Review of possible future ocean activities
and Undersea Technology
makes it apparent that they are dependent
t I

Establishes Provides upon overcoming a number of specific technol-


Requirements Capability
ogical problems, which require long lead
4
I
Examples of Specific Engineering Dews cements
times to resolve. A few typical examples
are cited to illustrate this point.
a
i 3 7, o ç .. f. e
A typical example is the development of

1:.2glr:o
e, z - I -12 211'4:-
g.-- material which can be used for the construc-
Sal':
..--

-- ,...1"E S. a t .
2 2.1 cn ,..-
:
tion of pressure hulls for any type of deep-
.= in' r a
. 71 211;2 t.taó
sea applications. Such studies have been
-1. = I
' ,,
1,-*

iiiCa0,80.1241z..8
g t; N N g : going on in connection with the combatant
-I
submarines of the Navy for decades, but the
....
Ocean Bottom Mappirg and
Geological Surveys
XXXX X X X x
impact of "deep submergence" has seen a
iMining øf Ocean Bottom Minarais X X X X X x
greatly increased activity during the past
f Control of Coastal Waters X x
six to eight years. A broad attack was
I Search and Rescue Capabilities
X X X XXX X X

/k Salvage and Retrieval of X X X X


launched on the materials problem when the
° Objects and Minerals X
range of materials was extended beyond that
JUnderwater ComMuni cations X X XXX X
for hulls for military submarines, and far
, Conenerclal Fishing Techniques X X X
beyond their dperating depths. At present,
2 Fish Ranching Techniques X X

Of fshore 011 Drilling Techn4ues x steels, titanium and aluminum alloys, glass
!
Tx X
sign-speed Ocean Tr anew lotion reinforced plastics and glass and sintered
Design of N. Harbors X X
materials are being investigated and many
FIGURE 4: IDENTIFICATION OF OCEAN ENGINEER- payoffs of this systematic development effort
ING AND UNDERSEA TECHNOLOGY (EXAMPLES ONLY) are already apparent in the application of

6
the results in nearly all present ocean engineering it is necessary to establish
engineering projects. several new focus projects because of the
wide range of ocean engineering applica-
Closely coupled with materials develop- tions. To be of greatest benefit, they
ment must go the development of the must have meaningful mission objectives
capability to design with new materials and and at the same time spur on those engineer-
thus take fullest advantage of new develop- ing developments which appear to have the
ments. However, the development of design most impact. Considerations of the type
capabilities has also a direct influence presented in Figures 3 and 4 should be
on material developments in specifying helpful for the establishment of focus
acceptable material properties. projects.
The development of power plants (power C. The Need for Development of Professional
generation) and methods of energy conver- Resources
sion also requires long lead times. We
face here the wide spectrum from batteries Ocean engineering is in many respects in
and fuel cell to a variety of nuclear power its infancy and so is applied oceanography
plants, as well as problems of thrust with the exception of the military aspects
development for propulsion and control. of underwater acoustics and the efforts of
the oil industry in finding and tapping
One of the most severe handicaps for offshore oil fields. The problems of de-
working on the ocean bottom, both for fining a program of higher education can
divers and for manned deep-sea vehicles, therefore be compared with the problems
stems from the fact that the divers as which a department of aeronautical engineer-
well as the vehicles are nearly neutrally ing of the early 1930's would have had if
buoyant and it is therefore difficult to a curriculum in anticipation of the require-
exert a force without being moved in the ments of present day aeronautics and astro-
opposite direction. Here is a wide oppor- nautics had to be developed. However, two
tunity for good old-fashioned mechanical
constructive comments can be made with re-
engineering to develop tools and mechanical
spect to ocean engineering education:
devices required to carry out work on the
ocean bottom. Such education must concentrate on the
principles in order to provide a sufficiently
Working on the ocean bottom requires
broad foundation for the wide variety of
"seeing" what is being done. Unfortunately,
applications to come. Only a graduate
the nice clear waters we remember from degree in ocean engineering is considered
pictures of coral reefs do not exist every-
appropriate because of the wide range of
where and even if they exist, any activity
applications in ocean engineering and the
on the ocean bottom tends to stir up sedi-
many disciplines involved.
ment and cloud the view. The need for
developing sonar techniques adapted to the The basic training in relevant disci-
human operator is great. plines must be supplemented by association
with actual ocean engineering. Firsthand
B. The Need for Focus Proiects
experience of the ocean environment must
Progress in engineering cannot be be gained by participation in experimenta-
accomplished alone by systematic develop- tion at sea. This should be followed by
ments in special fields. Actual engineer- active participation of the students in a
ing must be carried out and experience must project aimed at concept formulation be-
be gained by designing and building engi- cause it develops the perspective and the
neering products and operating them in the thought process which links basic engineer-
environment for which they are intended. ing principles with their application in
the effort to develop useful and practical
In order to advance ocean engineering
engineering solutions.
it is therefore necessary to establish
"focus projects" which are aimed at VI. Conclusions
accomplishing major important objectives
TO bring about an orderly advance toward
and which at the sane time provide for the the type of ocean engineering the future
evolution of experience in ocean engineer-
requires, the following is considered
ing. The space program had such focus
necessary:
projects in Vanguard, Explorer, Gemini and
Apollo. Typical, but much more restrained Imaginative concept formulation
focus projects in ocean engineering were studies based on existing technology and
the various sonar developments of the Navy, technological forecasting, aimed at meeting
the recently established Deep-sea Rescue meaningful broad goals.
System, and the development of the under-
water acoustic range in the Bahamas. Definition and execution of a number
of focus projects, each aimed at accomplish-
For the systematic advance of ocean ing a major pertinent objective and at the

7
same time assuring evolution of engineering (4) Development of professional resources
and operational experience by actually by providing educational opportunities in
designing and building advanced engineering those engineering principles relevant to
products and operating them in the ocean ocean engineering and simultaneous training
environment. in the thought processes which are typical
for applied oceanography, as well as con-
(3) Initiation of systematic develop-
cept formulation and technological fore-
ments in those areas of undersea technology
casting and system analysis pertinent to
which are critical and which require long
the exploration and utilization of ocean
lead times. The results of these develop-
resources.
ments will provide the base for further
advances in ocean engineering in the future.

8
No. 61310

THE DEEP OCEAN WORK BOAT (DOWB), AN ADVANCED


DEEP SUBMERGENCE VEHICLE
by

SCOTT C. DAUBIN
General Motors Corporation
Santa Barbara, California

Paper No.
67-370

AIAA/SNAME Advance marine


whims meeting
NORFOLK, VIRGINIA/MAY 22-24, 1967
First publication rights reserved by American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1290 Avenue of the Americas, New York, N. Y. 10019
and Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, 74 Trinity Place, New York, N. Y. 10006
Abstracts may be published without permission if credit is given to author and to AIAA/SNAME. (Member Price-75c; Nonmember Price$1.50)
1.08
THE DEEP OCEAN WORK BOAT (DOWB),
AN ADVANCED DEEP SUBMERGENCE VEHICLE
Scott C. Daubin
Head, Marine Sciences Section, Sea Operations Department
AC Electronics - Defense Research Laboratories
General Motors Corporation
Santa Barbara, California
Abstract implies. To carry out its mission it is equipped
with an electro-mechanical manipulator and various
The Deep Ocean Work Boat (DOWB) is desig-n- viewing and sensing systems which permit it to op-
ed to carry two persons to 6,500 feet in the ocean erate in the black depths near obstacles and poten-
and there to observe and to do work. The spheri- tial entanglements.
cal pressure hull of HY 100 steel, 82 inches OD by
.935 inch thick, is machined inside and out to an Table I outlines the principal operational char-
almost perfect spherical shell. Two hatches, and acteristics. Figures 1 through 4 show the general
two hatch insert forgings, one in the north polar plan. DOWB's configuration is that of a spherical
regions and one in the south polar regions are the pressure hull surrounded by a free flooding fiber-
only departure from spherical symmetry. A free glass fairing. The prolate spheroid form of the
flooding fiberglass fairing 17 feet long by 8-2/3 fairing is interrupted by the cylindrical main bal-
feet at extreme beam mounts on the spherical last tank penetrating vertically about amidships.
pressure hull. The fairing supports the propulsion The pressure hull withstands pressures up to 2,860
system, manipulator, TV cameras, and various psi and provides a normal atmosphere for the oper-
sonar transducers, and ballast systems, and pro- ators and equipment inside. The fairing provides
vides a smooth hydrodynamic form. A cylindrical foundations for the propulsion motors, propulsion
load skirt, coaxial with the polar axis of the sphere, controllers, manipulator, shot ballast tanks, ver-
provides a tie point for the fairing, supports the nier ballast bladders, retractable mast, high pres-
entire vehicle when out of the water, and provides sure air flasks and piping, sonar transducers, etc.
a foundation for the main batteries. The vehicle The smooth outer skin also minimizes the clanger of
displaces 15,500 pounds on the surface when in entanglement and reduces drag. The load skirt
diving trim; it has a metacentric height of about 13 supports the entire vehicle on land and mounts most
inches on the surface and 5 inches submerged. of the main battery in two concentric rings.
Lead acid main batteries, with flexible PVC cases
specially developed to be light and transmit pres- 2. Drag, Speed, and Power
sure, are immersed directly in sea water; the
parasitic weight of an outer oil tank is avoided. Using a major dimension of 17 feet and assum-
Four AC propulsion motors of 2 SHP each, two in ing a water temperature of 40°F, DOWB's Reynolds
the deck plane and two in a centerline plane per- number as a function of speed, V , in knots
pendicular to the deck plane, provide four degrees becomes:
of maneuvering freedom. Propulsion drive system
is through DC to AC solid state inverters. An op- R = 1.73 x 106V (1)
tical system provides both pilot and observer a full
4-pi solid angle visibility through 180 degree wide Reference 1 reports that a wetted surface drag co-
angle objectives mounted outboard of ports through efficient of 0.027 was useful in the case of the DRV
the hatches at the poles of the pressure hull. A ALVIN. This same coefficient is used to predict
six degree of freedom electro-mechanical manipu- DOWB drag characteristics. Justification for the
lator, capable of lifting a 50 pound weight at a 49 application of ALVIN's drag coefficient to DOWB is
inch reach may be mounted either forward or aft; based on:
the manipulator provides an independently tilting
flange for mounting of TV cameras, lights, and Similarity in length to beam ratios:
sonar transducers. A sonar system with vertical ALVIN - 2.52 (approx.)
fan and conical beams permits search, terrain DOWB -2.32
avoidance, and beacon homing. Upward and down-
ward beaming fathometers, underwater telephone, Similarity in Reynolds number region.
and a free running sonic beacon are provided.
Various buoyancy control features permit normal Insensitivity of ALVIN drag resistance to
surfacing, submerged trim adjustment, and emer- hull shape as reported in Reference 1.
gency buoyancy acquisition. The test programs
are described. Thus using DOWB's calculated wetted surface of
461 ft2 the following expression is obtained for drag
1. General resistance as a function of speed, V , in knots:
The Deep Ocean Work Boat (DOWN is a man- Rf = 35.51V2 (2)
ned undersea vehicle designed to carry two men to
depths of 6,500 feet, there to do work as its name

1
Displacement: Crew 2
Surface (Diving Trim) 15,500 lb
Reserve Buoyancy 3,330 lb Dimensions:
LOA 17 ft 0.0 in.
Pressure Hull: Beam (Extreme) 8 ft 8.25 in.
Shape Sphere
Dimensions ID-80.174 in. Main Power:
Batteries
t- 0.935 in. No. of Cells 120
Material HY-100 Steel Cell Type Delco Type 847
Collapse 11,700 ft
Yield
Location Outboard
Failure Mode Total Energy 40 kwh at 20°C
Payload: Motors (propulsion)
Personnel and Effects 440 lb Number 4
Scientific Instruments 581 lb Function 2 - Horizontal
(and/or ballast) 2 - Vertical
Total Payload 1,021 lb Power (ea shaft)2 hp
Endurance:
Speed-Power
Motor- Speed Propulsion Auxiliary Endurance Ftange
Order (kts) Power (kw) Power (kw) (hr) (mi)
Full 2.5 5.36 1.20 6.1 15.3
Fast
Transit 2.0 2.75 1.20 10.1 20.2
Econ
Transit 1.5 1.16 1.20 17.0 25.5
Search 1.0 0.34 1.20 25.9 25.9
Maneuver 0.5 0.04 1.20 32.2 16.1
Stop 0.0 0.00 1.20 33.3 00.0
Environmental:
02 Storage 160 scf
CO2 Absorbent 25.0 lb (Li0H)
Atmospheric Endurance (nominal) 65 hrs for 2 men (130 manhours)
Environmental Sensing:
Direct Optical Ports at north and south poles of sphere. Internal
optical system to operator and observer. Outboard
system above and below for full spherical visibility.
TV TV camera outboard fore and aft. 3r solid angle
visibility, each. Double monitor inboard.
Illumination Illumination, 250 w mercury vapor lamp. Full
train and elevation on fwd and aft bottomside mounts.
Integrated Sonar Upward and downward fathometer and underwater
System telephone. Precision sonar for search, homing,
beacon acquisition and terrain avoidance.
Manipulator System: Six degrees of freedom electro-mechanical ma-
nipulator. 50 lb underwater weight handling capa-
bility at 49" reach.

TABLE I SUMMARY OF DOWB CHARACTERISTICS

2
UPPER OPTICAL DOME

VERTICAL MOTOR TUBE

LOWER OPTICAL DOME

FIGURE 1. DOWB OUTBOARD PROFILE

PIPING
PENETRATOR
ELECTRICAL
PENETRATOR

VERTICAL
PROPULSION UNIT

MAIN VENT

OPTICAL DOME

FIGURE 2. DOWB OUTBOARD DECK PLAN

3
1800
OPTI CAL HATCH
PROPULS I ON MA I N VENT DOME
CENTRAL
CONTROLLER
OPTI CAL
RETRACTABLE ASSEMBLY FWD
MAST
VERTICAL SHOT TANK
PROPULS I ON
MOTOR
SONAR
MONITORS

TV MONITORS

Wf
mom PRECISION
SONAR TRANDUCERS

INBOARD VERNIER
TRIM TANK

LOAD
PlIFI I

i..41zi
HYDRA UL IC illib
/ TV CAMERA

SKIRT TR IM PUMP ..0.t


OPTI CAL
RELAY TUBE
MAIN
BOTTOM SKI
BATTER I ES
MAN I PULATOR

FIGURE 3. DOWB INBOARD PROFILE

HYDRAUL IC ELECTRIC POWER


TRIM MANIFOLD BOARD MAIN VEHICLE
CONTROL BOARD

I NTEG RATED
SONAR MONITORS

o
A I R FLASK
FOUNDATION

TV MONITORS

HORIZONTAL AUXILIARY
PROPULS I ON MOTOR BOARD

FIGURE 4. DOWB INBOARD DECK PLAN

4
Equation (2) permits calculation of effective 3. Pressure Hull
horsepower:
Retention of symmetry and simplicity were de-
EH? = 0.109 V3 (3) sign objectives of the spherical pressure hull, Fig-
ure 6. Such efficiencies of design would produce a
References (2) and (3) were used to calculate pro- high operating depth to weight ratio, 1.028 feet per
peller efficiency and hull efficiency. At 3 knots lb; furthermore the elimination of any optical view-
the following numbers were found: ing port from the shell matched well the require-
ments of the new optical system discussed in the
Bare Propeller Efficiency - 0.335 section below. The viewing ports are located in the
Shroud Efficiency Correction* - +0.076 centers of the hatches which are found at the poles
Net Propeller Efficiency - 0.411 of the sphere. The only remaining deviations from
Hull Efficiency** - 0.960 spherical symmetry are six conical penetrations
Propulsive Coefficient - 0.395 arranged about the upper hatch in the thickened
section of the hatch insert forging; five of these
This propulsion coefficient with Equation (3) pro- penetrations are for electrical penetrators of 37
duces the shaft horsepower-speed function (where conductors each and one is for a piping penetrator
V is in knots): of two channels.
SHP = 0.276 V3 (4)

Drag, effective and shaft horsepower, Equations


(2), (3), and (4), are plotted in Figure 5.

100

FIGURE 6. DOWB PRESSURE HULL DURING


PFtESSURE TEST OPEFtATIONS

As illustrated in Figure 7 the pressure hull is


designed to yield and to fail by elastic buckling at
approximately the same depth, 10,200 feet. The
hatch insert forgings are designed to minimize
shell bending by compressing at the same rate as
the undisturbed spherical shell and by maintenance
of the neutral surface of the insert ring coincident
0.5 1.0
, SPEED (knots)
5 o
to that of the sphere.
i III I I I I I

0.5 1.0 1.5 2 3 4 5 10

REYNOLDS NUMBER x 10-6


The pressure hull was fabricated from six
principal pieces of HY 100 steel. Two were the
FIGURE 5. DOWB SPEED - DRAG AND SPEED - hemispherical spun heads; two were the hatch in-
POWER CHARACTERISTICS sert forgings; and two were the hatch forgings. The
shell hemispheres were spun from 1.5 inch plate.
They were then machined inside to near the final
* Based on a calculated propeller load coefficient dimensions, welded together at the equator, then
(T/pAqi) of 1.95. machined inside and outside to the final dimension.
**Based on a 15° cant of propeller shafts to C/L The hatch insert forgings were machined inside and
axis.
5
1.21 in Table III. confirm that the pressure hull is a re-
markably precise sphere, having a standard devia-
SPHERICAL PRESSURE
VESSEL NOMOGRAPH
tion of only 0.009 inch in a radius of 40 inches.
(collapse depth in sea water)
1.5
Because deviations from sphericity can cause sig-
1.00
nificant reductions in the depth of shell buckling,
0.90 BUCKLING d
KEWRI2 such precision of fabrication is necessary in a deep
0.44
10-1
diving vehicle.
2f7y(t/R1
d
9
0.44
O. 80
NOTE. 8
The full scale test and analysis program, as
E may be replaced by
7
reported by Reference 4. predicts a collapse pres-
0.70 sure of 5,150 psi (11,700 feet) with a failure mode
6 by yield; Figure 7 shows that the increase in col-
30 5
lapse depth over the design value is due to the use
0.60 15
200
of a yield strength of 115,000 psi for the steel in-
,24s7.
30 4
stead of 100,000 psi and a slightly larger t/R ratio.
ic 80 150

zo
0.50 si.90) 44D 4. Buoyancy and Trim Systems
3
so 1-
- 10
2.29
Three systems are provided by which the net
60 actual) buoyancy of the submarine may be varied. Table
0.40 10
50 5
4
2.24
(design)
IV summarizes the characteristics of these
40
3
2
7 systems.
9
30
YIELD STRENGTH 2
(thousands of psi) 1.5
The main ballast system with a displacement
of 3,330 lb provides about 20°Z, surface re-
COLLAPSE DEPTH serve buoyancy. The tank is flooded by
0.30' (thousands of feet) opening the two motor operated main vent
K FACTOR ALDI ILIARY
SCALE
7- 10-2 valves in the tank top. The tank is de-
YOUNG'S MODULUS
(millions of psi)
tIR watered by blowing with HP air through
solenoid operated valves.
FIGURE 7. SPHERICAL PRESSURE HULL DESIGN The vernier trim system provides for pre-
NOMOGRAPH cise and reversible adjustments in submerg-
ed displacement. It is used primarily for
out and then welded to the polar regions of the acquiring and maintaining a neutral trim, or
sphere. Thus only three principal welds were a trim as otherwise specified, at the operat-
made: the equatorial weld and two girth welds at ing depth. It consists of the central trim
latitudes of approximately 600 north and south. tank in the pressure hull, the forward and
Welding was in accordance with Navy instructions aft trim bladders, the hydraulic trim pump,
for HY 80 steel: only certified welders worked, and associated piping, valves, and fittings.
electrodes were carefully conditioned and handled, To increase displacement, and hence buoy-
the hull was preheated, and once a weld was start- ancy, oil is pumped from the tank to the
ed and the root pass inspected welding was contin- bladders; to decrease displacement oil is
ued without interruption until completion of the bled back into the tank from the bladders.
joint. The hull was rotated on trunions to permit Fore and aft trim may be adjusted through a
complete downhand welding. Each weld was in- range of +250 by transferring oil between
spected by three methods: magnetic particle, X- the bladders.
ray, and sonic.
The shot ballast system provides for com-
The entire hull and hatches were stress re- pensating variations in loading between
lieved at 1150°F for one hour. Because of their in- dives and for the application of net negative
creased thickness the insert forgings and hatches or positive buoyancy during deep descents
had previously been stress relieved alone for one or ascents for the purpose of conserving
hour. Impact, bend and tensile samples were battery energy. A motor driven ball stop
stress relieved along with the sphere; results are meters shot out of the two tanks.
shown in Table II. After stress relieving the
sphere was subjected to a detailed measurement In emergencies various items can be jettisoned
program. An arm pivoted at the center of the either to acquire buoyancy or to extricate the ve-
sphere measured the radius at each 3 degrees of hicle from entanglements. The two 120 volt marn
latitude between 69°N and S on each of eight merid- batteries can be dropped separately, each provid-
ians. At each measurement point shell thickness ing about 750 lb of positive buoyancy. Should the
was measured sonically. In addition, the spheric- shot metering mechanism fail the shot tanks can be
ity of the outer surface was checked with a special dropped as units. The manipulator can be jettison-
fixture machined to the exact arc of the nominal ed in event of entanglement. A protective cover
outer radius. These measurements, summarized and an arming switch protects all emergency

6
,
Physicals before Stress Rel. Physicals after Stress Rel.
No. Item Tested Yield Tensile % El. R/A Yield Tensile % El. R/A
' .
I Wldg. Proc.Test
Plate
p* Mill Test Report 109, 100 123,900 22 66.5
w .904 Reduc. Sect
Tensile 120,575 130,531 19 121,381 133,073 13
w .898 Reduc. Sect
Tensile 124,722 132,238 15 117,453 133,370 11
p .505 Reduc. Sect
Tensile (Hemi-
sphere Parent) 132,867 140,360_ 20 63.5
w Side Bends OIC OK
p Charpy's (Mill) 60 - 62 - 64 at -120oF
p Charpy's (H&C)** 32.5 - 32.5 - 39.5-120oF
0at
w Charpy's (H&C) 38 - 42 - 44 at -60 F 24 - 25 - 25.5 at -600F
ll Hatch Insert
Forging
p Mill Test Report 104, 900 120, 600 21 70
p Mill Test Report 104,500 121,000 22 70
p Tensile .506 Re-
duc. Sect 126,866 137,065 19 64.8
p Charpy's (Mill) 51.5 - 61 - 60.5 at -120°F
p Charpy's (Mill) 58.5 - 63 - 66 at -120°F
p Charpy's (H&C) 17 - 19 - 23 at -120°F
p Side Bends OK
III Hatch Cover '
Forging
p Mi 1 Test Report 103,000 119,200 20 65
p Mill Test Report 103,200 119,400 22 71
p Tensile .357
Reduc. Sect 102,000 117,700 21.0166.0
p Charpy's (Mili) 58 - 66.5 - 68 at -1200P
p Charpy's (Mill) 57.5 - 58 - 61.5 at -120°F
p Charpy's (H& C) 21.5 - 24.0 - 27.0 at -1200F
p Side Bends
, OK
* "p" denotes test made on parent metal; "w" denotes test made on welded specimen.
**H&C - "Halm & Clay"
TABLE II PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF DOWB HY 100 PFtESSURE HULL
MATERIAL BEFORE AND
AFTER STRESS RELIEF

Raditis (inches) Thickness (inches)


Longitude Maximum Minimum Average Stnd. Dev. Maximum Minimum Average Stnd. Dev,
000 40.097 40.031 40.086 .011 0.932 0.907 0.921 .008
045W 40.099 40.056 40.087 .009 0.946 0.916 0.939 .007
090W 40.099 40.065 40.089 .007 0.950 0.921 0.942 .007
135W 40.097 40.064 40.086 .006 0.941 0.911 0.931 .006
180 40.097 40.055 40.087 .009 0.941 0.905 0.930 .007
135E 40.097 40.058 40.084 .008 0.948 0.914 0.939 .008
090E 40.097 40.047 40.087 .009 0.945 0.917 0.936 .006
045E 40.102 40.046 40.090 .010 0.950 0.911 0.940 .007
NET 40.102 40.031 40.087 .009 0.950 0.905 0.935 .007

TABLE III DOWB PRESSURE HULL SHELL MEASUFtEMENT SUMMARY


(Readings were taken every 3° of latitude between 60°N and 60°S on each indicated meridian. A total of
41 readings for each meridian and 328 readings for spherical shell were taken.)

7
Type Buoyancy Range Main A uxi lia ryEmergency
Buoy- Battery Battery Battery
Variable ancy Wt. Moment
System Wt. Disp. Mat'l (lb) (ft-lb) Type Lead Acid Silver Zinc Alkaline
Main Volts
Ballast (O. C. ) 120 30 30
(Reversible) x Water 3,330 0
Ampere-
Vernier Hours 366 72
Trim Fwd- 240 KWH 40 1.82
(Reversible) x Oil 512 Aft - 320
Number
Shot Cells 120 16 5
Ballast
(Non- Iron 900 Fwd-1,535 Mfg. R.z. Cell Elements: Yardney Eveready
Reversible) x Shot Aft -1,535 Model No. DELCO Type Model Vlodel No.
- 847 HR-72 520
Cases:
TABLE W BUOYANCY AND TRIM SYSTEMS AC-DRL
SUM IVIA RY
Special
Development
release controls from inadvertent operation.
Three separate sources of power are available to TABLE V DOWB BATTERY CHARACTERISTICS
operate the emergency circuits: the emergency
battery which has no other function, the auxiliary
battery, or a spare battery which may be tied into
the system through terminal posts.
5. Energy Storage, Conversion,
and Distribution
Energy is supplied by three functionally dis-
tinct batteries: the main battery, the auxiliary
battery, and the emergency battery. The main
battery provides electrical energy for the propul-
sion system and most of the DC loads internal to
the pressure hull and most of the AC loads via the
main DC/AC inverters. The auxiliary battery sup- FIGURE 8. DOWB MAIN BATTERY
plies low voltage DC circuits which require a sep-
arate source and backs up the main battery through transmits sea pressure to the electrolyte. Copper
the emergency DC/AC inverter; the hydraulic trim bussing connects the cells together rigidly and per-
pump motor is the heaviest load supplied by the manently to form a 12 volt battery; these intercell
auxiliary battery. The emergency battery provides connections are jacketed with molded polyurethane. 1

power to the emergency release system exclusive- Thus pressure compensated and insuluted, the bat-
ly. The main battery is located outboard; the aux- teries are immersible in sea water. Heavy duty
iliary and emergency batteries are located inboard (60 amp), in-line, pressure proof, underwater con-
in the pressure hull. nectors connect to the end terminal to permit "un-
plugging" of the 12 volt batteries from one another
Table V outlines the characteristics of the for removal and maintenance. A fiberglass battery
principal battery systemS.. tray contains each 12 volt battery and provides
means for attaching to the load skirt. A dielectric
The main battery consisting of two separate oil supplied from a central reservoir through a
120 volt batteries is supported by the load skirt in header manifold floats over the electrolyte. Gas
two concentric rings. These separate batteries escaping from each cell rises to the header, on the
are named "inner" and "outer" in accordance with way passing through a baffle assembly to separate
their position relative to the load skirt. The elec- electrolyte carried over, and then passes to the
trically independent inner and outer main batteries reservoir and,after sufficient volume has been col-
may be paralleled through the main propulsion lected and pressure built up, out the gas bleed
switching circuit. valve. See Figure 9.

Each main battery consists of ten 12 volt The 120 volt DC is converted to 115 volts, 60
batteries connected in series. Each 12 volt bat- cycle, single phase AC by two solid state inverters
tery, Figure 8, consists of 6 separate cells of 400 watt rated load each (500 watt intermittent).
whose cases and tops are molded of unplasticised, An emergency 100 watt inverter, for use when the
Type I, polyvinylchloride by the intrusion process. main batteries are gone, is powered from the aux-
Reference 5. The flexibility in the cell wall iliary battery. AC circuits have the selection
8
Figure 11 shows one of the oil filled, pressure
compensated, three phase induction propulsion mo-
tors. A pressure compensating system pressuriz-
MPS
es the internal volume of the motor 5 psi in excess
/WWI 11 /3. of ambient to insure that any seal leakage will be
outward; an oil reservoir on each motor contains a
5% reserve volume. A planetary 6.25:1 speed re-
ducer is driven by the motor armature and drives
-7 ,,,,,rdwounsumininorIMMAIWIf the output shaft on which the propeller mounts. The
141 ,SIA14.1017SWl speed reducer, a development of the General
Motors Research Laboratories, Reference 6,
known as the "friction drive" resembles a planetary
reduction gear with one major exception: there are
no gears, only wheels and rings with smooth con-
tact surfaces. Friction between the elements de-
velops the output torque. An essential feature of
the GM friction drive is that the inter-element con-
tact friction is a function of the output torque,
thereby providing high efficiencies at low torque
levels and the capability of generating large output
torques with no slippage. High efficiency and low
I I

radiated noise are the virtues of this speed reducer


of most importance in this application.
FIGURE 9. DOWB BATTERY OIL RESERVOIR
AND GAS BLEED VALVE

choice of any of these three 115 volt, 60 cycle,


single phase inverters: number one, number two,
or emergency. In addition there are two special
purpose inverters: one which powers the 250 watt
mercury vapor search lamp from the main battery
and one which powers the 400 cycle, 3 phase, di-
rectional gyro from the auxiliary battery.
Five electrical penetrators, Figure 10, lead
power and signal circuits through the pressure
hull. Each penetrator contains 37 conductors: 29
#16 AWG leads, 4 #14 AWG leads, and 2 coaxial
cables RG-186 A/U.

FIGURE 11. DOWB PROPULSION MOTOR


Each propulsion motor is driven through a pro-
pulsion controller, Figure 12, housed within its
own pressure vessel in the fairing. The propulsion
controller mediates among three elements: the op-
FIGURE 10. DOWB ELECTRICAL PENETRATOR erator, the power source, and the motor. It re-
ceives speed and direction command signals elec-
6. Main Propulsion trically from the operator in the pressure hull, re-
ceives actual speed signals from the motor, and
Four ducted main propulsion motors provide converts the 120 volt DC voltage from the battery
four degrees of maneuvering freedom to the ve- to a three phase AC driving signal of the proper
hicle: fore and aft thrust, vertical thrust, yaw frequency to drive the motor. The controller unit
twist, and trim twist. Two "horizontal" propul- automatically adjusts phase rotation frequency to
sion units are in the deck plane of the vehicle, maintain a constant slip frequency with respect to
canted outboard at 150. Two "vertical" units are armature rotation speed, thus producing high mo-
located fore and aft with their axes normal to the tor efficiency throughout all speed ranges, high
deck plane. The propulsion motors deliver two starting torque, and short response time.
shaft horsepower to 18 inch diameter propellers at
486 rpm.

9
FIGURE 12. DOWB PROPULSION CONTROLLER
7. Sensing Systems
Three environmental sensing systems, the op-
tical system, the TV system, and the integrated
sonar system, provide to the operators information
on the vehicle's environment.
FIGURE 13. DOWB OPTICAL DOME
Optical System
A pressing need in the design of underwater The integrated sonar system contains the following
vehicles is improved viewing capability: field of units:
view, visual acuity, and operator comfort. DOWB's
optical system, interposed between the external Precision Sonar
light field and the observer, brings the image to Underwater Telephone
the observer rather than vice-versa, which is the Fathometer
rule in most existing vehicles. DOWB's observers Beacon.
view the surroundings from a comfortable seated
position. The system provides full hemispheric Figure 14 is a block diagram of the integrated
visibility, top or bottom, for each of two observers sonar system; Table VI summarizes system
The optical axis is coincident with the polar axis of characteristics.
the spherical pressure hull. An optical dome con-
taining a 1800 wide angle lens assembly is mounted SONAR
TRANSDUCER
UPWARD
FAT HAM PHONE
on the outboard side of each hatch, Figure 13. HEAD
SCÁNNER
TRANSDUCER
Light gathered by the dome is refracted and trans- MECHANISM
o

mitted through the plexiglass port in the center of 2 COAX I AL:


the hatch, into the optical relay tube, and into the CABLES

central optical assembly where it is formed into HORIZONTAL

separate images for each observer. The arrange- SCAN INDI ACTOR

SONAR
(CRT) (PPP
ment of the optical system is shown in Figure 3. ELECTRONICS
VERTICAL
Each observer may choose independently to see the I SCAN INDICATOR
"upper" or "lower" hemispheres. The observers' ) (CRT) (type E)

field is similar to a PPI presentation in that it rep- MANIPULATOR FATHOMETER


resents an area with the vehicle at the center. Rel- INTERFACE UNITI_ INDICATOR
IDVM)
ative bearing in the image field represents relative
bearing of the object; radial distance however rep- TO RECORDER COAX IAL

resents zenith (or nadir) angle, from 00 at the cen- CABLES

ter to 90° at the edge of the field. A removable ELECTRONICS


IFATHOMETER
sunshade which blocks out the sun through 90° in SWITCHING

bearing and all elevations above 450 may be insert- VOICE UNDERWATER UNIT

ed into each eyepiece. An illuminated reticle marks MODULATION TELEPHONE


ELECTRONICS
every 30°of bearing and every 30° of zenith angle. I AUDIO is
DOWNWARD
OUTPUT
FATHJUW PHONE
Integrated Sonar System TRANSDUCER

Because sea water is relatively transparent to FIGURE 14. BLOCK DIAGRAM DOWB INTE-
acoustical energy, sonar provides the primary
means of underwater detection and communication. GRATED SONAR SYSTEM

10
Precision Sonar
Azimuth Elevation U/W
Beam Beam Fathometer Telephone Beacon
Carrier Frequency 225 175 30 8.05 16
(kHz)
Modulation PM (P1) PM (P1) PM (P1) FM (F3) PM (P1)
Pulsewidth 0.5 0.5 10 4
(ms)
Pulse Rep. Rate Variable (See Below) 0.33 0.1
(13P s)
Output Power (peak,
acoustic)(watts) 100 10 1 6 10
Receiver Bandwidth 20 20 3 2
(kHz)
Beamwidth 3x45 3x3 Up - 30 (cone) Up - 180 45 (cone)
(°) Down - 10 (cone) Down - 180
Display Type P(PPI) Type E Digital Speaker
(7" CRT, P7 Voltmeter
Phosphor) (1' res.)
Range Capability 570 on 0.1 sq yd
(yards) target
1500 on beacon
Range Scale/Scan 1000/3/0.835
Rate/Pulse Rep. 500/5/1.67
Rate 100/25/8
(yards/deg per 50/50/160
sec/pps)
Notes Auto Scan Sectors Compatible 7 day life
340° with UQC
30° at any angle
Maximum Power
Drain (watts) , 273 70 100

TABLE VI INTEGRATED SONAR CHARACTERISTICS


The precision sonar is used for small object unit chosen to the desired transducer and reverts
location, terrain avoidance, navigation, mapping, any unit which was previously connected thereto to
and beacon (or transponder) acquisition. It operates "stand-by". The fathometer indication is a digital
two beams in the "searchlight" mode, a vertical readout which contains an attachment point for an
"fan" which indicates in a PPI scope, and a "pencil" analog recorder. A "false bottom" discriminator
beam which indicates in a Type E scope (range vs circuit prevents any readings less than a preset
elevation angle). The vertical fan searches in azi- depth interval; thus with an approximate knowledge
muth; the pencil beam examines targets and terrain of the distance to the bottom or the surface, spuri-
in vertical section. Transducers for both beams ous reflective layers can be ignored.
mount on the manipulator assembly on the TV cam-
era; they train with the manipulator but elevate in- TV System
dependently of the arm. A selector switch on the As seen in Figures 3 and 15, a television cam-
operator's console chooses one of two mechanical era and underwater light attach to the auxiliary
modes of operation; manual or automatic scan. In flange of the manipulator assembly; they train with
manual training is under the control of the manipu- the manipulator but elevate independently of the
lator operator through the manipulator control box; arm. The camera covers a field well over a hem-
in automatic scan the entire manipulator assembly isphere in solid angle and oriented forward; it thus
(with the transducers) will train back and forth over views an otherwise blind laminar volume between
a 300 or 3400 azimuth range at any chosen central the upper and lower optical fields. Two 9 inch
bearing. monitors are provided; the second will serve a sec-
ond camera which can be mounted aft. For launch-
The underwater telephone and fathometer ing and recovery the camera along with the "fore-
share the upward and downward beaming transduc- arm" of the manipulator house in the vertical motor
ers. A selector interlock system connects the last
11
Angular
Degree of Angular Indic-
Freedom Limits ation Speed, Etc.
Shoulder
Rotation 370o Yes 2. 5 RPM
Shoulder
Pivot 320° Yes 2.0 RPM
Elbow
' Pivot 320° Yes 2. 1 RPM
Wrist
Pivot 328o Yes 2.2 RPM
Wrist
Rotation Continuous No Torque-8-in. lb
Speed-5 RPM
'FIGURE 15. DOWB MANIPULATOR Hand
Grip - No Travel-0-4 in.
tube; the underwater light is removed. Table VII Force-0-120 lb
lists the DOWB's present TV system hardware. Speed-35 in./min
Auxil-
Camera Vidicon OEC Model 110 iary o
Flange 340 Yes Torque-160 in.lb
Monitor 9"Sony Model PVJ - 3040 Speed-1.9 RPM
U/W Light 250W Mercury Vapor OEC Weights
Model LDC-250 (lb) Air Water
TABLE VII TV SYSTEM EQUIPMENT Dry 153
Fluid
8. Manipulator Filled 185 105

As armament is to a military submarine, so Reach (Shoulder Axis to Finger Tips) - 49 inches


the "arm" is to a submersible work boat; it is es- Weight Handling Capacity (at maximum
sential to the accomplishment of the primary mis- reach) - 50 lb
sion. DOWB has an electro-mechanical manipulat-
or with six "degrees of freedom", Figure 15. In TABLE VIII MANIPULATOR
event of entanglement the oil filled, pressure CHARACTERISTIC SUMMARY
compensated manipulator is jettisonable. In addi-
tion to the "arm" the manipulator mounts an auxil- hydroxide. Assuming 100% CO2 removal, the con-
iary flange opposite to the shoulder pivot. The aux- trol objective is to supply just enough oxygen to re-
iliary flange, training with the manipulator but ele- place that which is removed by metabolism. The
vating independently, provides a mounting for the monitoring instruments keep track of the atmos-
TV camera, underwater light, and precision sonar pheric composition; the basic instruments are a
transducers; Figure 15 shows the cabling for these continuously reading oxygen concentration indicator,
units extending through the auxiliary flange. A two a thermometer, a continuously reading hygrometer,
speed switching circuit, powered from the 120 volt and an aircraft altimeter which summarizes the net
main battery and the 30 volt auxiliary battery, con- effects in terms of pressure. Since the scrubber
trols all six arm functions plus the elevation of the capacity is large and its efficiency is high, carbon
auxiliary flange. Table VIII summarizes manipu- dioxide and carbon monoxide are monitored inter-
lator functions and capabilities. mittently by hand operated instruments. Air forced
through a desicant stack keeps humidity low.
9. Atmospheric Control
The altimeter is a sensitive indicator of
The atmospheric control systems consist of the change. For DOWB's pressure hull volume of 140
oxygen replenishment system, the CO2 removal cu ft a one percent increase in oxygen or carbon di-
system, the humidity and temperature control sys- oxide percentage will cause a decrease in altitude
tem, and the atmospheric monitoring system. The of 277 feet. Unfortunately temperature and relative
oxygen replenishment and CO2 removal systems humidity also cause indicated altitude changes. Fig-
operate together. Oxygen is supplied from a high ure 16 provides a means for calculating altimeter
pressure flask through a reducing valve, a flow con- corrections for changes in temperature and relative
trol valve, a rotameter flow indicator and then to humidity in order that the effects of gas concentra-
the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide is removed in a tion changes may be found. Since the corrected al-
forced ventilated scrubber stack containing lithium timeter reading is the most sensitive indicator of

12
500
opening of top hatch in seas which otherwise
15°
would swamp vehicle.
11. Quality Assurance Program
o Quality is assured by instruction, inspection,
documentation, and test. The following procedures
were invoked:

Engineering specifications were issued for


2 -500
major systems and components, including:
pressure hull, hatches, fairing, internal
NORMALIZING
GRID
structure, optical system, manipulator,
propulsion system. These specifications
required specific material certification and
R. H. 0%
inspection documentation, written manu-
R. H. 10% facturing procedures, and testing. In the
R. H. 20%
case of the pressure hull an independent
inspection agency was retained to provide
R. H. 30%
detailed inspection and certification during
R. H. 40% the manufacturing period, Reference 4.
-1500 R. H. 50%

R. H. 60%
Contractor specifications were required on
R. H. 70%
other systems, including sonar, TV, in-
verters, underwater lights.
R H. 80%

-2000 111111111111111 RH.100%


R. H. 90% Formal, controlled working plans were
15 20
1-°c
25 30 used for the manufacture of parts and
I I I I 1
assemblies.
60 65 70 75 80 85
1') F
A shop test program requiring formal test
FIGURE 16. DOWB PRESSURE HULL
reports was followed. This included in-
ALTIMETER CORRECTION
spection, operational, and pressure
testing. Table X summarizes the pressure
FOR TEMPERATURE AND test program.
RELATIVE HUMIDITY
Sea trials are to be conducted. These in-
atmospheric conditions oxygen flow rate is adjusted clude ballasting and trim, dock trials,
in response to this instrument. Oxygen concentra- underway surface trials, towing and hand-
tion readings are used to confirm the purity of the ling, personnel transfer, shallow submer-
atmosphere. Table DC summarizes the atmospher- gence, surface and submerged propulsion,
ic control system performance characteristics and jettison trials, replenishment at sea
hardware. (battery and air charging, chemical resup-
ply), air revitalization, and deep
10. Handling submergence.
Three lifting eyes attached to the pressure hull References
at the top hatch insert forging permit handling by
crane. Four additional items of detachable equip- J.W. Mayor, Jr., et al., "Alvin, 6000-Ft Sub-
ment serve handling functions but do not offer par- mergence Research Vehicle," SNAME, Ann.
asitic weight during operations: Meeting, Oct 24, 1966, Paper No. 3
E. L. Attwood and H. S. Pengelly, "Theoretical
Towing Frame - Provides towing eye Naval Architecture," Longmans, Green and Co.
forward (1956)
H. E. Rossell and L. B. Chapman, "Principles
Spreader Bar - Provides hard handling of Naval Architecture-Vol. II," SNAME (1958)
eyes outboard of beam amidships E. M. Briggs, J. J. Jones, R. C. DeHart, "Fab-
rication Inspection and Experimental Stress
Freeboard Extender, Lower - Increases Analysis for the Deep Ocean Work Boat,"
freeboard to 57 inches for personnel trans- Southwest Research Institute (Jan 1967)
fer in seaway using top hatch Martin Usab, " 'Intrusion' is a Versatile New
Process for Thermoplastics," Western Plastics
Freeboard Extender, Top - Completely Technical Report No. 66, Oct 1960
encloses portable fairwater to permit

13
DOWB Interior Volume, Nominal 140 cu ft
Nominal Respiration Ftates: Per Man Per 2 Men
02 1.0 scf/hr 2.0 scf/hr
186 scc/min 372 scc/min
CO2
0.8 scf/hr 1.6 scf/hr
149 scc/min 298 scc/min
CO2 Scrubbing Effctiveness:
Chemical Absorption at 60% Eff. LiOH 4.46 scf/lb
NaOH 2.68 scf/lb
Scrubber Flow Rate 20 scf/min
Atmosphere Change Time 7 min
Atmospheric Replenishment Chemical Supply:
160 scf 160 man hours
02 (in 2 Q80SCF Flasks)
LiOH* 25 lbs 139 man hours
NaOH* 40 lb 134 man hours
Instrumentation:
02 Indicator Teledyne, Inc. TAI Series
Model 320 Cell Type B-1
02 Flowmeter Brooks Instrument, Rotameter
Model 1110 Sapphire Float
Scale 50-500 scc/min
CO2 Indicator Scott Draeger Ch 251 (1%)
Ch 235 (.1%)
CO Indicator Scott Draeger Ch 289

Either LiOH or NaOH is used, not both.

TABLE DC DOWB ATMOSPHERIC CONTROL SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS

No. Max. Pressure


Equipment Cycles (psig) Notes
Pressure Hull 4 3300 Reference 4
10 3000
Propulsion Pressure
Vessels 2 3300
5 3000
Pressure Transducer
Housings 2 3300
Penetrators, Electrical 2 5000 12 hour soak at
5000 psi
Penetrators, Piping 4 3300 With pressure
10 3000 hull
Inboard Pressure Piping 2 4500
Main Batteries 1 3000 Discharged at
pressure
,

TABLE X DOWB COMPONENT PRESSURE TEST SUMMARY

14
No. 61311

A SUBMARINE DESIGN FOR WORK AND RESEARCH


BEAVER MARK IV
by

F. G. ARCHBOLD
North American Aviation, Inc.
Anaheim, California

Paper No.
67-371

AIAA/SHAME Advance marine


whims meeting
NORFOLK, VIRGINIA/MAY 22-24, 1967
First publication rights reserved by Arnerican Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1290 Avenue of the Americas, New York, N. Y. 10019
and Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, 74 Trinity Place, New York, N. Y. 10006
Abstracts may be published without permission if credit is given ta author and to AIAA/SNAME. (Member Price-75c; Nonrnember Price$1.50)
1.08
A SUBMARINE DESIGN FOR WORK AND RESEARCH
NORTH AMERICAN AVIATION BEAVER MARK IV

F. G. Archbold*
Manager, Submarine Construction
Ocean Systems Operations, North American Aviation, Inc.

Abstract Program Objectives


Beaver Mark IV is a small deep diving submarine The first step in the Beaver Mark IV program was to
that will perform real-life work tasks in the ocean; will establish the potential missions. This was accomplished
be capable of active oceanographic research tasks - as under the direction of Dr. Andreas Rechnitzer, Director,
opposed to simply observing; and will be able to easily Ocean Sciences. A matrix of missions and employment
and quickly transfer men from the surface to underseas for a deep submersible appropriate to the current period
habitats. of oceanographic development was prepared in which
tasks and missions were identified, evaluated, placed
This paper will discuss the design to achieve this in an order of priority, and ultimately assembled in
flexible capability. It describes the design approach in logically related groups. A number of the staff of
which attention is directed, not only to the functional Ocean Systems Operations, representing a broad spec-
requirement for each subsystem, but also to the inter- trum of interest and experience, contributed to this
action of the parts which form the whole. The dominant analysis and from it the following vehicle capabilities
characteristic of this small submarine is that it is a as objectives of the design were derived:
"work system."
Safety, high reliability, good viewing, multiple
manipulation with interchangeable tools, maneuverability,
control systems related to the various work functions,
a diver lockout, and a mating capability are the major MISSION ANALYSIS
elements that have been worked into a balanced design. RESULTS'.BEAVER MKT TO PAVE S BASIC CAPABILITIES

Because it is a workboat for industrial purposes, WORK VEHICLE


PERFORM USEFUL WORK-CARRY MAXIMUM' UTINSELS" HEAVY
economy and ease of maintenance have been watchwords EMPHASIS ON VIEWING FOR BOTH PILOT MANINLATOR OPERATOR .
throughout the planning and design. SCIENTIFIC VEHICLE -
PERFORM SCIENTIFIC DATA GATHERING LARGE FLEXIBLE PAYLOAD
The Beaver Mark IV is being designed and con- DIVER LOCK-IN/LOCK-OUT VEHICLE
structed by North American Aviation, Inc. PERFORM AS A STABLE OR MOBILE PLATFORM TO surrou
oivING OPERATIONS
HABITAT LOCK-ON VEHICLE
I. Introduction TRANSFER PERSONNEL. TO SUB-SURFACE HABITATS AT NORMAL
ATMOSPHERE. MULTIPLE LOCK-ON ADAPTATION TO SURFACRSOMERGED
The Deep Manned Vehicles Workshop held at the DECOMPRESSION CHAMBERS 4 SUBMARINE ESCAPE CHAMBERS
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute in November 1966 PASSENGER VEHICLE
was an informative and enriching experience to those SEPNE AS A CUSTOMER DEMONSTRATION PLATFORM
attending. The views that evolved came from a sub- CARRY MAXIMUM OF PERSONNEL
stantial and representative group of scientists and
engineers actively engaged in this field. Dr. Allyn C. Slide 1
Vine in summing up the session noted, among other
things, that he had observed a crystallization of a
feeling among many of us present, that a "first plateau" Work Vehicle A vehicle that can perform
had been reached in the deep vehicle field. He further useful work while carrying a minimum of scientific
noted that this plateau, albeit somewhat shaky, might be equipment and personnel, and a maximum number of
the point at which the goals for the new vehicles being "utensils."
developed could now properly be expanded with greater Scientific Vehicle A vehicle that can perform
emphasis placed on improving the efficiency of accom- scientific data gathering while carrying a minimum of
plishing work tasks, of data taking and exploration, and personnel and a maximum scientific payload.
in the use of t.he vehicles to transfer men to underseas
habitats. Diver Lock-In/Lockout Vehicle A vehicle
that can perform as a stable mobile platform for pur-
Unquestionably, it becomes important to extend the poses of diver lock-in/lockout exercises utilizing
"time on the bottom" during any given operation. One of standard and esoteric gas mixtures with conventional
the important criteria for judging the effectiveness of and experimental diver equipment.
the next generation of vehicles no doubt will be how much Habitat Lock-On Vehicle A vehicle that can
actual tuiderseas work can be accomplished during a perform as a mobile lock-on platform for atmospheric
deployment rather than just getting down and observing. habitats. Multiple exchange lock-on adaptation capa-
bility should further exist with submersible and surface
The concept and design of the Beaver reflects a decompression chambers. Consideration should be
recognition of this trend. The characteristics noted given to adapting this lock-on capability to submarine
above have importantly influenced the preliminary escape chambers.
studies and design that have been carried out during the
past nine months. Passenger Vehicle A vehicle that can serve
as a customer demonstration platform while carrying a
*Member, Society of Naval Architects and Marine minimum of equipment and a maximum of personnel.
Engineers
1
Before going into deta.ils of the Beaver, I would like, II. General Characteristics
in the interest of an orderly- presentation, to touch briefly
on the process we at North American Aviation use for the The Beaver is 25 feet long, and is designed for
development of a new vehicle or equipment and operations to 2000 foot depth. The submarine dimen-
which is being used on Beaver Mark IV. It involves the sions allow air-lift in large cargo planes, such as the
use of a formal method of dealing with overall "systemP C-124A, C-133A, C-141, as well as several others.
considerations, the first step of which was the establish- The hull lines are shown in Figure 2. Figure 3 is a
ment of the desired capability discussed earlier. preliminary arrangement drawing. The Beaver carries
a pilot and an observer or manipulator operator in the
While there is nothing new or unique in thoroughly forward pressure hull, and two divers or passengers in
considering, at the start of a program, the total required the after hull. The hulls are spherical and are con-
characteristics for a design, nor in insistence on overall nected by a trunk. The after sphere has a skirt that is
schematics for subsystems before detailing them, we integral with it and is designed so that various adapters
have found it advantageous to require a specific and for mating can be bolted on. Diver operation can be
formal series of steps which are commenced prior to conducted from this sphere. A third observer can be
actual design and continue through delivery. accommodated in the forward sphere for limited periods.
Sufficient buoyancy- has been provided for a payload of
Imposing this internal discipline which involves all 2,000 pounds. Two manipulators are provided which
matters relating to the vehicle from concept to post- can be located on any of the four mounting locations on
delivery operations has been very effective in reducing the forebody.
oversights and surprises. The process is an iterative
one and includes an exchange between all segments of
effort carried on throughout the life of the program.
Each significant decision is compared to a plane of
reference that considers the total system effect of the
decision. The goal is to assure that all system objec-
tives are achieved. Cost control runs parallel with the
program and is obviously one of the elements that enter
into the tradeoff for each choice of action. Throughout
this process there are documents published at appro-
priate milestone points which delineate the results of the
analysis or design. This is called a Systems Engineering
Data Manual.
Upon completion of the Mission Analysis, the
Engineering Department established a set of require-
ments which would produce a vehicle capable of fulfilling
the objectives. This was followed by the preliminary
design of the vehicle and the establishment of design
criteria for subsystems and components. The actual
design of the vehicle then began in depth.
It is worthy of emphasis to note that safety and Slide 2
reliability are considered inherent characteristics of a
design and form a part of each of the steps that lead to Considerable attention has been given to the sub-
a completed vehicle. The design review process which ject of pilot and observer visibility, and ten viewports
occurs at each milestone, examines the safety, reliability have been provided in the forward sphere. An extend-
and failure modes in the same depth as strength of able boom with a light that can be localized above the
structure, choice of materials, etc. normal work area, and a pan and tilt array with a TV
camera, strobe light, still and movie camera and a
At about the same time as the commencement of mercury vapor light are provided on the forebody to
preliminary design, program scheduling and long lead further enhance observation. The TV presentation will
material planning are undertaken. As the preliminary be immediately in front of the pilot.
design matures, planning begins in earnest for vehicle
construction, shop tests, and sea trials. The Beaver will be capable of 5 knots for short
periods and a 12-hour endurance at lower speeds, with
Early in the design process, an appraisal is made a life support capability in each sphere for 44 hours.
as to what quality verification testing will be required Propulsion is provided by an inverted Y configuration of
and testing is initiated. This item, as well as others, three electrical motors and propellers that can be
are determined in accordance with a certification plan. rotated about their axes. A variable ballast and trim
At the same time, studies are started on what logistic system allow the vehicle to change pitch, roll, accommo-
and facilities support will be needed during construction date all the changes in buoyancy that are anticipated
and trials as well as for the post delivery operations of while operating, and compensate for an increase or
the vehicle. The studies are followed by implementation decrease of payload after submerging.
which is time-phased to the program.
The submarine will be equipped with a suit of
An abridged chart summarizing the steps involved sensors that can be altered as Beaver's utilization
is shown in Figure 1. Lines of information flow have develops the need. Among the original equipment
been omitted in the interest of simplicity. However, it planned will be a heading reference suitable for inter-
should be emphasized, there is a continuing flow of ideas facing with a doppler navigator at a subsequent date,
between each stage. water velocity sensors, pitch and roll indicator and an
X-Y plotter. A magnetic compass is provided for back
up. An underwater telephone with the upper transponder
2
MISSION ANALYSES

(capabilities desired)

VEHICLE REQUIREMENTS

(to satisfy Mission Analysis)

Program Scheduling
PRELIMINARY DESIGN COMPONENT DESIGN CRITERIA

Planning for:
Long Lead Material Items DESIGN Design Reviews
Construction
Quality Control
Quality Verification of Components
Testing
Trials, Evaluation &Acceptance
Logistics & Support Facilities
For All of Above

Logistics & Facilities Support CONSTRUCTION Quality Control &Inspection

TESTS

DOCK &BUILDERS TRIALS


EVALUATION & ENDURANCE TRIALS
ACCEPTANCE &CERTIFICATION TRIALS

DOCUMENTATION

POST DELIVERY OPERAIIONS

Figure 1. System Engineering


A IV Id sr
;

wpoee
r .

Figure 2. Hull Lines


1141/ bccr Ark
arcncw C- C
mADIAUAr Cf0SC-SECTIOAI
th
Ty ,t sr,LL cam-ct,
t z,versrawrao
01 PA. e I7LE
VE,A1,41

PRO

IE01
ter
strum

POSE UNE
EODL RACE
SIET>ON 8-13 SecnON A-A
71.0.,6u A in kIEr< Ir IWO EVO (IE MOP SO, A
s/Avikol Afar EA, WE,. AP 2. ¿C 20 II e G

Figure 3. Preliminary Arrangement Drawing


of the searchlight type and the lower transponder of the for emergency escape. A similar valve is planned for
doughnut type will be located at the upper and lower the after sphere for diver use, plus piping and a valve
surfaces of the hull. An altitude and depth sonar to give for future use in supplying gas for deeper diving opera-
height above bottom and distance from the surface will tions.
be provided together with a temperature-compensated
depth gauge. A scanning sonar located in the upper fore- Electric penetrators will be installed in the thick-
body will provide the pilot with a PPI presentation. A ened area of the pressure hulls where the trunk is joined
radio will be provided for surface communications. to them.
Throughout the design phase, provision for flex- Nine viewports are provided in the forward half of
ibility to expand the Beaver's utility has been kept upper- the control sphere, plus a small one in the hatch. In
most in our minds. As an example, we are including in addition to those that can be seen on the slides, there is
the flooded structure arrangements for bolting on pods one on the port side near the pilot's head. One small
at various locations of the hull to carry scientific viewport is also located in the lower hatch in the after
equipment and sampling devices. sphere.
III. Detailed Characteristics The pressure hull will be supported in the flooded
structure on elastomer pads so that no direct loading
Pressure Htdl due to lifting or handling will be transmitted to the
The pressure hull consists of a 7 foot sphere pressure hull.
forward and a 5 foot 5 inch sphere aft which are joined
by a 25 inch diameter tunnel. The material is HY100
steel, and a Safety Factor of 2 has been employed in the
design. The nominal thickness of the forward hull is CONTROL CABIN
.481 inch and the after hull is .387 inch with a machin-
ing tolerance of + . 030 inch in each case and close
sphericity requirements. A 25 inch access hatch is
located on the upper portion of the forward hull, and a
25 inch diver lockout hatch is provided in the lower
portion of the after hull. A 24 inch hatch in the after
compartment isolates it from the connecting trunk. A
skirt which is integral with the after sphere carries the
hatch hinge mechanism and will be configured to receive
various adapters for mating with underseas habitats,
-
decompression tanks, and escape trunks of submarines.
The lower hatch in the after sphere is so designed as to
be capable of withstanding internal as well as external
sea pressure. No piping or mechanical penetrations of
the pressure hulls are planned with the exception of a
valve in the forward compartment for equalizing pressure Slide 3

BEAVER CHARACTERISTICS

Personnel 4 or 5
Operational Depth 2,000 ft
Factor of Safety 2
Speed Maximum clean hull - 5 knots
Continuous 2 1/2 knots approx.
Endurance time @ 2 1/2 knots 12 hours
Enckirance life support system 44 hours
Number of viewports Forward Sphere - 10
After Sphere - 1
Maneuverability 6 degrees of freedom
Hull Dimensions:
Length overall 25 ft
Height 8 ft 6 inches exclusive of removable motor
Beam 9 feet 6 inches exclusive of removable motors and guards
Weight in air 27, 000 lbs approximately
Total battery capacity 55 Kilowatt Hours
Payload 2,000 lbs
Droppable Weight Batteries 2500 lbs
(2) Manipulators 400 lbs
Variable Ballast Trim System 1474 lbs water
Condition "N" submerged
(2) External Hatches 25 inches in diameter
Main Ballast System Approx. 48 cu. ft; 3000 lbs air pressure at surface
GM 0.5 ft min.
BG 0.3 ft

6
Control Sphere Arrangement Flooded Hull Structure
Man-in-the-loop consideration has dominated the
arrangement of the equipment of the forward sphere.
All of the equipment will be located so that the lower
forward portion of the sphere, with its multiple view-
ports, is available to personnel for direct viewing.
Under cruise operation the pilot, while in his seat on
the port side, will have a presentation from the sonar
and the television camera directly in front of him,
together with the instruments reporting heading,
velocity, depth, trim, and the controls of the vehicle.
The vehicle controls are portable and can be moved to a
location at the viewports from which the Beaver can be
conned while the pilot is looking directly at an object
ahead or below. The observer or the manipulator
operator's seat is on the starboard side and can be
folded up to improve access to viewport. The manip-
ulator controls will be in a portable box on the star-
board side so as to be at hand for all viewing locations.
In the course of discussions on viewing at the
Woods Hole Workshop, a comment was made by one of
the pilots of the French Archimede. He noted that he
had not found one optimum position for the body in view-
ing but rather felt the ability to shift around and use
different muscles was really the important considera-
tion. In view of the extensive ex-perience of that Slide 4
speaker, we have attached considerable weight to this
observation and have attempted to achieve this in the The external hull will be formed from aluminum 5086
control sphere, particularly for the observer. for fixed structure and large easily removable panels of
Two of the viewports have been located to have a
fiberglass. The manner in which loads will be carried
by the strength members of the flooded structure can be
view of the work area that will be most important when seen in Slide 4. Attention has been given in the design
the manipulators are in the upper-shoulder alternate to achieve simplicity for fabrication in which the port
location. It has been noted that an extendable light and starboard sides will be built up separately, then
boom on the port forebody will bring light directly over joined with the top open. The flooded structure can be
the point at which work will be accomplished with the substantially completed, and many of the components
arms. installed prior to joining the pressure hull to it. The use
of watertight and blocked electrical penetrators with
The life support in the control cabin consists of a screwed connections at the external boundary of the
self-contained oxygen supply, and a lithium hydroxide pressure hull will facilitate making up wire harnesses
carbon dioxide removing system with 44 hours endur- while there is good working room in the pressure hull
ance. Two Mark 6 SCUBA packs are provided for cavity of the flooded hull. Closeout will occur near the
emergency breathing. Figures 4 and 5 identify the end of the construction period when the pressure hull is
equipment as presently contemplated and arranged. lowered into place and followed by the upper section of
the flooded structure. This sequence has the advantage
Diver Lockout (Aft) Sphere Arrangement of reducing interference during assembly. It permits
cabin work in the pressure hulls to proceed in parallel
The after sphere will accommodate two men in with work on the outer hull, and it facilitates achieving
diver's equipment. The hatch has been sized at 25 economies in total construction cost.
inches to permit them to go through it without removing
their diving gear. The arrangement is shown in Flooded Hull Arrangement
Figure 6. A self-contained oxygen supply and a lithium
hydroxide carbon dioxide removal system will be pro-
vided with instrumentation suitable for pressurized
conditions. Internal air bottles sufficient for diving
activities to 200 feet are planned for the first of the
Beaver operations. As subsequent need arises for FLOODED HULL ARRANGEMENT
diving operations at increased depths, additional bottles MARKER BOUY PROPULSION MOTOR
will be provided external to the sphere for mixed gases
POWER DISTR
which will be supplied through piping and a valve
installed during original construction. No structural FWD HATCH TRUNK

changes in the pressure hulls will be required to add


this capability. Pressure equalization is obtained
through a valve provided for this purpose. The lower
AFT TRIM
hatch to the sea and the hatch to the tunnel are designed
for diver lockout and for internal pressurization equal ANCHOR
to 1, 000 foot depth to permit decompression in the after HP AIR
sphere and to permit transfer to a decompression tank VAR BALLAST-ROLL TANK
under pressure.
STBD MBT
HYDRAULIC
INVERTERS
BATTERIES

Slide 5
7
TV Sag-We,'
P/.5?ce,4
4)/A19 co44,7,05s
V4./.42,e3v7Zxe

.e-4,4,ve-77e
c7/t1,4is:5"
/40e,f/Zie
0-Y412

,f xe2
erfi24"-r/-
427; .47,4ve-L
,GL-7,/?-1 _re21%3-o9
40/..s/oz.4y

&z.oe//94-z--Fe

2is,14 /t//r
e rIZZA/ .a/S,Z49/ A'44 /EL /47/1/AP'
Figure 4. Control Sphere
8
0.05Y?ZLf-4/4%.0.44/lE
...1;2440:e ad-azely

I I I

.._,,,
..__..,
,

oxy<jevg/
c---GV%/0/3"

.:9/1/,11.4eZE.

,4fM/Z7
AA/7;E -
e--.44//TOZ

fr/, 4 0. C)

r
,i4E-144412ej"

7-y,o/e.,4zs A71_.1

Figure 5. Control Sphere


9
,d7-4/0s0A(b:e4--- 49z oive;t"

,a/l/X4E4/.2410,,Ly

Af7,705.44/44-,eg

-0PAIGLI-,95/E:ee" Zi.O.Wair/P

izge/Z/Ty

OXY454eV
7Z2e4efe" e-A6.5.404

/1417/p/
297-- /4/71,-2,e4C
il/ithei4P,4/.4",

Figure 6. Diver Lockout Sphere


10
Slide 5 depicts the principal components housed move through baffles into oil-filled compensated
within the flooded structure. Particular emphasis has tubing and are discharged through a mercury vent valve
been given in the design to providing maximum access to having no mechanical parts. The oil covering the
all equipment and to the internal portions of the hull. electrolyte will be replenished from the main compen-
The slide shows the general relationship of the two main sation oil supply, but a check valve will prevent back
ballast tanks of approximately 24 cu ft capacity each, a flow into the oil surrounding the batteries. A small
combination variable ballast and trim system, the pro- positive-pressure over sea pressure will be maintained
pulsion motors and their inverters, the power distribu- through the compensat ing tank. The system is being
tion packages, four main battery containers, anchor discussed at length by Mr. Norman Kuska, at another
windlass, the air bottles for the main ballast system, session so I will not go into any more detail about it.
the marker buoy and the hydraulic system. Also con- We have tested a limited prototype arrangement to
tained within this structure will be the two auxiliary 2700 psi and are pleased with the results.
battery containers, the water pumps for the trim and
ballast system, the control motors for rotating the pro- A preliminary main battery power and distribution
pulsion pods, and the external sensor packages. schematic is shown in Figure 8 and a similar system for
the auxiliary battery is shown in Figure 9.
Variable Ballast System
An electrical loads schematic is shown in Figure
We have elected to use salt water in a combination 10. The external lights, camera and TV circuits are
variable ballast and trim system (Figure 7). It will be schematically shown in Figure 11 (both are preliminary).
capable of changing trim + 30° and of changing heel
+ 100 by pumping water between a tank located in the Hydraulic System
after portion of the flooded structure and between 2 tanks
located port and starboard near the center of gravity of The hydraulic system is schematically shown in
the vehicle. Figure 12. Its principal function is to provide power
for the manipulators with some ancillary and backup
The tanks are sized to accommodate, by pumping functions on other systems. It will be a 3000 psi
water in or overboard, all changes in buoyancy that are system and follows conventional practices.
anticipated due to variation in water temperature and
density, and the effects of depth on the pressure hull, Propulsion
as well as to compensate for an increase or decrease of
payload of 200 lbs after commencing a dive.
Battery and Electrical Subsystems
PROPULSION VECTORS
2v
o
7
------ BLEED S
--;..., 3
Hg FI LL 3
BATTE RELIEF STRAIGHT AHEAD 3
VALVE
FILL 2.
Ii Hg YAWING MOMENT
INERTING OIL VENT

CRECK VALVE -OVERFLOW SIDE MOTION


L-,=- sump
2
BLEED
.r
PWR LE AD
BLEED PWR LEAD
VERTICAL MOTION 45° SIDE MOTION

LEAD-ACID ACID BOTTLE


CELLS W/ BAFFLES

DRAIN GAS-LADEN OIL


Slide 7
ELECTROLYTE

COMPENSATING OIL RESERVOIR COMPENSATING


OIL
The propulsion system consists of three pro-
Slide 6 peller pods in an inverted Y arrangement. The motors
can be rotated individually about their axes and will be
controlled by the pilot through the means of a portable
A heavy duty lead-acid battery immersed in oil, control box. The vehicle will be capable of 6 degrees
compensated to sea pressure, has been selected. The of motion which will be achieved by the manner in
main battery will have a 40 KWHr capacity and will which the three pods are oriented with reference to
provide 120 volts. It will be carried in four droppable each other and to the hull. Slide 7 is a simplified
containers with a total of 60 cells connected in series. presentation of some of the orientations which will
The auxiliary battery will have a 15 KWHr capacity produce the more common type of vehicle movements.
and will provide 30 volts. Fifteen cells will be connected This arrangement has additional advantages in terms
in series in each of two containers. In addition, a of hovering.
500 watt hr silver-zinc battery is provided in the control
sphere for emergency purposes. We have selected oil-filled and compensated AC
motors with inverters for the reason of the increase
One of the features of this installation is that the in efficiency and other advantages that can be achieved.
battery gases are kept separate from the compensating Slide 8 shows a group of relative efficiency curves
oil surrounding the battery. The schematic shows how which summarize our inquiries into this subject.
this is achieved. The battery gases from the electrolyte
11
4 t.

-4-qp

<

PREss.
Q3')DIFF. PumP VALvE
I VN/ AV1 POS/T.L'N
[EMERELIEF
VALVE,
Low PREs5.
QL) DIFF, Key. '2 WAyTo cowqcN PcgT
Pump IIAL1;1 PC)SITION vALVE
FILTER 2W 2 PosiTit
vALvs
<4ECPZ. V4Lve -HP,Er
F Low
N0TE: 4Lt. vALves

Figure 7. Variable Ballast and Trim System Schematic (Preliminary)


UPPER PORT ST BD
120V SYSTEM
TYPICAL 30VDC PROP PROP PROP /20V DC 0/L FILLED
AMR HR. tIETER
TRIP CIRCUIT 120 V MOTOR MOTOR MOTOR DISTRIBUTION 80X
TOTAL
IN PRESS.HULL CHARGER VOLTS
LOAD AMPS
ri BAT CONTANER
_

If CELLS
-
30)..
I
(-)
CBI
#2 BAT. COATA/Nrn
K3 -
45cy-Lis , ..-L.
1-0 1 <
T
11 30 V be + S HUN T

o K1
Clii
43 BAZ CONTAINER Il

/5 CELLS =
I .30V DC ( K4 3 K5 (' K7 )
_ _J

(2B/
*4 BAT CON7i9/N.E/t K2 KI

I IS CELLS I

ri
L
-
30V DC
__
--- ,
o

30V DC CONTROL NO. I.I. NO. 2 30V D.C. CO34, T4


PRESS OPIZED HULL HYD.SYSTPfr' HYD . SYSTEM SURIZED HULL
rROPULSION ,4,10TOR5

Figure 8. Main Battery (120V) Power and Distribution System (Preliminary)


TYPICAL 30VDC
TP/P L7PCLI/ TENDER SERVICES
/Al PRES.S.SPIIEPt -
(BATTERY CHAR6ER EXT. POWER
BAT. C44,7AINEA,
I I

131 A's
_L
/5-CELLS' ---4-,
I
[I1-0 30 V DC 1 I
T
L _ __I A' I 'T
0 II
C8/ A'6

BIIT.C647A/NR

/5CELLS cx)
130VDC I
rL__ A2
o
CB/
t(3 A'4

30V DC
OIL FILLED
DISTRIBUTIDA BON

AMIN PoWE R SATTERy CNAR6ER E.ATERNAL AMER -PRESSLRE SPHERE


'V.--
PRESSURE SP4ERE

Figure 9. Auxiliary Battery (30V) Distribution System (Preliminary)


/ 20VDC
+
(,?Er) 120VDC (REF) /20VDC (REF) 120V DC + T,_)
(,,?(F.) 1204 DC
o o
C83 -- 0
CB2 E_ _ C C84
ELECTRICAL.
DISTRIBUTION
BOX
R3 R2 R5
OIL-FILLED R4

AUX. 8US

s'tÌ
N ++ +
IN IERTER INVERTER INVERTER
/NVERTER 30410C A/11,1
(POR T) CONTL.
(STBD) HYD. SYS.
(TOP)
-->> PRESS HULL

PORT TBD TOP HYD. PUMP


PROPULSION PROPULSION PROPULSION MOTOR
MOTOR MOTOR MOTOR HP.
tip. HP HP. 801/ 30 6GCPS
eov JO 60 CPS . 80V SØ 60CPS 80V 30 4.0CP5

Figure 10. Preliminary Electrical System Schematic Loads Propulsion and Auxiliary Power
PRESSURE SPHERE
7--

GONTAU.S

DIVER
LOCKOUT
toiTEH LJTE

STROBE- ft I f- -7
U16fi7 7o/4t.1 *2 TV IIIr7ppin
2 7:143AT II
S'S.TR2O84.1 ST3ROBEI
F-
UNIT CAMERA LCAMERA LÇANDS.4 601409 _..LL /6HT LI6NT
PAN ASSY 1, IRO,/ Zorv (FUTURE PROVIS/ON)
J 15,0W

cONTROI. 5
PRESS.SPHERE

30VDC
() 3OV DC
T I I OII. FILLED
)-(f) IL
DISTRIBUTION
BOx
II II i _LI Ii
-T-RFF 7)(3 7.47 7:6(6-7

PARrar
ASSY
FLA2LJ6N fo.2 Rah) r3 FLOOD 041100D ;snoop Bowl it6HT (35-6 ...,60w)

Figure 11. External Light, Camera, and TV System (Preliminary)


,......-
'T.
151......."-T

.....), k4 Irt... ,-.).t-tA

Figure 12. Hydraulic System (Preliminary)


Work Operation and Manipulators

PERFORMANCE CURVES
z-EFFICIENCY (Y.)
80-
AC MOTOR (GEARED)
70
DC MOTOR HYD
60 DC MOTOR (GEARED)--

50

40
AC MOTOR I HYD
30

ZO

10
2,KTS 3ITS 41(15 5,KTS
o

Slide 8

Slide 10
IV. Beaver Capabilities
In Slide 10, the Beaver is performing a work
Observation or Data Acquisition operation by means of one manipulator positioning the
submarine and the other performing the operation.
Several manipulators have been built, tested and
evaluated in tanks. Improvements are continuously
being made. This experience, plus the simulation
studies we conduct on the effect of man-in-the-loop in
manipulator operations, has provided the basis for a
continuing program of upgrading, which is carried on
to optimize this very important adjunct of the vehicle.

Slide 9
Slide 9 gives a view of the Beaver in normal
operation for observation or data acquisition in which
the pilot is in his seat and the observer at a porthole.
If desired, for a limited time, two observers can be at
the portholes.
Using points of attachment built into the original Slide 11
flooded structure, it is expected the pods containing
special sampling and data-taking equipment will be
attached to various portions of the hull to expand the It is our present intention to carry a rack of four
range of scientific missions of which the Beaver is exchangeable tools in addition to the tool on the arms.
capable. Likewise it is expected to be able to fit coring These can be exchanged at the worksite while submerged
devices and bottom sampling tools at a later date. The adding versatility to this device and expanding the work
built-in flexibility of being able to remove equipment, tasks the Beaver will be capable of performing. It is
particularly in the diver's sphere and to replace it with presently planned that these will be stowed on the port
other devices, plus the relatively large payload alloca- side forward. These tools consist of a hookhand
tion which was made in sizing the vehicle, makes this (Slide 11) which can be rotated, a stud gun (Slide 12),
possible. a cable cutter (Slide 13), an impact head (Slide 14),
and a centrifugal pump (Slide 15). This is but the
beginning of what will be an expanding group of tools
and work capabilities.

18
Slide 12
Slide 15

Diver Operations

Slide 16
It was noted previously that specific design
features to support diver operations have been included
Slide 13 in the after sphere. Slide 16 depicts one situation of
divers at work. At time of delivery an air pressuring
system within the after sphere will be provided that
will permit diver operations to 200 feet. Capability
for operations at a greater depth will be added.
The ability to hover, the high maneuverability,
the provisions for underwater telephone, lighting,
photography, and the ability to use ground tackle will
result in an excellent diver support platform.
The structure has been designed to permit internal
pressure equivalent to 1000 foot depth. This will permit
the Beaver not only to operate with divers at depths
greater than 200 feet, but also to surface with divers
still under pressure and to be lifted onto a decompression
tank for purposes of transferring the men to the tank.
This will eliminate the need to tie up the vehicle while
the men go through their decompression cycle, which
becomes particularly important as the divers go to
greater depths.
Slide 14

19
Persoimel Transfer Another very important planned use of this
submarine is for the transferring of personnel and
equipment at atmospheric pressure to underseas
habitats. We believe that in many fields of oceano-
graphic development and exploration this mating capa-
bility will prove extremely useful and will enhance the
value of this submarine to potential users. The slide
shows Beaver mated to an underseas structure in a
typical evolution.

V. C onclusion
The features we have incorporated into the
Beaver design give ample evidence of our conviction
that the time is appropriate to bring emphasis to bear
on developing increased ability to perform useful work
tasks with manned submarine vehicles.
It is my opinion that Beaver and similar vehicles
will contribute most valuably toward accomplishing the
many worthwhile tasks that lie awaiting in the seas
Slide 17
around us, in expanding our knowledge, and in
helping to garner needed resources from the
ocea.n.

20
io. 61-312

MANNED SUBMERSIBLE DEVELOPMENT


by

KENNETH R. FITCH and RAYMOND J. MUNZ


Grumman Aircraft Engineering Corporation
Bethpage, New York

Paper No.
67-372

AIAA/SNAME Advance marine


mimes meeting
NORFOLK, VIRGINIA/MAY 22-24, 1967
First publication rights reserved by American Institute of Aeronautics and Astrondutics, 1290 Avenue of the Americas, New York, N. Y. 10019
and Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, 74 Trinity Place, New York, N.Y. 10006
Abstracts may be published without permission if credit is given to author and to AIAA/SNAME. (Member Price-75c; Nonmember PriceS1.50)
1.08,12.15
MANNED SUBMERSIBLE DEVELOPMENT AT GRUMMAN

Kenneth R. Fitch and Rayrnond J. Munz,


Project Engineers,
Grumman Ocean Systems Department
Grumman Aircraft Engineering Corporation
Bethpage, L. I., New York

Introduction
The exploration and exploitation of the world and need not be specially developed to fit into
oceans has been greatly stimulated in recent times small irregular shaped spaces.
by the development of an ever-increasing number
of manned submersible vehicles. The vehicles to Recognizing the need for a large, long stay
date range from small, lightweight and highly time submersible capable of providing habitability
maneuverable vehicles such as Alvin, Deepstar for six or more occupants, Grumman has under-
4000 and the various Star series boats to the taken the development of a prototype vehicle. The
larger, heavier and less maneuverable vehicles submersible will evolve from a design conceived
such as the Aluminaut and Auguste Piccard. In by Jacques Piccard and will be similar in certain
addition, the bathyscaphs Trieste and Archemede respects to Piccard's earlier mesoscaph PX-8,
have permitted manned exploration of the greatest the "Auguste Piccard." The code name for the
depths. Thus, a large selection of submersibles first prototype vehicle is PX-15. The PX-15 is
is presently available, each more or less tailored being constructed in Europe, with completion of
for a specific range of mission tasks. It is inter- tests expected in early 1968.
esting to note that most of the available vehicles
are relatively small with a limit on the number of The PX-15
occupants from 2 to 4. The habitability afforded
by the majority of these small submersibles is Gulf Stream Drift Mission
also extremely limited providing free volumes of The first anticipated use of the PX-15 will be
from 35 to 60 cu ft/man. These values compare to perform a submerged drift in the Gulf Stream
with approximately 53 cu ft/man for the Gemini from a point near Miami, Florida, to a point off
spacecraft. The limited mobility afforded the Halifax, Nova Scotia, a distance of approximately
occupants in the small submersibles is perhaps 1450 nm. This mission was conceived by Jacques
the major influence which dictates the small Piccard and will permit a team of scientists to
amount of submerged stay time permitted. remain in the depths of the Gulf Stream continu-
ously for several weeks and achieve a comprehen-
Within the next few years, we at Grumman sive survey of day-to-day phenomenon. In addition
anticipate an increasing need for larger, more to the scientific value of such a venture, we will
habitable submersibles which will be capable of derive a considerable amount of useful experience
operating at continental shelf depths for periods in the operational problems associated with a large
of days rather than for periods of hours. Some of submersible. The lessons learned during this
the benefits to be derived from this approach mission will assist us in determining what design
include: changes, if any, will be required for later
It provides a vehicle which can carry groups missions.
of scientists or teams for research into the
research area at the same time thus per- Preliminary studies have indicated that the
mitting simultaneous observation of the same most suitable depth to be explored during the first
undersea phenomenon. drift is about 200 meters. However, from this
Trained scientific team members need not be depth it is expected that periodic excursions will be
cross trained in boat operation in order to made up to 100 meters and down to 400 meters. At
provide operating crew backup. 200 meters depth, the temperature in the middle
It permits continuous submerged observation of the stream will be between 15° and 17°C. As
for long periods of time and in relative the temperature of the stream increases to.ward
comfort. the east, the drift can be controlled by monitoring
It permits observer rotation and relief in the temperature changes and periodically propel-
search type missions. ling the submersible back to the desired isotherm
It provides absolute payload capability for
large amounts of internally carried equipment. The average speed of the Gulf Stream off the
This equipment can be of conventional design Arnerican shore is about 4 knots at the surface,
-1-
1.5 to 2 knots at 200 meters and I knot at 400 Figures 1 and 2. A summary of the vehicle's
meters depth. In addition, the stream flow varies chief characteristics follows:
with the time of the year, providing higher speeds
in May and lower speeds during October. With an Weight 130 tons
average submerged depth of 200 meters, the Length 48'
average speed of the PX-15 is expected to be 1.5 Beam 13'-4" without motors;
to 2 knots for the entire trip. Thus the distance 18'-6" with motors
traveled per day will be between 36 and 48 nm. Height 20'
The anticipated mission duration will, therefore, Max. Operational. 2000 ft.
be between 4 and 6 weeks. Depth
Collapse Depth 4000 ft.
Since the PX-15 will remain continuously sub- Battery Capacity . 750 kwh (1000 hr. rate)
merged throughout the mission, it will not be able Propulsion four 25-HP, three-phase,
to determine its position accurately in latitude and variable-frequency
longitude. It is essential that all data recorded electric motors
during the drift be correlational with respect to Power Conversion two variable-frequency,
depth, latitude, longitude and time. For this solid-state inverters
reason, a surface support vessel will be used to powering the main
track the course of the submersible throughout its propulsion motors
drift. The support vessel will be equipped with two fixed-frequency,
suitable communications and navigational equip- solid-state inverters
ment to permit position fixing with respect to powering the propulsor
shore installations while establishing the position pod rotational motors
of the submersible with the aid of sonic detection one fixed-frequency,
gear.
solid-state inverter
powering various on-
At the start of the mission, the PX-I5 will be board equipment
towed to its dive point off Miami. Self-propelling Visibility 29 viewports (placed to
to the dive site does not appear practical in view permit all around
of the limited amount of electrical energy that can visibility)
be provided. A tow to port at the termination of Payload 5 tons minimum
the drift will also be required. Much of the exter- Life Support 6 men for 4 weeks plus 2
nal configuration of the vessel must, therefore, weeks emergency reserve
be designed to withstand the wave slap conditions Emergency Drop- 5 tons
resulting during the towing operations. pable Ballast
Max. Submerged . in excess of 4 knots
A primary requirement of the mission will be Speed
to permit silent, stable operation at various depths.
As a result, the PX-15 has a variable buoyancy The structural arrangement of the hull, shown
capability which will permit precise adjustment of in Figure 3, consists of a ring-stiffened cylinder
vehicle displacement. In order to minimize the with hemispherical end closures. The hull is
requirements on the variable buoyancy system, fabricated of 1-3/8-inch thick steel plate having a
the PX-15 has been designed to have a bulk modu- yield strength of 80,000 psi. Structural rings
lus greater than that of sea water, i.e., it will be spaced uniformly along and inside the hull provide
less compressible than its surrounding environ- sufficient support to the shell to permit safe opera-
ment thereby permitting the vehicle to establish tional depth to 2000 feet while maintaining a mar-
any desired equilibrium depth. The compres- gin of safety of 2 on hull collapse. This combina-
sibility characteristics of the PX-15 are such that tion of hull plating and reinforcement also provides
a difference in ballast of one pound will effect a a hull bulk modulus in excess of 400,000 psi.
change in depth of approximately 10 feet at con-
stant temperature. However, the actual change in In order to permit relatively easy modification
ballast required to provide a predetermined change of the hull for future missions, the initial design
in depth is rather complex since it is affected by makes use of a hull mechanical joint located near
the change in water temperature with depth and the the center of the hull and employs integral hull
heat generated within the cabin by both occupants flanges which are bolted together. Low pressure
and equipment. As a result, the vehicle is not sealing is provided by a conventional "0" ring seal
expected to arrive at a stable equilibrium depth or while high pressure sealing is provided by metal to
even a small amplitude system before one day or metal contact of the machined mating surfaces.
more after a dive has been initiated unless the This separation joint will permit future hull modi-
variable ballast system is used actively. fications for more advanced vehicle uses which will
Configuration be discussed subsequently.
The general arrangement and the current Two "soft"main ballast tanks are mechanically
internal arrangement of the PX-15 is presented in attached to the hull, one on each side, and provide

-2-
48.73'

FIGURE 1. PX-15 GENERAL ARRANGEMENT

OBSERVATION AREA
FRESH COLD WATER TANKS LAVATORY INVERTERS AND MESS

SHOWER FRESH HOT WATER TANKS

PLAN VIEW

TRANSFER CHAMBER
BUNKS (SMALL ITEMS TO SURFACE) COCKPIT FOWARD HATCH
AFT HATCH

LADDER FORWARD TRIM TANK


(PORTABLE) WASTE TANKS (6) LIQUID OXYGEN TANKS

VIEW LOOKING OUTBOARD-PORT SIDE

FIGURE 2. PX-15 INBOARD PROFILE

-3-
additional buoyancy to the vehicle when it is sur- connected in series-parallel. They provide 168
faced. This additional buoyancy provides adequate VDC to two fixed frequency inverters which power
freeboard to permit ingress-egress through either the propulsor positioning motors and 336 VDC to
of the vehicle's two hatches. These main ballast two variable frequency inverters which power the
tank assemblies are normally completely flooded main propulsion motors. In addition, the battery
during submerged operations. Diving from the provides 112 VDC for exterior lighting and 28 VDC
surface is accomplished by permitting water to for on-board equipment. It is interesting to note
enter these tanks from the bottom while air is that the weight of batteries carried is roughly 25%
vented off at the top. After surfacing, stored com- of the vehicle gross weight.
pressed air, carried in high-pressure tanks lo-
cated in faired compartments above the main bal- Propulsion for the PX-15 is provided by four
last tanks, is valved into the main ballast tanks at 25-hp, AC electric motors powered from two
the top, blowing out the entrained water at the variable-frequency, solid-state inverters. This
bottom. configuration provides speed control of the vehicle
and sufficient power to propel the submerged PX-
Variable buoyancy control is provided by two 15 to speeds in excess of 4 knots. In addition, the
pressure-resistant ("hard") tanks located beneath propulsion motors can be fully reversed and ro-
the hull in the lower keel section. The vehicle is tated in the vertical plane thus providing up, down
neutrally buoyant near the surface when these and reverse thrust capability. By applying forward
tanks are half full of water. Allowing water to thrust with the motors on one side of the vehicle
enter or blowing water out by compressed air pro- and reverse thrust with the motors on the other
vides vertical maneuvering capability for the side of the vehicle, the PX-15 can make still-
vehicle within its operational depth limit. water turns within its own length. The degree of
sophistication displayed by this propulsion system
Electrical power is supplied by lead-acid is not required for the Gulf Stream drift mission.
batteries housed in the free-flooded keel section. It is incorporated into the vehicle at this time to
These batteries are pressure-compensated to sea permit study of large vehicle maneuvering re-
ambient, and consist of up to 378 individual cells quirements.

VIEW A-A VIEW B-B

VIEW C-C

DETAIL X DETAIL Y

FIGURE 3. PX-15 STRUCTURAL ARRANGEMENT

-4-
Life support provisions for a mission duration equipment and materials within the hull. Lithium
of up to six weeks have presented a number of hydroxide is used for CO2 absorption. In order to
interesting problems. The design of the various conserve electrical power, the LIOH will be used
life support elements is based, in part, on the in panel configurations located throughout the
metabolic requirements of the crew which are vehicle to permit the natural convective currents
summarized in Table I. In addition to these within the cabin to circulate through them. These
requirements, a supply of water is required for panels also contain activated charcoal for odor and
washing and toilet facilities. certain contaminant removal. Contaminants which
are not processed by the charcoal will be neutral-
As shown in Table I, approximately 500 lbs. ized by an active odor removal unit which consists
of oxygen will be required. Containment of this of a chemical absorbing section and a catalytic
amount of gas in standard high-pressure cylinders burner section. This burner will be activated
would have resulted in an unacceptable oxygen periodically whenever the contaminants reach sig-
supply system weight of 5,000 lbs. However, nificant levels. Contaminant levels will be deter-
liquid oxygen (LOX) stored in standard containers mined with "Drager" gas detector tubes. Approx-
was found to weigh only 1,000 lbs. In addition, imately 40 different detector tubes will be available
the minimum rate of vaporization of the liquid to monitor the range of anticipated gas contami-
oxygen was found to be below the minimum oxygen nants. Since many contaminants can be toxic even
consumption rate for 6 crew members, thus making in small concentrations, careful control of all
it ideally suited for the drift mission. equipment used in the cabin is being exercised in
order to minimize the source of potentially dan-
Purification of the air requires control of CO2, gerous contaminants. This passive system has
odor and contaminant levels, the latter being been demonstrated in a 100-hour test of the PX-15
generated by man's metabolic processes and by the life support and waste management system*.

Table I
Life Support Requirements
PX-15

Item W W Remarks

#/Man-Day 6 Men
42 Days
# Total

Intake:
Food 1.23 311 Freeze dried and heated
for use. 2800K Cal/day.
12-40-48 diet. Food
does not include water.
Water (Tot) 6.00 1,512 Potable stored.
Oxygen 2.00 504 Moderate activity levels.
Total 9.23 2,327 Total input.

Outgo:
CO2 2.25 567 Gaseous.
Water (A) 3.10 781 Urine.
Water (B) 2.68 676 Respiratory.
Water (C) 0.85 215 Perspiratory.
Water (D) 0.22 55 Feces (water only).
6.85 1,727 Total Water
Feces 0.13 33 Feces (solid only).
Total 9.23 2,327 Total Output

*Grumman OSR-67-1 A Four Day Manned Test of the PX-15 Life Support System - F. J. Abeles

-5-
A considerable quantity of water will be re- payload lift and other operations with a manipulator.
quired by the crew during the drift mission. In To provide these capabilities the following are
addition to the 1, 512 lbs. of potable water indicated required:
in Table I, an additional amount of 1, 512 lbs. is a landing gear for bottom sitting
provided for washing. Half of the potable water is a larger variable ballast capability for payload
stored in tanks which are in good thermal contact pickup
with the hull plating, thus providing cool drinking a larger attitude trim capability for off-center
water. The remaining potable water is stored in payload pickup
superinsulated tanks at approximately 210° F . This a manipulator
water will be used in the reconstitution of freeze emergency systems for ballast dump or jet-
dried food. Stored hot water was chosen in pre- tisoning to ensure safe recovery in the event
ference to electrically heating cold water primarily of abnormally high breakout forces or fouling
on the basis of minimum weight and electrical of the manipulator or landing gear.
energy. Approximately 22.5 kilowatt hours of
energy would be consumed from the battery to heat Future versions of the PX-15 will probably
the water. For a lead-acid battery, this energy incorporate the landing gear and manipulator with
is equivalent to 1, 500 lbs. of battery weight. The their supporting systems. Grumman designs are
superinsulated tanks, on the other hand, weigh currently on the boards as part of a design study
440 lbs. of our follow-on vehicle -- the Grumman Submer-
sible #1 or GSV-1. These designs are directly
Temperature and hurnidity control of the applicable to later versions of the PX-15 as well.
cabin atmosphere appears to be controllable by
purely passive means. Based on a sedentary crew One highly desirable aspect of large submer-
activity level of 400 BTU/Hr/Man and an average sibles is their potential for adaptation with a diver
heat generated by cabin equipment of 680 BTU/Hr., lock-out capability -- something like a mobile
it appears that the cabin temperature will remain Sealab -- with mission durations of approximately
between 63°F and 81°F for the expected range of seven days or more. We believe that the ability
sea water temperatures in the Gulf Stream without to send divers out on-the-spot at the time of the
the need for cabin wall insulation. The uninsulated first visual sighting of an underwater find, and to
cabin walls will condense atmospheric moisture remain on the site for extended time, will repre-
and maintain a relative humidity between 40 and 70 sent a significant improvement in capabilities over
percent during the drift. current systems. Grumman's follow-on vehicle,
thé GSV- 1, will incorporate this capability.
For missions in colder water, active heating
and dehumidification will be used.
Future Development The GSV-1
The operational advantages of large payload, The GSV-1 is an adaptation of the PX-15
passenger comfort, long submerged stay time, etc. design and will provide greatly increased capabili-
accrue to the large submersible at the expense of ties for undersea work. It is primarily directed
maneuverability. In the PX-15 the loss in maneu- toward commercial exploitation of the ocean's
verability has been partly overcome through the resources.
use of relatively larger motors than are usually
found on submersibles. The four 25 HP propulsors As previously described, the PX-15 hull is
provide a power-to-weight ratio comparable to being built with a mechanically joined splice at
smaller vehicles now operating. about its mid-point. This will make it possible to
use either the PX-15's forward section, or its
The use of larger motors results in a loss in twin, to complete the GSV-1 vehicle after its new
cruise performance due to electrical power losses sections have been qualified.
in conversion. As a consequence, the specific
range of the PX-15 is not as high as it might be. The GSV-1 is currently in the Preliminary
The low specific range is not of practical signifi- Design stage. Its present configuration is shown
cance for the PX-15's first missions -- the Gulf in Figure 4. Its resemblance to the PX-15 is
Stream Drift and Investigation of Large Submer- obvious. A characteristics summary comparison
sible Operations and Handling. Follow-on con- is shown in Table II.
figurations envision the use of alternate propulsion
configurations which greatly improve the submer- The GSV-1 configuration incorporates a land-
sible's range and powered endurance. ing gear, manipulator, and diver lock-out capabili-
ties. The landing gear is of the twin pontoon type
Although the PX-15 embodies many advantages and offers several advantages:
of a large submersible, its initial configuration It can be made self-buoyant, thereby pre-
will not possess several advantages which a large serving the reserve buoyancy of the hull which
vehicle can provide. These are: relatively large provides for payload lift.
payload-pickup capability at operating depth, and It provides tankage volume which can be par-
bottom-sit capability providing a stable base for titioned and used both as a large variable
-6-
Table II
GSV-1 PX-15
Weight 173 ton.s 130 tons
Length 61 ft. 9 in. 48 ft.
Beam 19 ft. 18 ft. 6 in. with motors
Height 22 ft. 10 in. 20 ft.
Maximum Operating Depth 2000 ft. same
Collapse Depth 4000 ft. same
Battery Capacity >750 kwh 750 kwh (1000 hr. rate)
Propulsion (2) 25 hp (4) 25 hp
(1) 7.5 hp steerable
Payload >9 tons 5 tons minimum
Life Support 3 men fwd) 2 wks 6 men for 4 wks plus 2 wks
6 men aft ) emergency reserve
Emergency Droppable Ballast 5 tons same
Max. Submerged Speed approx. 4 kts. >4 kts.

62'

16 5.6"

13 3.4,-

FIGURE 4. GSV-1 GENERAL ARRANGEMENT

ballast tank for payload pickup and as a vari- The gear may present some problems with re-
able trim tank to permit off-center payload spect to bottom breakout forces. For this reason,
pickup. it has been designed so that each bottom surface is
It provides a stable base for using the mani- a steel plate shoe weighing several thousand
pulator on the bottom. pounds which can be pyrotechnically released as
It provides a convenient mounting place for emergency ballast. The steel plate also serves as
specialized payload containers. armor for the tankage against bottom irregular-
It provides a low pad pressure for sitting on ities. It will also be possible to jettison the entire
unconsolidated bottom soils. landing gear assembly for emergency purposes.

-7-
Consequently, the GSV-1 manipulator system can The bottom-sit/payload pickup capability is
be added to the PX-15 without major retrofit. shown in Figure 5. Depending upon the mission,
a 5,000 lb. pickup or a 5,000 lb. bottom-sit can be
Gross location of the manipulator is achieved provided by varying the internal ballast load.
by means of a swinging linkage which allows the
whole mechanism to be stowed aft alongside the The manipulator is of relatively conventional
battery box-keel as shown in Figure 6. design having eight degrees of freedom. It is
operated from a crew station located at the forward
Manipulator capabilities will include a 500- end of the boat. This crew station is located in the
pound lift at a reach of 10 feet. The working en- section of the boat which is obtained from the PX-
velope is shown in Figure 7. 15 or is a twin of the PX-15's forward section.

6000
(r)

ii 5000

4000

a_ 3000
o
2000
o
1000
>--
r""=11
o
o 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
BOTTOM - SIT FORCE-LBS

FIGURE 5, PAYLOAD PICK-UP FIGURE 6. MODEL OF GSV-1


CAPABILITY ON THE BOTTOM

SWING AXIS
CP
"Zb
cD
9-
MANIPULATOR

BOOM
Lil-B° A° Af
OA' CH' PO'
MAX.P POI" Pf
fAIN 006pAl",,H
N4AX. L.t:r FE4""
M

MIN

472-4"-

4.5)

FIGURE 7. GSV-1 MANIPULATOR REACH VS PAYLOAD

-8-
GSV-1 diver operations are carried out from hull. A diving compartment formed by a closure
the aft compartments of the boat. This is shown dome similar to the one forward was considered.
best in the Inboard Profile, Figure 8. The GSV-1 It was rejected because of advantages to be gained
is divided into three compartments. The forward from the smaller separate ball, as follows:
compartment is similar to that of the PX-15. It Axis of the diving hatch can be vertical.
houses the operational subsystems of the vehicle -- Permits use of an overhead hatch to facilitate
propulsion an.d maneuver, trim and depth, naviga- transfer of saturated diving personnel to a
tion, communications, caution and warning, etc.-- surface decompression chamber.
and the operating crew. It is kept at sea level Small diameter permits cleaner aft body
pressure at all times. Life support is similar to fairing and reduced drag.
the PX-15's. A small diameter chamber mounted off-center
provides greater diver clearance for a given
The forward compartment is forrned by a landing gear length.
closure dome when the new aft section is spliced to A mechanically joined diving chamber can be
the PX-15's forward section. The dome is a part easily reconfigured as experience is gained
of the new assembly. The second, or midsection with diver systems or can be replaced with
compartment is designed for operation at either sea special purpose ball modules for such tools
level pressure or at ambient water pressure for as coring or drilling.
saturated diving operations. Systems will be quali- Diver egress-ingress can be monitored with
fied for hyperbaric operation to 1, 500 feet but direct vision view.
expendables and replaceable diver gear will be
sized for 800 feet operation. This is expected to Diver operations could be carried on without
be the practical depth limit for extended dives in the use of a separate, third chamber by providing
the early period of GSV-1 operation. a hatch in the end-bell of the hyperbaric chamber.
However, this configuration would practically
Six divers can live and work completely self- eliminate a particularly attractive mode of diver
operations called bounce or yo-yo dive at Grumman.
sufficient for saturated diving periods of up to In a yo-yo dive, the divers are pressurized to am-
seven days in the midsection compartment. Com- bient water pressure in the small ball while the
plete housekeeping and life support facilities are remainder of the vehicle is held at one atmosphere.
provided. The principal areas are identified in The divers operate outside while being monitored
Figure 8. by a tender who is a member of the diving team and
is at hyperbaric pressure in the small ball. At the
Diver Lock-Out conclusion of the work period -- perhaps as long as
Diving operations are conducted through a four hours -- the divers return to the ball and the
bottom hatch in the aft section compartment. This diving team is decompressed to one atmosphere.
compartment is a separate ball eight feet in At depths below several hundred feet, the divers
diameter -- smaller than the basic hull's 10 feet never reach complete saturation so the decompres-
diameter -- and is mechanically joined to the basic sion times -- even for several hours out -- are

FIGURE 8. GSV-1 INBOARD PROFILE

-9-
relatively short. Preliminary Grumman studies support. Common supplies will be used for Oz
indicate a complete turn-around from one atmos- and electrical power.
phere to ambient to one atmosphere could be made
in about 8-10 hours. This appears to be a practi- The use of separate systems has an additional
cal diver team work cycle since the men are advantage. It permits the aft sections of the GSV-1
resting during the decompression period. Further- to be developed as "man-rated" chambers at the
more, once the divers return to one atmosphere, working pressures of depths to 800 feet. It is
they will rest more comfortably and be able to possible to conduct this development on land since
complete a debriefing without the complications of the pressure vessel is designed to withstand high
garbled communications in the hyperbaric helium internal pressure in order to decompress satura-
environment. ted divers slowly with the GSV-1 at the surface.
It is anticipated that all of the hyperbaric systems
Using the small ball for yo-yo diving con- development will be completed before a front end
serves pressurizing gases if they are dumped upon is joined. It will also be possible to check out the
decompression, or the energy used to recompress operations of the diver system and diver lock-out
the gases to storage pressure. The third chamber in shallow water operations before the final assem-
for diving also permits several dive teams to bly of the GSV-1 with its front end.
alternate using the yo-yo technique.
Other Modifications
A helium-oxygen environment will be used for Other modifications to the basic PX-15 under
the GSV-1 diver operations to 800 feet. Systems consideration for the GSV-1 are less obvious on
will be designed to withstand operating pressures first inspection. These modifications are in the
to 1,500 feet but will be sized for 800 feet opera- areas of functional subsystems performance.
tion due to a projected diver limitation. The yo-yo
dive technique looks sufficiently attractive that One principal modification will be in the Pro-
Grumman believes the forward and midsection pulsion and Maneuvering System where the sub-
chambers will often operate together at one atmos- stitution of an active rudder is planned using a low
phere. Accordingly, a large 4-foot diameter hatch HP motor with a ducted propeller. This can be
will be provided in the closure bulkhead between seen on the General Arrangement Drawing, Figure
the forward and mid-sections to permit relatively 4. The low HP motor can also be employed for
easy passage. The interior hatch to the diving low speed cruise between 1 and 2 knots offering a
ball will have a 30-inch diameter clear opening significant improvement in specific range -- n. mi!
and the bottom diving hatch will have a 36-inch kw-hr. -- and powered endurance for holding posi-
clear passage to accommodate divers with equip- tion in a current. The drawing shows only two of
ment. the PX-15 25 HP motors retained for obtaining
vertical thrust, fast acceleration, maximum speed
Incorporating a hyperbaric chamber and diving and rapid in-place yaw rotations. This is planned
chamber in the GSV-1 requires changes in design pending results of actual PX-15 operation with the
approach for these chambers compared to the PX- four motors and analysis of the maneuverability
15. No trapped air pockets can be permitted unless requirements.
the equipment and structure have been designed to
withstand an external pressure of about 670 psi The PX-15 Navigation and Guidance subsystem
(equivalent to ambient water pressure at 1,500 will be augmented in the GSV-1 to achieve capability
feet). Orifices for venting must be sized to limit for self-navigation near the bottom. Addition of a
pressure differentials during rapid pressurization. doppler sonar (for long-range bottom navigation)
Generally, decompression will be slow for diver and a device for interrogating bottom emplaced
physiological reasons. The original PX-15 ring transponders (for local navigation) are being
stiffener design, Figure 3, is a box section which considered. A forward-looking sonar will provide
is sealed after stress relief. In the GSV-1 mid- an obstacle avoidance capability. A digital com-
section., these stiffeners must either be vented or puter and X-Y plotting board will be used to pro-
redesigned. A T-frame design is being studied. cess and display data.
All systems with internal fluids at ambient The PX-15 communications gear will be aug-
cabin pressure, such as the water supply and waste mented by an intercommunications system between
management system or emergency wet cell bat- compartments and divers, through which surface
teries, must be vented or pressure-compen.sated communication can be fed. A surface buoy with
to work in the GSV-1 aft chambers. Without R.F. handline will be added for emergency and
special design features, it is difficult to employ recreational communications from the surface.
common systems in such areas as water supply Sound powered phones will be required for diver
for chambers operating at different pressures. communications.
Common systems are possible for gas supplies
where storage pressure is greater thanthe working The foregoing modifications to a PX-15 type
pressure of either chamber. In the GSV-1, sepa- submersible -- added landing gear with payload
rate systems will be used for water supply, waste pickup and bottom-sit capabilities, manipulator
management, environmental control and life installation and capabilities for saturated and yo-yo

-10-
diving from the boat at depths to 800 ft. -- for use in mid-1969. By 1970, we at Grumman
represent the principal near term avenues of believe that the utility and performance capabili-
manned submersibles development at Grumman. ties of the large manned submersible will have
The GSV-1 embodying these changes will be in been demonstrated, leading to greater and greater
development through 1968 and should be available demand for services.
No. 61-313

THE DESIGN FOR A SELF-CONTAINED, ARTICULATED,


ONE-ATMOSPHERE UNDERSEA SUIT
by

GIUSTO FONDA-BONARDI and CHARLES PETER BUCKLEY


Litton Industries
Beverly Hills, California

Paper No.
67-373

AIAA/SNAME Advance marine


vehicies meeting
NORFOLK, VIRGINIA/MAY 22-24, 1967
First publication rights reserved by American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1290 Avenue of the Americas, New York, N. Y. 10019
and Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, 74 Trinity Place, New York, N. Y. 10006
Abstracts may be published without permission if credit is given to author and to AIAA/SNAME. (Member Price-75c; Nonmember PriceS1.50)

12.15
THE DESIGN FOR A SELF-CONTAINED, ARTICULATED,
ONE-ATMOSPHERE UNDERSEA SUIT

Giusto Fonda-Bonardi* and Charles Peter Buckley**


Litton Industries
Space Sciences Laboratories
336 North Foothill Road, Beverly Hills, California

Abstract vehicles alone are not enough to accomplish the


myriad tasks associated with the economic explor-
In response to the need to extend man's ability ation and exploitation of the resources on the con-
to explore and exploit the world's undersea re- tinental shelves of the world.
sources for longer periods and at greater depths,
many underwater vehicles have been developed The services of individual divers are indispen-
over the last few years. However, underwater sable for many tasks and must therefore comple-
vehicles are not enough; the individual diver's ment the use of underwater vehicles and systems.
function is complementary to that of the vehicle.
Currently underwater work capabilities are
Because severe restrictions are imposed upon severely restricted by a superabundance of prob-
his activities by cold, narcosis and decompress- lems. The diver's time on the bottom, first of
ion problems, means must be found to improve all, is limited by cold and by decompression con-
his efficiency. The solution is an articulated one- siderations. The deeper the diver works, the
atmosphere diving suit that allows the diver to more pronounced are the effects of nitrogen nar-
work under atmospheric pressure at depths down cosis. The equipment and the personnel needed
to 600 feet. to back up the diver, i. e. , the compressors,
emergency decompression chambers, standby
Articulated and armored diving suits are not divers, etc. all contribute to further reduce the
new. Earlier suits, although adequate, were ex- mobility and effectiveness of the diver working on
tremely cumbersome and lacked mobility. Litton the bottom. Helium-oxygen systems, moreover,
Space Sciences Laboratories has pioneered hard, although they alleviate some of the traditional
pressurizable protective assemblies for space diving problems, only compound others.
applications and their advances in suit technology
have overcome life support and mobility problems. A one-atmosphere diving suit offers a solution
to many of these problems.
The program that Litton has mounted, beginning
in 1964, to adapt this suit technology to the under- The articulated, one-atmosphere undersea suit
water field is the subject of this paper. Litton's under development in the Space Sciences Labora-
one-atmosphere suit is the first to reflect an tories of Litton Systems, Inc., at once abviates
understanding of anthropomorphic mobility with the restrictions imposed by cold, narcosis and
the abandonment of cumbersome ball joint artic- decompression problems and provides improved
ulations in favor of the lower torque and more mobility, range and efficiency. Its articulated,
physically compatible rolling convolute joints. pressure-resistant shell allows the diver to re-
main u.nder normal atmospheric pressure while
The design parameters and fundamental design working at depths limited only by the mechanical
constraints underlying the development of a strength of the shell and the mobility of the joints.
practical one-atmosphere suit are discussed, The insulation incorporated into the suit protects
together with the development and testing of the him from the cold. Returning from any depth can
typical joint sections that demonstrate the feasi- thus be accomplished directly and immediately
bility of the concept. without need of decompression stops.
These advantages are so obvious and so well
known that one may well ask why one-atmosphere
One of the more pressing ocean engineering suits are not extensively used. The answer is
problems is the need to extend man's ability to found in the great difficulty of implementing an
work under water for longer periods and at greater adequate compromise between structural strength
depths. The array of underwater vehicles devel- and mobility. The engineering problems are so
oped over the last few years by both industry and severe that almost two centuries of determined
government agencies is testimony to the efforts attempts did not succeed in producing a workable
being made to solve this problem; but underwater model until recent technological advances placed
the required sophistication within reach of the
engineer.
*GFB -Director Applied Research The one-atmosphere suit Litton is developing
**CPB -Manager, Underwater System Development will be self-contained. The life support system

1
built into the suit will incorporate conventional The one-atmosphere suit's major role, Litton
CO2 scrubbing and oxygen storage in order that feels, will be in deploying the mass of underwater
the replenishment of the life-support system can workers that the economic exploitation of the con-
be quickly and easily effected. Bottom time of 2 tinental shelves will require. Anyone familiar
to 6 hours at depths up to 600 ft will be possible. with divers will agree that the good ones are
Tending requirements, because of the elimination highly-trained specialists, who are at the same
of air lines, will also be minimal. These capa- time highly-motivated and somewhat temperamen-
bilities should find wide utility in the offshore tal. In order to go deep, divers must be superior
construction and offshore petroleum industries. physical specimens in top shape with a built-in
Those techniques the offshore oil industry now immunity to risks. They must, moreover, have
depends uponfor connecting gathering lines to acquired a good working knowledge of the physio-
completed wells for example can be greatly sim- logical effects of pressure and the various gas
plified by the extended bottom time the one- mixtures utilized in deep diving. Otherwise they
atmosphere suit makes possible. The installation, would not be able to work confidently while sub-
maintenance and protection of submarine pipeline jected to these sometimes disconcerting and dis-
and cable systems connecting offshore drilling and turbing effects.
production structures will also be greatly
facilitated. It is easy to understand, therefore, why good
divers are already in short supply. And as under-
These suits should also assist the U. S. Navy water activity increases, this scarcity could reach
in conducting its underwater operations. These critical proportions. The one-atmosphere suit
would include: offers one sensible means of restoring this situa-
tion. With it, the average construction worker,
The search and retrieval of objects at depths rigger, welder or fish pond operator can be put
where the use of current diving techniques is im- down to the underwater work site in a self-
possible or impracticable, such as downed air- contained air atmosphere, under the physiological
craft and/or special equipment carried by the working conditions familiar and reassuring to him.
downed aircraft.
The history of the development of articulated,
The installation of submarine pipeline supply one-atmosphere diving suits roughly parallels
syste,ins providing part of the logistical back-up that of the hard hat diving suit. Progress in re-
of an amphibious landing. cent years, though, has not kept pace with that of
the hard hat and other compressed gas diving
systems. In the late 1930's however, observation
The development, installation and maintenance chambers and articulated suits were the only
of special harbor defense systems. means of getting below the 300 ft limit for com-
pressed air diving.
In addition, a fully-armored diver will be
immune from attack by sharks, jelly fish, and Articulated diving suits generally have been
other injurious marine organisms. designed around one of two basic types of joint,
the bellows or the ball and socket. The Taylor
suit, designed in 1838, is representative of the
The one-atmosphere diving-suit will also offer first. (See Figure 1) The joint articulation in
a readily available means for engineering and other this suit is provided by means of what today is
supervisory officers uninitiated in the diver's termed a convoluted joint. This type of joint
world for making detailed personal inspections utilizes a bellows-like arrangement of ring stiff-
under water. This will be increasingly important eners and fabric (in this case, leather). This
as efforts are made to readapt U. S. coastlines to joint system is essentially a forerunner of the
maximize the commercial and military utility of type of joint used in today's space suits. One of
the available waterfronts and harbors. the oddities of the Taylor suit is the fact that the
hands and feet are left unprotected, destroying
The articulated, one-atmosphere suit's unique whatever hopes the designer might have had in
capabilities, Litton feels, will earn it a vital role developing a workable suit. The state-of-the-art
in underwater activities. It is important to keep of the time obviously was not up to handling these
in mind, however, that this role will be a com- difficulties, which is not surprising. Even today,
plementary one. The armored diving suit, as the design of the glove is still a critical problem.
these suits have been termed traditionally, will
not and cannot supplant existing techniques. Scuba A more sophisticated version of the above suit
systems, for example, will certainly continue to was designed by Tasker in 1881. (See Figure 2)
be used in shallow work. One-atmosphere suits He proposed to use a one-atmosphere suit articu-
will not assume the pioneering role Sea Lab is lated with bellows joints and to provide the re-
playing in enlarging the scope of man's underwater quired watertight integrity by covering the suit
activities. Nor will the Litton suit have the far- with an ordinary flexible diving dress. One of
ranging survey and search capability of existent the major problems facing the designers of this
underwater research vessels. type of suit then was the lack of a suitable fabric
Figure 3. Philips Suit, Figure 4. The Car-
1856 magnolle Freres Suit,
1882
Figure 1.
The First Articu-
lated Armored Suit, Figure 2.
By Taylor, 1838 The Tasker Suit, 1881

for the bellows joint. Pressures of 135 to 270 psi


were more than the available fabrics could with-
stand.
Other early designers, when faced with this
problem, relied upon ball and socket joints to
provide articulation. An early example shown in
Figure 3 is the Philips suit (1856). This suit did
not provide articulated fingers but utilized pincers
operated from inside the suit. The Philips suit
actually quite closely resembles the 1930 articu-
lated suits used in the salvage of $5 million in
gold from the S. S. Egypt. Other early designers
we re:
Figure 5. The Day Suit, Figure 6. The
Carmagnolle Freres (1882), who used concen- 1897 Restucci Suit,
tric spheres kept watertight by strips of water- 1904
proof linen secured to both parts of the joint and
folded so as to roll upon itself; (Figure 4).
John and George Day, 1897, who designed an
intriguing-looking suit (Figure 5) that relied on excess of external water. In order to do this,
ball and socket and rotary joints for articulation. and keep the interior of the suit at one atmosphere,
The interesting thing is that according to contem- a separate supply of high pressure air had to be
porary reports, it relied on knife edge bearings provided. The drawback of such an intriguing
rather than ball bearings for reducing friction idea, as was pointed out by Sir Robert Davis k1)
within the joints. In terms of the technology of was that there was at that time no way of keeping
that day, this prol;ably was not a workable answer the air flow properly adjusted.
to the problem of providing low-torque joints.
Today, however, knife edge seals again are be- An interesting fact about these early suits is
ginning to look attractive to the designers of they did anticipate many of the techniques used
watertight rotary seals. currently in both space and one-atmosphere diving
suits.
Restucci who in 1904 prepared a design, (Fig-
ure 6), in which he proposed to keep the joints Another such suit, representing still another
dry by feeding the air at a pressure slightly in approach, is the suit designed by Victor Campos

3
(1 91 9). This suit, shown in Figure 7, utilized
oblique, rotary joints to provide articulation. This
suit is similar in concept to the "hard" suit NASA's
Ames Laboratory is investigating for space work.
The only articulated suit with a credible per-
formance record, however is the Neufeldt and
Kuhnke (1 91 3 to present). Variations of this suit
were used by an Italian salvage company to sal-
vage the gold off the S. S. Egypt, sunk in 438 ft of
water. A large protuberance was built onto the
back of the suit to act as a ballast tank. The suit
also contained a self-contained life support sys-
tem. First versions of the suit had 12 ball-and-
socket or spherical joints, later versions had only
six in order to make it easier to keep the suit
watertight. These patented joints, shown in Fig-
ure 8, utilized two rows of bearings in order to
reduce friction between the inner and outer spher-
ical surfaces. The joint was kept watertight by
rrxeans of a strip of rubber so configured that the
pressure of the water tended to push it down on
the polished surface of the ball. A variation of
this suit is currently being offered for sale by
Roberto Galeazzi Ltd; (Figure 9).
Figure 9. Galeazzi Suit
In recent months, however, it has become ap-
parent that the role of these newer devices, too,
is somewhat specialized. These devices, the sub-
mersibles, the robot manipulators, and the
helium-oxygen diving systems, are expensive to
maintain and operate, are highly complex, and
require extensive supporting organization. It is
equally apparent that a suitable system has yet to
be developed for handling fast-developing survey,
salvage, and sub-sea repair operations on an
economically sensible scale. Such a utilitarian
system must have a good depth capability, ade-
quate mission time, be easily transportable, re-
quire a minimum of support equipment, and be
easily deployable into and out of the water. These
requirements are met effectively by the one-
atmosphere articulated suit. The mobility prob-
lems hampering earlier one-atmosphere suits,
Figure 8. The Neufeldt moreover, have been solved by recent state-of-
and Kuhnke Suit the-art advances in suit technology pioneered by
Litton.

Figure 7. The Campos The Litton suit is the first one-atmosphere


diving suit to embody the combination of an under-
Suit, 1919 standing of anthropomorphic mobility with the
sophisticated utilization of the latest material and
engineering advances. A prime factor underlying
These Neufeldt & Kuhnke suits, and the later this success has been an abandonment of ball joint
modifications of this design, although adequate articulations in favor of the lower-torque and
enough for the job at hand, were not very sophis- more physically-compatible rolling convolute joint
ticated in design. They were extremely cumber- Litton has developed, as well as the use of modern
some and their ball-joint articulations left much materials such as teflon, neoprene, butyl and
to be desired with regard to mobility(2). These nylon.
limitations, when combined with state-of-the-art
advancements in helium-oxygen diving techniques Litton's technical insight, which has made pos-
and the design of miniaturized submersibles and sible a workable one-atmosphere diving suit, is
robot manipulators, have tended to obscure the the outgrowth of the company's long experience in
advantages of the one-atmosphere suit. development of pressure-protective suit systems

4
for use in space. Since 1955, Litton has been de-
veloping and pe rfecting the art of building c onstant-
volume anthropometric pressure suits. This
understanding of the physical and engineering con-
straints involved in developing workable articula-
tion under pressure resulting from Litton's space
suit programs provides the basis on which the one-
atmosphere diving suit is being developed.
The Litton space suit has been designed specif-
ically to perform useful work in space and, as
such, differs significantly from the "emergency
only" character of the currently-used fabric suits.
The outstanding characteristic of the Litton suit is
its mobility. This results from the suit's ability
to maintain a pressurized, constant-volume exo-
skeletal enclosure while accommodating nearly
the full range of body motions with minimal energy
expenditure by the suited subject. Conversely, the
ability to move freely in a soft, or fabric, suit is
physically limited by the tendency of the suit and
its articulations to seek maximum volume (mini-
mum energy) positions. This causes the soft suit
articulations to become rigid in a single position,
or to flop in a bistable manner from one minimum
energy position to another. Figure 10. The Litton Mark I Suit

The key to Litton's success in achieving con-


stant volume in a practical articulation can be From an engineering point of view the require-
found in its concept of the rolling convolute jointP) ment of mobility is the most difficult. The human
body contains bones joined by articulations that
This joint, through the use of rigid, directionally- allow two kinds of movements; rotations and de-
restrained rings, permits the joint fabric to roll flections (shaft-like and, respectively, hinge-like).
easily in a controlled and volume-compensating Complex motions, such as those allowed by a ball-
manner through its maximum range of movement. and-socket joint (shoulder, hip) can be resolved
into simple motions of the two kinds. The techni-
The development of this joint concept goes back cal success of a rigid, articulated suit depends on
to 1957, when Siegfried Hansen designed and built, the availability of joints that can move like the body
under Air Force contract, a protective suit that articulations with minimum friction and volume
allowed a man to operate in a near-absolute vacu- variation. The number, positions, and orientation
um. The purpose of the suit was to carry out of articulations required to allow the human body
scientific experiments in which remote manipula- adequate freedom of motion must correspond quite
tion was inconvenient, such as the study of the closely to the number, position and orientation of
geometry of electron guns for microwave tubes or the anatomical articulations present in the human
television tubes. This performance of scientific body.
experiments required a mobility of the arms and
hands far in excess of what was then the state-of- When modern anatomical nomenclature is used,
the-art. The resulting design is shown in Figure the degrees of freedom that were found to be nec-
10. Points of interest are the rigid aluminum essary for adequate mobility are listed in Table I.
torso and helmet combination, the use of rotary This table shows that there are 13 different articu-
seals at the wrist, and the peculiar arm structure. lations to be mechanized. Of these nine are hinge-
Restraint against over-expansion was provided by like, two are rotational, and two can be mechanized
a series of metal rings joined in a Cardanic chain, in different ways since the complex anatomical
and flexibility by a series of rolling convolutes. motions are resolved into rotations about reference
axes found at inaccessible points inside the body
As a result of the experience gained in several (shoulder, hip).
years of use of this suit in a vacuum chamber,
new criteria were established that could be applied In the Litton suit, these hinge-like or flexural
equally well to diving suits and space suits. Basic motions are provided by the constant-volume con-
requirements are: volute joint systems and the rotational motions by
rotary seals. The proper combination of the two
Safety allows Litton to adjust the joint systems to con-
form to the human anatomy so as to place the geo-
Mobility metrical axis of the structure in coincidence with
Comfort the anatomical axis of the articulation.

5
The progressive development of the Litton space
suit is shown in the following figures. (See Fig-
ures 11 and 12.) The progress shown in simplify-
ing and improving the design is rather remarkable(4)
The movement torques in the latest suit, the RX-4,
are less than 1 ft lb. The comparable torques in
fabric suits are in the order of 10 to 20 ft-lb.

L.
Iry NI
tottLsil 1
f'
11407
4111

MR IF
II
I i
Figure 13. Artist's Representation of the Proposed
Figure 11. The Litton Figure 12. The Litton Litton UX Underwater Suit
RX-1 Suit RX-3 Suit
TABLE I
An artist's representation of the underwater Wrist flexion-extension hinge
suit is shown in Figure 13. The similarity to the Wrist abduction-adduction hinge
space suit is evident, as are the differences due Wrist supination-pronation rotational
to the much higher stresses to which the suit will Elbow flexion hinge
be subjected. Litton is confident the space suit's Shoulder flexion-extension rotational (hinge)
successful pattern of development can be dupli- Shoulder abduction-adduction hinge
cated by its diving suit. Moreover, the progres- Ankle flexion-extension hinge
sive improvements already made in the design of Ankle abduction-adduction hinge
the basic elements of the prototype suit confirm Knee flexion hinge
this. Hip rotation rota.tional
Hip flexion hinge (rotational)
The technical problems found in the adaptation Hip adduction-abduction hinge
of Litton concepts to the diving suit are severe; Waist flexion hinge
primarily because the pressure differen.ce is 3.7
to 5 psi in the case of the space suit and 270 psi in pressure from zero to twenty atmospheres. This
the case of the diving suit. Moreover, the joints is compatible with the muscular strength of the
and seals in the case of the diving suit have to be man operating the joints.
absolutely watertight whereas in the space suit
some leakage can be tolerated. Figure 14 shows the basic structure of a rotary
seal for an articulated diving suit. The major
The design of the rotary seal is based on the applied force is axial thrust, equal to the applied
analysis of the forces that tend to close the seal pressure P multiplied by the area of the seal R2.
and prevent a leak as distinct from the forces that The axial thrust is absorbed by the main thrust
tend to cause friction. Conceptual separation of bearing consisting of two steel bearing races and
the two kinds of forces permits optimization of a row of large bearings. Another row of smaller
geometry and first order compensation of forces bearings forms an angular contact bearing that
so that the net torque required to turn the seal in- controls the concentricity of the elements and pre-
creases less than 30 percent for a change of applied vents separation of the seal under no-load conditions.

6
SEALING CONDITION: Ps> P
Since we have seen that Pi remains essentially
TORQUE: T RK [Ps - Pl A constant, so does the torque. The area A is the
K ° FRICTION COEFFICIENT a.rea of contact between the sealing lip and the
A CONTACT AREA
THRUST
SEALING PRESSURE
sealing washer:
PS

A = 2 Rd
where d is the radial thickness of the sealing lip;
it appears therefore that the torque can be made
as low as desired by making d thin enough. There
are, of course, practical limitations but they are
such that seals can be built with a net torque that
AXIS
is acceptable for the intended application. As the
thrust load increases with the applied pressure, the
Figure 14. Basic Structure of a Rotary Seal for an
thrust bearing deflects elastically a.nd tends to
Articulating Diving Suit close the seal thereby increasing the sealing pres-
sure Ps beyond the value sufficient to create a
seal. This effect can be counteracted by under-
The seal proper is formed at the interface be- cutting the sealing lip so that it is supported by
tween a sealing washer of relatively soft and slip what amounts to a very stiff diaphragm. The di-
pery material (teflon) and a sealing lip of ground, mensions are chosen so that the sealing lip tends
lapped and polished hardened steel. A seal is to deflect away from the sealing washer by the
formed when the mating parts are pressed to- same amount by which the sealing elements tend to
gether with a pressure sufficient to plastically de- come together.
form the softer material so that it flows and fills
the microscopic surface irregularities of the Figure 15 shows typical test results from a 4-
harder material. The major component of the inch seal intended for the wrist pronation-supination
friction coefficient is due to the flow of the plastic axis of a diving suit. The effect of varying the
material out of the way of the microscopic promi- pre-loading pressure Pi as well as the effects of
nences of the harder material and into the micro- the lip undercut are shown.
scopic depressions. The sealing washer is backed
by an elastic washer (soft rubber) which is initially
squeezed at assembly by an amount sufficient to
create a pre-loading pressure on the seal. This T (FI-LBS)
preload pressure Pi must be adequate to obtain 16
the required deformation of the plastic material
and therefore to form a seal. The elastic washer
is exposed to one side of the fluid pressure of the
external environment. When this pressure is in- 14
PRELOAD
creased above the internal pressure, it is applied .014
to both sides of the sealing washer: directly on Ai
the side of the sealing lip, as the fluid tries to 12

.
push the seal apart, and indirectly on the side of
the elastic washer, as the elastic washer transmits
the applied pressure as a hydrostatic pressure to

!PA..
10

all sides of the cavity containing it, including the


side formed by the sealing washer. If the dimen-
tions are chosen correctly, the result is that

61,5
8

11
eAA
008 0
Ps = P + P
6

and the sealing pressure Ps remains always higher


than the applied pressure P by an amount which
011WP - " . °5100°

4
stays essentially constant and equal to the pre- ,,. :"."'"" U.012
NDERC UT
IPJ::::::::::,..gll
loading pressure Pi, that was initially chosen to
be adequate to provide a seal. The torque T re- 2 - s.,
quired to turn the seal is equal to the tangential
force multiplied by the radius. The tangential
force in turn is equal to the coefficient of friction o
K multiplied by the contact area A multiplied by o 50 ilk 150 200 250 PSI

the net applied pressure.


Figure 15. Typical Test Results from a Four-
T = RKA(P2 -P)= RKAPi Inch Seal Intended for the Wrist Pronation-
Supination Axis of a Diving Suit

7
A typical hinge-like articulation, embodying an results at 240 psi and was subsequently re-designed
application of the rolling convolute principle to a to improve results and produce an entire arm.
knee joint for use with a space suit is shown in (Figure 17 presents the initial results.) The
Figure 16. It consists of a number of metal hoops mobility (convolute) joint was, in addition, tested
that are nesting in each other. A rubberized fabric to destruction to develop confidence levels regard-
sleeve is held captive between the hoops and acts ing materials and fabrication techniques used. In
as the pressure barrier. The hoops contain and this test, the joint met the design specifications,
shape the fabric so that folds or convolutes are thoroughly proving the intrinsic worth of the con-
formed between the hoops. The axial load in this volute principle. Design improvements already
case is pure tension, that can be conveniently ab- incorporated in subsequent test elbows will allow
sorbed by a flexible steel cable joining all the the joint to withstand substantially greater
hoops. The first and last hoops are welded to the pressures.
rigid portions of the suit structure. When the
a.rticulation is flexed the fabric convolutes roll in
and out of the spaces between the hoops, and the
symmetry is such that the volume generated on the 20

side that opens is exactly balanced by an equal


volume disappearing on the side that closes. The 15

net change of volume is therefore zero and no work


is done on the internal pressure, so that the only 10
torque to be supplied to bend the articulation is
associated with the internal friction of the fabric
DESIGN GOAL
and the cable.
100 200
WELD
PRESSURE (PSI)

FABRIC
Figure 17. Torque Test of Rolling Convolute Joint
HOOP
CABLE
FABRIC
, HOOP Litton's efforts in the underwater suit field
FABRIC
began late in 1964. The initial efforts were cen-
RESTRAINT tered on proving the feasibility of the concept.
This was done by the design, fabrication, and test
of a rotary seal and elbow convolute.
SWAGED
BUSHING

SECTION AT CABLE
Current efforts are directed toward the develop-
(ENLARGED) ment of a wrist and glove. Divers rely heavily
SWAGED BALL
upon their sense of touch in finding their way
(EACH END OF CABLE) around under turbid conditions.
So, in many ways, the development of a work-
able glove is the key to the usefulness of an under-
Typical Hinge-Like Articulation,
1-'igure 16.
water suit. Litton has now designed and built a
Embodying Application of Rolling Convolute
prototype wrist joint providing 60° of freedom. A
Principle to Knee Joint for Use with Space Suit mock-up of the thumb and knuckle articulation in-
dicates the problem of designing a workable hand
The articulation becomes more complicated can be solved.
when it is designed to withstand a higher external
pressure, because the axial compressive load Description of Suit
must be absorbed by an adequately strong mechan-
ical linkage. The objective of the Litton Underwater suit
development program is to design and test an ar-
In the development of an entire articulated arm ticulated constant-volume undersea suit. The
or leg several convoluted joints of similar design overall design parameters and proposed capabil-
but of different sizes are integrated in an assembly ities of the Litton underwater suit are described
that follows closely the shape of the human body in the following paragraphs.
and places the axis of each articulation near the
corresponding anatomical point. The articulations Depth
are connected by rigid sections that can be changed
in length for adjustment to the individual inhabi- The suit is designed to withstand a working
tant's measurements. pressure of 270 psi (600 ft). Crushing depth is in
excess of 1000 ft, providing a safety factor ap-
Such a rolling convolute joint that has been proaching 2. All suit sections are made up of
developed for the diving suit along these princi- spherical, cylindrical or conical elements in order
ples, has been investigated with encouraging to best withstand the high hydrostatic pressures.

8
Mobility
The rotary joints, which are essentially radial
bearings incorporating watertight seals, are placed
at the wrist, a-rm, shoulder, thigh and leg. The
torques required to turn the smaller rotary joints
such as the wrist seals will be less than 3 ft-lbs.
The larger joints will range upward to approxi-
mately 8 ft/lbs in the case of the thigh. Bending
or flexural motion in the arms and legs is pro-
vided by the constant-volume and convolute joints
which allow up to 1100 of planar motion.
The range of motions of the flexural and rotary
joints is given below in Table II. The combination
of these movements will allow the UX to move
across the ocean floor, climb over obstacles, and
move about in a swimming mode if necessary.
The range of elbow and shoulder movement is
shown in Figure 18 and demonstrates that there
is adequate arm mobility for the performance of
any underwater task.
TABLE II

Diameter Flexing Design Goal


Section Type (inches) Range Torque (ft-lb)
1. Shoulder Seal Rotary 13.0 360° 6
2. Shoulder Joint Convolute 10.25 90° 3

3. Arm Seal Rotary 6. 6 360° 3

4. Elbow Joint Convolute 7. 110° 2


5. Wrist Seal Rotary 5.2 360° 3

6. Wrist Joint Convolute 4. 5 70° 1

7. Hip Seal Rotary 17.0 360° 8


8. Hip Joint Convolute 10. 0 30° 3

9. Thigh Seal Rotary 9. 5 360° 5


10. Knee Joint Convolute 9. 0 110° 2. 5
11. Ankle Joint Convolute 7. 5 30° 2
12. Glove Convolute 0. 75 - 3. 5 0. 5

Buoyancy

The buoyancy of the Litton suit must be close


to neutral in sea water (nominal density 1.026).
Part of the suit weight must be in the form of
detachable ballast to provide:
Figure 18. Six Views Showing Range of Motion in
Adjustment for the weight of the individual Shoulder-Elbow Mobility
dive r
Positive buoyancy by jettisoning ballast to be allocated as follows:
Adjustment of the CG of the suit for attitude Thermal insulation 8.0 lb
control.
Life -Support System 15.0 lb
The dimensions of the suit are such to accom- Communication 15.0 lb
modate a 90 percentile man
leaving approximately 201.2 pounds for the man
The difference between buoyancy and weight is: and the disposable ballast. Assuming that the
433. 9 lb
man's weight is 18,5 pounds, the disposable bal-
-194.7 lb last will amountlo 16.2 pounds plus whatever ex-
cess is desired to provide nega.tive buoyancy for
239.2 lb sinking and walking on the sea floor.

9
The stability of the suit with a 185-pound man Balance under compression is obtained when
but without the life-support system and the dis-
posable ballast was computed graphically. The t-r Ew (2. 5 - 2u)
metacentric height is approximately 0.5 inch; in Es
other words, the suit is in essentially neutral
equilibrium. An upright position can be assured where Ew is the bulk modulus of water (330, 000
by locating the CG of the life-support system and psi); hence
that of the disposable ballast below the center of
buoyancy of the suit. It should be noted that the t = 0.021 r
CG of the suit alone practically coincides with the
CG of the man standing in it, so that the man will which is close enough to the value given above to
not experience any unusual equilibrium problems provide first-order compensation.
when moving about.
Glove Parameters
Structural Considerations
The ultimate utility of the UX concept is depen-
Unstiffened suit elements will be used when dent to a large degree on the development of a
such simple forms can provide adequate structural practical glove. In many cases a diver's hands
stability within the allowable weight. are his eyes because the diver's own movements
stir up so much sediment that the visibility is re-
The elasticity of these suit elements, more- duced to zero.
over, must approximate the compressibility of
sea water to provide a first order compensation The essential degrees of freedom of the human
for the change of volume with compression. De- hand are ten, if the last two fingers operate as a
sign pressure is taken at 450 psi, equivalent to unit. Prosthetic devices for amputees have been
1000-ft depth, giving a safety factor of 2 at 500 built with as little as zero degrees of freedom (a
feet. The suit material is 316 stainless steel rigid hook), one degree (pincers), two (three-
which provides the best possible corrosion pro- prong pincers) and more. Medical authorities
tection for the structural elements, having state that three-prong pincers offer an amputee as
much manipulative dexterity as he requires for all
Density 0.28 pounds/cu. in. normal tasks.
Young's modulus E = 29 X 106
The glove Litton is developing for its under-
Yield point Kc = 65,000 psi water suit will have considerably more dexterity
Poisson's ratio = 0.3 than the three-prong pincers and consequently
should be more than adequate for general under-
There are various criteria for the stability of thin water use. For unusual tasks, specially con_fig-
'shells under external hydrostatic pressure. The ured tool-holding or prosthetic devices can be
simplest, based on the yield point is affixed to the arm instead of the glove.

t rP/Kc for cylinders and cones Life-Support and Environment Control

t rP/2Kc for spheres A self-contained life-support system will be in-


corporated into the suit to provide a mission time
This criterion gives of six hours. Provision for an additional four-
hour emergency will be included in the system.
t 0.0069 r for cylinders
The essential requirements for the life-support
t a 0.0035 r for spheres system selected for the UX suit is that it be simple,
easily rechargeable, and absolutely foolproof. The
The criterion based on the modulus of elasticity, proposed system will be of the closed-cycle type
for a cylinder of length L between flanges (which utilizing a breathing gas mixture of 21 percent
is always the case for the suit) is oxygen and 79 percent nitrogen. Preliminary esti-
mates indicate the oxygen replenishment capacity
2]2/5 of the system will be in the order of 0. 3 to 0.4 lbs
o - 4') per hours. The amount of CO2 absorbent required
t r [L P
12 /7r
will be roughly in the same order of magnitude.
and since L/r = 4 in the worst case (lower leg) Insulation and a means of controlling the humid-
ity level will be incorporated within the suit to
t 0.016 r assist in keeping the diver comfortable. The in-
sulation in combination with the diver's own warm
Since this criterion is more stringent than the clothing should be adequate in protecting the diver
other it has been adopted in computing the skin from waters as cold as 0°C. If environmental tests
thickness. indicate that metabolic heat generated by the

10
diver is insufficient to keep him warm, an auxiliary CO2 becomes available, such a device will be in-
heat source will be incorporated into the suit to corporated into the suit. Lights, if required, will
supplement the diver's body heat. be furnished in separate, self-contained battery
units.
The water temperatures to which the divers are
exposed will vary from 0°C to28°C. Most operations Test Program
are conducted in cold waters, ranging upward in
temperature from 10°C to 20°C. This coldness of the
undersea environment has been one of the major A full-scale hydrostatic and environmental test
obstacles to prolonged deep diving. The internal program has been carried on parallel to the design
temperature of the Litton suit will therefore be effort to accelerate the process of refining com-
maintained at temperatures of 80°F ±3° (27°C) in ponent design. The Space Sciences Labora.tories
order that the diver dressed in the suit can with- currently possess a 48-inch hydrostatic sphere
stand the cold water temperatures for the desired suitable for testing complete limb assemblies to
times. (Relative humidity will be maintained at 1000 psi. A smaller chamber for testing rotary
approximately 40 percent). seals is also available.

Communications
The authors would like to acknowledge the kind-
The UX is designed to operate primarily as a ness of Siebe Gorman & Co., Ltd., Chessington,
self-contained diving systems. Freeing the diver England, for allowing us to reproduce the drawings
from the encumbrance of cables will reduce tend- of the armored diving suits contained in Sir Robert
ing problems and cable drag and will allow him Davis' book, DEEP DIVING AND SUBMARINE
maximum freedom of action. Generally, however, OPERATIONS. This book, the copyright to which
the diver will be lowered to the bottom by cable. is held by Siebe Gorman, is without question the
Once on the bottom, he will disengage himself from definitive work on the early history of diving and
the cable and proceed to the work zone. Under underwater exploration and makes fascinating
these conditions, communications will be main- reading.
tained by means of an acoustic communication
system. If the maintenance of clear communica- References
tions is of critical importance, it will be possible
to substitute a standard diver's telephone system Davis, Sir Robert H., "Deep Diving and Sub-
for the acoustic system. marine Operations" (The Saint Catherine Press
Ltd. , London 1962) 7th ed., Book II Chapt. 4
p. 595.
Instrumentation
Scott, David, "Seventy Fathoms Deep, " (Fabe,
Sufficient instrumentation will be provided in & Faber Ltd., London) p. 129.
the UX suit to ensure diver safety and allow him to
maintain his orientation in the underwater environ- William Elkins, Space Sciences Laboratories,
ment. Nevertheless, this instrumentation will be Litton Systems, Inc. "Development of a
kept to a minimum to both simplify the diver's Constant-Volume Joint," Technical Memoran-
monitoring problems and reduce field maintenance dum 64-47 (1964).
problems. The instrumentation provided will in-
clude gages for monitoring pressure and the amount Space Sciences Laboratories, Litton Systems,
of replenishment oxygen remaining, plus a clock "Development of a Constant-Volume Pressure
and compass. In addition, if a suitable and reli- Suit, " Interim Report, Contract NAS 9-1278
able device for indicating the excessive build-up of (1964) .

11

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