AR2-,i1EF: e Eepsiowc
AR2-,i1EF: e Eepsiowc
AR2-,i1EF: e Eepsiowc
e eepsiowc
Technische flogaschaol
INHOUD
Delfi
AIAA /SNAKE ADVANCE MARINE VEHICLES MEETING, Norfolk, Virginia,
May 22-24, 1967.
-2-
R. D. WALDO
Aeroiet-General Corporation
El Monte, California
Paper No.
67-346
Abstract Introduction
An engineering analysis of the Ca ptur e d Air The success of the Captured Air Bubble Sui.face
Bubble Surface Effect Ship concept has identified a Effect Ship will depend upon the detailed knowledge
number of developmental task areas which present of many pertinent characteristics which must be
problems in either design suitability or optimality. taken into account when making key decisions. Pre-
These task areas fall b r oa dly into the following liminary design studies have shown that a complete
areas: analysis leading to an optimum design is a complex
Structural design, problem involving a large number of variables. Such
Seal design, an analysis must involve, first, a determination of
Sideboard design, and the required desirable characteristics and the vari-
Propulsion, ous factors which influence them. This paper deals
with some of these characteristics and aspects of
and their relationships to: design which are largely unique to SES and, in par-
The mission, ticular, CAB. It presents various problems, some
Ship arrangements, of which appear readily solvable and others which
Ship performance, and are related to important but elusive factors suchas
Stability and seakeeping. human creativity, the current and projected level of
technical development, the cost of advancing tech-
The investigation presented wa s directed toward nology, and the associated risks involved.
understanding the problems and developing the nec-
essary tools for a more exhaustive analysis. No A list of the desired characteristics for CAB is,
specific blocks to technical feasibility have been of course, no different from that of a conventional
identified, however. ship; but the nature of the characteristics themselves
are completely different. Such a list should include:
The SES offers one outstanding characteristic.
This is the ability to operate at or near the air- sea Seakeeping qualities and survivability under
interface at speeds significantly above those for exceptional circumstances;
operational displacement hulled vessels. This speed Stability and controllability;
potential must, however, be associated with suitable Versatility and flexibility of utilization; and
operating characteristics. It may require, for ex- Economy of,operation.
ample, a significant range/payload capability, eco- This last characteristic is influenced by such fac-
nomic operation, small turning radius, survivability tors as lift-to-drag ratio, propulsive efficiency,
in severe storms, a mission profile having diverse maintainability, reliability, useful loa d fraction,
operational requirements, a useful life of many years range requirements, etc. It should be noted that in
with low maintenance and repair requirements, or the final analysis, it is the economy of operation,
unusual seakindliness during normal operation. whether expressed in military terms as cost effec-
This paper presents some data associated with tiveness or in commercial terms as cost per ton
structural design, seal design, sideboard design, mile, that will decide the success or otherwise of
and propulsion and their relationship to operational the SES. All the other characteristics are attainable
requirements, especially range-cruise efficiency. if, among other things, some aspect of economy
is sacrificed. For example, controllability can be
Operations analyses suggest an island-hopping achieved by introducing control surfaces and there-
procedure similar to that employed by aircraft. Be- by increasing drag, or survivability by increasing
cause of a cruising lift-to-drag ratio of between 20 structural weight and thereby reducing load fraction.
and 30 and a reasonable range requirement, struc-
tural weight is a critical factor. Inflatable flexible The following sections deal with some of the most
seals are found to offer possible advantages because important SES parameter s that, as shown by studies,
of the added dimension of controllability they pro- bear a great influence upon the characteristics of
vide. Sideboards, when de s ig n e d for significant the ship and reveal some of the unique problems to
buoyancy, present a non-trivial hydrodynamic de- be found in the design and analysis of the SES and
sign problem. A planform suggested by Hydronautics its major subsysterns.
offers a promising solution to some potential cavi-
tation problems. Overall propulsion efficiency is a Configuration
sufficiently critical parameter as to suggest a major
emphasis on achieving a high value. The general ship arrangement and shape is shown
in Figure 1. Rigid sideboards project down from
the sides of the main hull and deflectable seals trans-
verse the bow and stern. These appendages are
1
\
4300 TONS DISPLACEMENT 1,8 = 4 \
i
P/L = .5 ' \
42 \
BB
1
\
1, I, \
40 ,
Ss LB = 3 \
\
\
\
37
\
\
\
A \
350
150
Pl. = 1.0k
P/L = 1.5
\ wraw L/11 = 2
SEW
300
¡law,.
with the bottom of the hull, form the bubble cavity. 275
500 PSF
\
\
.9)
400 35°
Structures
75 IDO 125 150
o 20
Table I.
R E LA TI V E STRUCTURAL W EIGHTS FOR COMPRESSION PANELS
Figure 3. Relative Planforms. PANEL CON- SINGLE SKIN
for 7075, 7079, a-nd 7178 alloy s. The 7039 and 7075-T6 CLAD .30 (I)
X7106 alloys hold the greatest current promise; both 5456-H343 .46 (1)
of these are readily weldable to themselves and to 181 GLASS REINFORCED EPDXY .52
the 5000 series alloys. Current practical aluminum 7075-Té .53
alloys are selected from the 5000 and 6000 series
alloys. For sideboard usage, 5083 and 5086 alloys 5086-H34 . 54
3
.45
Ship length
Ship beam
Total depth of midship
Depth and lines of sideboards (and centerboard,
if used) La/HH = 8
Location of blowers
Location of pilot house
Location of fuel tanks .30
VOLUME
Location of cargo storage LIMIT
Deck levels and compartments required
Overall surface contours .25
Seal configurations
Thrust vector location Pa/La = 1.0
.20
Loading Parameters 1.0 1.5 2.0 25 30
Weig ht distribution, c. g. ' s, I s (dead load =
structure + outfit + machinery; live load = L8/B9
fuel + cargo)
Sea state definition, including winds 1.5
4
minimum of immersed sideboards down to a full development. A brief review of some of the im-
displacement mode when the sideboards carry the portant seal characteristics serves to indicate why
full weight of the vehicle. This latter mode provides this is the case.
a low power, low speed operation with the ability to
ride out heavy storms holding just enough way to Bubble Leakage
orient to the sea. The fundamental requirement of the seal is, of
course, that it prevent or limit the leakage of the
Sideboard design offer s some serious challenges. cushion air in the fore and aft direction. Leakage
At the high speeds of 70 to 100 knots, cavitation may can occur at the interface between the sea and the
be a serious threat to the sideboard structure. Even seal, between the sideboard and the seal, between
at top speed, enough of the sideboard will be exposed the seal elements, and also through punctures or
to the water as to suggest a proper profile design. failures in the seal. The most likely source of leak-
Figure 5 shows such a profile. The upper water age is the interface between the sea and the seal. It
lines are a modified parabolic shape developed by is the problem of closing this path without introducing
LB 2.0 PL 1.0
undesirable characteristics that produces the seal
FULL DISPLACEMENT AT ML 23 challenges.
257 FT Drag
The seal drag is composed of a viscous drag,
form drag, wave making drag, and spray drag. For
most reasonable seal designs the Froude number is
so high that the wave making drag of the seal will be
WL 3 FT small. For many shapes spray drag can be reduced
EL 23 FT-1 by adding a ski device at the bottom. Aerodynamic
STATION
drag of the forward seal is significant and should be
considered in evaluating seals which have irregular
23 FT
plan view shapes such as scallops.
257
Dynamic Response (Seal/Hull)
The dynamic response characteristic s of the seal
Figure 5. Sideboard Profile. and the interactions with the ship' s motions are per-
haps in most serious conflict with the requirement
Hydronautics, Inc., and the lower water lines show of sealing in the bubble air. It is necessary to com-
an aft thickening to accommodate the waterjet pro- promise between a very stiff spring rate or highly
pulsion system. Under zero yaw conditions this loaded seal which can keep the gap closed but will
shape s ho ul d be relatively free from cavitation, provide a hard ride to the ship and increase the seal
although yaw will still lead to cavitation aft of the drag, and a more flexible seal which will soften the
leading edge. The sterns of the sideboards are blunt ride but not have sufficient response to keep the gap
but with the ship on the bubble should become fully closed. The problem is similar to the automobile
ventilated at very low speeds so that base drag should suspension problem in terms of the spring stiffness
be practically eliminated. However, a matter to be and sprung to unsprung weight ratios. The accelera-
investigated is the conditions under which ventilation tions required to follow waves without hopying is
occurs for various depths of immersion of the side- readily obtainable. Based upon Cockerell( ) Fig-
board. In this connection it should be noted that if ure 6 shows the magnitude of seal acceleration
the propulsion is by waterjet located at the stern of
the sideboards, the jets will help to produce venti- 500
MN_
120
5
a s wave height increase s. The increa se in require- ranging from below 50 tons to over 20,000 tons are
ment as speed increases from 60 to 100 knots is also envisaged. The adaptability of the seal to exhibit
noteworthy. its characteristics over a wide range of sizes is
Weight
thus a desirable though not essential feature.
The seal has an obviously direct effect on the Figure 7 presents a sampling of general seal
structural we ight of the ship. More important,
however, is the effect of the moving mass on the
dynamic response, as already noted. \
Simplicity and Maintainability
Ec on om i c considerations suggest the use of
simple, easily maintained seals. Seals with re-
placeable or serviceable segments are particularly
desirable and complex supporting systems (e. g.
hydraulic or pneumatic systems) will register a
disadvantage on this point.
Damage Resistance and Operational Survivability
The resistance of the seal to damage bears sig-
nificantly upon the seal selection. A related con-
sideration is that the seal, having sustained some INGLE ROLO MEMBRANE MULTIPLE FOLD MEMBRANE
Adapta.bility to Wide Size Range INFLATED BAG INFLATED BAG wITI1 SECTIONS
SNAPED BY COMPARTMENT WALLS
Finally, it should be noted that, while a nominal
4000 ton ship is being considered, ships of sizes Figure 7. Seal Concepts.
6
types. In each case their operation is self-evident 60
7
Against such a desire are the bearing and lubrication of the sideboards or, with a penalty in water inlet
problems posed and the need, at large angles, of duct losses and weight, at the rear of the main hull.
additional development effort. As noted, an alternate is a tandem installation of
pumps along the bottom of the sideboards. Engine-
At speeds between 70 and 100 knots, recovery of pump couplings can be very close although some
the stagnation air pressure will increase engine per- installation advantages accrue to an inclined system
formance. Unfortunately, at these speeds white and with a long drive shaft. Speed reduction is required
green water tends to travel in the same direction for coupling unless, as noted, power turbine speeds
relative to the ship as the air. Eliminating or re- are redone to match the system. The greatest un-
ducing water capture by inlet shape and orientation, certainty and potential problem in waterjet propul-
and by the inclusion of mechanical separators, re- sion development is the water inlet and ducting. The
duces or eliminates the ram recovery. The location factors of consideration in inlet-duct design are:
of the inlet on the ship and its height will affect water
ingestion. Alternately, it may be possible to pres- Weight (including captured water),
surize the main propulsion air intake system from Added drag,
the bubble blowers and use the excess pressure for Pressure recovery,
water separators and/or filter s. In doing so, it Internal and external cavitation,
must be recognized that there are usually disadvant- Total head losses in the ducting,
ages to combined systems, especially when a failure Flow uniformity at the pump intake, and
OC cur s. Air ingestion.
In considering these problems it is possible to These factors must be considered over a large speed
compile a list of inlet design variables and evaluate range, over a large mass flow range, and with en-
configurational c omp romis e, performance, and gine out. Conflict exists between these factors and
weight as decision factors. The engine exhaust has between the ship design and some of the desired inlet
considerations similar to those of the inlet. characteristic s. For instance, an inlet designed for
optimum pre s sure recovery and minimum duct pres-
The basic thrustor ty-pes we have considered are sure loss may add unduly to ship drag and weight.
depicted in Figure 9. Studies and test programs whose objective is an
optimum inlet system, considering all factors, is
important.
To accommodate a wide range of mass flows at
high speed without cavitation, a variable inlet area
AIR PROPELLERS
will probably be required. The alternative of a
large radius inlet leading edge will add measurably
to the drag. Another problem in waterjet propulsion,
that of pump cavitation, is depicted in Figure 10. If
BOO
400
SUPER CAVITATING 1.5
PROPELLERS
THRUST Thf
NORMAL CONTINUOUS
200
SUPER VENTILATING
PARTIALLY SUBMERGED o
20 40 60 80 100
PROPELLERS
Figure 9. Basic Thrustor Types. SPEED (KNOTS)
8
efficiently under incipient cavitating conditions.) A
critical performance region exists at speeds just 30
time Administration's Dennison hydrofoil ship may Figure 11. Overall Propulsion Efficiency.
have solved the latter problem.
The partially submerged superventilating pro- Seven FT4A type units coupled to 21.1 foot
peller is a relatively new concept in which the low propellers.
pressure side of the blade experiences pressures Six FT4A type units coupled to 34. 5 foot
closer to atmospheric than cavitation. A propeller propeller s.
which is efficient over a wide operating range re- Turboprop units with efficiency comparable
sults. to the Pratt & Whitney JT9D and 8,100 sq.
feet of propeller area, e.g., six 41. 4 foot
The installation in the Captured Air Bubble con- diameter propellers.
figuration pPaces two propellers, one each at the Advanced turboprop engine with a thermal
bottom aft end of the sideboards. A ship with eight efficiency of 42% and 8,100 sq. feet of pro-
engines will thus have four engines driving one pro- peller area.
peller through shafts, an aggregating gear box, and FT4A turbine engine with a good current
speed reduction gears. The mechanical problems state-of-the-art waterjet thrustor having
are at once evident. Pe..riodic loadings of the blades a propulsive efficiency of 62%.
present problems in blade fatigue, habitability, and Gas turbine engine with JT9D level of per-
ship's structural excitation. The latter part of this formance and a waterjet thrustor having a
problem can be reduced by increasing the number propulsion efficiency of 62%.
of blades. Estimated ultimate for advanced turbine
To facilitate a "first cut" analysis of the different engine and advanced state-of-the-art water-
propulsion systems, an overall efficiency has been jet system.
used. This efficiency is defined as the ratio of thrust Supercavitating propeller with 65% effi-
work out to fuel energy in times one hundred. At a ciency coupled to the FT4A engine.
given speed and power required, then, the overall Supercavitating propeller with 70% effi-
efficiency is inversely proportional to the fuel flow ciency coupled to an engine with JT9D level
rate. It does not directly include variations in drag of performance.
associated with the installations. Figure 11 gives Supercavitating propeller with 75% effi-
the results of this analysis at a speed of 70 knots. ciency and an advanced performance gas
The reference turbojet case assumes an engine of turbine engine.
42% thermal efficiency without bypass and without Drag
afterburning. The other efficiency points indicated
are defined as follows:
The drag of CAB craft is very much affected by
Pratt & Whitney JT9D turbofan engine as variations in design, especially bubble geometry
specified (bypass ratio approximately 5). and bubble pressure. Being one of the key elements
Advanced JT9D engine with higher bypass in the performance of CAB, much attention has been
ratio (about 10). given to a proper evaluation of this parameter. The
Estimated ultimate for advanced bypass drag estimates which are shown in Figures 12 to 16
engine with a thermal efficiency of 42% and have been calculated using a rrietA0 which is essen-
a bypass ratio of about 20. tially that of Chaplin and Ford. The calculations
Turboprop installation using eight FT4A are based on the following assumptions:
type units coupled to 13.7 foot propellers.
The sideboard submergence is just sufficient
9
to prevent bubble leakage. most noticeable effect on the hump drags in the speed
The trim angle of the sideboard is equal to the region of 30 to 40 knots. In this region the drag is
arc tangent of the bubble drag-to-lift ratio. predominantly bubble wave drag. With increasing
Bubble pressure is adjusted to compensate for speeds, the differences in drag decrease until, at
the buoyancy of the immersed portion of high speeds in the region of 80 to 100 knots, there
the sideboard. is little difference between the va rious ratios of
The aerodynamic lift and seal lift is 5% of the PB/LB' Based on this curve alorxe, it would appear
total lift. that lower values of PB/LB would be preferable in
The aerodynamic drag coefficient of the hull that over the whole speed range up to 100 knots, the
above the water line, CD, equals 0.5 (this drag at any speed is always lower. However, refer-
is for a well-streamlined SES). ring back to Figure 2, it is seen that lower bubble
The momentum and energy penalty as sociated pressures are associated with larger dimensions,
with the bubble air is neglected. lower ship structural densities, ineffective use of
available volume, and heavier structural elements
Figure 12 is for a ship of nominal LB/BB = 2 and for a given total all-up weight. The choice, then,
PB/LB = 1. The cur ve s show the effect of wave is apparently between small efficient craft with high
height, particularly at high speeds due to the larger hump drags (with the associated problems of hump
800 cavitation, etc. ) and larger less efficient craft but
with lower hump drags. However, some preliminary
4000 TONS studies indicate that it may be possible to combine
LB/B = 20, PB/LE, = 1.0 the best features of these two alternatives.
600
Figure 14 shows the effect upon drag of varying
length-to-beam ratio, LB/BB. For the values of
800
1
1
WAVE HEIGHT = 5 FT
600
200
400 L/8 = 4
20 ao 60 80 100
VELOCITY ( KNOTS )
AsoL/B ' 2
between bubble lift, sideboard lift, bubble drag (wave VELOCITY (KNOTS)
drag), and sideboard drag (viscous drag).
Figure 14. Drag Curves - L/B.
Figure 13 shows the effect of varying the pres sure-
to-length ratio, PB/LB. This parameter has the LB/BB considered, it is seen that this parameter
800
I I
does not affect the drag as significantly as the para-
4000 TONS meter of PB/LB.
L8,13,3 = 2.0
WAVE HEIGHT = 5 FT Figure 15 shows the variation of aerodynamic
600
drag with the depth of the main hull. This informa-
tion is useful in determining the "best" hull depth
PA
when used in conjunction with other criteria affecting
hull depth suchas structural weight, stability of the
400
1.5 vessel, and cargo volume requirements.
1.0
----------------.. Figure 16 shows the effect on drag of varying
operating weight for a given configuration designed
for 4000 ton operation. The most noticeable effect
X
200 occurs at hump speeds, with a lessening effect as
the speed increases.
Some inteiesting features emerge if the lift-to-
drag ratios are calculated for the different operating
o
o zo 40 60 80 100 weights. Considering first the speeds for minimum
LID in the flying mode (best cruise speeds), it is
V ELOCI TY ( KNOTS)
seen that best cruise speed increases markedly with
Figure 13. Drag Curves - P/L.
10
800 , r
4000 TONS
estimates for ground effect machines. The relative
LB,13B = 2.0, P8 /L6 = 1,0
characteristics might be quite different, however,
WAVE HEIGHT = 5 FT especially under large wave deflections when the
600
seal' s contribution to drag will be large. A valid
estimate for aerodynamic drag is difficult due to the
HH FT) presence of the 'ground' plane. The aerodynamic
so drag is probably dominated by the contribution of the
o 400
M. 40
30
front seal/bow and the bases and these are highly a
function of specific shape. The addition of an equiva-
lent drag to allow for the blower system is important,
frequently guessed to be 10% of the total drag, but
290 r 111.P.- the very nature of the Captured Air Bubble Surface
Effect Ship lays open the question of the blower re-
quirement. Hopefully, the leakage might be low
enough under some sea conditions as to add negli-
o
20 40 60
gibly to the overall power required.
80 100
VELOCITY (KNOTS)
Route Analysis
Figure 15. Drag Curves - Hull Depth. In the typical situation of ship operations with
conventional hulls, nonstop routes are established
800
between the port of origin and the port of destination.
NOMINAL 4000 T CONFIGURATION
= 2.0, PB/L
The SES, as compared to a conventional ship, has
LB BB = 1.0
WAVE HEIGHT = 5 FT
an L/D approximately one tenth as large and a thrust
specific fuel consumptionabout two times as large.
600
The obvious implication of this is that for the SES
,
the versatility of no n s top operations is severely
curtailed. This ship has, in fact, range character-
OPERATING
WEIGHT istics more nearly like those of an airplane. The
400
4500 expectation that strategically located refueling stops
4000
___----------' will be desirable is a natural result of this evalua-
3500 tion.
200 An analysis has been undertaken to quantitatively
evaluate specific routes and possible refueling base s.
The desired result of this study was to determine
reasonably correct nonstop range requirements for
0.00
0 20
the SES so that meaningful tradeoff analyses can be
40 60 110 100
made.
VELOCITY (KNOTS) Table II is a compilation of distances between
Figure 16. Drag Curves - Weight Variation. Table II
increased weight, so that on a typical mission the DISTANCES BETWEEN PORTS
It may be noted that the actual minimum L/D values F1onolulu 2301
2301
1149
2304
5542
5053
2091
1505
4398
1334
2004
Midway 2301 1149 4421
decrease by approximately 4% for a weight change Saigon 2304 5542 4421
2792
6878
*3130
*1130
1034
3580
from 3500 to 4500 tons. At 80 knots there is a 10% San Francisco
Tan Shui
5053
1505
2091
4398
2792
*3130
6878
s1,30 5611
5611 3821
.2400
increase in L/D, and at 100 knots an 18% increase. Wake 1334 2004 1034 3580 3821 *2400
12
No. 61-348
ALLEN G. FORD
Naval Ship Research and Development Center
Washington, D. C.
Paper No.
67-348
Allen G. Ford
Deputy Director for Research and Development
Surface Effect Ships Project Office
Naval Ship Research and Development Center
(Formerly the David Taylor Model Basin)
Washington, D.C.
Abstract
The Captured Air Bubble (CAB) is a sidewall air
cushion vehicle (ACV), a high-speed waterborne
craft that is inherently non-amphibious. Some gen-
eral vehicle comparisons are shown, as well as pare-
ametric results pointing to the need for large
multi-thousand-ton surface effect ships (SES) to
fulfill transoceanic requirements. Then comparisons
of theoretical drag predictions and experimental
CAB drag data are made, in smooth water and in
straight-ahead waves. Because the CAB has large
structural members, the sidewalls, in direct contact
with the water, there is a unique opportunity for
the utilization of high speed water propulsion sys-
ems. A comparison of air propeller and water-jet
propulsion systems is then made. The water-jet
shows significant efficiency advantages, particu-
larly for the medium "hump" speeds, and this in turn
allows CAB vehicles to have higher specific loading
for a given installed power. There is a structural
advantage to this higher specific loading, but a
slight power disadvantage. A sample tradeoff is
then made to indicate profitable design trends. Figure 1 - Artists Concept of 4000 Ton SES
General Vehicle Comparisons are likely to be amphibious, that is, to have over-
the-beach capability, and, further, they are likely
There are two principal contenders for the sur- to be associated with air propulsion systems. ate
/ face effect ship (SES) class of vehicle. The first national program in the United Kingdom for about 10
is the hovercraft developed by the British; the years, together with commercial incentive, has
second is the sidewall captured air bubble (CAB) brought this craft to an amazingly advanced state
vehicle which has received a less extensive in-house of development for this time period.
Navy development. The term, "surface effect ship
(SES)", was first used several years ago by the
Maritime Administration, in studies performed by FLEXIBLE
TRUNKS
them. As used here, SES simply implies a "large"
or "ship" size of an air cushion vehicle (ACV), re-
gardless of specific configuration.
/0 0 r-----;<-4 r(7,
1
straight and level, with a very highly dynamic per- this plot. Improvement with size would be even
formance of the fore and aft seals. A second char- more marked in a rough sea.
acteristic of the CAB class of vehicle is a poten-
tial for utilizing the sidewall volume to install For the hovercraft or ground effect machine
propulsion and machinery systems of the water pro- (GEM), the daylight clearance was taken to be con-
pulsion type. Because of its sidewalls, the CAB stant with size; hence the non-dimensional daylight
is not amphibious. Water propulsion systems may clearance was assumed to decrease with size. Some
show propulsive efficiency advantages, but their detailed features and limitations of these pro-
use restricts the craft to water operation, al- jections are discussed in Reference 3.
though running half up on a beach would be possible
with proper seal and sidewall design, such as that o
shown in Figure 1. 1000 cc
20051'
o
o
a
been done since 1960 and principally within naval , a.
laboratories-the Naval Air Development Center, the vti
Naval Air Engineering Center, and the David Taylor
300 o A loo
Model Basin. 200 80.
We: io
i 4-,. ',-PIA(-- 60 ct'''
SHP 467 50 fe,
LB MO 40
FAN
HP
"cuNR,
..
mi
A VI \, , 30
50
100ro5
GEM
\ 7k./Jii,
, 7o V
.... S '
\,
20o
u
30 o1. , , es ,) \, ti-
,s ` 4/ Fe, / 3
a.
AFT
PLANING SURFACE
AIR
BUBBLE
FORWARD
PLANING SIIIPACE
20 -0
,, `,",'
r,
---.0
Ai
-4
, \
4 \\ 5 .
SMEBOARD- 1&,.. ''''' . e` u
10 20 30 50 100 200 300 500 1000
V IN KNOTS
2
Payload fraction as a fupction of range in nauti- Resistance (LID)
cal miles for a CAE vehicle"' is shown in Figure 5.
Vehicle gross weight or displacement is treated Stability
parametrically from 100 to 50,000 tons, with cor-
responding vehicle velocities listed. If trans- Dynamic Loads
atlantic ranges (3000 to 4000 miles) are required
and it is desired to have reasonable payload fract- Structural Weight Fraction
ions of the order of 25 to 30 percent, then the in-
tersection region in Figure 5 calls for craft of Propulsion - (efficiency)
the 2000- to 5000-ton category.
- (weight, reliability)
Figure 6 shows speed as a function of gross dis-
placement of the craft for various sea conditions. The remainder of this paper deals with specific
It is seen that the design-determining condition technical information in two of these areas that
turns out to be the case of high (State 6) seas. was not available in the time frame of References 1
A special importance is attached to the capability and 4. The two areas are (1) resistance (or L/D),
to maintain a good speed in a 'itate 6 sea because and (2) propulsion. The third topic of stability
it is estimated to be the worst sea state which a is treated in Reference (5).
high-speed ship need ever encounter, making use of
modern sea state forecasting and taking advantage Resistance
of the more reliable route planning made possible
by higher speeds. :.loreover, a tAate 6 sea need be During 1966, tests of a 12-foot-long model of a
encountered only over short distances, on the order 4000-ton CAL sidewall vehicle were conducted at
of 100 miles. If a good speed is maintained, it the T1413 high-speed towing tank facilities at
should be practical to drive ahead through the Langley, Virginia. This model is shown as Figure
distrubed area at full power in a few hours, with- T. It has fabric seals forward ana mechanical
out prohibitive fuel burnoff. If a good speed seals aft; both respond very dynamically in waves
could not be maintained, however, then the full- relative to the body of the craft itself.
i.ower fuel burnoff would become excessive, and it
would be necessary to reduce power and increase
transit time to traverse the disturbed area at low
speed.
150
CAB
pa - 0.8 .e1b - 2
W 'HP -60 lb 'hp
llol.
prIJIlip Figure 7 - CAB Model (1 27.2 Scale) of a 4000-Ton SES
iordil
experimental results for smooth-water conditions.
It considers model drag as a function of model
speed and compares a calculated theoretical pre-
diction of drag to experimental values. The ex-
perimental points are shown as various shaped dots
representing 1, 2, 3, and 4 blowers. in the 28-
50
5 2 4 6 8 2
foot per second case (model speed), representing
500 1000 10,000 MON 87 knots for the 4000-ton CAS, the 1-, 2-, 3-, and
DISPLACEMENTINLONGaUDINALTONS 4-blower cases represent 5, 10, 15, and 20 percent
Figure 6 - Speed versus Gross WeightforVarious Sea States of the total vehicle power invested in fan or cush-
ion power. Each blower represents a flow of ap-
If a fixed, above-the-hump speed of 50 knots is proximately 350 cubic feet per minute. A compari-
taken as a minimum for the condition of a L;tate-6 son of the theory and experiment is valid only at
sea, then Figure 6 shows that a large vehicle of speeds above the hump. The primary conclusion that
3000 to 4000 tons is required. can be drawn from Figure 8 is that there is essential
agreement (fnr the smooth-water case and with ade-
The major problem areas that apply to new vehi- quate fan power) between the experimental results
cle developments in general and to ACV's in par- and the theoretical drag and power predictive meth-
ticular are: ods used in References 1 and 4.
3
0.25 100
0.125 50 90
45 0.20 80
0.100 40 70
35 0.15 60
0.075 u 30 50
a
o
w 25 0.10 ô 40
o
0.050 20 30
15 . 0.05 20
1 BLOWER
2 BLOWERS
0.025 10 3 BLOwERS 10
4 BLOWERS
O
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32
mODEL SPEED IN FT/SEC
25 SO 75
0
8 12 16 20 24 28 32 PROTOTYPE SPEED IN KNOTS
mODEL SPEED IN FT SEC
0 25 50 75 100 Figure 10 Model Drag Results in Waves
PROTOTYPE SPEED IN KNOTS
Figure 9 is a similar comparison for this model It was mentioned previously that the amphibious
in 3.0-inch regular waves (6.5 feet full scale). hovercraft would likely have air propellers; these
Again there is an essential agreement between theory are compatible with overland operation. The CATS,
and experiment, provided adequate fan power is pres- which is not amphibious, has a potential advantage
ent. There is, however, an anomalous effect that in the use of high-speed, water propulsion systems.
begins to appear, i.e., the best experimental points The propulsor, gears and prime mover can be in-
are above the theory at interim speeds, but, they are stalled, partially or totally, in the sidewalls of
below the theory at the highest speed,32 feet per the vehicle.
second (model scale) or 100 knots ( full scale),
The anomalous effect is still present in Figure 10, Figure 11 is a picture of a water-jet propulsor,
where the best experimental points at high speed are together with a turboshaft engine and associated
considerably better than predicted. machinery installed in the sidewalls of' a large
CAB vehicle. The water is ingested at the bottom
of the siciewall into an inlet-diffuser region.
From here it moves through the water-jet pump and
0.20 80
exits through a nozzle at the rear of the sidewall.
It is very significant that the duct lengths can
70 be of minimum length with minimum bends; this
allows the most favorable overall duct loss coef-
0.15 60
ficients, without prohibitive water weights.
50
0,10 2 40
30
0.05 20
10
o
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32
Figure 12 shows shaft power versus speed, where If more practical air propeller areas are con-
the shaft power depends both on the vehicle drag sidered (5 percent of the base area) as shown in
characteristics as a function of speed and on the Figure l, then the propulsive efficiency loss is
propulsive efficiency. This plot applies to water- severe and results in high values of required shaft.
jet propulsion of the 'type shown in Figure 11 en- power. Roughly a factor of two in installed power
closed within the sidewalls. The same power re- required is shown in Figure 11+, 150,000 shaft
sults can be obtained for air propellers, but in horsepower for the water jet versus 300,000 shaft
this case, the propeller area must be absurdly horsepower for a.n air propeller of 5 percent pro-
large, 80 percent of the base or cushion area of peller-to-base-area ratio. This difference is of
the craft. paramount importance in large craft with long re-
,
quired ranges.
200
150
eon:
omm,
50-
WATER JET
OR AIR PROP Sp/S =0.80
00000
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
SPEED IN KNOTS
Figure 12 - Power versus Speed for Water-Jet and for Large
Air Propeller Array
250
200
100
*moo*
50-- WATER JET momo
OR AIR PROP Se/S=0.80 moo**
moo..
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
SPEED IN KNOTS
5
300
250
AIR PROP Sp/S .0.05
200
LIJ
100
50 WATER JET
OR AIR PROP Sp/S = 0.80
01100111
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
SPEED IN KNOTS
Propulsion considerations are not independent; Figure 15 shows structural weight fraction as a
they interac't with the choice of vehicle chara.cter- function of the pressure-to-length ratio (P/L).
istics. For example, if the vehicle specific load- The pressure P is essentially the specific load-
ing (weight/cushion-area) increases, 'there is a ing (weight/cushion area). This, plot shows that
likelihood of a reduction in structural-weight there is, in fact, a substantial potential savings
fraction,which can then be invested in payload or in the structural weight fraction for high (P/1)
in fuel to increase range. But the upper value of values; the value 0.13 is typical of the present
vehicle specific loading is controlled by the state-of-the-art and 1.5 is a possible projection.
wave-making drag at the hump speed and the pro- The exact downward trend of Figure 15 is subject
pulsive efficiency at the hump speed (for a given to further definition of loads and designs; how-
installed power). ever, the principal conclusions of the subsequent
trade-off argument will be relatively insensitive
to the exact finalized shape of Figure 15.
STRUCTURAL WEIGHT
GROSS WEIGHT
REFERENCE
P/L IN LB/FT'
Figure 15 - Structural Weight Fraction versus Pressure/Length
Ratio
6
300
250
200
150
uJ
o
o_
100
50
O 10 20 30 40 50
SPEED IN KNOTS
7
2.0 VON KARMAN-GABRIELLI LINE FOR -DL - 50 PERCENT
GW
LB)2.0
P/L (--FT3
1.5 1.5
FIGURE OF 1.2
MERIT
1.0 0.9
)
LB/HP HR
(KNOTS
0.2
0.1
20 30 50 100 200 Figure 19 - Semi-Submerged Supercavitating Propeller
Installation in a CAB Sidewall
VELOCITY IN KNOTS
0.8
1.8 -
0.7
1.6
1.4 0.6
1.2
0.
M 1.0
0.4
0.8
0.
0.6
a.
0.4
0.2r
1,6 0.9 1.0 13
0.5 0.
0.8 1.2 1.5 2.0
ApvANCE RATIO 1-
NO
P/L
Figure 20 - Propeller Efficiency versus Advance Ratio for
Figure 18 - Maximum Figure of Merit versus Pressure/Length a Semi-Submerged Supercavitating Propeller Model
Ratio
A second class of propulsion to be considered
is a partially immersed supercavitating propeller;
see Figure 19. An advantage of such an installat-
ion in a CM sidewall is that there are no shafts
or large pods in the water; the shafts and machin-
ery can be contained within the sidewall. References
Figure 20 shows early test results of propeller 1. Todd, F.H., Chaplin, H.R. , Ellsworth, W.M. Jr.,
efficiency as a function cf advance ratio).O. The Radler, J.B. , Nakonechny, B.V., "A Study of The
value of the maximum propeller efficiency is encou- Technical Feasibility of Future iiigh-Speed NavY
ragingly high, as high, in fact, as a fully immersed Vehicles (U), "David Taylor Model Basin Feport
supercavitating propeller, exclusive of shaft or C - 2050 (July 1965) Confidential.
pod losses of the fully immersed propeller.
Gabrielli,. G. and von Karman, T., "What Price
The availability of two promising possibilities Speed?" Mechanical Engineering (Oct 1950).
for high-speed water propulsion of CAB vehicles;
water jets and partially immersed supercavitating Chaplin, J.R. , "The New Trend in Gems'',
propellers; raises the probability for the success- Astronautics and Aeronautics (Oct 1965) Vol 3
ful development of at least one of these systems. No. 10.
8
Nakonechny, B.V. Breitenstein, K.O., "Cost Con- High Speed Hydrofoil Craft", AIAA paper So. 64-306.
parison and Tradeoffs for Surface Ships, Air Cush-
ion Vehicles, and Aircraft in Naval Transport/Sup- Ford, A.G., "Prorress in Air Cushion Vehicles",
ply Missions (U), (Preliminary Study)," David David Taylor Model Basin Report 2280 (Oct 1966).
Taylor Model Basin Report C - 2123 (Nov 1965)
Confidential. Chaplin, H.B., Ford,'A.G., "Some Design
Principles of Ground Effect Machines, Section D -
Wilson, R. A., "Captured Air Bubble Vehicle Drag" David Taylor Model Basin Report 2121 D
Stability Tests", Presented at AIAA/SNAME (June 1966).
Advanced Marine Vehicle Meeting (May 1967).
Shields, C.E., "Open-Water Performance Char-
Levy, J., "The Design of Water Jet Propulsion acteristics of Several Semi-Submerged Supercavi-
Systems For Hydrofoil Craft" Presented before tating Propellors" David Taylor Model Lasin
Southern California Section SHAME (May 1964). hyuromechanics Laboratory Test Report 193-h-01
(Dec 1966).
Johnson, V.E. Jr, "Water Jet Propulsion for
No. 61-349
ROBERT A. WILSON
Naval Ship Research and Development Center
Washington, D. C.
Paper No.
67-349
Robert A. Wilson
Aerospace Engineer
Surface Effect Ships Project Office
Naval Ship Research and Development Center
(Formerly the David Taylor Model Basin)
Washington, D.C.
1
12 Y2 X2 X1 Y, Z.,
-- :111,1
SIDEBOARD GAUGES
NOTE: ALL DIMENSIONS IN FEET
SCREW JACK
Z2 Y2 '2 Xl V1Z,
1 -
At_4 r
0.73
0.83 j
_t i L. 1
V/b
FEET
4.34 B/2
2.79 2.17 3.5 1.43 B
0.1 i H- 5.0 (BUBBLE LENGTH) 2.35 2.12 (BUBBLE WIDTH)
allowed to roll unrestrained within pre-set limits approximately 200%. The correct lift distribution,
to insure a zero roll moment when this condition taking into account the pitch down moment (with
is desired. The model can be restrained in roll respect to the c.g.) due to drag and the air propul-
when non-zero roll moments are needed. sive system for thrust was calculated. The lift
distribution on the model was achieved by raising
The tests were conducted at a Froude Number or lowering screw jacks independently (see Fig-
of 1.57 which corresponds to a 20 foot per second ure 1) until the desired lift at the bow and stern is
model velocity and scales to 31 knots on the XR-1A. obtained as read from the z gauges. The sideslip
Figure 2 shows the model in operation. Side slip angle was increased until a severe roll condition
(or yaw) angle was the primary independent vari- was experienced, at whiCh time a sideboard or seal
able used for testing each configuration. For each is out of the water and the bubble vented. Data
sideslip angle, the model was allowed to seek an pointsare taken in the vented, non steady state
attitude of zero pitching moment and zero rolling condition. The model weight in this case was in-
moment. The total weight of the model and instru- correct but a zero rolling moment exists. These
mentation exceeded the scaled model weight by latter data points are useful in identifying the
details of instabilities associated with venting.
2
instability implies an inherent yawing moment
which tends to force the craft into a more severe s.eir
turn. In Figures 4 through 14, a negative (-) yaw-
ing moment curve slope is stabilizing. It should be ,
noted that the yawing moment is not only a function 3-a-BEAM DIMENSION, SIDEBOARD SHAPE,
CENTERBOARD'NO CENTERBOARD
INCREASED SIDEBOARD
THICKNESS
of side slip angle but largely dependent upon roll
angle, pitch angle and c.g. height referred to the
water surface. Since the model was tested on the
Rotating Arm, it was always operating in a curved
flow. It is this curved flow which tends to induce 3-b-VENTRAL FINS VERTICAL CANTED
a yawing moment at zero side slip (5) angles. If the
craft were tested in a straight towing basin, the
yawing moment at zero 5 would be zero.
FORWARD SEAL
Roll stability is a function of the height of the AFT SEAL
3-c-SEAL LOCATIONS
center of gravity of the craft, pitch angle and roll
angle. A roll stable craft is one with a character-
istic rolling moment which opposes any change in
roll angle from the steady state roll attitude for its
specific c.g. height and pitch angle. As will be SPRING ACTUATED PRESSURE ACTUATED
3
0.6 12 and tends to roll the craft outboard in a turn at
1-
a greater rate than a craft with no fin. To mini-
E 0.5 mize the roll destabilizing affect, the fin was
P canted 45° under the craft. This would direct the
0.4 .... force toward the e.g., reducing the unfavorable
o - -,..'"-- \ Sp
roll moment by reducing the moment arm. The
ace 0.3 \ projected area of the 45° ventral fin acted upon
Ui \ by the hydrodynamic force is 30% less than that
of the straight ventral fin. This explains the de-
.0- - --
u- 0.2
u crease in yawing moment for the configuration
o
using a 45° ventral fin in Figure 5.
0.1
0.6 I 12
0 O
25 -
CONFIGURATION
0 NARROW MODEL, 0/b = 3.5 10
E 0.5 10 7
u_
AWIDE MODEL, 0/b = 2.35 6,
0.4 i
20 8
_ 8
u_ o ce
15
_ - 6
0.3 I' ..\\
6
Ui \ \\ LU
12
J Uio
u- 0.2 4
o_
Lu
Lu 10 4
co
o
0.1 2
-5 _ -2 o o
Aii
"t
41111 1Al 0
O
CONFIGUR ATION
o
NO VENTRAL FIN
-25 LSTRAIGHT VENTRAL FIN 10
-2 045 VENTRAL FIN
5
--..
0-, AO
ma
20 8
2 10
15 -6
1
_ 11C0/ -5
.
FAKE.
4
I I I I
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
_..,
2
SIDESLIP ANGLE, 13
4
would direct the force vector above the c.g. pro- the opposite side retained by the centerboard will
viding roll stability through a greater roll range. lead to an increased restoring roll moment. It
Figure 3a presents the 30° and 45° dead rise should be noted that the forward and aft seals were
angle sections tested and their vector direction planing surfaces as shown in Figure 3c and that
for a zero degree roll condition. Figure 6 pre- these seals were in two lateral sections for the
sents the effect upon stability of changing the side- model with a centerboard and only one lateral sec-
board angle from 30° to 45°. The configurations tion for the model containing no centerboard. The
also have the benefit of pressure compartmentation results of this comparison can be observed in
for roll stability. Increasing the angle on the side- Figure 7.
board delayed the rate at which the craft rolled
with increased sideslip angle. The increased roll Both models with a centerboard rolled into the
stability further increased the craft's yaw stability turn approximately until a 0.1 5 g turn at which
which made the craft stable in a higher g turn. time it began to roll outboard as the severity of
0.6 12
the turn increased. Of these two, the vehicle with-
out lateral bubble pressure compartmentation
rolled outboard at a greater rate than the vehicle
10
0.5
with pressure compartmentation. The yaw stability
for the craft with lateral pressure compartmenta-
d. 0.4 8 tion was the highest of the two because it had a
o higher pitch angle (less wetted area forward of the
ce
0.3 6 c.g.) and was in a higher g turn when the craft
u, became roll unstable.
0.2 4
0.6 12
0.1 2
-
0.5 10 7.-
CO
CONFIGURATION
30° INCLUDED ANGLE 0.4 8 cc
-25 A 45° INCLUDED ANGLE - -10
----:"- - ---'.--Z- -.
0.3 -6
8
,
0.2 %--` 4
-6 , \ -J
CO
-10
5
-_ -5 -2
1
.. .....'rONFIGURATION
123 NO CENTERBOAPD
FIGURE 6-THE EFFECT OF SIDEBOARD INCLUDED 5 - L), CENTERBOARD WITH - 2
ANGLE AND SHAPE UPON STABILITY. LATERAL COMPARTMENTATION
0 CENTERBOARD WITHOUT
Centerboard
2
1.- -..--.,--..--......-....---
HCG"'
LATERAL COMPARTMENTATION
. .. fa
...
O
c.n
5
The model with no centerboard and one piece for both are similar for low roll angles but as the
bow and stern seals (laterally) exhibited a zero craft rolls outboard, the pitch angle increased for
roll angle to a 0.1 g turn at which time it began the constant stiffness pressurized seal as antici-
to roll outboard as the severity of the turn in- pated.
creased but at a slower rate than both of its
counterparts in this comparison. The g force on 0.6 12
the craft when it became roll unstable by virtue
of the bubble venting was not as high as the g force 0.5 -10
on the craft with lateral pressure compartmenta-
tion but the peak value yawing moment for the two 0.4 8
craft were only 10% different. The yawing moment
for the vehicle with a centerboard but no lateral -6
0.3
bubble pressure compartmentation was approxi-
mately 50% lower.
0.2 4
6
I I
8
1
10 2 16
o
6
pressure. This pressurization afforded better ventral fin located at the stern of the sideboard.
shaping of the forward seal for performance con- The height of the center of gravity with respect
siderations, good bubble retention characteristics to the water was lowered 15% to better insure roll
and tends to keep the bow high for favorable yaw stability. This configuration is compared with that
considerations. Figure 9 compares the data for of the XR-1 in Figure 10. The XR-1A demon-
configurations utilizing the semi-flexible forward strates roll and yaw stability to a 0.4 g turn. Tests
seal and the solid forward seal. The roll angle for using rudders showed a capability of putting the
each model is similar through a 0.2 g turn. The craft in a 0.15 g turn. Although the data shows the
lower yaw moment experienced with the semi- craft becoming yaw unstable at a 0.4 g turn, it is
flexible forward seal configuration is due to the felt that the dynamics of the problem will not put
slightly higher e.g. height, resulting in less side- the craft in a catastrophic condition.
wall wetted area as demonstrated by the lower
side accelerations in Figure 9.
0.6 12
0.6
0.5
, ,
f 12
0.5
/
0.4
-
o
6 0.4 f 0.3
__-
___ ------
-0
-6 ,01 .
-I-
17. 0.3
0.2 \
0.2
0.1
x>
0.1 -2
O O
....
-, CONFIGURATION ...
-2 - 0 XR-1 _ 10
OXR-1A
".(2.10
20 -8
u_
-20
-15 -6
u_
-15
10 4
w -10
o
o -5 _ 2
F
- - 0
...,--- O
..
5
.--, .7.
CONFIGURATION
D SOLID SEAL
0 SEMI-FLEXIBLE SEAL
10
2
0 10
----7-
1 5
H cG
1 -5 0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
o SIDESLIP ANGLE, ß
2 4 6 8 10 2 14 16
7
Although the craft shown in Figure 11 has good These effects can be explained in the following
stability characteristics to a 0.36 g turn, it does manner. As the craft rolls outboard, a larger area
go unstable in roll and yaw past this point. The becomes wetted creating a higher side force. The
data taken at [3 =16° does not represent a craft in percentage of wetted area ahead of the c.g. in-
a steady-state attitude, because the weight sup- creases at a faster rate than the portion aft. This
ported is incorrect. The craft has rolled outboard explains the rapid decrease in yaw stability.
past the point at which the bubble vents. The test
points taken are zero roll moment conditions. The Possible Solutions
craft has been lowered into the water in two steps, There are two possible solutions to these in-
approximately holding the pitch angle of the last stability problems. The forward section of the
steady-state condition consta.nt. At point number 1, sideboards could be constructed from a fabric
the craft has rolled to a position where the bubble which would contain the bubble but be unable to
has vented. The yaw moment immediately became support a hydrodynamic side force. As the craft
unstable but the total side force felt by the craft rolls and the hydrodynamic force increases, the
increased only 15% implying a slight decrease in greater portions of the force would be aft of the
turn radius. The second data point was taken at a center of gravity creating an ever increasing
greater immersion and a slightly different model restoring yaw moment. The restoring yaw mo-
weight. This resulted in a more severe roll angle. ment would tend to increase the turn radius and
The yaw moment became very destabilizing and the pull the craft out of the turn. The second solution
total side force increased 170% in this second case. would be to prohibit the craft from rolling by
Further, the craft has gone from a 0.4 g turn to a always having a restoring roll moment. This could
1.0 g turn with only a slight change in roll angle. possibly be accomplished by adding a variable
thickness section to the sideboard which would
0.6 12 allow the hydrodynamic vector to remain above
°2 el the c.g. as the force becomes high.
0.5
A fabric sideboard would not utilize the type of
V
a, o
c+ 0.4 .....0 seal previously tested, namely a movable planing
o ..._ -.....; surface. A fabric bag type forward seal shown in
Figure 3f could be used. This seal would be an
ace 0.3 integral part of the fabric sideboards. The pres-
Ui
surization would maintain the shape of the forward
uu 0.2
-..
- seal and create a tension force longitudinally in
\ the fabric sidewall which would tend to prohibit
0.1 the fabric from collapsing when the side forces
become high.
6 O
o
Tests examining the effect of fabric sidewalls
-25 0 XR-1
CONFIGURATION
- -10 and the seal shown in Figure 3f were undertaken
CI ADVANCED CONFIGURATION in four steps, the extremes of which are presented
%
8
in Figure 12. Ventral fins were not used in order
-20 to single out the effect of fabric sidewalls upon roll
2, and yaw stability. The sideboards were moved aft
i-
i
i
6 18 inches from their original position in six inch
steps and shortened at the stern. The craft with
4 normal length sideboards demonstrates some yaw
411, --P <IC
stability to a 0.2 g turn. As the craft rolls from
0 P 2
o-J points 1 to 2, (in Figure 12), it becomes more yaw
.>/
5
unstable as it progresses from a 0.35 g turn to a
0.6 g turn.
O O
O
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
SIDESLIP ANGLE, #
high yaw stability. The trend of these results
represents a possible solution to the yaw stability
FIGURE 11-OVERALL ADVANCEMENT AND BASIS problem regardless of the roll attitudes of the
FOR FUTURE WORK craft.
8
0.6 12 0.6 12
10 0.5
P /
/ /
./. -
-.6 --,,,,... V
/7. \ --,..
.....
4
t.\\
4
..
2 \ 2
CONFIGURATION
CONFIGURATION A 0% S.B. THICKNESS INCREASE
-10 -25 10
-25 - 0 0% FABRIC SIDEWALL L. 60% S.B. THICKNESS INCREASE
0 25% FABRIC SIDEWALL
-20 8
i
1 -6
--r -
L
.2
-2
.... 1
O O
_
5 ......
2 10
licG7-- 5
LU
_ -- 8
O
u
6 8 10 12 14 16
, I
SIDESLIP ANGLE, 0 1
,
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
SIDESLIP ANGLE, 0
FIGURE 12YAW STABILITY ACHIEVED WITH THE
USE OF FABRIC SIDEWALLS NEAR FIGURE 13INCREASED SIDEBOARD THICKNESS FOR
THE BOW OF THE CRAFT. ROLL STABILITY.
The previously mentioned sideboard additions
intended to iinprove roll stability were tested. increased creating a greater lift and caused the
A section cut of this addition is shown in Figure 3a. stern to raise. As the stern rises, the hydro-
The results of these tests are presented in Fig- dynamic vector translates forward causing a yaw
ure 13. The addition made to the sideboards ex- instability.
tended from the stern of the sideboard forward
65% of the sideboard length. The planform thick- Tests are currently being performed which will
ness of the addition tapered from zero thickness combine a fabric sidewall at the forward end of the
at its forward most point to 60% of the sideboard craft for yaw stability and thicker, solid side-
thickness at the stern for the previously mentioned boards at the stern for roll stability. These tests
length. will be reported at a future time.
The roll history experienced was generally as Conclusions
anticipated up to about 9° of (3. The sideboard
addition caused the model to roll less. However, 1. Beam increase improves roll stability.
this addition caused the craft to exhibit poor yaw Z. A sideboard dead-rise angle of 450 directs
stability. The decrease in yaw stability can be the hydrodynamic vector above the center of
understood by observing the pitch angles which gravity improving roll stability.
decrease as the sideslip angles increase. The 3. Ventral fins increase yaw stability but they
increase in sideboard thickness created an in- must be canted under the craft yielding an effective
creased planing lift at the stern. As the side slip dihedral to minimize their detrimental effect upon
angle increased, the wetted area of the sideboard roll stability.
9
Lateral bubble pressure compartmentation Recommendations
achieved through the use of a centerboard is sta-
bilizing in roll but the same effect can be achieved A general observation from the test data is that
by increased beam dimension and improved side- a craft with rigid sidewalls the entire length of the
board geometry without the problems of added drag vehicle cannot easily be made statically stable in
associated with a centerboard. very severe conditions because of the roll-heave-
yaw interactions. Preliminary tests have shown
Flexible seals are beneficial for sea-keeping a craft with partially non-rigid and partially rigid
but contribute little to roll stability. sidewalls can be made yaw stable even though the
craft exhibits a heave-roll instability. Increasing
Laterally rigid seals contribute to roll sta- the sidewall thickness aft of the c.g. can provide
bility. heave-roll stabilization but lift at the stern asso-
ciated with the increased volume and wetted area
Pneumatically actuated bow and stern seals creates a lift which decreases the pitch angle and
provide the best pitch attitude leading to improved decreases the craft's yaw stability.
yaw stability. A sidewall containing both of the above men-
tioned properties could yield a craft which exhibits
Fabric sidewalls forward of the c.g. cannot both heave-roll and heave-yaw stability. If this
react side forces on the craft leading to improved can be achieved, the more general problem of the
yaw stability. The fabric sidewalls must be an
integral part of a fabric forward seal which contrib- vehicle's
can be
dynamic behavior in turns and sea-ways
subsequently addressed.
utes little to roll stability.
A sidewall with increased thickness for roll Referenc es
stability creates lift at the stern and lowers the 1. DTMB Report No. 1053, A Rotating Arm and
pitch angle which tends to decrease yaw stability. Maneuvering Basin, July 1956
10
No. 61-350
Paper No.
67-350
4.04, 5.08
WATERJET PROPULSION FOR HIGH-SPEED SHIPS
1
that may result from external diffusion. It is 0
100,000
the least definitive term in the optimization.
Item 3 is the inlet energy loss coefficient that
represents the actual dynamic head loss of the
water in the induction system, plus an elevation
n10,000
loss term to reflect the raising of the water to
some point above its normal level. Elevation loss E-
is generally negligible in displacement hulls and X
can be significant in hydrofoils. Item 4, the
additive drag due to machinery weight, is simply 1
power we must calculate the maximum net thrust of 1,000 10,000 100,000
the system, that is the thrust required to move SHAFT HORSEPOWER
the ship less the thrust required to move the pro-
FIGURE 3. GEARBOX WEIGHTS FOR WATERJETS
pulsion machinery and fuel. For preliminary
(REDUCTION RATIO . 4/1)
design purposes, estimates of weights of the var-
ious components are required. Figs 2, 3, and 4 1,000,000
are weight curves used in this study for gas tur-
bine weight as a function of power, gearbox weight
as a function of shp and waterjet weight as a 100,000
function of flow rate. There are restrictions on .n
several of these figures. The gearbox weight
curve, which is given for marine practice and air- 10,000
craft practice assumes a simple nonreversing reduc-
tion gearbox with reduction ratios of 4:1. This
implies relatively high waterjet rotational speeds.
In our studies, particularly of low speed ships at 1000
low shaft horsepower, we find that low rotational
speed lead to waterjets that are approaching ducted
propellers or pump jets. This situation has led 100 I I
to our arbitrary definition of the limit of water- 1000 10 000 100S00 L000000
jets operating at a pump specific speed of Ns = WEIGHT FLOW -11,/m,c
10,000 or less. We consider optimized values above FIGURE 4. WATERJET WEIGHT VS FLOW RATE
this number either pump jets, or simple propellers. 1.00
Three Shafts
0.90
Na M. =
L = 400 ft
10,000
y/8 = 0.4 900 rpm ...in ..
0.80
Typical study results for displacement hulls,
using the pump speed limits and weight estimates E 030
are plotted in Fig 5, which shows propulsive
115
0116/"--
Ailliirr
0.60
0
coefficient versus displacement/drag ratio for " -
various speeds for a fixed boundary layer operat-
ing condition. Fig 6, a more general curve, shows
0.50
0.40
/r 40
30
...--
20 Speed (Knots)
1 C2 to C4
typical values for different types of craft and 030
propulsion systems. In arriving at these curves,
020
L SES Ships Class Freighters-11
Destroyers
waterjet weight is taken as twice the wet weight
value shown in Fig 4 to account for the weight of 0.10
2
0.80 Large Ship Ga. Turbine Waterjets among others. The simplest and clearest explana-
Boundary Layer Ingestion tion is that of Wislicenus, who points out that, at
E-
a fixed flow rate through the propulsor, thrust
0.60
is proportional to Vj - VI, while power required is
proportional to VJ2 - V12. Therefore, for a fixed
thrust and flow rate, the propulsor with the lower
inlet velocity (relative to the propulsor) will
o 0.40 Hydrofoil Waterjets require less shaft work.
Small Craft
estroyer Propellers Supercavitating Propellers Naval architects have for decades been faced
4 0.20 with boundary layer effects that skew the velocity
MN%MI Propellers profile of the water approaching propellers. In
ifgall6SM Waterjets
o the case of a propeller - hull matching, the
a. velocity profile is a problem because the blade
o
40 60 80 100 faces varying angles of attack in each revolution.
O 20
VELOCITY - knots In a waterjet installation it is possible to turn
this problem into a significant advantage, much as
is done on torpedo pump jets.
FIGURE 6. DESIGN PROPULSOR COMPARISONS
v/Vo = 9,177
14 18 22 26
where v is the local velocity WATERJET WEIGHT FLOW - lb/sec
Vo is the free stream velocity
y is the dimension perpendicular to the
flow at which v is measured FIGURE 7. IMPORTANCE OF THE EFFICIENT INGESTION
6 =the boundary layer thickness. OF THE BOUNDARY LAYER (80 KNOTS,
350-FOOT SHIP)
The definition of boundary layer thickness used is
a simple approximation of the Schoenherr - Von
Karman development and is
The actual optimization procedure is done on a
6/x = 0.02065 - 0.00138 log10 (VK.x) small engineering computer and is a simple itera-
tive procedure in which flow is incremented and the
where x = hull length, ft powerplant is redesigned in each step until the
VK = speed in knots minimum installed power is reached. The block dia-
gram (Fig 8) shows the flowpath used. As shown,
This formula is quite accurate at values of the program optimizes a ship and speed for each
log10 (VK.x) above 2.8 and for open sea tempera- case at various lift/drag ratios. This optimiza-
tures. 6/x typically ranges from 0.014 to 0.017. tion can be changed to include mission capabilities
merely by specifying sfc and endurance for several
The importance of the efficient ingestion of power settings. In this way, the optimization is
the boundary layer is shown in Fig 7. In this affected by fuel weight, which generally reduces
figure waterjets for an 80-knot 350-foot ship were optimum propulsive coefficient by a small amount
optimized for different ingestion percentages with- (on the order of 2 points).
out consideration for the limits of geometry. The
curve shows a possible variation in propulsive co-
efficients from approximately 81% at 10% ingestion The program is a basic iterative loop that is
to 70% at 40% ingestion. dependent on some engineering approximations for
some of the input. For example, choice of y/6 =
In most cases that we studied an inlet ingesting 0.1 would almost always result in early abort of
only 10% of the boundary layer results in unreal- the calculation at a low propulsive coefficient and
istic geometries where inlets are wider than the high shp. Typical data are shown in Fig 9.
ship. A more realistic ingestion percentage would
be y/6 = 0.4.
Inlet Systems
The reason propulsive coefficient is sensitive Three technical areas of interest in inlet dif-
to boundary layer suction has been discussed in fuser design are (1) external drag, (2) internal
the literature by Wislicenus (Reference 3), performance, and (3) cavitation as it affects per-
Gearhart (Reference 7), and Thurston (Reference 6) formance and structural damage.
3
Input Block One Ship, One Speed, One Mission - Varying LID
Calculate Drag
Calculate Flow
Assume Machinery
Weight
Check shp
Increasing
Correct Displacement Decreasing Increment Flow
Correct Drag Iterate
Calculate Inlet
Lip Velocity Vim Increment LID
Return to
Calculate Overall
Head Required
(:2)
Calculated Ns, S,
NPSH, shp, Calculate Propulsion
and PC System Weight
Calculate y,
and Ainlet
Exceeds Limits
1
External Drag. External drag of a waterjet
Displacement
Hull inlet is one of the most important inputs to the
0= 40 propulsor optimization program. Unfortunately,
1../D = 20 only a limited amount of data are available.
Data for airplane inlets are available (Ref-
0 40
/i 60 80 100 120
hp X 10-3
140
WATERJET WEIGHT FLOW - lb/sec, z 10-3
160 180 200
The problem is to minimize the external drag while
keeping internal losses to a minimum and avoiding
cavitation. In studying inlets, we consider only
external drag as a drag term and classify the
"internal drag" as an energy loss chargeable to
the waterjet. This technique differs from that of
FIGURE 9. TYPICAL PRINTOUT DURING OPTIMIZATION
condenser designers who consider both as drag terms.
4
The net effect is the same, increasing horsepower
above the ideal (bare hull) value. External drag, R = 1.90
as mentioned previously, consists of viscous drag
due to any added surface area, interference drag
occurring at the intersections of the hull and the
inlet, and any ram drag that may result from exter-
nal diffusion forward of the inlet. In studying the
- atikA 1.000
Hull Line
available data, two types of displacement hull in- Vt.\r = 0.032
lets suggest themselves, submerged (or flush, Fig 10)
and extended (or scoop). Most displacement hull 1.000
0.250
waterjets available today utilize the flush inlet.
According to Hoerner (Reference 5) such inlets pro-
vide no external drag. In addition, they lend
themselves to incorporation into the waterjet inlet
casing and permit easy installation in small craft.
The disadvantages of these inlets are (1) a rela- FIGURE 11. BASELINE FLUSH INLET MODEL - EXPANSION
tively high internal loss coefficient, and (2)
RATIO 4/1, INLET ASPECT RATIO = 4
susceptibility to cavitation.
5
h/o =1.1, W/h=3.05
h/o =1.8,
V Inlet Calculated from Flow Measu emente
and Area at h
V° = Free Stream Velocity = 95 fp
C0) = leota - e,n r=sv
= Momentum Thickness - 1--v )dy
o Vo Vo
Cruise Position Boundary Luyen Thickness =. 0.96
(at V = 95% of V0)
W = WLdth of Inlet Lip = 1.22
0 1 0.2 0.3 04 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
FIGURE 13. VARIABLE AREA INLET MODEL FIGURE 15. APPARENT DRAG COEFFICIENT VS VELOCITY
RATIO FOR SCOOP INLET
The external drag coefficients measured for
these inlets are shown in Fig 14 and Fig 15. We In studying the flow data for the flush inlet,
call this the apparent external drag coefficient, we have compared Vim to an ideal Vi based on two-
because it compares the momentum downstream of the dimensional ingestion of a portion of the boundary
inlet to the momentum of the undisturbed flow at layer upstream. In the cases studied we found Vi
the same location. This is the same technique used ideal higher than Vim, which indicates the flow is
by Mossman and Randall (Reference 4). We believe being ingested from areas not only ahead of, but
the real external drag of the inlet must take into also on both sides of the inlet. In this respect,
account the ideal momentum downstream of an inlet the flush inlet will have a better performance
(assuming perfect two dimensional ingestion) and than the scoop inlet, since it will tend to ingest
compare it to the actual or measured momentum down- more of the low velocity flow near the hull than
stream. Although we have performed this operation, the comparable scoop inlet. This will result in
the data collected were not reduced in time for this lower drag, since the drag affected area will "see"
paper. lower velocities than the comparable scoop.
In studying the apparent drag of the two inlets, To show how a negative drag coefficient can be
several items become noticeable: obtained, we plotted centerline velocity profiles
from an early test of a flush inlet (Fig 16) for
The flush inlet has a lower drag than the four velocity ratios. In most cases, the flow
scoop, due almost exclusively to the sharp downstream (C and D) has a thinner boundary layer
corner interference drag of the scoop; future than the approach flow. The effect is more notice-
experiments will add cruise position fairings able as the velocity ratio increases. In calculat-
to the scoop to fill in the sharp corners. ing a "real" drag coefficient, we believe the pro-
file at D should be compared to an ideal profile
The closer the inlet velocity to the free- at D. In every case, we integrate these profiles
stream velocity, the lower the drag. This over the entire affected area downstream, which we
indicates flow is spilling over the inlet find is 1-1/2 inlet widths on either side of the
at most conditions. centerline at a distance of 4 widths downstream
of the inlet lip.
The thicker the boundary layer with respect
to inlet lip height, the lower the drag, Internal Performance of Inlets. The internal
although the flush data do not consistently performance of an inlet diffuser system is criti-
demonstrate this fact. cal to the overall system performance since each
foot of head lost here must be made up by the pump.
,
We define the efficiency of an inlet diffuser as
W = Inlet Width
V° = Free Stream Velocity = ma foe
1 - (Ht1-Ht2)/(V2/28)
Il where Hti = total head available at inlet
6 = Boundary loyer Thmknem
-
Ist V - 86% of Vol = total head measured at diffuser
Ca = (Omit - 6011/h Ht2
Er. d = Momentum Thickness = joY =li -,Y; (1 - if-.1 dy discharge
W/h = 0.358
0 = o.ae ie. 6/6 = 078
V2/2g = velocity head available for dif-
0 = DAMS in ha = 0.43 fusion.
0= 0.90 io 1,1 = 0.31 !Drs.
...
/Thrum We plot this efficiency in two ways, one based
Ovo on the measured inlet velocity Vim, using Vim2/2g
-alt ... = 0.130 11/5 = 0.43
as the available velocity head, and also as a free-
6=030 ha = . stream efficiency using Va as the available veloc-
. 0.900,700
8
1
6
performance to freestream conditions, we find dif- angle of 25 and 30 degrees used was arbitrarily
fuser efficiency quite low, as might be expected chosen with the aim of making the inlet system as
in a thick boundary layer. Neither measurement is short as possible. The diffusers were made rec-
adequate, although the freestream efficiency lends tangular to avoid the transition problem between
itself to design calculations better than the the rectangular lip to the circular diffuser.
apparent efficiency. In studying the data, it Models now being prepared incorporate this tran-
is obvious that the scoop inlet (as expected) is sition and the fairings for the scoop in the cruise
a better pressure recovery device than is the position.
flush inlet. Also, as expected, the greater the
scoop extension, the better the pressure recovery.
700
o
1
410
0.20
600
0 ,
o o
500 a. ....
h
in. (4 400 o 8. Boundary Layer Thickness = 0.36 in
Vo 0 (Taken at V = 95% of V./
300 W = Inlet Lip Width =1.22 in.
A HT = Total Head - ft .
A X
ra,
V. 0 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 0.8 09 1.0
INLET VELOCITY RATIO
0.50
0
0.1 02 0.3 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 External cavitation (that is, cavitation result-
INLET VELOCITY RATIO
ing from the presence of the inlet) will most
FIGURE 17. PRESSURE RECOVERY VS VELOCITY RATIO likely occur in the vicinity of the lip at the
FOR FLUSH INLET minimum pressure point of an eqùivalent airfoil.
External cavitation will also probably occur at
the corners or intersections of the scoop and the
Examination of scoop data comparing cruise to take- hull when fairing is inadequate. This external
off position recovery also points out one of the cavitation can have two extremely harmful effects:
basic problems found in boundary layer inlets; it can increase drag, and it can cause severe
efficient diffusion of a nonuniform velocity is structural damage. Unfortunately, our small wind
inherently difficult, particularly at the smaller tunnel does not lend itself to obtaining any useful
percentages of the boundary layer flow. The data on the external cavitation problem. Wind
efficiencies shown, together with associated drag tunnels, in general, fail to provide adequate data
characteristics show trends and are not acceptable in cavitation studies because they do not simulate
values for a real installation, because of the the discontinuous medium of the vapor/liquid inter-
relatively crude models used. The inclination face, but only indicate the low pressure areas
7
where cavitation is likely to occur. In short,
wind tunnel capabilities in this area stop just
this side of useful data.
0.2
11
a. c>
0
. 0.1
wg
CID
CI)
W
L)-0.2
0 OA 0.2 03 OA 03 0.6 07
INLET VELOCITY RATIO FIGURE 21. MINIMUM DRAG VERTICAL RECTANGULAR
INLET WITH TAKEOFF FLAP
FIGURE 19. STATIC PRESSURE DROP COEFFICIENT VS
VELOCITY RATIO FOR FLUSH INLET
0.5
Waterjet Designs
I. The design of the waterjet itself can be, and
3,, 0.3
, 0.4 .........4s, lo
0. Hrx ../125.
has been, accomplished in several different ways.
Any efficient pump can be used in a waterjet sys-
Vo = Free Steam Veloocity = 96 fpe
tem, regardless of its type; e.g. centrifugal,
0.2
W = Inlet Width =...1.22 in. mixed-flow, axial-flow or propeller pump. Most of
w 171.i = Static Head At Inlet Lip these pump types have been used in waterjet appli-
1,4 01 o
cn
H. ,= Free Stream Static Head cations with varying degrees of success. For
Z h/8 W/h example, Boeing's hydrofoil "Little Squirt" is
z
5656
0 0.566.1 powered by a double-suction centrifugal pump. Most
-0.1 0
0
1.1 3.1 8 = .36 in. waterjets are straight-through axial- or mixed-flow
-
c..)
E..4 -0.2 1.8 1.9
units that minimize the number of turns made by
.40 0.31 6.1
the flow. Our approach to waterjet designs is a
-0.3 0.62 3.1 8 = .65 in.
10 1.9 mixture of our compressor cascade system modified
o
o 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 06 07 08 09
by results of our rocket engine turbopump experi-
INLET VELOCITY RATIO
ence. The basic problem faced by the waterjet
designer is similar to that of the propeller
FIGURE 20. STATIC PRESSURE DROP COEFFICIENT VS designer; he must produce high efficiency at low
VELOCITY RATIO FOR SCOOP INLET inlet pressures, while avoiding cavitation damage.
Our solution to the design problem is an axial-
We do not believe that waterjet inlet design flow rotor with varying hub radius and high solid-
problems can be solved in subscale wind tunnels. ity blading. The number of blades is minimized
The wind tunnel gives us (1) an appreciation of to improve cavitation performance. Fig 22 shows
the important variables and their qualitative a waterjet rotor of our design. A typical feature
effect on performance, (2) preliminary design of such pumps compared to classical axial-flow
data, and (3) an economical method of developing units is the low inlet flow coefficient. The flow
test techniques that can be applied to full- coefficient is a direct result of rocket inducer
scale test units. experience which, as in propellers, shows cavita-
tion performance improved with reduced inlet blade
Hydrofoil inlet designs face the same problems angle. A more detailed account of our existing
as displacement hull inlet designs with one units is given in Part IV of this paper.
important difference; the inflow is generally
planar. Hydrofoil inlets are further complicated Waterjet nozzle designs are, for the most part,
by the fact that the inlet nacelle incorporates simple low-loss, fixed-area, converging nozzles.
foil structural and actuating mechanisms. In Their performance is affected seriously only when
addition, the designer is usually faced with the the flow from the pump stator contains appreciable
necessity of making a 90-degree turn immediately rotational vectors or swirl. This swirl is inten-
after ingestion of the water. sified by the nozzle contraction, and can choke
the pump flow.
External diffusion on a hydrofoil inlet results
in high internal efficiencies (>90%) and high
drag. The takeoff problem in hydrofoils, where Variable-area nozzles for waterjets are impor-
maximum power and, thus, flow are required, occurs tant for vessels with widely varying speed range,
at minimum inlet pressure and has a strong influ- and when the inlet ram pressure is a significant
ence on nacelle sizing. A possible solution to portion of the system pressure. Under these con-
the problem is the incorporation of an auxiliary ditions, changes in vessel speed cause significant
scoop to capture as much ram pressure as possible changes in pump flow and tend to drive the unit
and in the closed position reduce drag as much as into off-design conditions. By varying the nozzle
possible. (See Fig 21.) area the pump flow can be adjusted so that the
8
pump is operating at its best efficiency point. 700
Fig 23 shows the effect of variable-area nozzles
on the thrust for a ship designed for 70 knots when = SR%
it is operating at higher speeds. At 100 knots,
the v'ariable nozzle design gives 15% more thrust 600
50% Ship Overspeed with
than the fixed nozzle. Fig 24 is a plot of a typ- 1111189 Variable Exit Nozzle
ical pump map that shows the extent of overflow and
efficiency change occurring at a 50% vessel over-
speed. The variable-area nozzle can correct this 4'4500
lk I
1
FP'
MI o
1500
.40
2000
o
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
FIONV - gprn (rhousand)
1.1
=Mr shp shp,nin
selection, such as fuel cost or specific fuel con-
sumption, are frequently overshadowed by depreci-
o.
. 1.0 Cost 11111119. Propulsive Coefficient 0.7
ation period, duty cycle, and lift/drag ratio. o
O
L
Mir-Trost
MINIIIIIIPP" ...1
-
Minimum Co.
0.6
n Po Mt-
Our method of studying the effect of machinery
cost is a simple calculation and summation of all
the powerplant costs incurred in any mission for
varying horsepower levels. The contributing fac-
E.
cc
cn
O
u
1.
1.0 =MI
EMIII hDe8ig
0.5
0.4
hillbil's
illa
1. 0.3
tors are:
10
for relatively short periods of time, and for such
22 vessels as ferry boats. The effect of utilization
is shown in Fig 30, where application of an 800/, full
20
power, 10% part power utilization cycle (long haul
freighters) more than triples the propulsion cost
over a 10% full power, 30% part power cycle, due
almost entirely to the increased fuel cost.
...
Approximately 3x
_ C = 42.7 (shp) 0.766 Lightweight Average Cost
0. Marine Gas Turbine C 76(Q)"74
10
100 1,000 10,000 100,000
MAXIMUM CONTINUOUS SHAFT HORSEPOWER FIGURE 32. APPROXIMATE MARINE WATERJET ODST
11
Three classes of high speed ships are of Gas Turbine/Steam Annual Cost Ratio versus Fuel Coat
interest to potential gas turbine-waterjet propul- Fixed Displacement and Range Varying Payload
sion - high speed displacement ships, hydrofoils,
and surface effect ships. JN°
si,oV
rj .G0.80 e
40
In calculating the above cost comparisons, only
machinery cost and fuel cost are used, whereas in
the actual case, costs of personnel, overhaul,
30 auxiliary machines, and maintenance, etc., would be
4000 Tons added. In these other areas, the gas turbine-water-
3500 Tons jet plant should prove to be more economical than
3000 Tons the steam plant.
Z20 2000 Tons The case for hydrofoil waterjets follows a
a. similar line of reasoning, with the important dif-
P.
ferences being that the drag reduction comes about
10 by reducing nacelle diameter and an appreciable
cost and weight savings is found by eliminating
the gear train drive. Fig 35 shows a drag com-
parison of a waterjet and propeller driven
hydrofoil.
0 10 20 30 40 50
VELOCITY - Knots Surface Effect Ships
If the potential of surface effect ships is
FIGURE 33. APPENDAGE DRAG FUR DESTROYER-CLASS realized, we may someday see ships of 10,000 tons
SHIPS cruising at speeds of 100 knots carrying freight
to Europe in 35 hours. Another possibility would
be an aircraft carrier with 130-knot wind velocity
A recent P&WA study compared steam propeller, conditions over the deck.
gas-turbine propeller, and gas turbine-waterjet
propulsion for a 3500-ton DE with 2600 hours of Economic studies already published on the sub-
utilization per year. The results are shown in ject of SES ships for ocean commerce have indi-
Fig 34, where annual cost/payload ton ratio is cated the importance of high propulsive coeffi-
divided by the same ratio for steam, all plotted cients and low SFC, as might be expected in any
against fuel cost per barrel. Note that gas tur- relatively constant speed ship with long range
bine costs can be as little as 507. of comparable requirements. P&WA studies of powerplants for
steam plant costs. Most of the benefit shown here such ships indicate we may realize both the
results from the fact that the gas turbine-waterjet required propulsive coefficients ( = 657.) and the
increases payload (much lighter weight) and costs low SFC ( . 0.55) in the near future. Fig 36 is
less to install. Studies such as this indicate a plot of estimated thrust versus ship speed for
the economic potential of the waterjet in large this unit at two horsepower levels. An instal-
sizes. lation drawing of the powerplant element for a
12
4000-ton ship is given in Fig 37. This waterjet While the SeaJet 4-3 is a "paper design", it
is designated the SeaJet 4-3, which indicates it follows the design system utilized in the SeaJet
is to utilize the power of the FT4 marine gas tur- 12-1, a 3200 shp unit designed to be used with the
bine. A proposed installation of si* SeaJet-4 FT12 engine.
waterjets in a 4000-ton SES is shown in Fig 38.
800 ASSUMPTIONS:
7000 1
O 80 90 100
10 20 30 40 50 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
VELOCITY - KNOTS SHIP SPEED - knots
FIGURE 35. HYDROFOIL REAR STRUT AND FOIL DRAG- FIGURE 36. PERFORMANCE OF SIX SEAJET 4-3 WATERJETS
34,000 GPM, 4800 SHP SYSTEM IN 4600-TON SES
659.4
37.2
13
Top View
m====10
1
Scale in Feet
LSea Jet 4
Waterjets Variable Geometry Inlet
Side View
IV. Waterjet Propulsion Components pounds wet) and 1500 pounds dry (2500 pounds wet),
respectively, for SeaJet 6-1 and SeaJet 12-1.
An exploratory waterjet propulsion systems
development program was begun at Pratt & Whitney The hydrodynamic designs of the pumps are based
Aircraft in mid-1965. Preliminary designs were on cascade data and an analytical program devel-
completed on waterjets sized for the 400-hp ST6, oped in support of our rocket engine and jet engine
the 3770-hp FT12, the 20,000-hp FT3, and the 30,000- research and development programs. The rotors for
hp FT4. Two of these, the SeaJet 6-1 (ST6 size) the two pumps have a solidity (chord/gap ratio) of
and SeaJet 12-1 (FT12 size) were designed in detail three for a blade arrangement consisting of three
and parts were fabricated for test. full blades and three half blades. The nominal
The design of the two pumps is quite similar,
tip inlet blade angle for the rotors is 8 degrees,
which gives a 1.5-degree incidence. The blades
as shown by Fig 39. Both have essentially axial- are swept to maintain this incidence angle along
flow single-stage rotors, with flow from the rotors the leading edges of the blades to provide opti-
discharging through a stator section, which turns mum suction performance. A five vaned stator sec-
the flow axially into a nozzle. The rotor drive tion provides constant velocity turning of the
shaft is supported on the impeller end by a water- fluid from rotor discharge through a 70-degree
lubricated journal bearing and on the drive end by turning angle for axial flow at the nozzle.
oil-lubricated bearings designed to carry both
radial and thrust loads. The rotor in both pumps Steering systems that provide side and reverse
is back-vaned to minimize the unbalanced loads forces by deflection of the waterjet have been
resulting from the static pressure rise across the designed for both pumps. They are designed for
rotor. In the SeaJet 12-1 pump, the thrust load mounting on a boat transom, and all maneuvering
can be as high as 50,000 pounds. The materials forces are transmitted into the boat without
for the pump components were selected for their directly affecting the pump mount loads. Side
light weight, high strength, and compatibility thrust loads for steering can be in excess of 37%
with a sea water environment. The pump housings of forward thrust; reverse thrust is 502. For-
are cast 356-T6 aluminum, the rotors are forged ward thrust loads are transmitted to the hull
titanium AMS 4928 (6A1-4V), and the shafting is through the pump mounts that are located in the
K500 Monel. Maximum operating stress is 40,000 thrust bearing housing. Steering system esti-
psi and occurs in the roots of the rotor blading. mated weights are 520 pounds for SeaJet 12-1;
Weights of the two units are 340 pounds dry (490 and 72 pounds for SeaJet 6-1.
14
Steering and Reversing
Mechanism
Oil Cooler Exit Guide Vanes
Coupling
Thrust Bearing
Purnp Inlet Discharge Nozzle
RG12-3.89 Gearbox Impeller -
TIffustBeadng
101111,
fio,======ene=4_.
-
pounds wet for the SeaJet 6-1 and SeaJet 12-1, V = 89%
respectively. The design characteristics of Sea- 600
Jet 12-1 and SeaJet 6-1 are presented in Table 1. $,
89%
15
Fig 45. Both recirculation and ram water capabili-
250 ties have been built into this stand to provide
for simulating boat transient and steady-state
operating conditions. More than 50 hours of test-
86% ing has been accumulated on SeaJet 6-1, 35 hours
87.5 on SeaJet 12-1, and 20 hours on the steering system.
200 In both pumps rotor efficiency has been high,
(about 93%, as predicted), however, overall per-
formance has been less than predicted. This is
attributed to flow separation on the suction side
of the stator vanes and high mixing losses at the
cn 15
70 stator exit. New vanes have been designed to
eliminate the flow separation and parts are pres-
cni ently being fabricated. During the SeaJet 12-1
testing, a rotor-to-housing rub was experienced
at high rpm. This was attributed to insufficient
10 stiffness of the shafting, and has been corrected
2 2000 rpm
by increasing the shaft diameter. Tests on the
steering system revealed that reverse thrust was
over 50% of forward thrust, as compared to 20 to
2100 rp
25% for a commercial system. For a full turning
5 1
1500 rpm
angle of + 38 degrees, axial thrust is maintained
at over 50% and lateral thrust is over 40% of full
forward thrust. Actual steering forces and angles
required will depend on the type of vehicle and
degree of maneuverability desired.
o 2000 4000 6000 8000 10,000
F1ONV -gprn 16000 Suction Specific Speed
altik25,000
FIGURE 41. ESTIMATED PERFORMANCE - SEAJET 6-1
15000 Anl
WATERJET PUMP 4
V
14000
6400
5600
13000
lark ,,,:4,
.4
mc;00
,
,,,.,,,
..
12000
III smill
'zio "c"
CID
fs.,
4800
D
0411000 1116/1111
,,,_,,,
4000
10000
.. ENE %
NPSH Values
9000 SHP 20 Knots 50 Knots rm.
368 ft.
M 3200 3770 123.8 ft.
E-
3500
-3200
37.4 ft. 124.3 ft.
38.0 ft. 124.9 ft.
b. ',Ill
3 ft. 9 ft. Ht Above Waterline
2400
''. P . 64 lb/ ft
l
O 1
0 8 16 24 32 40 48 56
VEHICLE VELOCITY - Knots
1600
FIGURE 43. SEAJET 12-1 TYPICAL HYDROFOIL
INSTALLATION PERFORMANCE
16
-
Recirculated
Ram Water
V. References
18
VI. LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS
Cost dollars
Drag coefficient CD
CD
pv2
Ainlet 2g
Head ft/H20
Hsi Head, static inlet ft
N Specific speed
AH 3/4
PC Propulsive coefficient TV/shp x 550
Flow rate gpm
Radius in.
Weight lb
19
No. 61351
WILLIAM M. ELLSWORTH
David Taylor Model Basin
Washington, D. C.
Paper No.
67-351
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
1
CRAFT SUBSYSTEM TECHNOLOGY some penalty in added cost, and perhaps less reliability.
For large hydrofoil craft, required to operate in heavy
Struts & Foils seas, the percentage of total cost represented by the
control system does not constitute a major consideration.
Before proceeding with a more detailed discussion For smaller craft, constrained to operate in relatively
of strut/foil technology, it is appropriate to first re- light seas, the cost and added sophistication of an auto-
view the major differences in foil system configuration. matic control system does not appear justifiable. How-
One major difference is that between "fully-submerged" ever, because of the size and sea state requirements
and "surface-piercing" foil systems shown in Figure 2. associated with envisaged Naval mission applications,
The fuLly-submerged system places the lifting surface the U.S. Navy has elected to employ fully-submerged
completely below the air-water interface by means of foils with automatic control systems. The advantages
strut supports. In such a case, some type of automatic inherent in this configuration are graphically illustrated
control is generally required to maintain flying height, in Figure 3, taken from Reference 3.
at least for operation in significant waves. There is a
pronounced stabilizing effect which results from close
proximity of the fully-wetted foil to the free surface. For
relatively calm water conditions this free-surface effect
may be sufficient to permit foilborne operation with rela-
tively simple control measures such as that of varying
craft trim. In the surface-piercing foil system the
lifting surfaces themselves penetrate the air-water in-
terface. Such systems are inherently stable in that lift
varies in relation to the flying height or depth of foil
submergence. As a result, at most, only simple stabil-
ity augmentation is required, even for operation in a
seaway. The selection of one system over the othelyis Figure 2. Typical (a) Surface-Piercing and
made principally upon considerations of cost, reliabilitY,.: (b) Fully-Submerged Foil Systems
and simplicity, in light of the resulting foilborne motion
characteristics achievable in negotiating the specified A second major difference in basic hydrofoil configu-
sea conditions. The fuLly-submerged, automatica rations is in the distribution of lifting surface area along
controlled system clearly provides smoother opera9dn the hull, as shown in Figure 4. In the "canard" config-
and greater flexibility of control in heavy seas but at uration, the major portion of the load is borne on large
30 97%
25 7
1,000T.
90% 6
80%
75% 5a
67%
4
55%
40°/0 3
RC\IsIG
LLH. S. DENISON
PT 50 SUPRAMAR 2
PT 20 SUPRAMAR
1
2
LONGITUDINAL CONFIGURATION LATERAL CONFIGURATION
NONSPLIT SPLIT
-a
.
CANARD 0.65< xL <1.0
CENTER OF GRAVITY
foils located aft of the midship section. A smaller When the total pressure at a point in the liquid drops
lightly-loaded foil is placed forward. The canard dis- below vapor pressure, cavities form and collapse with
tribution is arbitrarily defined as one in which 65% or resulting radical alterations to the flow characteristics.
more of the load is concentrated on the aft foil assembly. This phenomenon also produces high noise levels and
The opposite arrangement is referred to as the "airplane" causes severe erosion of many materials otherwise suit-
or "conventional" foil configuration. Here the major able for construction. Above this critical speed regime,
portion of the load is supported by foils located forward a radically different approach must be talcen in designing
of the midship section. Intermediate between these two the foil system. A distinction must be made, therefore,
types is the "tandem" foil arrangement where the load is between "subcavitating" and "supercavitating
borne equally by the forward and aft foil assembly. configurations.
3
occasion vent to the free surface. At present, there is
a notable lack of knowledge concerning the mechanisms
of ventilation and the laws governing scale effects. Of SUBCAVITATING FOIL
particular concern is the characteristic sudden occur-
rence and the hysteresis associated with formation and
disappearance of ventilation cavities.
To date, ventilation problems have been dealt with CAVITY
primarily by the use of "fences" to block the passage of
air from the free surface to regions of low pressure in BASE -VENTILATED FOIL
Thus far, most foil and strut section shapes have been SL1PERCAVITATING FOIL
those selected from the NACA design literature such as
the 16 or 63 series. These sections have characteris- Figure 5(a). Comparison of Typical Foil Sections
tically flat pressure distributions and provide maximum
lift within limits of cavitation inception. From this
standpoint, bearing in mind the 800 to one ratio of water STRUT CAVIT,;(7
and air densities, it appears that under ideal conditions WATER SURFACE
4
One of the most critical problem areas in the design surface effects have no analogy in the aeroelastic case
of foil systems is that of materials. The selection of and are not completely accounted for in the present state
suitable materials having high strength, low weight, of the art. However, the extension of incompressible un-
resistance to sea-water corrosion and cavitation erosion, steady airfoil theory has been shown to be highly unre-
and having acceptable fatigue properties, while at the liable in predicting hydrofoil flutter. It has been demon-
same time not imposing unacceptable penalties in cost strated that foil flutter can occur in regions where direct
and difficulty of fabrication, presents-a.major challenge application of unsteady airfoil theory would predict a
to the designer. To date, a considerable effort has been completely flutter-free condition. At present, it appears
expended in the development of suitable materials, much that dependable predictions of flutter can only be made
of which has not been directly aimed at the hydrofoil with dynamically-scaled models and experimentally-
problem even though the information on material proper- measured damping values. In spite of this unsatisfactory
ties thus obtained has been of great value to the foil de- state of our knowledge of hydrofoil flutter, there is some
signer. At the present time, a number of candidate foil reason to believe that subcavitating desig,ns which are
materials have been identified, each of which calls for adequate to prevent divergence are not likely to flutter.
one compromise or aiaother in comparison to ideal mate- This is borne out by present experience with operational
rial properties. PCH-1 struts and foils are constructed craft. However, with the advent of lighter-weight struc-
of HY-80 steel which must be coated to resist seawater tures and more sophisticated composite designs, our
corrosion and cavitation erosion damage. During oper- margin of confidence is likely to decrease unless contin-
ations, to date, a variety of coating materials have been ued efforts are made to extend the knowledge in this area.
tried with varying degrees of success. In the most re- Certainly, in the case of high-speed supercavitating con-
cent foilborne operations an elastomeric coating of neo- figurations, there is a notable lack of confidence in our
prene has shown considerable promise and raised the ability to predict the occurrence of hydroelastic insta-
level of confidence in future use of HY-130 and HY-140 bilities. This is particularly true in the case of leading-
steels. Active consideration is also being given to the edge flutter of supercavitating foil configurations. Other
use of alloys which require no coating. Of these, Inconel types of hydroelastic instabilities involving stall and
718, 17-4PH, and 6-2-1 titanium with 0. 8% molybdenum coupling between foils and control flaps also present
are the most promising candidates. In each case, how- serious design questions on which present knowledge is
ever, there remain unresolved questions regarding ma- considered inadequate.
terial suitability for the large sizes, complex construc-
tions, and severe environment associated with the large Hull
hydrofoil application. Furthermore, it is presently dif-
ficult to obtain the new developmental materials from The major reason for the employment of hydrofoils is,
suppliers in the desired billet sizes and with the required of course, the desire to lift the hull from the water and
guaranteed properties. thus circumvent the constraints on high speed due to
wavemaking and frictional resistance and intolerable
In the area of strut and foil structure, one of the craft motions in a seaway. Total drag just prior to take-
major considerations is the avoidance of hydroelastic off is a significant factor in establishbag the power re-
problems. "Hydroelasticity" is concerned with phenom- quirement and careful attention must be paid to the hull
ena involving mutual interactions among inertial, hydro- design to minimize this effect. Figure 6 shows a typical
dynamic, and elastic forces. Although the over-all per- smooth water drag curve for a hydrofoil craft with its
formance of a hydrofoil craft involves each of these significant "hump" prior to takeoff. Comparison is also
forces, hydroelastic considerations involve all three made with a typical planing craft to illustrate the high-
simultaneously and are most significant for foil systems. speed advantage of the hydrofoil even in smooth water.
Among hydroelastic phenomena it may be concluded that In order to allow for additional takeoff drag which results
the dynamic instability known as "flutter" is the most from significant waves, a power margin as much as 40
complex of all hydroelastic problems of concern in hy- or 50% over smooth-water takeoff requirements is
drofoil craft design. Whereas the problem of torsional usually provided. This large margin is somewhat indica-
divergence involves only the hydrodynamic and elastic tive of our current lack of knowledge regarding the true
forces, flutter involves- also the inertial forces of both magnitude of the added seaway effect.
the foil system and the fluid medium. Flutter analysis
requires a knowledge of vibration characteristics, mode Actually, there are currently no good design criteria
shapes, and over-all damping and it may be stated with specifically for hydrofoil hull shapes and there are as
some confidence that flutter is currently the least trac- many different configurations as there are hydrofoil
table of hydrofoil hydroelastic problems. Since flutter craft. Hull configurations are generally based on pre-
can cause a catastrophic failure of the foil system with vious experience with seaplane and planing craft and
possible damage to the main hull structure, a careful much more work is required to establish an adequate
consideration of this problem area is essential. design foundation particularly applicable to hydrofoils.
Further standard series model work is necessary and
In subcavitating foil designs, theoretical and experi- investigation must be made of the possible advantages of
mental developments, based largely on aeroelastic ex- stepped hulls in achieving lower take-off drag.
perience, have apparently been used successfully in the
prediction of static hydroelastic effects such as diver- Another major consideration in hull design is the re-
gence. Reasonable success has been achieved in also quirement for good sea-keeping characteristics in a
predicting the vibration characteristics of foil structures heavy sea. If hydrofoil craft are to operate unrestricted
with zero forward motion. This is true even though free in the open ocean, they must be capable of surviving
5
THRUST-DRAG COMPARISON impact loads in negotiating high seas when foilborne, and
situations causing sudden "set-down" in waves; there are
few real data upon which judgment can be made except for
HULL recent rough water trials of PCH-1. Current designs
BARE PLANING
must therefore still be guided, in the main, by present
knowledge of displacement ships, seaplanes, and planing
craft. With hull weight-fraction being critical in the de-
sign, hydrofoil hull structure much more resembles that
of aircraft than conventional displacement craft. Weld-
ability and resistance to seawater corrosion are signifi-
cant factors in the selection of lightweight hull materials.
HYDROFOIL CRAFT
At present, only the 5000 series aluminum alloys satisfy
TAKE-OFF SPEED MA XIMUM
f these criteria. Of these, 5456 is most frequently used.
SPEED
5456 is weldable and has a yield strength of 26,000 PSI
for plate. It is the material used for both the PCH and
AGEH hulls.
For speeds up to about 40 knots, the subcavitating In order to utilize the water propeller as a foilborne
water propeller is, by far, the most efficient device for thrust device, it is necessary to provide a transmission
producing thrust with propulsive efficiencies as high as system to span the long distance between the prime
7
mover and the propeller. The problem is formidable in Ship Control
that it involves transmitting 20,000 to 30,000 HP, re-
duction of rotational speed from 5000 RPM at the gas The ship control system comprises those components
turbine to 1200 to 1500 RPM at the propeller, and provi- necessary for steering, dynamic stabilization, and con-
sion for complete watertight integrity throughout the sub- trol of craft speed and attitude in flight. In fLight there
merged portion of the system. The problem is further are, in principle, two modes in which the craft can oper-
complicated by the desire to provide the capability for ate in rough water as shown in Figure 8. If the hydrofoil
retracting the foil system. is relatively large compared with the waves and its flying
height is sufficient to permit the hull to travel in straight
The U.S. Navy has examined various types of trans- and level flight clear of the waves, the craft is said to
mission systems with the conclusion that the right-angle "platform" with zero response. In the other extreme,
bevel gear drive represents the best choice at the cur- if the hydrofoil is small compared to the waves, it is
rent stage of development. This type of "zee" drive was constrained to follow the surface. This is known as
employed in the MARAD hydrofoil craft DENISON and "contouring" and, ideally, a 100% response is required.
successfully demonstrated the capability of handling Any practical craft control system must, to some extent,
10,000 HP through a single shaft and single-mesh bevel compromise between these extremes and seek to provide
gear. A similar system is employed in the PCH where minimum foil broach and maximum hull clearance without
3000 HP is transmitted through a single shaft and a split exceeding the desired limits of craft motion. The limits
bevel arrangement in the pods to distribute power to the on motion are primarily those prescribed by the maxi-
fore and aft propellers. The AGEH will be the highest mum accelerations which are, in turn, important in their
power application of the zee-drive transmission with influence on structure, mission equipment, and the
more than 15,000 HP being transmitted through two drive human occupants.
shafts down each main strut to single propellers on the
aft end of each pod. This system has been qualified in In looking at the more detailed technical aspects of the
factory tests and has been installed on the ship Devel- guidance and control system, we may consider it com-
opments of even larger systems are in progress and prised of the sensors, computers, actuators, and lift
some promise has been shown by a new planetary gear control devices. This last component area obviously ties
system, under development by Curtiss-Wright, which into much of the previous discussion on struts and foils.
offers the possibility of significant reduction in pod size. It is included for the sake of completeness in covering
the problems of system design.
.11
PATH OF C. G. (PARTIAL RESPONSE)
INTERMEDIATE RESPONSE
8
Hydrofoil craft having only surface piercing foils, in control response required of large hydrofoil craft which
general, do not employ an autopilot system with its as- must operate in high sea states.
sociated sensors. The foils themselves act both as
sensors and control devices by virtue of the change in In the more sophisticated electronic control system
forces and moments with depth of foil submergence. As described in more detail in Reference 6, inputs to the
already noted, this provides the persuasive advantage of autopilot are provided by electronic height sensors, ac-
extreme simplicity and high reliability. In some cases, celerometers, position gyros, and rate gyros. For the
simple control augrnentation may be added to surface- hydrofoil applications thus far considered, the state-of-
piercing systems in order to counter special stability the-art in autopilot design is generally satisfactory and
problems that may occur due to particular mission re- developments have kept pace with requirements for oper-
quirements. This is the case in the design of the Cana- ational systems. This is due in major part to the signifi-
dian FHE-400 where controllable anhedral foil tips will cant advances in technology stimulated by aircraft re-
be employed to give added stability in the takeoff and quirements. Aircraft-type accelerometers and gyros are
low foilborne speed range. This addition was made due available off the shelf with 2000-hour life ratings and
to the wide range of speeds desired, which is consider- these are generally suitable for hydrofoil control systems.
ably greater than the usual design practice where the
takeoff speed is about one-half the maximum flying. Electronic control systems, to date, have all been of
speed. This posed a special problem in providing ade- the analog type wherein craft-motion sensor outputs are
quate stability at low foilborne speeds. processed by the control computer and continuous pro-
portional commands sent to the control surface actuators.
Other systems employ a surface-piercing main foil Present operating experience with large craft, although
and a smaller fully-submerged control foil in an attempt limited, seems to indicate such systems may not be com-
to buy some of the advantages of both configurations. pletely adequate for optimum control at high speeds in
The DENISON is an example. In this craft, provision is high sea states, and future experience may dictate the
made for manual and automatic control of trailing flaps need for self-adaptive systems. By self-adaptive is
on the surface piercing foils and an all-movable sub- meant the process of automatically changing loop gain
merged tail foil. with changes in environment such as speed, wave condi-
tions, temperature, etc. Self-adaptive systenis can also
In general, it is the conviction of the U.S. Navy employ gain-changing using the difference between actual
that large ocean-going hydrofoil craft require fully- performance of the vehicle and desired performance ob-
automatic control of submerged foils in order to tained with an electronic model of the craft incorporated
provide acceptable craft motions. As a result, the in the autopilot. This leads to the need for consideration
main effort in this area is directed toward such de- of digital systems rather than analogs. By judicious de-
signs. The validity of this philosophy should be dis- sign of switching circuits, digital computers could pro-
proved or verified, as the case may be, by future vide duty cycles which would extend the life of actuators
operational experience. In any event, this discussion and provide increased system reliability.
will be primarily constrained to the technical aspects of
submerged foil craft having some form of automatic Sensing of the local height of the hydrofoil above the
control. water has been done with some degree of success with
ultra-sonic devices mounted at the bow and with resis-
The simplest forms of automatic control systems tance-type probes installed down the leading edge of
employ combined mechanical sensors and actuators di- struts. Because of susceptibility to damage by debris,
rectly linked to lift control devices. These include the resistance-type probe is considered much less de-
forward arms with skids that plane on the free surface sirable and the ultra-sonic sensor is presently favored
and sprung flaps attached to the struts at the air-water due to its simplicity and proven reliability under actual
interface. Both types of mechanical "sensors" control operating conditions. This type of sensor was developed
trailing-edge flaps on the submerged foils in proportion to a major extent on SEALEGS and is in current use on
to the flying height. These devices, in particular the PCH-1. Ultra-sonic sensors for and aft will also be
strut-flap type, do provide a smoother ride in significant used on AGEH-1. Developments have also been carried
waves, but there is serious question as to their suitabil- out on radar-type sensors; however, recent results have
ity for hydrofoils above a size of 50 to 100 tons. Since, proved disappointing and it appears that the necessary
however, there are a number of Navy applications for close proximity to the water surface precludes achieve-
the smaller size craft, the simplicity and low cost of ment of acceptable operating characteristics with these
these systems merit attention in future designs. devices.
A second and somewhat more sophisticated approach The efficiency of energy transfer, the low compres-
to foil control is the use of pneumatic systems. In such sibility of the power transfer medium, and the high
systems air is introduced through orifices in fixed foils power to weight ratio of hydraulic actuation devices
and this produces large changes in lift at acceptable high makes the hydraulic system generally more attractive
response rates. This technique, now under development, than pneumatic or electric actuation systems. The ready
shows considerable promise for application to craft in availability of suitable hydraulic servo valves and, in
the 50- to 100-ton range up to moderately high sea most instances, actuation motors places the state-of-the-
states. Thus far, however, it has not been demonstrated art in foil actuation in a reasonably satisfactory position.
that such systems are capable of providing the degree of Since, however, the foil actuation components are
9
frequently the most costly part of the control system and U.S. NAVY HYDROFOIL CRAFT
since they also contribute a significant weight fraction,
further engineering refinement is considered necessary. Although a substantial part of the foundation for design
Furthermore, additional effort must be made in providing of operational craft can be, and has been, established by
increased reliability under the severe conditions imposed development of theory, analyses, model tests, and ex-
by the marine environment. periments with small vehicles, there must ultimately be
verification by construction and test of full-scale proto-
Actual control of submerged foil lift is effected in two types. At present there are three experimental craft
principal ways. One is by use of trailing edge flaps encompassed by the U.S. Navy Hydrofoil Development
coupled to the actuation system. The other is by varia- Program. These are the FRESH I (a high-speed platform
tion in the angle of attack of the entire foil. This latter for tests of new high-speed foil systems), the HIGHPOINT
method is referred to as "incidence" control. In addition, (PCH-1) and the PLAINVIEW (AGEH-1). In addition,
control of lift on the main foils can be accomplished by there are two hydrofoil gunboats, PGH-1 and PGH-2,
varying the trim of the entire craft. The selection of a wider construction at Grumman and Boeing, respectively.
foil control system is influenced by a large number of These two craft, being of smaller size and within the
design considerations, with particular emphasis on opti- state-of-the-art, are not considered developmental and,
mization of lift/drag characteristics throughout the range upon completion of final acceptance tests, they are sched-
of desired operational modes. The PCH uses flap control uled to be delivered to an operational unit of the fleet.
alone and the AGEH will have only incidence control of Data will be obtained during their test and operation,
the main foils and tail foil. Accurate comparisons of however, and these will be of great value in the develop-
these different approaches will only be possible through ment of firm criteria for the design of future craft.
actual operating experience. It may be noted, however,
that there is a growing conviction that both incidence and Before proceeding to a detailed discussion of the char-
flap control might ultimately be required to achieve the acteristics and status of each of the U.S. Navy Hydrofoil
best performance from large ocean-going hydrofoils. craft, it is important to make note of the special provisions
This is due to early indications that flaps are more effec- that havebeen made to conduct an extensive special trials
tively used for takeoff, whereas incidence control is program. For some time the Navy has recognized the need
more effective at foilborne cruise. for a special facility to conduct technical trials of advanced
surface craft. The first step toward provision of such a
As previously noted in the section on struts and foils, capability was taken in November 1966. At that time, the
the most critical problem in lift control is cavitation and Taylor Model Basin, upon request of the Naval Ship Systems
ventilation and present knowledge regarding such effects Command, established a Hydrofoil Special Trials Unit at
on the static and dynamic stability characteristics of hy- Bremerton, Washington. This Unit will function as a tenant
drofoil craft is not yet adequate. Most control system activity of the Puget Sound Naval Shipyard and will be staff-
designers seem to feel that hydrofoil control technology ed with both civilian and military personnel. The Officer-
is primarily deficient only in the need for more precise in-Charge will be responsible to the Commanding Officer
information regarding the nature and magnitude of the and Director of the Model Basin and the Technical Director
hydrodynamic inputs to the control system. of the Hydrofoil Development Project Office for the conduct
of all special trials of assigned craft. Effective in Decem-
Auxiliary Machinery ber 1966, technical control of PCH-1 was transferred to
the Model Basin with operational control to be provided by
This more or less miscellaneous area includes various the Commandant of the 13th Naval District. AGEH-1 willbe
auxiliary systems such as electrical generators, pumps, similarly assigned upon delivery to the Navy.
air conditioning, etc. Although there do not presently
appear to be any major technical problems in this area, HIGHPOINT (PCH-1)
these systems do contribute a substantial portion of the
total craft weight. As a result, there is strong reason to General
devote continued attention to means for reducing the
weight of auxiliary system components. As an example, The guidance design of the PCH-1 was performed by
in a recent study it was concluded that major weight re- the Bureau of Ships and a contract for detailed design and
duction and improved effectiveness could be achieved construction was awarded to the Boeing Company in June
within the present state of the art by utilization of 400- of 1960. The keel was laid at J. M. Martinac Shipyard in
cycle gas turbine generator electrical systems. Con- February 1961 and the hull was launched in August 1962.
sidering the close parallel between aircraft and hydro- Construction was completed and the craft began operations
foils, there are undoubtedly many other such possibilities in September 1963.
for adopting modified aircraft practice in the design and
specification of auxiliary systems. The principal characteristics of PCH-1 are given in
Table I and are graphically illustrated in Figures 9
Another aspect which merits further study is that of through 15. As shown, the craft is a canard configuration
reliability. Considering the projected mission applica- similar to SEALEGS with 70% of the load being borne on
tions for hydrofoils, the small crew sizes, and lack of the after inverted "n" foil. Foil lift is controlled through
spares capacity, it is clearly essential to provide high trailing edge flaps. The flying height is controlled by the
reliability and ease of maintenance in all critical systems. flaps on the forward foil by comparison between the sig-
nal from two bow-mounted ultra-sonic height sensors and
10
Figure 9. PCH-1 Suspended on Crane
11
DISPLACEMENT'
LIGHT SHIP - 93T
FULL LOAD - I20T
DRAFT
FOILBORNE - 7'- 6"
HULLBORNE
FOILS RETRACTED - 6' -6"
FOILS EXTENDED- 17'
Pt1-2] 2.-10"
-- FULL LOAD DISPL W L BASELINE
FR 0 j 5 -0"
F LYTIV-G W. L ,6 3r 6
O." L 20'
12
ACTUATOR
/9,
PACKARD
ENGINE
STRUT
VERTICAL
DRIVE v\_ RETRACTED POSITION
iSERVO
/ VALVES
PLAN VIEW
HYDRAULIC
TUBING ;
1 I AILERON
NACELLE
LOWER
TRANSMISSION I
ak ACTUATOR FWD
FLAPS
ACTUATOR, SS;
SHIP'S HULL
/ AILERON
NORMAL POSITION
(AHEAD DIRECTION)
SIDE VIEW
Figure 12. PCH-1 Main Aft Foil Assembly Figure 14. PCH-1 Hullborne Steerable Propulsion Unit
The operational problems which have been encountered
stem, in great part, from failure of conventional hard-
ware components. The other major problem areas stem
from the not unexpected difficulties of operating at cavi-
tation inception speeds. In the latter case, the step from
commercial surface-piercing hydrofoils to the PCH-1
might be compared to that of advancing from the DC-3 to
LEAD SCREW near-sonic aircraft such as the DC-8 and 707. Viewed
in this context, and considering that PCH-1 represents
the first and only craft of its kind, the performance which
has been achieved is considered remarkable.
PCH-1 was delivered to the U.S. Navy on 15 August
ACTUATORS;.
1963 and was manned by a Navy crew. Support for the
craft was provided by three large mobile shore vans con-
taining spare parts, hydraulic and electronic test and re-
pair equipment, and a small administrative office.
13
VERT
GYRO
Ts +
PITCH HEAVE CHANNEL
HEIGHT
TRIM
VALVE SERVO
AMP VALVE ACTUATOR
I
HEIGHT
SENSOR I ELEVATORS
Ts + I
PITCH
TRIM
---7
PITCH
RATE FLAPS
LINEAR
ACCE L.
Ts
Ts+ I
ROLL CHANNELS
VERT ROLL
GYRO
ROLL
RATE
AILERONS
ROL L
TRIM
BANK FL AT
YAW
RATE >Th-s+1
SYNCROS
HEL M
RUDDERS
14
and several different types of elastomeric coatings and that future designs should provide for containment of the
test patches were applied to the struts and foils. Addi- lower gear box in a completely separate watertight hous-
tional instrumentation and recording equipment was also ing within the pod.
installed, including 63 bonded strain gages in the struts
and foils, and adaptation was made to the height-sensor Although the three-bladed forward propellers have not
output to permit recording of actual wave heights during shown evidence of cavitation damage, their wake seriously
rough water operations. affects flow conditions over the pod and strut/foil juncture.
The increased velocity in the wake and the cavitating tip
Operational testing in calm water was resumed on 22 vortices which are generated, considerably degrade the
June 1966 and, with the exception of a short drydocking cavitation characteristics of the pod assembly and a
period to replace one of the experimental coatings which change to eliminate the forward propellers is indicated.
proved defective in bonding, continued until the middle of As for the after propellers, they have proved completely
October. During this period, 26 hours of foilborne calm- inadequate in their resistance to cavitation damage. The
water operations were carried out successfully and exten- present bronze aft propellers are seriously eroded by
sive data were obtained. On 19 October, the craft made cavitation on both faces of each blade and require replace-
a foilborne transit from Bremerton, Washington to Neah ment or repair after about 40 hours of foilborne operation
Bay, a distance of more than 100 miles, in an elapsed at cruise speeds. A three-blade configuration is partic-
time of three hours and 19 minutes. During this transit, ularly poor due to the harmonic content of the wake and a
weather conditions were severe and swells were encoun- wake-adapted design is required to alleviate the problem.
tered which averaged six feet with the highest being as Even so, it is not likely that aft propeller cavitation can
much as 10 feet in amplitude. Subsequently, further be avoided at the desired speeds and other design tech-
rough water operations were conducted in the Neah Bay niques must be employed. These include recourse to
area for a total of 11 hours of foilborne time. During partially cavitating or supercavitating designs, or pro-
this period, the craft was operated at speeds up to 40 vision for forced air injection.
knots in seas in excess of sea state 4. Forward foil
broaching was periodically experienced primarily due to The transmission disconnect couplings which are re-
shorter length of the forward strut. This was attendant quired for strut retraction have proven to be a continual
with some hull slamming which produced occasional bow source of trouble. The primary problem occurs in the
accelerations as much as 2g. However, foilborne oper- difficulty of maintaining alignment with three essentiaLly
ation was maintained without difficulty and RMS vertical independent structural support points. Ultimate solution
accelerations at the steering station did not exceed 0.2g. can be effected only by a complete redesign and this is
Furthermore, no difficulty was experienced in rough currently underway.
water takeoff at any heading even in winds up to 30 knots.
The only significant mechanical failure occurred at the Future Plans
beginning of the return transit to Bremerton after comple-
tion of the trials Immediately after takeoff both trans- Operational experience with PCH-1 has demonstrated
mission disconnect couplings failed and necessitated that a second iteration in the design of the strut/foil/
making the return trip in the hullborne condition. Al- propulsion system is required in order to achieve an ac-
though this was a disappointing conclusion to an otherwise ceptable level of performance and reliability. As a re-
successful operation, it did serve to demonstrate the sig- sult, a contract was awarded to the Boeing Company in
nificant benefits of foilborne operation from the standpoint May 1966 to make a detailed study of candidate strut/foil/
of human factors. Foilborne comfort was reflected in the propulsion systems reflecting current advances in tech-
relative absence of seasickness when operating on the nology and incorporating changes necessary to overcome
foils. Only four cases of mild foilborne seasickness were deficiencies in the present PCH-1 design configuration.
acknowledged during the entire trials period. In con- In this study, a detailed comparison was made between
trast, after the transit up to Neah Bay, only three min- improved propeller propulsion concepts and waterjet
utes elapsed before the first hullborne seasickness oc- propulsion systems. This design study was completed in
curred, and on the return hullborne transit, a large per- September 1966 and results were reported in Reference
centage of the crew and trials personnel were sick. 10. After extensive consideration and review by the Navy,
the following conclusions were reached regarding the
Although PCH-1 has now demonstrated that the achieve- configuration of PCH Mod-I:
ment of the original design goals is entirely feasible, Steering will be provided by a rotatable forward
there remain a number of design problems still to be re- strut in lieu of the present strut flap and spade rudder.
solved. Experience with the present coatings described
in detail in Reference 9 shows considerable promise in Propeller propulsion will be retained; however,
that no significant deterioration was found after nearly the Mod-I configuration will consist of two pusher pro-
40 hours of foilborne operation. Speeds during these pellers, of new design, mounted on the aft end of the pods.
trials were, however, restricted to a maximum of 40 Provision will be made for future addition of air injection
knots which considerably alleviated cavitation effects. to the propeller blades.
More data at higher sustained speeds must be obtained Watertight housings will be provided for the lower
before a complete evaluation of coatings can be made. gear boxes, separate from the pods.
Previous difficulties with saltwater leakage into the Wet retraction of the struts will be retained to
transmission lube oil appear to have been corrected by minimize navigational draft.
internal pressurization of the system. It is clear, however,
15
Struts and foils will be constructed of higher- design was completed by Grumman in May 1963. A con-
strength material (minimum 130,000 PSI yield). This will tract for detailed design and construction was awarded to
permit utilization of sections of smaller thiclutess, thus Lockheed Shipbuilding and Construction Company in June
improving cavitation inception characteristics. Inconel 1963 and the hull was launched in June 1965. As of this
718, 17-4 PH steel, and HY-130 steel will be considered writing, construction is nearly complete; however, due to
as candidate materials. problems which have arisen in the design of the hydraulic
system and other construction delays, delivery to the
Flap control will be retained; however, consider- Navy is not expected before the middle of 1967.
ation will be given to the use of an elevon system on the
main foils so that all flaps will provide both roll and pitch The major characteristics of AGEH-1 are given in
control. (In the present Mod-0 system the center-span Table I and further illustrated in Figures 16 through 19.
flaps provide only pitch control and the outboard flaps It is the largest hydrofoil ship in the world and will offer
provide only roll control.) the first opportunity to evaluate the potential of such craft
for full ocean-going Naval service. In addition to its
Based on these conclusions, the contractor is currently large size, it is substantially different in design concept
proceeding with the detailed design of the PCH Mod-I from PCH-1. Foil lift variation is effected by change in
configuration. Upon completion of the detailed design in incidence angle of both the main foils and tail foil which
early 1967, construction will be initiated and the new are arranged in an airplane or conventional configuration
strut/foil/propulsion system is scheduled to be completed rather than a canard. Ultra-sonic height sensors are
and ready for installation in the summer of 1968. At that mounted both at the bow and at the stern. Foilborne pro-
time, the PCH will enter drydock and undergo conVersion pulsion is by two 62-inch-diameter, four-bladed, super-
which is expected to be completed by the beginning of 1969. cavitating propellers, one on the end of each gear pod.
The hydrodynamic design of these propellers was per-
During the approximately 1 and 1/2 years before the formed by Hydronautics, Inc. They were built by Hamilton
Mod-I strut/foil/propulsion system will be ready for in- Standard and are made of titanium alloy with blades bolted
stallation, the PCH will continue to undergo extensive test to the hubs. The initially installed power plant consists
and evaluation by the Hydrofoil Special Trials Unit. of two General Electric LM-1500 gas turbines, each
During the first half of 1967, preliminary investigations driving, one propeller through a right-angle bevel-gear
will be made of the interfaces between the craft and po- transmission. Provision has been made, however, for
tential mission equipment such as weapons; and detection, adding two more engines to ultimately achieve much
navigation, and communication equipment. Here, it is higher speeds using a ventilated or supercavitating foil
not the intent to develop new mission equipment, but system. The hull, which is constructed of welded 5456
rather to explore the potential for utilization of existing aluminum, has been designed to meet the structural load
hardware with this new high-speed platform. From such requirements of higher speed operation.
tests, requirements and specifications will be developed
for mission equipment tailored to realize maximum bene- Future Plans
fit from the advanced performance capabilities of hydro-
foil craft. Upon delivery to the Navy, AGEH-1 will be assigned to
the Hydrofoil Special Trials Unit and will undergo exten-
This period of mission interface testing will afford an sive evaluation for a period of several years. This will
opportunity to acquire limited additional craft performance undoubtedly include at least one major modification to
data and permit more thorough analyses of extensive data correct design deficiencies and enhance performance
which have already been acquired. During this period, capabilities.
also, a more complete documentation will be made of the
existing craft system and subsystem configuration. Based Since this ship was conceived and built as an experi-
on this a na I y s is and documentation, performance areas mental tool for acquiring data to establish a firm founda-
requiring further definition will be delineated. Then, in tion for design of large submerged-foil craft, it is being
the latter half of 1967, additional calm water and rough outfitted with an extensive instrumentation suit. More
water performance trials will be carried out to establish than two hundred strain gages have been installed and
fully the performance envelope of the Mod-0 configuration. calibrated in the struts and foils. Additional strain gages
are being installed throughout the hull structure along with
During the first half of 1968, emphasis in the trials hull pressure sensors. Velocity transducers, accelerom-
program will shift again to more detailed investigation of eters, and other measuring equipment are also located
mission capabilities. Experimental towing equipment, throughout the ship and provision is made for accurate
simulating a high-speed towed sonar system, will be in- measure.ment of thrust and torque. To facilitate analysis
stalled and towing capabilities of the craft will be evalu-
of data obtained from the many sensors, provision has
ated. Upon conclusion of this phase of the planned trials
also been made for continuous and simultaneous recording
program, the craft will be drydocked for installation of of the more than two hundred data channels on a single
the Mod-1 strut/foil/propulsion system. magnetic tape.
PLArNVIEW (AGEH-1)
Based on experience with PCH-1, it is to be expected
that early operations with the AGEH-1 will be character-
General ized by a host of minor and major problems which will
Funds for construction of the AGEH-1 were authorized severely restrict its availability for test. Furthermore,
in view of its unique nature and aspects of safety,
in the FY 1962 ship construction program and the guidance
16
Figure 16. AGEH-1 Afloat
Figure 17. AGEH-1 Stern Figure 18. AGEH-1 Main Propulsion Pod
17
82.628'
25' 10'
156
C.W.L.
FOIL BORNE 4 MAX.
90'
45'
70' CV .6
206'
115' 3.5 "(JIG
158'
RETR.ANGLE
13.4!
RETR. AXIS
841( REF.)
advancement to full rough water operation must proceed three struts which can be attached in either a canard or
in careful steps. This process will involve detailed anal- an airplane arrangement. Provision is also made for use
ysis of data as they are acquired and continual refinement of a fourth strut to permit tests of a tandem arrangement.
of analog computer predictions of performance to be ex- The demonstration foils are of equal area with base-vented
pected. The planned special trials program is tailored cambered parabolic sections. The struts are also blunt,
to this situation and will permit the acquisition of full- base-vented, with parabolic section.
scale data necessary to correct deficiencies in design and
establish firm criteria for design of future operational Propulsion is provided by a large turbo-fan engine
craft . which, although inefficient, permits investigations of foils
and foil control systems without interference. The cata-
FRESH-I maran hull also permits considerable flexibility in strut/
foil arrangement.
General
As previously noted, the attainment of foilborne speeds
considerably greater than 50 knots requires recourse to
ventilated or supercavitating foils. Limitations on maxi-
mum speeds of available model test facilities seriously
limit the acquisition of data needed for the design of such
systems. Furthermore, scale effects associated with
two-phase flow phenomena significantly affect the accu-
racy of predictions of full-scale behavior based on model
studies. As a result, the need for a flexible, large-scale,
high-speed foil test craft was recognized early in the
Navy Hydrofoil Program. A competition for design and
construction of a 100-knot, fully-instrumented test ve-
hicle, designated FRESH-I, was held by the Bureau of
Ships in early 1961. On the basis of this competition, a
contract was awarded to the Boeing Company in June 1961.
18
DISPLACEMENT:
LIGHT SHIP 12.4T
FULL LOAD 16. 5 T
04A
1P
I -I-
4'- 8 3/4" r
19
At that time, it was decided to concentrate efforts and
limited funding on resolution of current design problems
as evidenced in PCH-1 and as expected in AGEH-1. Upon
successful demonstration of the performance capabilities
of these large submerged-foil craft in the intermediate
speed range, attention will again turn to the development
of higher speed systems., In the interim, fundamental
design studies and model tests of ventilated and super-
cavitating foils are being continued in the Navy's Ex-
ploratory Development Program. A study is also cur-
rently underway at Boeing to determine the feasibility of
conversion of the FRESH-I as a platform for test of
waterjet propulsion systems.
PGH
20
1 r
1
I :,--4'
"
1.1.
11,
=121 OS
e ,/
Itaalibarld.111111E111010111r"
MS..... C.t C12.161MCia wail= aw.. ../
,
"
enthusiasm, wining cooperation, and understanding of continue to be, of vital importance in achieving the ulti-
the nature of the development process has been, and will mate goals of this program.
21
Figure 25. PGH-2 Configuration
REFERENCES McGanka, S.W. , Lt. , USN, "Service Evaluation of
the Control System Installed Onboard the Hydrofoil
Crew, P.R. , "The Hydrofoil Boat; Its History and Ship HIGH POINT (PCH-1), " Proceedings, Ship Con-
Future Prospects," Quarterly Transactions, The trol Systems Symposium, USN Marine Engineering
Institution of Naval Architects, Vol. 100, No. 4, Laboratory, Nov. 1966.
Oct. 1958.
Petrie, D. M., "Operational and Developmental Ex-
Hayward, L., "The History of Hydrofoils," Series perience on the U.S. Navy Hydrofoil, HIGH POINT,"
of Articles published in Hovering Craft & Hydrofoils Paper presented to AIAA/USN Marine Systems and
(Kalerghi Publications, London, England) Vol. 5,1966. ASW Conference, 10 March 65.
Oakley, 0.H. , "Hydrofoils - A State of the Art Sum- Watson, F. B. , "Protective Coatings-Foil System,
mary," Institute of Aeronautical Sciences, Proceed- PCH-1 HIGH POINT," Boeing Co. Report No.
ings, National Meeting on Hydrofoils R.L.Air Cushion D2-133600-1, July 1966.
Vehicles, 17-18 Sept. 1962.
"PCH-1 Mod I Design Study, Phase A Technical
Lacey, R. E. , "A Progress Report on Hydrofoil Report," Boeing Co. Confidential Report No.
Ships," Quarterly Transactions, The Institution of D2-133601-1, August 1966.
Naval Architects, Vol. 107, No. 1, Jan. 1965.
Stevens, D. L., Jr. , "The Bureau of Ships Hydrofoil
Chey, Yoang, "Motions and Accelerations of AGEH Craft, FRESH-I," Paper presented to the Chesapeake
When Hove-To in Extreme Sea States," Stevens Section, Society of Naval Architects & Marine Engi-
Institute of Technology, Davidson Laboratory Report neers, Washington, D.C. , 26 Feb. 1964.
977, Aug. 1963.
"FRESH-I Phase II Summary Report," Boeing
Jamieson, J.J. , "Controls Technology in Hydrofoil Confidential Report No. D2-82512-1, June 1965.
Ship Design," Proceedings, Ship Control Systems
Symposium, USN Marine Engineering Laboratory, Stevens, D. L., Jr. , "Design and Procurement of the
Nov. 1966. Hydrofoil Gunboat, PGH," Naval Engineers Journal,
December 1966.
22
TABLE I
CRAFT CHARACTERLSTICS
I. A. HIRSCH
The Boeing Company
Seattle, Washington
Paper No.
67-352
I. A. Hirsch
The Boeing Company
Seattle, Washington
1
One effect of the sea on the foil-strut assemblies ponent. By choosing the direction of wave travel as
is to generate a change in submergence at each as- negative , the horizontal component lags the vertical
sembly. This change in submergence affects the lift, component by a phase angle of 90 degrees. This is
drag, and side forces. In addition, the simulated expressed as:
water orbital particle velocity affects the effective u= uo sin (ce (4)
angle of attack of the foils and local sideslip angle of
the struts. This change in angle of attack and side- Saunders has also shown that the tangential orbital
slip angle in turn affects the lift, drag, and side velocity decays exponentially with depth and can be
forces. expressed by:
Sinusoidal Sea
u, = u0 exp ( -217S ) (5)
decay
where: exp = "e to the exponent." The exponent
The simplest method of representing a seaway on
the analog computer is to assume that the wave pro- here is ( -2 17S )
file can be described by a long-crested sinusoidal
wave having a specified wave height and length. While S = Distance below the surface.
this technique of representing the sea is the least
realistic method to be discussed, very useful infor- A sinusoidal water surface is depicted in Figure
mation is obtained nevertheless. The instantaneous la. The Earth coordinate axes are XE, YE, and
wave height for the sinusoidal or regular wave can be ZE and are shown to establish a reference system.
expressed as: The orbital particle velocity characteristics of a
sinusoidal wave are shown in Figure lb. Note the
h= sin (w t) (1) exponential decay of the orbital velocity with depth.
2
ExpoNENTIAL DECAY
dh co H u, cos (co t) (3) OF GRRITAL vELOCITT
w= = cos (cc t) = WITH DEPTH
dt 2
2
The equations developed thus far represent the and
sea at a fixed point with respect to the Earth. These
equations must be modified to account for craft speed, 27 r + vo t + L. cos 6
7 L(c
WEWi = uo cos /
craft heading, and spatially separated foil locations.
From an observation point moving with a forward (- 27 Si)
velocity, Uo' the water surface appears as: - f . sin td 1 exp (10)
Yi. X
rriszc.
by craft geometry and heading angle. When these
phase lags are included, the equations for water sur- WAVE IENOTH 90 PT WAVE HEIGHT 6 n
face heights, as seen from a craft maneuvering on a
sine sea, can be expressed as: ACCELERATIC
27
STATIM
o_
Ewi sin + VE) t + fx cos 4 PT/202
X 10
DC1,01 I
VASO HEIGHT 6 IT
surface. 10
ACCEIERATICN
3
liminary-design 70-ton hydrofoil ship operating at 40 This is a result of the yaw-rate feedback signal to the
knots in a following sea. From the figure it is noted rudder. It has been found that some ship desig-ns have
that the nonlinearities in the force characteristics of considerable difficulty negotiating headings between a
the hydrofoil ship are evidenced by the distorted beam and a quartering sea. A yaw-rate feedback sig-
sinusoidal response. However, it can be seen that nal to the rudder has eliminated most of this diffi-
the responses are approximately linear in the lower culty. Note that for this particular sea state the
sea states, if the ratio of wave length-to-height is acceleration time response shows that the peak-to-
large (greater than 20 to 1). peak vertical acceleration is sig,nificantly less in a
following sea than in a head sea.
The major advantage of the sine-sea method for
predicting seakeeping over the other methods to be The major disadvantage of using the sinusoidal
discussed is the ability to represent a hydrofoil ship sea is that it is not representative of the majority of
performing a continuous 360-degree turn. An analog the sea states occurring in nature. However, it is a
computer time-history trace of various ship responses very useful design tool and also provides a basis for
for turning in regular waves with a fixed helm com- the more realistic random representation of the sea.
mand is shown in Figure 3. The wave height is 5 feet
and the length is 75 feet. The forward-foil depth re-
sponse shows the craft to be maintaining a near- Random Sea
platforming attitude in head and following seas where
the encountered frequencies are relatively high. How- Observations readily verify that a seaway in
ever, the craft contours the lower-frequency waves nature is composed of numerous wave heights and
around the beam and quartering seas. The initial lengths. Neumann(2) and others (3 8z 4) have formu-
starboard roll angle is due to the fact that the ship lated analytic expressions for ocean waves based on
turns in a banked-turn mode. The rudder angle statistical concepts of continuous random events. A
varies in a turn even though there is a fixed helm. Neumann wave spectrum for a fully-arisen long-
crested sea can be expressed as:
1
2]
[H ( co] 2 exp[2 )
10D-
(AO ISTS) where: [H (4.4 2 ,
Spectral density of wave height.
CRAFT
SPEED
DEG
ponent here is -2 ( g )
ROLL
Equation 11 provides a basis for simulating the wave
ANGLE
DEC
height properties of a random sea.
STDO
25
0
.VE
HEADING
ON 'Es Also required in the simulation are the spectra
DEG
for the components of orbital velocity. In a sinus-
FOLLOW
180
10
oidal sea the vertical component of orbital particle
RUDOER
ANGLE
LEFT velocity is the time derivative of the wave height. It
DES
RIG1T
is assumed that a statistical sea is an infinite sum-
/0 matio-n of sinusoids with a gaussian distribution.
ACCELERAT ION ie
Therefore, it can be assumed that the vertical orbital
STEERING
'IR4iflgqq" particle velocity is the time derivative of the wave
Atik
STATION
e
FT/SEC1.
10
;
height for the statistical sea. From random process
10
theory(5), it is known that if two functions are related
TURNING
FLAT(
PORT by a time derivative, such as is the case with the
OEG/SEC
STS0
vertical orbital velocity and wave height, then their
10 spectra are related by:
[w (w)]2 [H (12)
Diagram I /16.1
5
0 2J).W4 11),,I\AMAAAIW
In the diagram: 060
no.
Sx (w) = Input spectral density. 1
-TR
.1.30012.657011
5
One of the more useful methods of presenting An electronically measured craft pitch angle
statistical data is in the form of spectral density spectrum is shown in Figure 7. The rms value
plots. The procedure for obtaining this type of pre- pitch angle is 1.04 degrees and the spectrum is
diction involves the recording of a time-history centered about 0.25 cps. Again, note that peaking
sample of the desired response on magnetic tape and occurs at various frequencies.
then processing of the tape through an electronic 104)
1.04 RMS DEGREES
10-1 10 db
Linear Superposition Technique
.676 FT 2/CPS
R. P. Bernicker (6 & 7)has shown that hydro-
foil craft motions can be predicted in a random sea
10-2 from knowledge of hydrofoil-craft responses in a
regular sea. Bernicker conducted his study in a
water tow tank with a model of a surface-piercing
hydrofoil craft. He showed that the technique was
10-3 1.71 RMS FT valid for a nonventilated foil system and for a fully-
ventilated foil system. The same technique can be
SCALE CONVERSION FACTOR
shown to be applicable to a fully-submerged-foil
1 VOLT2/CPS = 25 FT 2/CPS
hydrofoil for which the analog computer acts as the
-4 model.
1O
.01 .1 1.0 10.0
The technique that is used to predict craft
FREQUENCY, CPS
response in a random sea is a linear analysis tech-
FIGURE 5: WAVE HEIGHT SPECTRUM nique for which a closed loop dynamic transfer func-
tion must be determined between the wave height and
3.54 RMS FT/SEC2 the ship responses. On the basis of the theory of
10-0
SCALE CONVERSION FACTOR: linear superposition, the output response spectrum
1 VOLT2/C PS = 15.6 {FTA SEC )212/C PS is the product of the value of the wave height spec-
3.59 (FT/SEC2) 2/CPS tral density at each discrete frequency and the
square of the absolute value of the transfer function
10db at the corresponding frequency. The successful
application of this method depends on nonlinear
0.359 (FT/SEC2) 2/CPS effects being minor.
10-2 Figure 8 shows the measured response spectrum
of after vertical acceleration for an alternate hydro-
foil-ship design. This continuous spectrum was
obtained in response to shaped white noise as pre-
viously discussed. Also shown are predicted
response spectrum points that were calculated by
this linear superposition technique. Predicted
points at frequencies of below 1.0 cps show excep-
10-4
.01 .1 I .0 10.0 tionally good cor'relation. The confidence of pre-
FREQUE NCY , CPS
dicted points greater than 1.0 cps may be question-
able because this would represent steep waves which
FIGURE 6: VERTICAL ACCELERATION SPECTRUM AT produce nonlinear operations. However, because all
THE STEERING STATION predicted points fall within +.3.0 db of actual data, the
correlation is considered to be good.
6
10
4.48 RMS FT/SEC2 0.361 RMS DEG
SCALE CONVERSION FACTOR:
SCALE CONVERSION FACTOR:
1.0 (VOLT)2/CPS = 7.92 (DEGREES)2/CPS
1.0 (VOLT)2/CPS = 625 Pf/(SEC1 2/CPS
10-1
0.792 (DEG)2/CPS
12.5[FT/(SEC) 2 /CPS 10 db
10 db 0.0792 (DEG)2/CPS
2/CPS
1.25 [FT/(SECM
10-3
FREQUENCY, CPS
The first prediction method that was discussed
FIGURE 9: FORWARD VERTICAL ACCELERATION was based on the sinusoidal sea. While this tech-
SPECTRUivt nique was the least realistic method, valuable con-
trol system design information can be obtained from
Éigure 9 shows the response spectrum of for- it. The hydrofoil ship can be evaluated oyer a full
ward vertical acceleration for the same craft and range of wave heights and wave lengths. Craft
sea. The time history of the forward vertical performance can be obtained in the sinusoidal sea by
acceleration in the simulated random sea showed either "flying" the ship at a fixed heading or by
that the forward foil broached on occasion. performing turns.
Broaching induces highly nonlinear effects and the
linear analysis must be used with caution. Foil
broaching would appear as narrow-band square-wave
pulses to the spectrum analysis equipment and the The second method discussed was based on the
spectral density plot of square pulses appears as random sea. This technique makes use of filters to
very low-frequency power. Forward foil broaching "shape" a continuous white gaussian noise signal.
will affect all craft responses under investigation. By the proper choice of filters the wave height
However, it is reasonable to assume that the for- spectrum and particle velocity spectra are obtained.
ward vertical acceleration will be affected signifi- Spectral density plots were used to present craft
cantly more than the other responses. The lowest performance data.
prediction point in Figure 9 is 14 db in error due
to foil broaching. All other predicted points are
within ±3.0 db of actual data. The final method was a linear superposition
technique in which a transfer function was obtained.
Figure 10 shows a continuous spectrum of craft The transfer function was then combined with the
pitch angle compared with points on the spectrum spectral density function of the wave height to give
predicted by superposition. All predicted points a prediction of the hydrofoil's seakeeping character-
show good correlation with continuous data. How- istics.
7
Symbols XE Earth X axis
cps Cycles per second YE
Earth Y axis
Wave celerity ZE Earth Z axis
Cl Numeric Constant = 51.6 feet2/sec5 ZEw The distance from the origin of the
coordinate system to the water surface
exp "e to the exponent"
Wave frequency
Acceleration due to gravity
Encounter wave frequency
G(j w) Transfer function of linear filter
Wave length
Instantaneous wave height above
the mean waterline TT Numeric constant = 3.1416...
Distance from trough to crest of a wave EL Craft heading angle
Spectral density of wave height
Transformed spectral density of wave
height
Distance from the height sensor along
the X axis to the ith foil
Distance from the craft centerline
along the Y axis to the ith foil
Acknowledgement
TMS Root mean square
S Submerged distance The author wishes to thank Dr. J. D. Burroughs,
Submerged distance of the ith foil Mr. J. J. Jamieson, and Mr. R. M. Hubbard for
Si their helpful comments in preparing this paper.
Sx(W) Input spectral density
Sy(w) Output spectral density
References
Time
ti Time lag to the ith foil Saunders, H. E., Hydrodynamics in Ship
u Horizontal component of orbital DesignVol. I, New York, The Society of
Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, 1957.
particle velocity
Neumann, Gerhard, On Ocean Wave Spectra
U, Wind speed
and a New Method of Forecasting Wind-
[U(w)]2 Spectral density of the horizontal Generated Seas, Technical Memorandum No.
component of orbital particle velocity 43, Beach Erosion Board, Corps of Engineers,
Transformed spectral density of the 1953.
[U(we)]2
horizontal component of orbital Pierson, W. J., Jr., and St. Denis, M., "On
particle velocity the Motions of Ships in Confused Seas,
Component of water particle velocity in Transactions, The Society of Naval Architects
UEwi and Marine Engineers, Vol. 61, New York,
direction of Earth X axis at the ith foil
1953.
u0 Tangential orbital velocity
Bunting, D. C., Wave Hindcast Project North
U0 Forward craft speed Atlantic Ocean, U. S. Naval Oceanographic
Office, Washington, D.C., January 1966.
V Volts
Craft velocity relative to the sea Davenport, Wilbur B. Jr., and Root, William
VE L., An Introduction to the Theory of Random
Vertical component of orbital Signals and Noise, New York, McGraw-Hill,
particle velocity 1958.
[w(wd2 Spectral density of the vertical Bernicker, R. P., Hydrofoil Motions in
component of orbital particle velocity Irregular Seas, Davidson Laboratory Report
Transformed spectral density of the 909, November 1962.
[w(WA2 vertical component of orbital particle Bernicker, R. P., Heaving and Pitching Motions
velocity of Superventilated Hydrofoil Craft in Irregular
Component of water particle velocity of Seas, Davidson Laboratory Report 958, June
wEWi Earth Z axis at the ith foil 1963.
8
No. 61353
H. D. RANZENHOFER
Grumman Aircraft Engineering Corporation
Bethpage, New York
Paper No.
67-353
)
Figure 1. Dolphin Hydrofoil
That portion of the development work described herein, performed by the Grumman Aircraft Engineering Cor-
poration, was carried out under the sponsorship of Advanced Development Projects. Recognition is given to Messrs.
R. Rose, of Grumman Aerodynamics, and R. Barcus of the Flight and Electronics Systems Section of AiResearch,
for their work in the analysis and testing of the Dolphin Autopilot.
1
II. The Hydrofoil Control Problem and a Solution Disturbances
In dealing with a design for which calm water in-
stability is predicted, an autopilot will certainly be re-
quired for stability augmentation. Moreover, our work Height
has shown that submerged foil craft, whether stable or Vehicle
not in calm water with fixed foils, tend to exhibit Heave, Pitch,
r-
heave and pitch divergence in waves. Hydrofoil craft, Roll
therefore, operating in a relatively incompressible
medium under severe constraints in allowable heave,
pitch and roll motions, require rapid continuous move-
ment of control surfaces. The purpose, then, is to
maintain flight, and, in addition, to provide satisfactory I
Sensors
performance. As far as passengers and crew are con-
cerned, performance is defined by one criterion: com-
fort, which implies maintenance of low vertical acceler-
ations in all parts fo the vessel and prevention of hull Control
impact and foil broach. Apropos of these requirements Control
Surface Computer
are two modes of foilborne operation: Actuators
Platforming - maintenance of a flat trajectory
in waves of heights less than or equal to keel-
-I
to-foil distance, satisfying flight condition
Height
Contouring - heaving and pitching in phase with Sensor -17
higher waves, meeting the comfort criterion. Autopilot
L._ J
Submerged foils help here, in that they inherently
tend to slice through small, high-frequency waves, ex- Figure 2. Dolphin Control System Functional
hibiting little or no response to wave inputs, and ex- Block Diagram
perience a resonance in low-frequency, high waves.
These properties are characteristics of low-pass filters.
The control problem then, is to design a control system III. Discussion
which enhances this filtering capability so that the re-
sultant vehicle-autopilot system satisfies the above Autopilot Analysis
requirements. The analytical portion of the autopilot development
program was carried out in two parts: a preliminary
The solution is an autopilot which employs in its design effort at Grumman intended for an autopilot per-
feedback loops high-pass parameters of craft motion for formance specification, followed by a more detailed
platforming conditions and low-pass parameters for system design study at AiResearch.
contouring. High-pass parameters are those craft A preliminary idea of dynamic stability is
motions minimized at the upper range of wave encounter gained by applying the theory -Of small perturbations to
frequences, such as pitch, roll, heave, and their deriv- the six vehicle equations of motion for an uncontrolled
atives. Conversely, a low-pass element would be the (fixed foil) craft in calm water (7), and solving the re-
height above the mean water level. sultant longitudinal and lateral stability matrices.
A basic autopilot is shown in figure 2. The types of
sensors required are prescribed by the parameters
discussed. For a craft equipped with surface-piercing foils,
such as the HS Denison, stability is provided by the
Basically, the control computer is required to pro- rather large changes in lifting surface area with varia-
cess sensor outputs so that, for platforming, the high- tion in foil depth. The principal contributor to the
pass signals are dominant, with a constant height main- dynamic stability of submerged foil craft is a "depth
tained at any commanded level. In contouring, the high- effect" which exists within about two foil chord lengths
pass signals effects are reduced and the height signals of the water surface. This effect increases lift as the
play a larger role as larger height errors are experienc- foil depth increases and vice versa. It dies out when the
ed. two-chord length limit is approached. The results of the
Ideally, the autopilot should sense wave height and stability calculation indicated that the Dolphin would be a
length, and position the control surfaces for the response stable craft, with reasonable damping (0.4 to 0.7) of the
desired. Practically, there are two objections to this oscillatory modes.
approach. First, treating the ocean as a random distur- Grumman's analog computer study (8) was part of a
bance, the overall input function can be identified by an
autopilot; however individual elements (waves) cannot be program to design and build an onboard autopilot simu-
defined without resorting to sophisticated techniques at lator using the Dolphin as the study vehicle. The pur-
relatively prohibitive cost. Secondly, even with a system pose of this device was to automatically calculate,
of this capability, by the time parameters of a particular during sea trials, the autopilot loop gains required for
wave were sensed and defined, the craft would be through satisfactory foilborne performance. This subject is de-
it and the control surfaces positioned too late to be of tailed in a subsequent paragraph.
any use. In the program, the vehicle was simulated with five
Consequently, parameters are used that can be equations of motion solved for craft body axis accelera-
practicably sensed and identified by the autopilot, such tions in heave, pitch, roll, yaw, and sway, or sideslip.
as pitch, roll, heave, acceleration, and keel-to-water- Foil and strut lift and drag coefficients, being nonlinear
surface distance, to provide performance most nearly functions of foil depth, were generated independently.
satisfying our requirements at a reasonable cost. The craft was programmed for operation in sinusoidal
2
waves in head, following quartering, and beam seas, lated. To make a qualitative estimate of takeoff per-
with the equations for foil depth and wave-induced orbital formance in a quartering (45 degrees) sea, roll was in-
velocities implicit in this requirement. cluded as the fourth degree of freedom.
The results of this computer study predicted quali- Automatic Gain Setting (AGS)
tatively the performance that could be achieved by the In the Grumman computer study, the autopilot equa-
Dolphin. Accordingly, an autopilot procurement specifi- tions expressed control surface motions as functions of
cation was issued, requiring AiResearch to perform, craft motion, rate, and accelerations, as is usually
and/or supply, the following: done. However, in this case, the feedback gains were
treated as variables, each a function of the error in the
A computer study to determine nominal autopilot related channel. This serves to introduce the AGS con-
gains and a method of programming craft pitch cept and its employment as an analytical tool.
during takeoff
During a number of autopilot analysis and design
Autopilot sensors, displays, controls, and self- studies, for hydrofoil craft, it became increasingly
test provisions evident that cost and time expended in both analysis and
flight testing could be substantially reduced by automa-
A master checkout unit for autopilot onboard tically computing autopilot response characteristics.
checkout and maintenance This could be done with an onboard analog computer, or
autopilot simulator, tailored specifically to control of
Fail-safety provisions. hydrofoil vehicles. Accordingly, this concept was devel-
oped to where analog computer programs could be carried
The AiResearch computer study was two-fold: a out to evaluate the application of the concept to a hydro-
five-degree-of-freedom analog program (9), similar in thetical vehicle and then to a specific hydrofoil craft.
scope to the Grumman computer study, and a four-
degree-of-freedom digital program (1u) to determine It was also decided that AGS studies would culminate
autopilot requirements for takeoff. in a set of modules incorporating the AGS function,
which were to be employed in hydrofoil craft sea trials.
The primary objective of this work was to establish Once gains were established they would be replaced by
performance requirements for the control computer and modules whose gains would be fixed at values computed
sensors of a fixed gain autopilot with a degree of accu- by the AGS modules. (See figures 3 and 4.)
racy sufficient to ensure ultimate satisfactory operation
with a minimum of trial and error procedure during Error
hardware development and sea trials. Signal
IKE
In the analysis, a mathematical model was devel- To
oped for the hydrofoil craft, the autopilot, and the dis- l Modulator
turbance inputs for a five-degree-of-freedom simulation.
The computer study encompassed a wide spectrum of
anticipated operating conditions and both longitudinal
and lateral craft motions with heave-pitch, heave-roll,
and yaw-sideslip coupling were considered. Craft per-
formance was investigated for smooth water turns and
straight runs in heading, quartering, beam and following
seas up to and including sea state 4. The stability of the
-
craft under changing foil load distributions due to shifts
in the craft cg was also investigated.
Module Threshold
In the takeoff program surge acceleration was made L
a variable, along with heave and pitch; hull lift, drag, Figure 3. AGS Module Block Diagram (High Pass)
and pitching moment terms were also introduced. Thus,
by allowing all motions in the longitudinal plane, per-
formance in smooth and head seas was accurately simu- Module
Multiplier To
Error Modulator
Signal
S lope
Reset
Absolute Switching
Value Logic
4-7
Gain
Schedule Threshold
_J
Figure 4. AGS Module Block Diagram (Height)
3
The AGS procedure is to increase gain from zero, Grumman's program resulted in the issuance of a
as a function of the integral of the absolute value of error procurement specification to AiResearch for the AGS
E until the particular error signal, on which the module modules in addition to that for the Dolphin autopilot.
is operating, is reduced to a value near zero. Thus, when
the error is greater than a preset threshold value, the A set of the following AGS modules was ordered:
gai-n increases at a rate proportional to the simultaneous
reduction in error. In other words, the effectiveness of Four high-pass modules, to be used in the pitch,
the resultant feedback signal (gain times error) is in- roll, heave acceleration, and lateral accelera-
creased at a decreasing rate until the desired vehicle tion channels, plus one spare
attitude is attained.
One low-pass height channel module, plus one
The two types of modules, high and low-pass, corres- spare.
pond to the platforming and contouring operation of hydro-
foil craft. Most of the time, the craft will be required to To provide stable and continuous computation of
platform small high-frequency waves in which attitude gain throughout the rather wide range required, AiRe-
parameters (pitch, roll, and heave) and their derivatives search has employed digital circuitry. (See figures 5
will be maintained as close to zero as possible. and 6.) Briefly, an error signal, E, is generated in the
form of five-volt pulses, whose frequency is proportion-
With these requirements, the high-pass modules al to the magnitude of the error signal. The E pulses
were designed to operate as previously described. are counted in binary fashion by a set of nine flip-flops.
Height control, however, should be more effective at Each of these networks pulses a relay driver, which, in
low (contouring) than high (platforming) frequencies. turn, actuates a two-position relay. This switching,
Moreover, it was often found that best performance was incorporated in a ladder network, results in a total of
obtained with an adaptive height channel. Therefore, 29, or 512 possible states, or impedances, to which the
the low-pass module's function is slightly different from switching network can be set. Thus, for both types of
that of the high-pass units, in that, in addition to the modules, the variable gain, Ki is increased in incre-
gain, a height channel gain schedule is computed as a ments of 0.0196.
function of height error. To accomplish this, gain
limiting is based on a comparison of signals proportional The gain value computed in each module is obtained
to gain height error. The gains resulting from craft by summing the relay driver outputs and recording the
operation in a number of different sea states will result result. The summing amplifier output is an analog
in a height gain schedule. If these results yield little or signal corresponding to the gain switching network state.
no variation in the height gains required, then, of course,
such a schedule will be unnecessary. The output signal of each AGS module represents the
product of variable gain Ki and the input error signal E.
Concerning the use of AGS in sea trials, it is ex- The overall open loop channel gain K is the product of Ki
pected that varying sea conditions and the shakedown and the nominal gain Ko established in sensors and auto-
nature of the trials will complicate the task of establishing pilot circuits external to the AGS module. Thus, K is
and maintaining operation in particular sea states and increased in multiples of Ko.
numerous takeoffs and landings will no doubt occur.
Therefore, to facilitate the calculation of proper auto- There are three modes of module operation- operate,
pilot gains, the AGS integrating circuits will be reset to takeoff, and gain shaping, the latter applyingto the height
zero and the gain allowed to raise again if the craft is module only. The AGS modules each consist of two
landed or if a reduced sea state is encountered. Reset circuit boards, with an additional board required for the
in any case will be at operator's discretion. height module gain schedule. The units are entirely
K1
E 1E1
Amplifier/ Counter piRelay
1-11 Summing
Multivibrator fUUL Drivers (9) Amplifier To
:Input
Ref Pulses Recorder
Reset
Threshold
Adjust
Relays (9)
K1
Switching ,mplifier
Output
Mode Switching 1
2
1 - Operate
2 - Takeoff
L _
Figure 5. AGS Module Mechanization (High Pass)
4
E
Amplifier Absolute Multi- Counter 1-0 Relay
L Logic Amplifier
_
Input > Value vibrator Drivers To
Recorder
Pulses
II
1
9
/ Reset
Relays
Ck
Smdtching
Diff
Amplifier I
( 1E1 - CkKH ) Mode Switching
1
Operate
Takeoff
Gain Shaping
K4.1
KH 1EH
H1 Amplifier
Switching
Output
2'
Gain
Shaping
Analysis
Automatic Gain Setting
The Grumman studies indicated that the design of
hydrofoil autopilots through use of an onboard simulator
was indeed feasible. This conclusion was supported by
the five-degree-of-freedom analog study consuming only
about half the time of previous simular programs. It
was also discovered that certain of the feedback channels
used would not be necessary, since the computed gains
for these channels were negligible. Thus, by performing
a gain-setting role, the modules help to configure the
autopilot by indicating the need for feeding back any of
the craft motion parameters.
To date, the AGS modules have not been tested in
hydrofoil sea trials, but it is intended to do so at the
earliest opportunity. Meanwhile, the results obtained
have engendered studies of the application of the tech-
nique in the area of aircraft autopilot development and
the expansion of the AGS concept to self-adaptive
systems for both hydrofoils and aircraft. Figure 7, AGS Module
5
Dolphin Foilborne Performance 1.50 Pitch
Dolphin performahce, with autopilot gains fixed at -o I Predicted
the values determined by the simulator, was a compro-
mise between ideal platforming and ideal contouring. _9 1.25 0, 0 Sea Trials
This was necessitated by the intention of keeping the 6.0
8
o epi Head Seas
0.50 Following Sea
ca'
Height Sensor Noise
To anticipate craft performance with height sensor 0.25
9S7
noise computer runs were made using a height signal to
noise ratio of three to one (10 db). This ratio is much lower
than that normally required (40 db) and imposed a severo
z Platform-in Contouring
task upon the control system. As a result, foilborne 2 4 6 8 10
operation was maintained although performance was
degraded to 0.36 g's of heave acceleration. (See figure Wave Height, ft
8.) No such noise effects were found during actual sea
trials. Figure 9, Dolphin Pitch and Roll Motions in Waves
0.7
Takeoff Performance
The chief control restraint imposed by takeoff condi-
Optimum tions is to limit the positive travel of the forward foils.
0.6 Predicted This must be done to prevent the foils being driven by
X Sea Trials the large height error to their maximum positions,
thereby increasing drag to the point where takeoff could
not -be achieved. Two limiting methods were used,
0.5 namely, pitch channel cross-coupling with the forward
foil control channels, and limiting foil actuator commands,
O in accordance with drag calculations, to 70 percent of
maximum. With pitch channel cross-coupling the for-
Platforming ontouring ward foils reached angles of only 40 percent of their
With Height IC maximum value. The 70 percen.t limit resulted in similar
Sensor Noise takeoff times. It was also found that takeoffs could be
achieved manually, if necessary.
t) 0.3 Best takeoff performance was attained by programming
pitch as a function of height error and retaining pitch
cross-coupling.
CS
Fail-Safety
0.2
It was determined that if hardover sensor and/or
circuit failure occurred, provision should be made to
automatically position the foils at suitable null positions.
Simultaneously, the helmsman, having been warned by
XX visual and aural devices, would throttle back the engine.
X
X
X Foil null positions are defined as the mean positions
about which the foils have been operating in the time
period prior to failure. The voltage source of these
4 6 10 null signals are independent of the control computer
Wave Height, ft circuitry which receives inputs from sensors.
Autopilot Mechanization
Figure 8, Dolphin Heave Acceleration in Waves Selection of sensors and the control computer
mechanization was carried out by AiResearch as a result
Height Sensor Location of the studies previously described.
In order to provide maximum anticipation of wave
encounter the height sensor should be motmted as far Control Computer
forward as possible, thus requiring a radar or sonic The control computer contains the circuitry re-
device. In view of high cost and unknown reliability of quired to trangorm the sensed parameters into command
radar and sonic height sensors, however, the possibility signals for the control surface actuators in accordance
of using the contact type of unit on the forward struts with the performance requirements previously discussed.
was investigated. With proper filtering, both locations (See figure 10.) Subsidiary functions, such as turn
yielded good platforming. However, the strut-mounted coordination, height and attitude train, a variety of
unit's contouring performance was. in adequate due to lack operating modes (standby, takeoff, and cruise), fail-
of anticipation afforded by the bow-mounted unit. safe monitoring, and self-test are also supplied. (For
6
Sensors Control Computer
Command Platform
Height
Control Actuator
Takeoff
Schedule Height
Channel Forward
Starboard
Heave Accel Channel Channel
Stbd
Accel - 1VIWP
i
Port (Master Warning Panel)
Accel
Trim Actuator
Lateral
Accel Roll
Channel Forward
Vert Port
Gyro Turn Channel
Coord I MWP
Rate
Gyro
Takeoff
Vert Pitch
Gyro Actuator
Cruise Channel
Rate
Gyro
Aft
Channel
Trim MWP
Elapsed
Time
Indicators F,..
8.
H. D. Ranzenhofer, Grumman Report DA M23- Longitudinal and Lateral Dynamic Stability of
335.2, Hydrofoil Research Ship AG(EH) Autopilot Hydrofoil Craft, 1958.
Development Program - Preliminary Computer
Study Part 2, March 1963 (Confidential). H. D. Ranzenhofer, Grumman Report ADR 06-11-
64.1, An On-Board Autopilot Simulator for Hydro-
H. D. Ranzenhofer, Grumman Report DA M51- foil Craft - Five-Degree-of-Freedom Analog
200.1, Hydrofoil Ship FRESH-I Stability and Computer Study, December 1964.
Control Study, April 1963.
R. E. Vesque, AiResearch Manufacturing Division
H. D. Ranzenhofer, Grumman Report DA M51- Report 66-0440, Analog Computer Study - Dolphin
200.2, Hydrofoil Ship FRESH-I Analog Computer Hydrofoil Control System, June 1966.
Study, May 1963.
R. E. Vesque, AiResearch Manufacturing Division
P. Kaplan et al, Stevens Institute of Technology Report 66-0591 Digital Computer Study - Dolphin
ETT Report No. 691, Methods for Estimating the Hydrofoil Takeoff Program, July 1966.
9
No. 61354
R. ALTMANN
HYDRONAUTICS, Incorporated
Laurel, Maryland
Paper No.
67-354
R. Altmann
Associate Research Scientist
HYDRONAUTICS, Incorporated
Laurel, Maryland
Abstract
The payload, range, and effectiveness of sonar- Under contract to the Bureau of Weapons, Depart-
carrying, picket helicopters, used in anti-submarine ment of the Navy, the EDO Corporation at that time had
warfare, are limited by the relatively low aerodynamic developed a towed sled vehicle for use in mine-counter-
efficiency and high noise level of the helicopter. To measures programs. A 3800 pound version of the sled,
improve this otherwise versatile weapons system, a design supported by four hydroskis located at the corners of a
study and model testing program wasdirected atdeveloping catamaran hull, had been built and tested in 1960. The
a helicopter towed hydrofoil sled. Payload and fuel are EDO Corporation tests demonstrated that a water craft
stored in the sled, and the deck of the sled is sufficiently supported by dynamic lifting surfaces could be stably
large to permit the helicopter to land upon it. A tandem towed by a helicopter at high speeds. However, the in-
configuration of dihedral ladder hydrofoils was used to herently low efficiencies of the low aspect ratio hydroskis,
obtain a passively stabilized system. As the range of sled and their surface-contouring performance, made a simple,
speeds and displacements was very large, each ladder foil geometrically-scaled, larger version of the hydroski craft
contained all three of the known types of hydrofoils, sub- appear impractical for long-range, open water missions.
cavi toting , base-vented , and ful I y-venti lated . Tests of
a 1/8 scale model of one foil configuration showed the In an effort to improve the performance of this
cruise resistance to be adequately predicted by theory. promising craft, the Bureau of Weapons sponsored a re-
Pitch, heave, and surge stability of the sled were ex- search program to investigate a helicopter towed vehicle
amined through a series of freely-towed tests of a 1/24 utilizing hydrofoils as the dynamic lifting surfaces. Hydro-
scale model . The sled proved to be exceptionally sea- foils have the potential of producing lift-drag ratios 2 to
worthy, and lligh-speed operation through a State 3 sea 3 times greater than those produced by hydroskis, and can
appears possible. In calm water the sonar picket mission be designed with substantially "softer'' response to seaway
range will be doubled! conditions than can the surface-contouring skis.
1
thrust available versus speed characteristic of the Sikorski coefficients required for low speed take-offs while main-
SH-3A helicopter (Figure 2). These resistance estimates taining a sufficiently high efficiency to compensate for
were doubled to account for the increases in foil drag that the drag of the fully-immersed strut. Diagonal trusses, in
accompany operation in a seaway. It was then apparent the form of fully-wetted lifting panels, were fitted be-
that only the lighter sled displacements could be towed at tween these upper wings and the struts to permit the use
reasonably high speeds by a picket helicopter. Sleds of large-span, thin-section wings. The cambered fully
larger than 50 tons were not practical. wetted foils were designed with lift coefficients and
thicknesses such as to optimize their hydrodynamic ef-
Structural relations for vessels of this general size ficiency consistent with constraints imposed by cavitation
were used to obtain estimates of the foil weights, hull and ventilation inception. The strut section itself was a
weights, and allowable fuel weight. Curves of the heli- near-parabolic, low-drag form. It is significant that the
copter-towed sled range were then computed as functions design requirements of this craft resulted in the use within
of average speed and sled displacement, and are shown one configuration of each of the three basic types of
in Figure 3. It is seen that for rough water operation a hydrofoil sections today available.
vessel displacement of nearly 20 tons and an average speed
of 65 knots produces a near optimum range of 740 miles. It seemed imperative that the sled trim not be al-
This range is over twice that of the picket helicopter when lowed to vary appreciably throughout the range of dis-
flying alone! placements and speeds, in order to minimize the drag
generated by operation of the foils atan angle of attack.
However, although "V"-foil configurations were The passive foil system most conducive to constant trim
very desirable from the standpoint of ease in construction, operation is the tandem configuration. Furthermore, the
it became apparent that they could not satisfy all the per- choice of four tandem hydrofoils permitted the use of
formance requirements of the sled. Figure 1 clearly shows smaller, high-speed foils than did three-strut conventional
the relatively low efficiencies of supercavitating foils or canard arrangements. This, in turn, allowed a greater
(as compared with fully wetted foils) when operating at proportion of the vertical area of each strut to be utilized
low speeds, and the even lower efficiencies of fully wetted for support of the low-speed, fully wetted wings, and re-
foils (compared to supercavitating foils) when operating at duced take-off speed. Symmetrical, tandem foil con-
high speeds. Since the substantial increases in mission figurations also regained some of the simplicity in manu-
range could only be achieved by operating with high foil facture necessarily abandoned when the "V"-foil system
efficiencies throughout the entire range of sled displace- proved unseaworthy.
ments and speeds, it was apparent that both fully-wetted
and supercavitating foils would be necessary, and a ladder The individual foils described above, and the strut
configuration was indicated to be required. on which they are mounted, are detailed in Figures 5
through 10.
Analysis of "V"-foil response characteristics in a
seaway also led to the choice of a ladder configuration. Two types of hull forms were examined during the
The high stiffness and low damping of simple "V"-foils re- design studies. Although catamaraet configurations were
sulted in poor calculated seaway performance. An arrange- favored for their stability characteristics, arrangement
ment in which the high speed lift of the craft was produced difficulties were encountered in housing the large sonar
by large, fully-submerged, low lift coefficient wings gen- transducer within one hull, and hull structure, particu-
erating over one-half the lift of each configuration, with larly the deck structure required to prevent racking,
smaller, surface-piercing wings mounted above them to represented a greater percentage of the total craft weight
produce the remaining lift, was found to substantially im- than in the conventional planing mono-hull . For these
prove seaworthiness. The large, submerged foils contributed reasons a mono-hull was chosen for the sled. Hull design
significantly ta the damping of the system,while heave incorporated high forward deadrise to alleviate water
stability was provided by the low-stiffness, surface-pierc- impact loads, but in all other respects utilized features
ing wings. The relatively low lift coefficients of these common to conventional , stepped, planing hulls.
two sets of wings dictated that the fully-wetted wings re-
quired for efficient low-speed operation be placed above Figure 11 is a photograph of a 1/24 scale model of
them, and the three-rung ladder configuration shown sche- the sled in its designed form. Displacement is 40,000
matically in Figure 4, was thusly formed. pounds fully loaded. 13,000 pounds of fuel are transferred
from the sled to the helicopter during the course of the
Section shapes for the three wings were also deter- mission. Sonar payload is 9600 pounds, and the remaining
mined by the requirements of efficiency and seaworthiness. weight is primarily hull and hydrofoil structure. Design
Low lift coefficient and high-speed operation made a calm-water speed, corresponding to the thrust versus
ventilated, supercavitating section the natural choice for speed characteristics of the SH-3A helicopter at normal
the lowest of the three foils. The small surface-piercing rated power, ranged from 72 knots fully loaded to 95 knots
foil required a sufficiently high lift-drag ratio to com- when running with no fuel on board.
pensate for the drag of the strut immersed beneath it, but
had to operate in the speed ranges associated with cavita-
tion damage to high efficiency, fully-wetted sections.
Accordingly, a base-vented section was selected for this
wing. High aspect ratio panels with fully wetted sections
were required for the upper wings to develop the high lift
2
Model Testing Program It had been realized from the beginning of the de-
sign studies that only through freely towed model tests
As the operation of hydrofoil craft at speeds in could dependable information on sled motions performance
excess of 60 knots is still at the upper limits of state-of- be obtained, and the purpose of the 1/24 scale tests was
the-art engineering capabilities, Reference 3 outlined a to examine sled motions. Many of the problems associated
thorough test program to be carried out before implement- with model tests of watercraft were not present, since the
ing the design with a prototype craft. This proposed test model had no self-propulsion devices. None-the-less,
program formed the basis for a detailed model study three scaling parameters had to be carefully examined
initiated by HYDRONAUTICS in June, 1964. before commencing the model study.
Phase I of the model testing program required The 2-foot width of the HYDRONAUTICS channel
the construction and testing of a 1/8 scale configuration led to the selection of a 1-foot maximum model beam,
of one of the foils of the proposed system. These tests which in turn established the 1/24 scale factor chosen for
were ta verify the predicted static performance of the the model . Froude scaling of dimensions, weights,
foils, and to indicate changes necessary to improve this moments, and moments of inertia to such a small scale
performance should it be found unsatisfactory. Tests were proved to be just on the border of practicality; however,
conducted in the variable-pressure, free-surface, high- a properly scaled model was achieved.
speed water channel at HYDRONAUTICS, Incorporated.
(A description of this facility and its use in hydrofoil Similarily, vapor cavitation index could just be
testing is given in Reference 5). Reference 6 describes scaled using the variable pressure capability of the
the testing program followed during this phase of the HYDRONAUTICS channel.
work, and discusses the various changes made to the model
as the tests progressed. The final model configuration is Reynolds number, however, could not be scaled,
shown in Figures 12 and 13; at this condition 28 tests were and proved to lie in the center of the laminar-turbulent
conducted on the foil, covering a range of seven water- transition region of flat-plate boundary layer flow. Suit-
lines, five angles of attack, and cavitation numbers cor- able frictional contributions to the 1/24 scale model drag
responding to speeds from 10 to 100 knots. could not be estimated, and the possibility of low speed
laminar stall was also present. Since drag had already
Results of these tests are summarized in Fig- been measured on the 1/8 scale foil configuration, the
ures 14 and 15, in which the sled foil submergence and inability to accurately expand drag measurements made
resistance, based on foil performance uncoupled from the on the smaller models was not considered a serious limita-
hull, are plotted as functions of speed and displacement. tion to the test program. Furthermore, as the foil system
The very obvious resistance ''humps'' of Figure 15 were of was a ventilated configuration, it was expected that the
concern for three reasons. Not only was resistance con- presence of laminar stall would be visibly exhibited
siderably higher than design during the critical take-off through air-filled cavities. Hence, the inability to scale
speed range, but also, the rapid changes in drag at speeds Reynolds number was not considered likely to influence
immediately above this ''hump" indicated the possible the important parameters of foil performance without pro-
occurrence of surge loadings on the towline at these ducing visible cavities defining the problem regions.
speeds. Furthermore, the speed range over which these Plans to cope with such occurrences were postponed pend-
drag changes occur corresponds with a region of rapid ing their actual occurrence, and tests subsequently failed
change in submergence with little change in speed, as to indicate any of these postulated problems.
shown in Figure 14. It seemed possible that surge and
heave motions could couple to produce violent accelera- Each of the four 1/24 scale foils was tested
tions at this speed. individually, and adjusiments to them were made to cause
their lift performance to closely duplicate that of the 1/8
Analysis of factors possibly contributing to the scale configuration. These changes were necessitated by
high resistance "humps" indicated the crux of the problem the considerable effects slight misalignments had on the
to lie in the low lift generated by foils ''b" and "c", and performance of the very small foils. Following these
increases in either the camber or angle of attack of these tests, the entire sled was towed freely in the channel,
foils appeared likely to improve the configuration per- using the arrangement schematically shown in Figure 16.
formance. However, it had been the intent of the design A detailed discussion of the test program is available from
to produce a hydrofoil with a soft response to waves, and Reference 4; only highlights of the test results are dis-
although this response was softer than predicted, as may cussed in the following paragraphs.
be seen in Figure 14, nonetheless it was the type of be-
havior believed conducive to good performance in a sea- Performance of the aft foils is considerably affected
way. Changes of the foil configuration to improve re- by the wake shed from the forward foils. Upwash in this
sistance at the possible expense of seakeeping ability wake allows both aft configurations to operate at 1.75°
could not be evaluated without first obtaining some idea less geometric angle than the front foils. However, the
of the behavior of the freely-towed model. Hence the aft foils must operate well outboard of the forward foils,
1/24 scale freely towed model was constructed to dupli- as the ventilated cavities behind the forward wings col-
cate the 1/8 scale configuration, and changes in the foil lapse in the plane of the aft configurations, and severe
mountings to improve resistance were postponed pending buffeting results if these cavities impinge on the aft foils.
tests on this towed model.
3
As indicated by the 1/8 scale tests, a calm-water Conclusions
heave-surge coupling was found to exist at the 50 knot
speed range (27,000 pound displacement). Motions in- The general conclusions drawn from the tests per-
duced by this coupling were essentially removed by in- formed on the hydrofoil sled were that this craft has an ex-
creasing the angle of attack of foil "b" 1-1/2°. This ceptional degree of seaworthiness, and although resistance
change removed the heave instability shown in Figure 14. is higher than anticipated, significant increases in the
helicopter mission range can still be obtained using the
Fifty three percent of the sled weight was carried towed sled concept.
on the forward foils to aid directional stability. The com-
bination of this extra load on the forward foils, along Further development of towed pallets is very de-
with the low dependence of high-speed lift on angle of sirable. Applications in naval programs are widespread.
attack, produced a bow-down trim during high speed op- The particular sled studied was intended for sonar picket
eration. This trim, in turn, caused a reduction in yaw missions. Such craft might also be used to supply an
stability. However, the addi tion of small skegs to the amphibious landing force from distant ships, or even serve
bottoms of the aft foils will aid in regaining yaw stability, as a relatively inexpensive target for surface ship gunnery
and no other adverse effects of the bow-down trim were practice. Small versions have already been shown suitable
observed during the tests. for mine counter-measures use. Vessels of this type might
also serve as relatively inexpensive test media to advance
The cruise waterline of the sled, designed to be the design of high speed hydrofoil systems. Serious con-
3.5feet below the keel , appeared to be near the maximum sideration should be given to this form of high-speed
allowable. Increases in this distance caused periodic transportation wherever unmanned surface craft can be
pitching and surging motions; the critical factor in these used.
motions was the height of the center of gravity of the sled
above the water. Acknowledgments
Towline attitude and periodic oscillations at the The author expresses his appreciation for the
head of the towline did not materially affect sled per- guidance received from Mr. Virgil E. Johnson, Jr., Chief
formance. Sled motions during acceleration, decelera- Engineer of HYDRONAUTICS, Incorporated, under whose
tion, and in transient (gust) conditions were very mild. supervision the entire pro¡ect was carried out. Mr. Johnson
conducted the original design studies and evolved the basic
An extensive series of tests was run in regular ladder configuration that permitted the sled to operate over
waves. Twenty-four combinations of sea state and forward the large ranges of displacement and speed ta which it is
velocity were examined, with motion picture records of subjected.
each condition preserved for later viewing and detailed
analysis. Typical extracts from the films of each test were The 1/8th scale model tests that form the basis of
examined frame-by-frame, and the motions of the waves the sled resistance information were conducted by Mr.
and the boat were recorded. Data so obtained were ex- Tsuying Hsieh of HYDRONAUTICS, Incorporated.
panded ta full scale and plotted on an IBM 1130 computer;
a typical plot of wave motion data is shown in Figure 17. The author also expresses his sincere appreciation
These data were further examined on a cycle-by-cycle for the continued personal interest and many helpful sug-
basis, with each cycle being assumed sinusoidal in char- gestions of Mr. Eugene Handler of the Naval Air Systems
acter. The time average maximum excursion and the time Command.
average maximum acceleration were computed for each
motion examined, and from this analysis, non-dimensional References
performance curves of boat response versus frequency of
encounter were constructed. Figure 1 8 shows the bow Handler, E., The Helicopter-Towed Hydrofoil Sea
heave response curves; responses in other modes and at Pallet," Journal of the American Helicopter Society,
different parts of the vessel are similar to the results shown Vol. 6, No. 3, July 1961.
in Figure 18. Using the seaway characteristics derived in
Reference 6, the non-dimensional data were replotted to
Johnson, V. E., Jr., Martin, M., and Turpin, F.J.,
The Hydrodynamic Characteristics of Towed Hydro-
show full-scale response for various sea states and forward
speeds. Heave motion and acceleration at the bow are foil Sleds," HYDRONAUT1CS, Incorporated Technical
Report 009-1, March 1961.
shown for head seas operation in Figures 19 and 20.
Johnson, V. E., Jr., and Martin M., The Hydro-
Response of the vessel to waves is very mild. Fig- dynamic Design of a Twenty-Ton Towed Hydrofoil
ure 19 shows that the craft heave motion will typically be Sled," HYDRONAUTICS, Incorporated Technical
less than one-half the exciting wave height for operation Report 009-2, July 1 961.
through a State 3 sea at all speeds above take-off. (Take-
Al tmann , R . , "Model Tests of a Twenty-Ton Hydrofoil
off can be achieved with significantly lower motions by
Sled," HYDRONAUTICS, Incorporated Technical
running with the seas, rather than into the waves). Verti-
Report 498-1, November 1966.
cal accelerations are also reasonably low, for an unmanned
pallet, at all speeds up to 60 knots. Johnson, V. E., Jr., and Goodman, A., "The
HYDRONAUTI CS Variable-Pressure , Free-Surface ,
High-Speed Channel ," HYDRONAUTICS, Incorporated
T. R. 229-1, January 1 964.
4
6. "Model Tests of a Twenty-Ton Hydrofoil Sled," 7. Martin, M., and Turpin, F., The Effect of Surface
Report of Progress for the Period December 1, 1 964- Waves on Some Design Parameters of a Hydrofoil
April 30, 1965, HYDRONAUTICS, Incorporated
Boat," HYDRONAUTICS, Incorporated Technical
Progress Report 498-2. Report 001-3, January 1 961.
28
1
1
24
20
SUB-CAV1 TATIN G
HYDROFOILS
---..
11 - 11
----CWL
0°
16
SUPERCAVI TATING
12 HYDROFOIL S
4
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
SPEED -KNOTS
5
17
GROSS WEIGHT
16 TONS
100
15 95
90
14 TOW THRUST AVAILABLE
HSS-2 HELICOPTER 85
GROSS WEIGHT --- 1 4000 LBS
13
80
75
12
70
11 65
SUPERCAVI TA TI N G 6
10
551
TOW THRUST
O
REOUIRED \ 50
¡o
8
20
45
O7 100/
18
`±' [ /SMOOTH WATER
O
6
///
//
75
16
25
SUB -CAVI TA TI NG
50
Iv 12 80 70
KNOTS
60 50
15 14
//
12 /..
10 --
20 40 60 80 100 10
SPEED-KNOTS
o
10 20 30 40 50 60
SLED GROSS WEIGHT - TONS
6
PITCH ANGLE
DIHEDRAL ANGLE
FLOW
'LEADING EDGE
,QUARTER-CHORD LINE HYDROFOIL "a" ORDINATES
Y/C Y/C
X/C
TOP BOTTOM
1
0.0 0.0
TRAILING EDGE 0.00322 -.00171
0.01
0.02 0.00497 -.00225
0.03 0.00646 -.00259
-- '0.516'71
0.04
0.05
0.00780
0.00904
-.00282
-.00299
0.10 0.01 447 -.00331
0.20 0.02356 -.00297
o 0.30 0.03156 -.00251
0.40 0.03894 -.00253
0.50 0.04588 -.00339
0.60 0.05246 -.00536
0.70 0.05874 -.00869
0.386' 0.80 0.06475 -.01 361
0.90 0.06860 -.02031
1.00 0.07241 -.02900
1.00 0.07393 -.01372
Y 1.20 0.07470 -.01067
FOIL REFERENCE 1.30 0.07470 -.00762
C X LINE (HORIZONTAL)
1.40 0.07470 -.00381
1.50 0.07470 -.00000
SECTION AT
CENTERLINE
7
I .333'
HYDROFOIL "b" ORDINATES
0.266' Y/C Y/C
THESE. SURFACES TO BE X/C
FLUSH WITH SIDES OF STRUT TOP BOTTOM
0.0 0.0 -.0
0.0125 0.00578 -.00316
2. STRUT 0.050 0.01 301 -.00487
0.075 0.01 650 -.00540
0.10 0.01951 -.00579
4.0' 0.15 0.02459 -.00639
0.20 0.02881 -.00697
2 0' 0.30 0.03549 -.00833
0.40 0.04040 -.01 020
LEADING EDGE
0.50 0.04388 -.01268
UPPER SURFACE" 0.60 0.04608 -.01588
0.70 0.04704 -.01 988
0.80 0.04670 -.02486
0.90 0.04481 -.031 09
X-F*- C
FOIL REFERENCE
LINE
0.95
1.00
0.04306
0.04000
-.03492
-.04000
SECTION OF WING
EXTENDED TO STRUT
CENTERLINE
2.0' --\
HYDROFOIL "d" ORDINATES
LEADING EDGE
Y/C Y/C
X/C
TOP BOTTOM
SECTION d-d
8
2.0'---\ THIS SURFACE SHAPED
TO BE FLUSH WITH STRUT
HYDROFOIL "e" ORDINATES
Y/C Y/C
X/C
TOP BOTTOM
e
I 58°
0.0 0.0
0.0125 0.00682 -.00179
6.040' 0.050 0.01629 -.00044
LEADING AT MID-CHORD 0.075 0.02100 -.00078
EDGE 0.10 0.02506 -.00200
0.15 0.03186 -.00430
0.20 0.03736 -.00626
UPPER
0.30 0.04537 -.00925
0.40 0.04999 -.01097
SURFACE 0.50 0.05152 -.01152
32°
0.60 0.04993 -.01103
0.70 0.04488 -.00974
0.80 0.03580 -.00782
0.880' 0.90 0.02192 -.00514
THIS SURFACE TO BE
FLUSH WITH STRUT 0.95 0.01264 -.00321
Y
1.00 0.00040 -.00040
FOIL REFERENCE
X
C
LINE
SECTION e-e
X IN. Y IN.
0.0 0.101
0.278 0.194
0.557 0.260
FOILS "c", "d" AND "e" LEADING 0.835 0.309
EDGE AT STRUT TO COINCIDE WITH 1.111 0.350
STRUT LEADING EDGE 1.392 0.385
1.670 0.417
1.945 0.445
TRANSITION TO BEGIN 2.227 0.470
LEADING EDGES BELOW FOIL "d" AND END ABOVE 2.506 0.494
FOIL "c" AND "d" FOIL "b" 2.784 0.516
FOIL "b" TRAILING EDGE TO 3.897 0.588
COINCIDE WITH STRUT 5.011 0.644
1{CURVED
TRAILING EDGE 6.125 0.688
LEADING EDGE
7.238 0.722
FOIL "b"
NOTCHED SECTION ABOVE 8.352 0.749
SUPERCAVITATING FOIL "a" 9.465 0.770
FOR AID IN VENTILATION. 1 0.5 79 0.784
THICKNESS OF NOTCHED PORTION 11.693 0.794
LEADING EDGE TO BE 0.70" AT STRUT TRAILING 12.806 0.799
FOIL "a" EDGE, TAPERING LINEARLY TO 13.920 0.800
1.00" AT MID-CHORD AND REMAINING TO
- I AT THIS THICKNESS FORWARD OF THE 27.84 0.800
STRUT MID-CHORD.
FLOW Y SECTION
y A-A
X
0 rs B-B
Y
X
y SECTION C-C
9
0 1 2 3
ill !IIII j
4 5 6 7 8 9
II
10 11 12
INCHES
5°
3.23°
2.00°
FLOW
T <=1
ANGLES MEASURED FROM HORIZONTAL TO NOSE-TAIL LINE 4.66°
FOILS WATERLINE
A
a
lo
6
\r7=
5 \\\\L DISPLACEMENT:
---- 27,000 POUNDS
\\\
\
40,000 POUNDS
\ \\i-\
E
DESIGN PREDICTION
\\
\lb
o A
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
BOAT SPEED-KNOTS
FIGURE 14 - FOIL SUBMERGENCE VERSUS SPEED - 1/8 SCALE TESTS
8000
/
/ ' o
-- -- --,--2.:-.
DESIGN PREDICTION
/ e OF REFERENCE (2)
4000 i e I I
0 27,000 LB DISPLACEMENT
i//
//,-N
- --- .-------DESIGN PREDICTIÓN
OF REFERENCE (2)
//
2000
//
//
//
VARIABLE
R
DRAG FORCEELUCTANCE
TRANSDUCER
---
SPRING WAVEMAKER
- -----
FLEXURE (REMOVABLE) 96" LONG TOWLINE
11
4
2
o ** I ` "r
2
4
o 2 4 6 8 o 12 14 16
8
6
4
O
2
LÈ?'
-4
o 2 6 10 12 14 16
3
O BOW
0 STERN
CG
0 WAVE
VEL CPS
4400EL II 61 2.35
PRO TO 33.66 0.48
4
o 6 8 10 12 14 16
TIME -SECONDS
\
\
1.0 \
41\ ,...
.......... V
--",-**-- A
'----- '' Air-
o
4 .0
3.0
%
O \
\
5 2.0
\
\\
\
1.0 \\
1"-
...._
"" 1-14*
V ,.. .___
A
0
0.2 04 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
FREQUENCY OF ENCOUNTER, CPS
FIGURE 18- NON-DIMENSIONAL VERTICAL RESPONSE AT BOW OF SLED IN WAVES
12
14
25 1 PARTIALLY
0 34 1 HULL-BORNE
12 O42
A50
60
12 68
10
SPEED (KNOTS)
25 I PARTIALLY
ID 34 J HULL-BORNE
4 42
L\ 50
7 60
68
o
O
o
40 80 120 160 200 240 280
CHARACTERISTIC WAVE LENGTH, FEET
1 7,
No. 61355
PHILIP J. DANAHY
U. S. Coast Guard Headquarters
Washington, D. C.
Paper No.
67-355
6.14
ADEQUATE STRENGTH FOR SMALL HIGH SPEED VESSELS
1
and decreasing in magnitude by an exponential HYDROFOIL VESSELS
function. This can be more complex for the plate
50
panel as it will have its own natural frequency out
of phase with the fluctuating impact pressures.
Another complicating factor is the carryover or 40
transfer, through the hull structure, of elastic
response at various and changing areas of impact 30
(i.e. strain waves within the structure).
20
The smaller we make the local component of
vessel structure, such as plate panel, the more
important becomes the magnitude of peak pressure O 10
and the determination of the impulse value. This
is to say that what can be approximated as a point 0
load on a 100" beam approaches a uniform load on a STERN MIDHIPS BOW
1" beam. There are arguments presented (19) for
ignoring peak pressures because of their short
duration and yet this impulse creates strain waves DESIGN PRESSURE LOADING
in the structure that must surely influence fatigue vs.
life. Gun manufacturers do not ignore peak pressures HULL STATION
although here too the duration is short. Similarly
shock waves caused by that pipefitters nightmare, FIGURE 1
waterhammer, may be sufficient to rupture pipes
despite the short duration of a strain wave travel-
ing at the speed of sound in the material. No
suggestions are offered on how to appropriately
account for peak pressures. If 100-150 knot
commercial marine vessels are to be constructed with Bottom Plating
safety and economy, peak pressures must surely be
considered and properly handled in the structural In arriving at suitable bottom plating the
analysis. expected or design pressure loads must first be
determined. Figure I may be used to determine the
design pressure load at the appropriate hull
station for the particular full speed condition.
II. Scantlings for High Speed Vessels This may also be calculated from the formula
Object P = KV2
100
The object is to present a quick and easy method
for determining hull scantlings on high speed where: P is in pounds per square inch
vessels which allows light weight construction and V is speed in knots -
adequate safety. This method is not applicable to K is selected from the appropriate curve in
vessels incapable of speeds over 30 knots. figure 2
FICURE 2
HYDROFOIL VESSELS
2.0 PLANING BOATS
' A - Full speed less than 3X takeoff
B - Full speed less than 5X takeoff
but, greater than 3X takeoff
1.5
1.0
P. 3
0.5
2
YIELD STRENGTH c 50 60 70 THOUSANDS
15 20 25 30 35 45 55
6061 T6 Yy=35,000pst
Aluminum Alloys
(E= 10.3 X lOps)
20
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
I I I I I I I I I I I I
.6
.5
13y115
4
P= I.735()
b E"
.3
u.1
a. .2
.1
Y FIGURE 4
3
Figure 3 may be used to determine the plate thickness required section modulus for longitudinals:
and stiffener spacing for any particular aluminum
alloy used for plating. P b 12
12 S
Figure 4 is the general case from which figure 3
has been calculated for all2ys with a modulus of where: Z = required section modulus
elasticity, E, of 10.3 x 10° psi. It is appreci- P = expected pressure load
ated that the actual value of E for aluminum alloys S = yield strength 4 1.5 safety factor, or
varies slightly above and below this, but other ultimate strength 4 2.0, whichever is
variations in material properties and workmanship less
will exceed any effect the variation in E will have. b = spacing of longitudinals
For other materials with appreciably different E 1 = spacing of frames, length of longitud-
values the designer should use the general case, inal
figure 4. The formula approximating this curve is:
The transverse frames may be treated similarly.
Bottom pressure
2
DISTRIBUTION OF
HULL SECTION SIDE PRESSURE LOAD
FIGURE 5
4
special consideration. "W" shaped hulls are apt to
develop considerably higher hydrodynamic loads at .8
the midpoint of the "W", and yet air entrapment may
soften this. The cushioning effect of fan generated
cushion craft presents some advantage that can be 7
credited in arriving at the scantlings. In figure 2
a modifying Kc may be used to reduce the K when .6
solving for expected pressure loads on these vessels.
Figure 6 is a plot of cos 6 vs. $ for various Full speed hydrodynamic impact is unlikely to be
values of e . This points out the importance of 8 intentional, but rather the result of an unexpected
and the relative unimportance of a insofar as impact occurrence such as an operational casualty. There-
pressures are concerned. However, the value of a fore a pessimistic view is taken and it is assumed
will influence total impact forces. Although that the vessel takes on the worst possible attitude
increasing e will not appreciably reduce impact with respect to the water just prior to impact.
pressures it will reduce the amount of area immedi- Table 1 is a listing of some possibilities and their
ately involved and thereby reduce acceleration potential effect upon the apparent deadrise angle
forces and moments. and buttocks angle. If these are then used to adjust
the actual cos 6 the possible cos 6 becomes appreci-
Using figure 6 and the e and e values from the ably larger. This is shown on figure 7. It should
lines drawings of several hydrofoil vessels and plan- be noted that one significant possibility does not
ing hulls, a comparison was made with the view show in table 1 and that is the effect of vessel yaw.
toward developing a shape factor. This shape factor Although it was felt that this was minor and (8)
would modify stagnation pressure and produce an unnecessary to add to all else, the Edo Corp.
assumed hydrodynamic impact load. The comparison indicates that for model tests with a seaplane hydro-
included plotting cos 6 vs. hull station for several foil in 10° yaw there could be as much as a 25%
hulls. The result was surprisingly similar curves increase in impact forces.
5
POSSIBLE ADVERSE EFFECTS
from #3 6° from #4 6°
from #5 5° from #6 5°
TABLE 1
Cos 6 acts upon the velocity and the effect of Table 2 is self explanatory and may be useful to
velocity is proportional to the square so co82 6 is the designer who wishes to see what actually has
also plotted on figure 7. Remember that this cos2 been used or proposed in the past. Because of the
6 curve is only one of a family of such curves with uncertainties involved many of the vessels' speeds
the others tending to fill in the concave curve area sometime in the future while in other cases the
forward of midships. The K factors shown in figure operating vessel did not obtain the expected speed.
2 evolved primarily from this cos2 6 factor. The The planing boats are not as weight critical as
formula for stagnation pressure is approximately: hydrofoil vessels and the designers of racing plan-
ing boats are more concerned with maintaining bottom
P = V2 shell rigidity than in conserving weight. Neverthe-
52 less planing boats are included for their comparative
value.
where: P = stagnation pressure, psi
V = velocity in knots
For simplicity it was decided to double any factor Figures 8 through 14 were drawn up to show at a
acting on stagnation pressure to allow rounding off glance the relative strengths of the designs listed
the denominator to 100. Thus 2 cos2 6 at the forward in table 2. The curves in figures 8 - 14 were
perpendicular becomes approximately 1.5 which was the arrived at by applying the plating span to thickness
value finally accepted. However, 2 cos2 6 at the ratio from table 2 to the figure 3 for the appropri-
after perpendicular is less than .2 and this would ate alloy yield strength. Although other methods
mean such a large deviation from what was actually would allow a comparison of the relative strengths
being used in commercial designs that it could not be this approach also allows a ready comparison with
accepted. There is considerable basis for not accept- the criteria outlined in part II. The minimum
ing such a low value for the after bottom plating. A requirement of part II is plotted as a dashed line
check of possible bottom loads during takeoff and in the graphs of figures 8 - 14. One factor that is
during semifoilborne/planing operations at higher not reflected In figures 8 - 14 is theas welded"
speeds called for greater strength. Finally a com- strength of the shell plating. In several designs
promise was reached in which an arbitrary straight the'as welded'strength actually controls and would
line K factor was arrived at which became modified make the design appear much less conservative than
as the differential between full speed and takeoff in the figures. Frequently the weld and the heat
speed assured that full speed impact vas to be the affected zone can be located in a low stress region,
controlling condition throughout the hull bottom. but that is another problem.
6
100
40 KNCT HYDROFOILS
80
60
40
Curve 'C' is the square of curve 'B' --- i.e. Relative Strength
cos2 .of Bottom Plating
FIGURE 7
100 100
40 KNOT HYDROFOILS
E
80 80
60 60
'*/
40 0 /
40 ct,
STEP
X
_ _ /
20 20
wz - - 70 KNOT'
SEAPLANE
FIGURE 9 FIGURE 10
7
30
0 KNOT HYDROFOIL
180L 20
50 KNOT HYDROFOIL
30 KNOT HYDROFOIL
10
70 KNOT HYDROFOIL
60. O
STERN MIDSHIPS BOW
Relative Strength
40. of Bottom Plating
11(011' FIGURE 12
- - - --
4
-5°-
50 KNOT
Relative Strength
of Bottom Plating
FIGURE 11 120
Planing boats
50 (+) Knots
100
100
Planing boats
80
30 (+) knots
60
Q.
20 20
FIGURE 13 FIGURE 14
8
Shell Bottom Plating
TABLE 2
9
"The Design and Model Testing of A Small Single
Hydrofoil Installation for the HU-16 Airplane",
Edo Corp. Report 7016, 7 Feb. 1966, AD-478 997
80
"Sea Tests of the USCGC UNIMAK - Slaming
Pressures, Strains, Etc.", by Joshua E. Greenspon
DTMB Report 978, March 1956
20
"Hull Wave Impact Load on High Speed Marine NOTE : For those readers familiar with the Defense
Craft" by Young H. Chey,May, 1965, DTMB Report Documentation Center and the Clearinghouse for
1072, AD 469 862 Federal Scientific and Technical Information,
the AD numbers are listed where known.
"Experimental Investigation of Rigid Flat
Bottom Body Slaming" by Shang - Lun - Chuang, ALS 0: There are numerous other pertinent references,
Sept 1965, DTMB Structural Mechanics Lab, R & D including many NACA Reports. These have been
Report 2041 omitted from this list since they are referred
to repeatedly within the above references, and
"Water Impact of the Mercury Capsule. Corre- additional listing seemed redundant.
lation of Analysis with NASA Tests" by J. D.
Rosenbaum and W. R. Jensen, Grumman Aircraft
Eng. Corp. Report ADN -02 -08-62.1
The views expressed in this paper are those of
"Hydrofoil Ship Structural Design Criteria
the author and do not necessarily represent the
Study", Martin Co., Baltimore, Md., Feb 1965,
official view of the U. S. Coast Guard.
NObs-4791
10
No. 61356
ROY R. MOFFETT
U. S. Maritime Administration
Washington, D. C.
Paper No.
67-356
1.08
ADVANCED CONCEPTS IN OCEAN TRANSPORT CAPABILITY:
THE CONTAINER/BARGE QUANDARY
Roy R. Moffett
Division of Ship Design
Office of Ship Construction
U.S. Maritime Administration
The thoughts expressed herein are those of the Author, and do not necessarily
represent the views of Maritime Administration.
2
troleum products. Of great importance to the ship- 3. Imbalance which occurs when containerizable
per is the fact that barges can act as floating ware- cargo moves in each direction, but the ports of
houses, greatly reducing overhead and space re- call are primarily for either loading or dis-
quirements. Also, it would be more economical charging and rarely for both. Containerships can
to towbarge several thousand tons of cargo dis- handle this situation by "deadheading" empties
charged at New Orleans destined for St. Louis, from port to port and "back-tracking" to pick
for an example, than to truck it in containers. up full containers. This, of course, greatly
It must be concluded, therefore, that barges and increases voyage time and expenses for termi-
containers have their most efficient application in nal storage of containers. Barge ships are not
different segments of the trade. Although they may much better off except that tugs could be em-
be complementary in this respect, the determina- ployed to shift empties so that the ship would.
tion must be made by the shipping company as to be relieved from that expensive nonproductive
which mode will perform most effectively in his task. Storage of empty barges would be less
trade area. expensive than storage of containers.
Barge/Container Inventory Labor
The proposed containerships of today are speci- In the movement of packaged freight, through
fying a capacity ranging between 800 and 1,200 shipments of containers would have maximum im-
containers while the two proposed barge ships are pact in reducing man-hours of cargo handling
carrying 38 and 61 barges prospectively. It can labor. The threat that this poses in loss of work
be easily concluded that it would be much less dif- opportunity together with labor jurisdictional prob-
ficult to keep abreast of the barge movements than lems naturally create difficulties requiring far-
the hundreds of containers. Containers being an sighted consideration by management, labor and
integral part of the tractor trailer system could government in their ultimate solution. From a
conceivably end up almost anywhere at great dis- near term view less difficulty may be experienced
tances from the major port whereas the much in establishing the barge system, as handling cargo
larger barges are fairly limited in their movement between ocean carrier and land transportation par-
and are less likely to disappear. The container- allels present systems.
ship operator will need a larger staff couplad with Operators of proposed containerships and barge
increased expenditures to provide for inventory carriers generally concede that their cargo han-
control and maintenance programs than will the dling costs will be high owing to stuffing and un-
barge ship operator. One steamship company with stuffing operations before the major units are loaded
a going container operation found, upon an investi- aboard the vessels; however, premium pay expenses
gation pertaining to containers that had mysterious- resulting from night, weekend and holiday work
ly disappeared in foreign ports, that some of the should be greatly reduced.
local population had "midnight requisitioned" them,
and had converted them into fairly comfortable Terminal Requirements
places of abode. Very few ports have existing available facilities
where a large container system can be put into im-
Cargo Imbalance mediate, effective operation. Compounding the
There are three types of cargo imbalance as problem is the fact that most containers will have to
follows: be stuffed and unstuffed at pierside due to the ex-
pected small number of door-to-door shipments.
Imbalance which occurs when cargo moves in. one Itis to be especially noted that in some foreign
direction with little or no cargo moving in the ports it may be necessary to containerize and de-
other direction. This requires that the addi- containerize cargoes while the containers are still
tional expense of handling empty containers or onboard the ship for some time to come. For
barges on the return voyage be borne by the efficient operation, then, the large scale container
operator. The container operation may be a system requires expansive marshalling space and
little more costly in this instance due to the adequate uncongested access routes to and from
greater number of empty units that have to be the pier area. The barge system, however, does
handled. not have to contend, to the same degree, with the
Imbalance which occurs when containerizable problems associated with antiquated port facilities,
cargoes move in one direction with a full load terminal congestion or inadequate rail and road
of noncontainerizable items moving in the op- accesses. Barges can be stuffed and unstuffed at
posite direction leaving no room to stow re- present break bulk terminals using truck mounted
turning empties. Containerships are at a great cranes, if necessary, and then be towed to a con-
disadvantage on a service where this situation venient marshalling area. As the barge ship can
occurs and can only shut out cargo or stuff load and discharge in the stream there are very
containers with incompatible cargoes. The barge few lock, tide, or draft limitations that could cause.
ship is better suited to handle this trade, as the difficulties or loss of time. It may also be possible
size of the barges allow for stowage of a great to reduce or eliminate expenses such as harbor
many commodities that are physically impossi- dues, towing and mooring services which may
ble to stow in a container. offset the cost of towing the barges.
3
Military Auxiliary very large loads of such commodities as coffee
and raw rubber which justifies transfer by lighter
Both the containership and barge carrier could sized vehicles. The rehandling of cargo is not only
serve as effective military auxiliaries if properly expensive because of stevedoring charges but de-
designed. There has been discussion within the lays often occur that prevent a ship from sailing
marine industry and among various elements of the on time. This process is made to order for the
military establishment as to which concept has the barge carrier whether receiving or discharging
greatest military potential. The containership transshipment cargo. A container operation would
could serve as an excellent supply ship to military be more costly unless there was direct transfer
bases that are connected to an adequate seaport between two containerships. Since transshipments
by a road capable of handling van container traffic. are almost always between ships of different ship-
The advantage of the container system over barges ping companies an effective pooling arrangement
in this instance is that the material gets out of the would have to be agreed upon for the interchange
port area and onto the military reservation with of containers.
a minimum of delay. Barges would necessarily be
confined to the harbor or river area and cargo Cargo Losses
would have to be discharged in break bulk fashion
and then transported to the military base. This, of A big selling point for containerization has been
course, increases the probability that the material that it would substantially reduce damage and pil-
may be lost, damaged, destroyed or stolen. The ferage of cargo resulting in greater utilization of
barge carrier would be excellent in primitive areas containers by shippers and decreased expenses in
where a beach head has been established or where insurance costs to the operators. Experience is
the only access through jungles to the base is by indicating that greater effort on the part of both
river. The barge carrier can discharge in the shipper and carrier is required before maximum
stream and barges could deliver materials any- benefits will be realized. It is almost certain that
where there was water access. A properly de- insurance claims resulting from damaged cargo can
signed containership for military use should carry be greatly reduced if special emphasis is placed
its own cargo gear, have a deep second deck and on the proper handling of containers, the proper
ramps to accommodate a large variety of military stowage of the cargo inside the containers and the
vehicles and weapons. The barge carrier should proper packaging of the cargo itself. Pilferage
also have its own cargo gear and preferably, a is automatically impeded as:
system of horizontal movement of barges rather The system can provide lar expedient move-
than cell stowage. This would enable the vessel ment of cargo to and from the terminal area;
to effectively handle the maximum number of mili- Cellular stowage prevents easy access to most
tary vehicles. containers;
High cargo handling rate reduces port time;
Delays and
Cargo is hidden in the container reducing
The maritime industry has always been harassed the opportunity for selective choosing of
by time consuming and therefore expensive port easily pilferable items.
delays caused by bad weather, strikes and harbor
congestion. A containership can load and discharge The barge offers less advantages in this respect
in bad weather as there is no chance of cargo be- unless it is completely shipper loaded. It is ap-
coming damaged. Harbor congestion will most parent, however, that barges for the most part,
certainly ,delay the containership as it is almost will be stuffed and unstuffed at pierside, so that
necessary to dock to load and discharge containers. pilferage and damage will continue at about the
If the containership has its own cargo gear it could same rate as the normal break bulk operation.
conceivably handle containers into lighters while
anchored in the stream. The barge carriers can Capital Investment
effectively avoid delays caused by both bad weather The useful life of the barges is estimated to be
and port congestion by working cargo in any pro- twenty-five years while ten years is the generally
tected roadstead. accepted standard for containers. This means, of
course, that two and one-half sets of containers
Transshipments will be needed for every set of barges over the
Transshipping, the process of transferring cargo twenty-five year life of the ship. Couple this with
from one vessel to another for further transport, the fact that containers are much more expensive
ordinarily is a very costly operation to the shipping than barges based on dollar cost per cubic foot of
company. The usual process involves, for example, cargo space and the capital investment differential
a load of cargo from South America or the Far becomes much greater in favor of barges. Large
East that arrives in a domestic port and is dis- expenditures of capital may also have to be made
charged into lighters and then reloaded into another for chassis and bogies, straddle trucks and real
vessel bound for North Europe or the Mediter- estate for marshalling areas to make the container
ranean area. Lighters are used because it is system work. If containerships do not carry their
cheaper to handle the cargo twice instead of four own cargo gear, shore cranes will have to be in-
times as would be the case if trucks were used. stalled at each port of call. The barge system
Further, the more important transshipments are will require that cranes be available to stuff and
4
unstuff the barges. However, existing break bulk piers as well as the busy Camden Marine Terminal.
terminals may be adequate to handle the barges Cased and drummed petroleum products generate at
and no further expenditures would be necessary Paulsboro, the largest New Jersey port on the
for additional land or equipment. Delaware River in tonnage handled. The entire
Chester-Marcus Hook waterfront is lined with in-
Tramp Competition dustry such as steel, chemicals, paper and auto-
Tramp competition makes significant inroads in motive parts which swell the basic tonnages pro-
marginal traffic which could well be handled by duced by the petroleum industry. Wilmington, sev-
liner fleets. As to United States liner carriers enty miles from the sea, is served by the Wilming-
there are two problems involved. First, there are ton Marine Terminal. Across the river are the
not enough American flag ships to handle the po- piers of Deepwater Point and Pennsgrove used
mostly for incoming raw materials and fuel.
tential business and second, there are many cargoes Finally, at Delaware City, millions of tons of pe-
that are presently economically impossible for troleum products are handled annually.
conventional liner operators to capture. This geographical area was described in some
Both problems can be solved in part by investing detail to indicate the tremendous potential available
construction funds in more of the efficient advanced to the liner operator who can effectively compete
concept types. For an equivalent number of dollars with the tramp lines who can afford to call at a
there would be a tremendous differential in cargo multitude of berths to pick up small shipments. It
carrying capability when compared to the general should be quite apparent that the barge concept is
cargo ship. This is due, of course, to the great made to order for this type of an operation. The
reduction in turn-around time which results in many barges would consolidate the cargo all along the
more voyages per year. To rephrase it; a given river and be delivered to a central point ready to
amount of money would buy a lesser number of load when the barge carrier arrived. A container
advanced ships than general cargo ships but due to system in the same operation would be much more
the more efficient utilization of the advanced ships, costly to both the shipper and the carrier and
American operators would be able to carry much would be much more difficult to justify because of
more cargo per year. the nature of the cargoesinvolved and the existing
Another aspect of the problem involves small facilities geared for river load and discharge.
ports or industrial plants on rivers where there
are minimum tonnages of cargo available per trip.
Tramp carriers with lesser operating expenses and Operations Analysis
smaller capital investment can afford to go after
this trade even though their port time is greatly As of this writing the maritime industry has had
increased. A second consideration is the fact that very little experience with full containerships en-
a point may be reached where it becomes uneco- gaged in foreign trade and no experience whatever
nomical to load any more cargo into tight spaces with the barge carrier operation. Therefore, it
due to increased port time and operating expenses. has not been established how effectively these new
This point of diminishing returns occurs earlier concepts will be able to cope with the myriad prob-
for liner ships than for tramps and this enables lems associated with the carriage of general cargo
the tramp operator to carry more cargo. This in a multi-port service. This Operations Analysis,
second consideration is taken care of by the ad- then, will endeavor to predict which of the two
vanced concepts as all cargo is prestuffed in the concepts is best suited to handle the general cargo-
containers or barges before the ship arrives. situation as it presently exists on one of the es-
The barge carrying vessel has the potential flex- sential United States foreign trade routes. To
ibility to compete with tramp operators for the accomplish this objective, the simulated voyage.
small port and industrial site trade. As an example technique which has proven to be very effective
consider the Delaware Valley where some 8,000 in evaluating the cargo handling capability of ships
industrial plants border the Delaware River along designed for a particular service will be utilized.
its length from the Atlantic Ocean to Trenton, New
Jersey. The port of Delaware Valley is actually Methodology
a series of waterfront units stretching from Trenton
to Delaware City forming a single economic har- The simulated voyage technique is a method of
bor. Trenton, at the head of the navigable portion evaluating the effectiveness of a proposed vessel
of the Delaware River, is served by the Trenton of new design on a trade route that is presently
Marine Terminal. South of Trenton, at Fairless being serviced by the older ships that will be re-
is the thousand foot dock of United States Steel. placed by the new design. Using data obtained
Across the river, between Trenton and Burlington, from cargo stowage plans of selected voyages, the
are the piers of Roebling and Florence, used mainly proposed vessel is paper loaded and discharged with
for incoming raw materials. Farther south are the same cargo and follows the same itinerary as
the industrial piers of the National Gypsum Com- the older design. Handling actual cargoes on a
pany and other firms. Philadelphia, largest of the port-by-port basis ascertains if the proposed vessel
ports in the Delaware Valley, measures the harbor can solve the intricate problems associated with
for twenty-three miles along the Delaware and eight cargo distribution, overstow and the development
and one-half miles along the Schuylkill. Camden of long hatches. The advantage of this technique
and Gloucester have a number of modern industrial is that the ships are evaluated under actual con-
5
ditions and not by broad statistical data which often data; port of origin, port of destination, commodity,
times can lead to erroneous conclusions. tonnage, packaging and number of pieces of each
The foreign trade route selected is one on which item. To effectively organize this data for sub-
shipping companies have formally proposed operat- sequent use, a tabulation, Figure 3 was devised.
ing both containerships and barge carriers. Cargo For each port of origin and destination, this table
stowage plans of actual voyages for the period lists every piece of cargo, its weight, stowage
between March 1965 and May 1966, have been ob- factor and volume. The calculation of volume was
tained. Figure 1 is a reproduction of a typical essential as revenue for most liner type cargo is
based on cubic rather than weight and experience
has indicated that containers are most often filled
volume-wise before the maximum weight load has
S.S.MARAD VICTORY been reached.
LEGEND:
CHARLESTON ALAMEDA EMI
SAVANNAH DUNDALK Eia
JACKSONVILLE I=1 PAUL SBORO
MOBILE ED SEATTLE MI
BARGE ¡CONTAINER STUDY
ANALYSIS OF CARGO 5T0,./AGE PLANS -SS. MARAD VICTORY
tPC
.:, oC.411[13 TuSC
mirmumrammermomommzrze.
1=21211. 7 MIlriTIMI z 111=11
FROM PORT OF TORVO TO PORT OF SAN FRANCISCO
FIG 1
5000 14V P c T.. .. s F. Ct
t4 4a
.11TEMEMENIMINIMIEMII MIWINIMMIMPI3.111WITM
IIPMETVIREMININIIMMI I ITIMI1111711111ETTME
cargo stowage plan which is nothing more than a FROM PORT OF TORVO TOPO', OF SEATTLE
profile showing a plan view of the deck area in CON. mnoiTY N. PISCIS Tor. .../F,SCE 3F C VI:KC
each cargo space. An amplification of one cargo AKISuLAuc, 2 44130 4,2 AL*
S,
hold, Figure 2, enumerates the following relevant CARAy- ..L., T...,, I Z 4.50 '7-8
6
Table I.CARGO CONSIST: TYPICAL VOYAGE' cargo was available to the extent that 25% of the
Crane, K.D., pcs. Glass tubing, skids
weight capacity or 50% of the volume capacity of
TV parts, pkgs. Oil sealing cement, drms. the unit was utilized. All cargoes that were physi-
Tread rubber, pkgs. Wax, ctns. cally unsuitable for unitization or were less than
Asbestos waste, ctns. General, pkgs. a unit load were assumed to be shut out.
Instruments, C/S Woodpulp, bags
Bottles, ctns. Conex, pcs. The enormity of the problem that confronts the
Leather splits, ctns. Filters, bxs. steamship operator who receives a high revenue
Skins, bales Soil test equipment, C/S shipment, parts of which are destined for several
Motors, skids Pipe fittings, C/S
Scrap rubber, palts Construction metal, pkg. different ports, can be appreciated by studying Fig-
Chemicals, drms. Air condition equipment, C/S ure 4 and Figure 5 which are statistical analyses
Washers, crts. Synthetic resin, bags of the data provided from Table II.
Synthetic rubber, bags Parts, pkg.
Animal feed, drms. Specials, pkg. Figure 4 is the percentage by voyage of the num-
Welding machinery, C/S Chemicals, pkg. ber of port combinations where cargo was availa-
Tires, pcs. Yarn, ctns. ble but no unit loads whatever could be made up.
Cylinders, pcs. Printing ink, pkgs.
Tubes, ctns. Tractor parts, pkgs. A port combination occurs when there is cargo
Corn, bags Steel sheet, skids available at any one port for any other port on the
IBM cards, ctns. Welding rods, C/S itinerary. For example, if there is cargo available
Fabric, ctns. POV, pcs.
Egg albumen, ctns. Meat meal, bags in Norfolk for Bremerhaveri, London, and Rotter-
Reinforcing bars, bdls. Glass, skids dam, this represents three port combinations.
Lift truck, pcs. Rags, bales
Slugs, plts. Vans, pcs. The barge carrier under these circumstances
Canned goods, plt. Heater, pcs. could not handle the cargo that was available for
Ambulances, pcs. Label cargo, pcs. 42.5% of the port combinations. This means, of
Press, C/S Tinplate, skids
course, that many shippers would have been made
Paste, drms. Steel plate, bdls.
Molybdenum, drms. Carbon, bdls. very unhappy and would be tempted to consider
Hides, bdls. Printing supplies, C/S another carrier. The containership would have
Asphalt, drms. Tile, plts.
Rubber scrap, slcids Propylisocyanate, drms. had to shut out cargo for only 28.9% of the port
Pipes, bdIs. Clothes dryer, crts. combinations. This is an improvement over the
Metal containers, pcs. Auto parts, C/S barge carrier because the container can efficiently
Copy, skid (paper) Electrical materials, pkgs.
Abrasive paper, C/S Projector screens, ctns. accommodate shipments that would be too small
Insulating metal, pit. Heavy lift, pcs. to be carried economically by barge.
Tanker parts, C/S Pickup trucks, pcs. The containership faltered, however, when an
Helicopter KD, C/S Leather dressing, drms.
Refrigerator pts., C/S Brake fluid, ctns. analysis, Figure 5, was made to determine the
Textile waste, bales Tin dross, drms. percentage of port combinations where some cargo
Chemicals, bags Lubricating oil, drms. had to be shut out. In 62.4% of the port combina-
Ethylchloroformate, drms. Ball bearings, C/S
Wine tanks, pcs. Textile machinery, C/S tions, there was cargo available that was either
Blue phosphor, C/S Coal tar dye, pkg. physically unsuitable for containerization or was
Abrasive metal, C/S Insecticide, drms. available in a quantity that would be uneconomical
Tape, C/S Drugs, drms.
Capsules MT., drms. Latex, drms. to carry via container. An example of a situation
Amaboid, drms. Lecithin, drms. that could quite easily have caused carrier/shipper
Aluminum anode, skids Oil, ctns. relations to deteriorate rapidly is readily available
from the cargo stowage plans. A major manu-
facturer of construction equipment desired trans-
means to overcome the second problem. Some of portation for a large shipment of small spare parts
these physically unsuitable items were boilers, for various types of expensive machinery. The
yachts, generators, heat exchangers, bulldozers, shipping company contracted for this order as it
combines, road graders, piling, concrete pipe and is high revenue cargo and presents an excellent
tractor trailers. Secondly, many of the shipments chance for unitization which could result in lower
that are available between two ports are less-than- costs for the operator. It suddenly became im-
a-unit load and it would be uneconomical to utilize perative for the manufacturing organization to ship
an entire container or barge for these small lots. several large pieces of equipment with the spare
The dilemma is that the good customer relations parts to fulfill certain obligations. If the shipping
that presently exist must be maintained when an company had vessels that could carry only con-
advanced system is employed. Can the operator tainers and could not have handled the large pieces
afford to take the chance of losing the good cus- of machinery, an extremely difficult situation would
tomer who ships several hundred tons each month have occurred. The carrier would not be legally
by refusing to handle his shipment of only a few obligated to transport this additional cargo, how-
tons on occasion. The alternatives are equally ever, the probability of receiving future orders from
unattractive; shut out cargo and lose a customer the manufacturer would have been reduced if the
or accept the cargo and carry a few tons in a unit cargo had been shut out.
that may be designed for several hundred. The barge tarrier did not shut out any cargo due
Table II was prepared showing a partial listing to size limitations, therefore the curve in Figure 5
of ports of origin and destination and the number of is the same as for Figure 4. A further analysis
barges and containers necessary to carry the of cargoes unsuitable for unitization is indicated by
unitizable cargo as well as the cargo shut out. A Figure 6. This graph points out the percent tonnage
container or barge was assumed to be loaded if lost each voyage due to less-than-barge loads and
7
Table II
s%
/ %....... I
I ,A ¡t
it
,
i
%
01 ir
i 1
11 Barge System
Container System
CD OD CD OD CD OD CD OD OD
FIG. 4
VOYAGE NO. CD OD CD OD OD OD CD OD OD qD
FIG. 5
VOYAGE NO.
8
systems and it can be concluded that additional
cargoes are needed if the new concepts are to be
successful.
LOST TONNAGE Figure 7 indicates the cubic utilization of the
vessels for each voyage based on the number of
containers and barges utilized and expressed as a
percentage of the maximum number of units that
can be carried. It would be expected from Figure
6 that the barge carrier would have the greater
Num. LESS THAN A BARGE utilization because of the physically unsuitable
LOAD cargo that the containership would be forced to shut
PHYSICALLY UNSUITABLE out.
FOR CONTAINERIZATION Considering the individual barge and container,
it could not be determined which was more efficient
in utilizing its cube. Many cargoes of drums, skids
.
of tin plate and ingots were containerized and the
its weight load was reached in some cases before 20%
of the volume was utilized. The barges, moreover,
Et,,, o4
V° carried some loads of 100 to 150 tons utilizing
tool...A ! * only 40% of available cubic as no more cargo was
0®®0®00®®® FIG. 6
destined for the port of discharge, and as a result
there was a waste of both cube and cargo deadweight.
VOYAGE NO. The size of the shipments for each port com-
bination was the deciding factor as to how efficiently
the units utilized available cubic and this varied
greatly for each port combination. For example,
when 150 tons of drums of lube oil were carried,
one full barge utilizing only 45% of the cube was
needed while eleven containers utilizing 65% of
available cubic would be required. lf, however,
300 tons of drums are available, one barge is still
sufficient but twenty-one containers would be nec-
cargo physically unsuited for containerization. An essary. In most instances where metals were not
average of 15% of the tonnage carried each voyage carried, the cubic utilization per container was
would have been shut out by the containership and
4% by the barge carrier. It is very interesting to
note that on one voyage 38% of the weight tonnage
could not have been carried by the container op-
erator.
The obvious conclusion pertaining to flexibility VESSEL CUBIC
is that the barge carrier can handle general cargo UTILIZATION
consist much better than the containership. How-
ever, the containership can more effectively cope
with the small loads and this can, presumably,
maintain better customer relationships. By ana-
lyzing the characteristics of the proposed trade
area, a steamship company should be able to ascer-
tain which of these considerations has the greatest
possibility of assuring a successful operation.
Cubic Utilization
The barge carrier and containership that have
been proposed for the trade area investigated follow
the present trend of ever increasing size. An
11°I. Barge Capacity
accumulation of statistical data over a period of Container Capacity
three years has revealed that United States flag
ships do not sail very often with all cargo spaces
completely utilized. The vessel from which the ® 0 0 0 CD O CD ®
FIG 7
cargo stowage plans were obtained is of W. W. II VOYAGE NO.
vintage with relatively small cubic capacity and yet
it sailed at less than 100% full for every voyage
analyzed. Compound this with the fact that it was
concluded in the flexibility discussion that some
cargo already booked would have been shut out if
the carrier was operating one of the advanced
9
higher than for the barge. The container, being
smaller unit, was much more efficient in this DISTRIBUTION OF CONTAINERS
respect and would become more efficient if half- TO MAINTAIN BALANCE
height container trays are made available.
The containership operator could increase the
cubic utilization of his vessels by offering container
service to the shipper's door for small lots of high
revenue cargo. It may also be possible to induce
manufacturers of large pieces of machinery to 2
ship in knock-down form in containers for assem-
blage by the consignee. The barge carrier op-
erator has a very excellent opportunity to capture
medium lots of bulk grains, ores and oils to in-
crease cubic utilization. Barges have traditionally PERCENT MT CONTAINERS/PORT
carried these cargoes with success and steamship FIG. 8
companies could take advantage of a system already
in being. Finally, it is anticipated that the rela- DISTRIBUTION OF BARGES
tively poor utilization forecast in Figure 7 may be TO MAINTAIN BALANCE
improved by the probability that superior service
provided by the advanced systems will attract ad-
ditional cargoes which, of course, leads to higher
cubic utilization and increased revenue.
Cargo Imbalance
The problem of cargo imbalance was discussed
in the Concept Analysis but the full significance
of its effect on operations was not determined O-20 21-40 41-60 61-80 80,00
until the stowage plans were analyzed and the port PERCENT MT BARGES/PORT
combination data tabulated. An analysis of the tab- FIG. 9
ulation has indicated that in order to maintain
balance the following ratios are necessary:
Empty container These graphs are presented to indicate the seri-
Full container x 100 = 90% ousness of the imbalance problem and the necessity
Empty barge of giving much consideration to arrive at a workable
Full barge x 100 = 80%
solution as the high cost of these advanced sys-
tems cannot allow lost time for handling and ferry-
ing large numbers of empty unproductive units.
This means, of cour se, that almost as many empty
units as full ones must be carried and handled
as the vessel proceeds on its itinerary. There was Shipper Loaded Units
no difficulty encountered on the voyages analyzed The most efficient way these advanced systems
because the number of full containers and barges could operate would be to handle only units that are
available was always well below design capacity. shipper loaded and consignee emptied. It is doubt-
However, serious problems could develop on this ful, however, that this system will ever exist in
type of multiport service if the vessels attracted foreign trade as the average shipment to the in-
more cargo and operated at a higher cubic utiliza- dividual consignee is small and cannot economically
tion. To counter this problem a decision must be utilize an entire barge or container.
made to reduce the number of ports visited, back- The analysis revealed that an average of 20% of
track to redistribute empties or provide for a feeder the outbound containers and 27% of the outbound
system to relocate units from discharge ports to barges could be shipper loaded. For the inbound
loading ports. Due to the lesser number of units leg of the voyages, 44% of the containers and only
involved and the greater ease of consolidation, it 5% of the barges could have been shipper loaded.
appears that the barge carrier can more effectively There is no data available as to the number of
cope with the imbalance problem. units that could have been consignee emptied, but
Figure 8 and Figure 9 indicate the percentage experience indicates that there would be relatively
of the units that would be needed to maintain balance few.
in each port. The abscissa is the percentage of Figure 10 compares the barge carrier and con-
units that were needed or would have been left over tainership as to the number of shipper loaded units
during normal operations on this service. It is that could have been made up for each voyage, and
distressing to note that for both concepts it is in- it is apparent that the container service offers the
dicated that 80% to 100% of the units for nearly greater advantages in this respect. This is true,
one-half of the ports visited must arrive at the port of course, because of the smaller size and there-
empty to provide for future cargo or be carried fore greater inherent flexibility of the container
away empty because no cargo is available. to handle lesser shipments.
10
Did not exceed present terminal requirements;
and
PERCENT OF UNITIZED UNITS THAT Could compete favorably with the tramp trade.
COULD BE SHIPPER LOADED The containership had its particular advantages in
that:
Small shipments could be accommodated;
It is compatible with the domestic inland
ilimm BARGES transportation system;
VOYAGE NO.
Utilizing containers or barges reduces the avail-
able cargo as some cargoes are not compatible
with unitized handling and these large expensive
vessels cannot afford to stop at the many smaller
ports on present itineraries. The final decision
to switch from general cargo ships to one of the
advanced systems, then, must ultimately be based
on the Operator's qualified determination that he
will be able to reconstitute his cargo bookings to
the extent that the larger, more expensive ad-
vanced ships will pay off.
Summary Acknowledgements
This paper is concerned with comparing two new The author wishes to express his appreciation and
cargo handling concepts, containerships and barge gratitude to E. Scott Dillon, Chief and Francis G.
carrying vessels, to ascertain if either can effec- Ebel, Assistant Chief, Division of Ship Design,
tively handle the general cargo situation as it Office of Ship Construction, Maritime Administra-
actually exists in foreign trade. tion, who have freely given their valuable time
The Concept Analysis compared the two designs and special knowledge for counsel and advice.
from a more or less theoretical point of view. It Sincere thanks goes to Ronald K. Kiss, Naval Ar-
was determined that the barge system: chitect, Office of Ship Construction, Maritime Ad-
Could handle the varied cargo consist; ministration, for his assistance in breaking down
Is compatible with foreign inland transporta- the cargo stowage plans and recording the re-
tion systems; quired data.
11
No. 61351
BERTEL LUNDGAARD
Diehl and Lundgaard
Bainbridge Island, Washington
and
HAROLD M. MATHERS
Mathers Supply Company
Seattle, Washington
Paper No.
67-357
1.08, 5.08
PGM 84 CLASS ALUMINUM GUNBOAT
MACHINERY AND CONTROLS
Bertel Lundgaard, Partner, Diehl and Lundgaard, Bainbridge Island, Washington
Harold M. Mothers, President, Mothers Supply Company, Seattle, Washington
The diameter of the two hollow lineshafts was kept One fixed displacement accumulator charg-
as small as possible to save weight. Hydraulic control lines ing pump, rated at 0.23 gpm.
run through the shaft bores and convey the actuating fluid One variable displacement turbine starting
for the pitch control mechanism in the propeller hubs. pump, rated at 39 gpm.
Transmission The 1500 psi and the 3000 psi systems use a common
oil reservoir. The 4000 psi turbine starting system is an in-
The transmission is shown on Fig. 5. For diesel mode
dependent closed loop system with its own reservoir and a
of operation the power path is as follows:
small charging pump built into each main pump.
Each diesel engine drives one second reduction
gear through its friction clutch (3) and its overrun-
V. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS AND PROBLEMS
ing clutch (4). The two gas turbine clutches (5) are
disengaged making each diesel drive system complete-
The two most unusual features of the PGM 84 class are
ly independent.
the aluminum hull and the gas turbine/diesel combined pro-
In the gas turbine mode, the turbine drives pulsion plant. It is therefore not surprising that these areas
the first reduction gear, which in turn drives the posed a number of challenging engineering problems. These
two second reduction gears through the gas turbine problems and their solutions are described briefly below:
clutches (5). The overrunning clutches (4) disen-
gage automatically as soon as the diesel pinion (a) Gas Turbine Support
speed exceeds the speed of the engines, thus taking
the diesel engines off the line. The turbine is a very rigid, thin walled cylinder. The
temperature of the cylinder wall may vary as much as 1000°
The diesel friction clutches are conventional, pneu- F with a corresponding thermal expansion. The turbine is
matically operated units requiring about 125 psi air pres- located in a lightly built, highly flexible aluminum hull.
sure. The friction clutches need no lubrication. To accommodate.the relative motion between the turbine
and the hull, the turbine is supported as shown on Fig. 4.
The overrunning clutches are fully automatic, cen-
trifugally actuated. Each clutch will engage when the Mount #1 does not carry any weight, but takes the
speed of its diesel engine exceeds the speed of the second thrust of the turbine and prevents transverse motion of the
reduction gear diesel pinion,. When, under turbine power, power turbine. Mount #2 carries the weight of the power
2
turbine and provides vertical restraint. Mounts #3 and #4 control system was devised which assured that the motor
allow longitudinal movement of the machine while provid- driven pumps run only when one or both the diesel clutches
ing transverse and vertical restraint. Gear couplings in the are engaged and at the same time the gas generator is not
turbine drive shaft allow the turbine axis to move in rela- running.
tion to the drive shaft line.
Another problem arose from the fact that some friction
(b) Transmission is transmitted through ratcheting of the disengaged diesel
overrunning clutch. If the pneumatic clutch was left disen-
The transmission connects one gas turbine to two gaged, the entire overrunning clutch and the output side of
shafts or alternatively one diesel engine each to one shaft. the pneumatic diesel clutch would spin during gas turbine
It must provide for the flexing and thermal expansion of a operation at close to gas turbine speed. However, the
very lightly built aluminum hull. It should be noted that manufacturer of the pneumatic clutch supply line seal would
aluminum not only deflects three times as much as steel for not guarantee that this seal would last at the gas turbine
a given load, but that its thermal coefficient of expansion speed. The turbine end of the pneumatic clutch could be
is also about three times that of steel. kept from rotating by inflating the pneumatic clutch, and
this solution was initially adopted. However, on the test
The problem of providing flexibility was solved by stand, the nozzle lubricating the overrunning clutch became
splitting the transmission into three basically independent plugged and the clutch froze. If this had happened in the
gear boxes as shown on Fig. 5. The shafting between the ship, with only the overrunning clutch between the gas tur-
units as well as the input shafts from the diesel engines and bine and the diesel engines, the diesel engine would be
the gas turbine incorporate misalignment features which driven by the gas turbine at near gas turbine speed, and
allow for relative motion between the gear boxes them- would without doubt fly apart. To assure that this would not
selves as well as motion of the gear boxes relative to the happen, it was decided to sacrifice the pneumatic clutch
machinery.
shoes rather than the diesel engines in case of overrunning
Each gear box is completely anchored at one point clutch failure. The solution adopted was to inflate the
only. The other attachment points to the hull were devel- pneumatic clutches enough to keep the diesel side of the
oped to allow relative motion between the hull and each overrunning clutches from following the high speed side, but
unit both longitudinally and transversely. still keeping the pressure low enough so that not enough
torque could be transmitted to drive the diesel engines in
The transmission was designed to allow a smooth
case of overrunning clutch failure. The pneumatic clutch
transfer from full speed on diesel power to gas turbine
pressure is automatically reduced to the holding pressure
power. Two factors complicated the problem: the speed of
when the propulsion mode is transferred from diesel to gas
the power turbine cannot be controlled unless some amount
turbine.
of torque is applied to the output shaft; but at the some
time the gas turbine clutches will only tolerate a limited (c) Electrolytic Corrosion
amount of speed differential during engagement.
The ship's sea water and bilge piping is copper nickel;
We were afraid that the unloaded, idle speed of the
other piping systems were fabricated from copper or thin
turbine might be well above the top speed of the diesel
walled stainless steel tubing. Any of these metals may
engines, thus causing excessive wear of the clutch friction cause electrolytic corrosion in conjunction with aluminum
discs during engagement of the gas turbine clutches. To in a marine atmosphere. To prevent corrosion, metal to
solve this problem a speed switch was mounted on the port
metal contact between dissimilar metals was avoided by
gear-shaft of the first reduction gear. This speed switch
lining all pipe hangers with rubber and by using rubber or
initiates the clutch engagement. The speed setting was
nylon sleeves around pipes where they pass through bulk-
selected by trial and error to balance the engagement times heads.
of the clutch against the acceleration rate of the gas tur-
bine. The result is a smooth engagement with very little The copper nickel sea water and bilge systems pre-
speed differential between the clutch interfaces. sented the most severe problems. Aluminum and copper
together with a salt water electrolyte is a very good battery.
During shop testing of the gear, another unexpected The most important precautions taken to solve this problem
difficulty arose. The gas turbine clutches are cooled and were:
lubricated by a heavy oil spray. Due to this, some viscous Liberal use of anodes in sea chests and
friction builds up between the clutch friction discs even overboard discharge fittings.
with the clutches disengaged. The friction was estimated
to be sufficient to free-wheel the first reduction gear and Isolation of aluminum hull fittings from
the power turbine at about 700 RPM. But the power turbine the piping by the use of 4" long specially molded,
lub oil pumps are driven by the gas generator, and during flanged rubber spool pieces.
diesel operation the gas generator is not operating; the lack Keeping piping under floorplates dry by
of lubrication would have led to very quick failure of the keeping it as high as possible.
power turbine bearings. To solve this problem, one motor
Using 18" long plastic bilge suction
driven supply pump and one motor driven scavenge pump,
nipples to insure that the copper nickel bilge
serving the power turbine only, were added. However, if
piping would not be submerged in saltwater
these pumps were left running when the gas generator was
even if the bilges are not dry.
running, the motor driven scavenge pump and the gas gen-
erator driven scavenge pump would be taking suction from These precautions appear to have been successful.
the same bearing sump, with the almost certain result that To date, electrolytic corrosion caused by the piping systems
one pump would run dry and fail. To solve the problem, a has not been a problem.
3
VI. PROPULSION CONTROL SYSTEM DESCRIPTION VII. PILOTHOUSE CONTROL
The PGM Propulsion Control System is primarily a Norrnally, the PGM's are controlled from the Pilot-
pneumatic system operating on 100 psi air. There are, as house station when the vessel is underway. Therefore, in
well, electric and hydraulic systems that are initiated by order to get the "feel" for handling the PGM, we will
the air controls. follow a complete operating sequence from the Pilothouse
There are two propulsion control operating stations-- Station.
Pilothouse - Fig. 2 and 6 Call for Control
LOS (Enclosed Operating Station) - The pilothouse operator signals the EOS station that
Fig. 3, 7, 8 and 9. he wants control. The EOS operator will start the diesels
The design direction was to provide complete propul- and engage the diesel clutches. The LOS Operator will
sion control from either the Pilothouse or the EOS station. then position the station transfer lever to Pilothouse control.
The EOS operator, however, has sole control of some func- The Pilothouse operator will know that the transfer
tions and therefore the EOS station is manned when under lever at the EOS is on Pilothouse control position by the
way. Transfer Initiated Light going "on". It is then up to the
The Propulsion Control System is designed around Pilothouse operator to match the diesel control lever posi-
five main control levers: tion to the EOS levers by means of the Duplex Gages read-
I. Starboard Diesel (Speed and Direction - Item 4) ing EOS and Pilothouse control lever position. As soon as
2. Port Diesel (Speed and Direction - Item 3) the Pilothouse operator matches the EOS lever position,
Gas Turbine (Speed and Direction - Item 2) control will transfer to the Pilothouse and this will be indi-
Mode Selector ("Diesel" or "GT" - Item 7) cated at the Pilothouse by the control air gage rising from
Mode Selector ("GT Maneuver" or "Normal"- Oto 100 psi.
Item 6) Diesel Control
These five levers are provided at the Pilothouse sta- The Pilothouse operator now has full control of speed
tion and at the EOS station and they perform the same func and pitch of the port and starboard propellers under diesel
tions. However, control is always at one station or the control, using levers No. 3 and 4.
other, never at both.
Gas Turbine Control
There are three modes of control - The Pilothouse operator wants Gas Turbine mode of
Diesel control. He will signal the EOS operator that he wants the
Gas Turbine Gas Turbine ready to start. The EOS operator will place
Gas Turbine Maneuvering the gas turbine start switch on "automatic". When the gas
turbine is ready for automatic starting, the EOS operator
(a) Diesel Mode will close the "Gas Turbine Ready" switch and this will be
indicated at the Pilothouse and EOS stations by the Gas
Mode selector lever No. 7 will select diesel mode, Turbine Ready Light coming "on".
and levers No. 4 and No. 3 have control of the starboard
and port shafts, speed and direction under diesel power. Until the Gas Turbine Ready Light is 'on, the system
Lever No. 2 is inoperative. is interlocked so that an automatic start cannot be made.
As soon as the Pilothouse oper&or has the Ready Light, he
Gas Turbine Mode can go to Gas Turbine Mode or he can elect to remain on
Diesel Mode with the Gas Turbine on Ready as long as
Mode selector lever No. 7 will select GT mode and desired.
after the gas turbine has started, lever No. 2 will provide
speed and direction control under gas turbine power. When the Pilothouse operator decides on Gas Turbine
Levers No. 3 and No. 4 are inoperative. Mode he wi I 1--
Place diesel control levers No. 3 and No. 4
Gas Turbine Maneuvering Mode to full ahead position.
Mode selector lever No. 6 will select Gas Turbine Place gas turbine control lever No. 2 to a
Maneuver Mode when the gas turbine is running. Under position such that vessel speed remains un-
Gas Turbine Maneuvering Mode, lever No. 4 will control changed after transfer has occurred. This
starboard propeller pitch only. Lever No. 3 will control position is indicated by detent feel in the
port propeller pitch only, and lever No. 2 will control gas gas turbine control lever.
turbine speed only. Under Gas Turbine Maneuvering Mode, Hold mode selector lever No. 7 to Gas
the gas turbine speed is limited to protect against over- Turbine position for 4 seconds and release.
torquing the propeller shafts. The system is now fully automatic and in approximate-
Levers 2, 3, and 4 operate cams to control the speed ly 50 seconds the Pilothouse operator will have gas turbine
and propeller pitch air signals. These cams were cut to speed and propeller pitch control on lever No. 2. The
match vessel requirements after extensive sea trials on the diesels will be automatically declutched and returned to
first vessel, the PGM 84. idle speed.
4
(d) Gas Turbine Maneuver Control Station transfer control
Emergency station transfer control which, in
When under Gas Turbine mode of control, the Pilot- event of damage to the control system forward
house operator can, at any time, elect to go to Gas Turbine of the engine room, allows the EOS operator
Maneuver Mode. The Pilothouse operator will -- to take imrnediate control, simultaneously
isolating all pneumatic lines forward of the
I. Position Gas Turbine Control Lever No. 2 engine room bulkhead in order to prevent
to give a vessel speed of approximately
loss of control air.
20 knots.
Position Diesel Control levers No. 3 and Diesel clutch engage-disengage controls
Diesel "start" and "stop" controls
No. 4 to full ahead position.
Gas Turbine "start" and "stop" controls
Hold mode selector lever No. 6 to Gas
Turbine Maneuver position for 4 seconds
Gas Turbine clutch controls
and release.
The system will immediately change to GT Maneuver IX. FIVE PRINCIPAL CONTROL FEATURES
Mode. Levers No. 4 and 3 will control starboard and port
propeller pitch only and Lever No. 2 will control gas tur- The following five features of the control system have
bine speed only. been selected as key points in the overall success of the
PGM propulsion control system:
The Gas Turbine power is limited to slightly more
5% Lever Match before Station Transfer
than top diesel power under the Gas Turbine Maneuvering
Mode. Pilothouse Starting of Gas Turbine
5
fer signal; the diesel levers must be matched so that the The gas turbine starts and the clutch en-
position pressure signals are within 4 psi for corresponding gagement speed switch is made, and clutch
levers in order for the transfer signal to pass through. engagement begins. Engagement time is
approximately 7 seconds.
How does the operator know what he must match to?
The position pressure regulator, in addition to supplying Gas Turbine clutch engagement is indicated
one end of the spring centered balance valve, supplies one by proximity switches within the gas turbine
feed I ine of a duplex gage at the Pilothouse and EOS sta- clutches. When both clutches are engaged,
tions. The corresponding position regulator at the other a solenoid valve is actuated to transfer Mode
station supplies the second feed line of the duplex gage at of Control from Diesel to Gas Turbine, de-
the Pilothouse and EOS stations. The operators now have activating the diesel control levers, Items 3
a duplex gage for the two diesel control levers and the gas and 4, and activating the turbine lever,
turbine lever at both control stations. One pointer reads Item 2.
local lever position, the other reads remote lever position.
Remember that only the position regulators corresponding to The diesel overrunning clutches are dis-
the mode of control are supplied, and therefore, only the engaged, the pneumatic clutch pressure
duplex gage pointers showing must be matched to accom- reduced to 15 psi, and the diesel speed
plish station transfer. For example: reduced to idle automatically.
Diesel Mode - Match pointers on the two Gas Turbine propeller pitch and speed con-
diesel duplex gages only. trol are available under the Gas Turbine
Gas Turbine Mode - Match only the pointers Control Lever No. 2.
on the gas turbine duplex gage.
In addition to automatic gas turbine start from the
Gas Turbine Maneuvering Mode - All three Pilothouse or EOS stations, the EOS operator also has man-
duplex gages are operating and all ual gas turbine start and clutch engagement switches.
three must be matched for control
station transfer. 3. Gas Turbine Maneuvering Mode
The duplex gages also serve as the engine order tele-
The design thought here was to provide vessel maneu-
graph between the Pilothouse and the EOS.
verability in case of trouble with one or both diesels. Un-
der Gas Turbine Mode, the propeller pitch is controllable in
2. Pilothouse Starting of Gas Turbine
the ahead or astern direction but the pitch on both propel-
The original decision to make gas turbine starting a lers is always the same. Under Gas Turbine Maneuvering
fully automatic Pilothouse operation was made in order to Mode, the pitch on the propellers is independently adjust-
save time in getting the PGM ready for high speed opera- able.
tion. The system allows for the gas turbine to be on
"Ready" (Ready Light "on", turbine not running) for long The problem in the Gas Turbine Maneuvering Mode is
periods, and at any time the Pilothouse operator can ini- to protect the propeller shafts from being over-torqued.
tiate gas turbine start and be on gas turbine control in 50 For example - if the port propeller was positioned to full
seconds. This is the time required to start the gas turbine, ahead pitch and then the gas turbine speed increased to full,
bring it up to speed, and to engage the clutches. the starboard screw would attempt to absorb 14,000 HP.
The design requirements are only 7,000 HP. Therefore, in
The Gas Turbine start is initiated by the Mode Selec- order to provide the needed shaft protection, the turbine
tor Lever, Fig. 6, Item 7. The lever is held to GT Mode speed is limited in the ahead direction to provide a maxi-
for 4 seconds and then released. mum speed of approximately 22 knots. If the pitch on
The rest of the cycle, turbine start, turbine clutch either screw is in the reverse direction, the turbine speed is
engagement and control mode transfer is automatic. The further reduced.
main control problem is to delay transfer of mode from The control problem is to sort out control supply air
Diesel to Gas Turbine until the turbine clutches have so that --
engaged. During this period, mode of control must remain Gas Turbine lever No. 2 controls gas turbine
under Diesel. - speed only.
Diesel levers No. 3 and 4 control diesel
The gas turbine starting sequence is as follows:
pitch only.
1. Holding the mode selector lever No. 7 to Lever position regulators indicate position
gas turbine position for 4 seconds sends a of all three control levers.
pneumatic signal to close a pressure switch
The Gas Turbine Maneuvering Mode has proven to be
initiating the turbine electro-hydraulic
very successful. Some of the operators prefer making land-
starting circuit. The pneumatic signal also
ing under GT Maneuver Mode of Control rather than in the
closes a pressure switch setting up the tur-
Diesel Mode of Control.
bine clutch engagement electric circuit.
The electric circuit, however, is not com- Propeller Pitch Trimmer
pleted until the speed switch on the first
reduction gear is closed. During this The Pitch Trimmer Control system is a means of reduc-
period, mode of control remains with the ing the pitch on the inboard screw when in a turn.
diesels.
6
The Pitch Trimmer has proven beneficial in two ways: The reason for the Speed Interrupt is that the propel-
ler pitch change from full ahead to full astern requires 7
The turning radius is reduced.
seconds while speed change is very fast. For example - the
The propeller shaft loads are kept vessel is in a maneuvering condition, backing down with
more nearly in balance. full astern pitch and 1/3 speed. The operator would like to
When the PGM is operating under full speed Gas Tur- stop the vessel quickly and positions the controls to full
bine Mode, the propeller shaft loading is approaching max- ahead. The result is that the engine speed starts up; howev-
imum allowable torque. By reducing the pitch on the in- er, the actual pitch is still astern for 3-1/2 seconds and the
board screw in proportion to the turn, inboard shaft over- vessel receives additional thrust astern when it is not desired.
torque was prevented. The action of the speed interrupt circuit would be to cut the
engine speed signal to "idle" until the actual pitch passes
The control design approach was to provide an air through the zero pitch setting. At that point, the speed sig-
signal controlled by the rudder angle. One signal for a nal is allowed to pass and, therefore, all of the propeller
port turn and a second signal for a starboard turn. This was thrust is in the desired direction.
done using a drag link to the rudder arm and connecting a
cam shaft operating two regulators. The port turn regulator The actual propeller pitch position is read by a drag
delivers a 0-10 psi air signal depending on the degree of link connected to the pitch position pointer on the pitch
the port turn. The starboard regulator delivers a similar servo control box, see Fig. 11. The drag link operates
signal for a starboard turn. cammed pilot valves to deliver a signal to break the speed
lines when the position is wrong.
The pitch trimmer signals are then used to bias the
corresponding pitch signal in a downward direction. For The result is that the vessel can be handled quickly
example - the full speed gas turbine pitch pressure signal is under maneuvering conditions without the danger of power
60 psi. If the operator puts the vessel in a 100 turn, the being applied in a wrong direction.
pitch trimmer signal is 5 psi. The trimmer signal will re-
duce the pitch signal to 55 psi. The pitch on the inboard The systems, circuits and features discussed have been
screw will be reduced. thoroughly checked and tested as trials have been completed
5. Gas Turbine or Diesel Speed Interrupt on two of the PGM Class vessels. The PGM 84 USS ASHE-
VILLE and PGM 85 USS GALLUP have been commissioned
The purpose of the Speed Interrupt Circuit is to hold into the U.S. Navy as the forerunners of what shows every
the gas turbine or diesel speed signal to zero when the ac- indication of becoming an efficient and growing class of
tual pitch is in the opposite direction to that called for by fighting ships.
the operator.
F IG. 1
LOCATION OF PROPULSION
CONTROL UNITS
7
LIST OF COMPONENTS
FIG. 2
PILOTHOUSE CONSOLE
FIG.3
EOS CONSOLE PICTURIAL
8
x4USr
OUT
ITA/N
-1
L A/R //V
TRANSVERSE
SUPPORT S/N/LAR
TO J.
PLATFORM DIC -2
0 Darn,
rere.d.0 GSA* UrVIT
011Serc olvv.
04,41-
dielf new.",
41. 1500 see,
0 OWNS. OrerOuCrIp. 00.4
.F.A41
9
1212 7,7
LIST OF COMPONENTS
HELM
LILj
202
2 GT CONT LEVER
3 Da. CONT LEVER - PORT
4 Da CONT LEVER - STEC
6 NORM/GT MANUV PRPLN MODE SRL 00220
7 DSL/GT PRPLN MODE SEL
)
25 PORT GT CLUTCH DISENG IND LT Co 01) (4, ,0
26
27
28
STBD GT CLUTCH ENG IND LT
STBD GT CLUTCH DISENG IND LT
GT READY TO START IND LT
\\ .
>h,o,
341.! ES Orn,
OP.
F.0 9
0411,
Erg0 9 a!)) 12
0 4")
170 120 121111 o o g:;)
eo 117
_
e (6-.4
(6-!)
10
114 117
eIII
12
Lmj. 3
8
11
00O
[4,741 " O0
LIST OF COMPONENTS
2 GT CONT LEVER 24 PORT GT CLUTCH ENG IND LT 1.2 STBD DSL STOP SW
3 DSL CONT LEVER - PORT 25 PORT GT CLUTCH DISENG IND LT 13 GT CLUTCH MAN/AUTO SEL SW
4 GIL CONT LEVER - STBD 26 STBD GT CLUTCH ENG IND LT 14 GT CLUTCH P/S/BOTH SEL SW
5 EOS/PH OPER STA SEL 27 STBD GT CLUTCH DISENG IND LT 15 GT CLUTCH ACTUATION SW
6 NORM/GT MANUv PRPLN MODE SEL 28 GT READY TO START IND LT 16 GT EMERG STOP SW
7 DSL/GT PRPLN MODE SEL 29 GT 1NTLKS CLOSED IND LT 17 GT FAULT RESET SW
8 EMERG OPER STA SEL 30 PH COMMAND ALARM LT 18 GT START/STOP/RUN SEL SW
9 DSL CLUTCH CONT - PORT 31 STEERING MOTOR OVLD ALARM LT 19 GIL. O. LOW PRESS INTLK BYP SW
O DSL CLUTCH CONT - STBD 32 DC POWER AVAIL IND LT 20 GT MOTORING SW
1 DSL START LEVER 33 SHAFT TURN GEAR ENG ALARM LT 21 GT wASHDOWN SW
34 SHAFT TURN GEAR DISENG IND LT 22 GT ANTIICING SW
5 STA TRANS INIT IND LT 35 PORT SHAFT LOCKED ALARM LT 23 GT VIBRATION SEL SW
6 GT mANUv PRPLN mODE IND LT 36 STBD SHAFT LOCKED ALARm LT 24 PRPLN mODE TRANS TEST SW
7 NORM PRPLN MODE IND LT 37 OPER STA ORDER IND LT - PH 25 RED GEAR ERG TEMP SEL SW
8 GT PRPLN MODE IND LT 38 OPER STA ORDER IND LT - EOS 26 PH COMMAND ALARM SIL SW
9 DSL PRPLN MODE iND LT 39 PRPLN MODE ORDER IND LT - HI SPEED 27 PRPLN CONT LOC ORDER SW
20 PORT DSL CLUTCH ENG IND LT 40 PRPLN MODE ORDER IND LT - GT MANUV 28 PRPLN MODE ORDER SW
21 PORT DSL CLUTCH D1SENG IND LT 41 PRPLN MODE ORDER IND LT - CRUISE 29 IC VOICE SWITCH UNIT
22 STBD DSL CLUTCH ENG IND LT 69 1 CK CKT IND LIS 30 ENGINE RM CALL BELL SW
23 STBD DSL CLUTCH D1SENG IND LT Ill PORT DSL STOP SW 31 GT READY TO START SW FIG.7
EOS CONSOLE - 'TOP
lo
LIST OF COMPONENTS
LIST OF COMPONENTS
47 RED GEAR L. O. STE, PUMP NO. 2 RUN IND LT 38 AIR COMP NO. 2 STOP SW
48 RED GEAR L.O. STBY PUMP NO. I RUN IND LT 39 AIR COAAP NO. I START SW
49 F.O. BOOST 8 TRANS PUMP NO. 2 RUN INO LT 40 AIR COMP NO. I STOP SW
50 F.O. BOOST 8 TRANS PUMP NO. I RUN IND LT I MIST ELIMINATOR FAN START SW
51 .3T COMP SUP FAN RUN INO LT 42 MIST ELIMINATOR FAN STOP SW
52 AIR COMP NO. 2 RUN IND LT 3 GT L. O. HI TEMP ALARM SIL SW
53 AIR COMP NO. I RUN IND LT 44 GT L. O. LOW PRESS ALARM SIL SW
54 MIST ELIMINATOR FAN RUN IND LT 45 GT FLAMEOUT ALARM SIL SW
55 GEAR L.O. HTR ON IND LT 46 GAS GEN OVSPD ALARM SIL SW
56 PWR TURB L. O. PLIMP RUN IND LT 47 PWR TURB OVSPD ALARM SIL SW
57 ALARM PWR AVAIL IND LT 48 PWR TURB HI INLET TEMP ALARM SIL SW
58 GT L. O. HI TEMP ALARM LT 49 GT LOW FUEL INLET PRESS ALARM SIL SW
59 GT L. O. LOW PRESS ALARM LT 50 RED GEAR L. O. HI TEMP ALARM SIL SW
60 GT FLAMEOUT ALARM LT 51 CONT AIR LOW PRESS ALARM SIL Sw
61 GAS GEN OVSPD ALARM LT 52 SALINITY ALARM SIL SW
62 PWR TURB OVSPD ALARM LT 53 ALARM RESET SWITCH
63 PWR TURB HI INLET TEMP ALARM LT
64 GT LOW FUEL INLET PRESS ALARM LT 236 STM PRESO GAUGE
65 RED GEAR L.O. HI TEMP ALARM LT 237 AIR RECEIVER PRESS GAUGE
66 CONT AIR LOW PRESS ALARM LT 238 SS AIR PRESS
67 SALINITY ALARM LT 239 HYD OIL RESERVOIR TEMP IND
240 FW PUMP NO.2 DISCH PRESS
32 RED GEAR L.O. STBY PUMP NO. 2 CONT SW 241 FW PUMP NO.1 DISCH PRESS
33 RED GEAR L.O. STBY PUMP NO. / CONT SW 242 DSL START HYD PRESS
34 F.O. BOOST 8, TRANS PUMP NO. 2 CONT SW 243 SYS CONT AIR SUP
35 9.0. BOOST 8 TRANS PUMP NO. 1 CONT SW 244 ROS CONT AIR SUP
36 GT COMP SUP FAN CONT SW 245 PH CONT AIR SUP
37 AIR COMP NO. 2 START SW 246 ALARM BELL
FIG. 9
EOS CONSOLE - SIDE PANEL
11
,--/f/SAL/GNITENT
LOS CONSOLE .0G/A,E. X GAGE AGAR,/ spwrov P/I_OrNOC /SA- CONSOGAT
E
S TA 770N
TRANSFER
.ALANCE OL/T4G/T
VAGVE
4./
STA7/ON t k.
TRANSFER
/NPu r
1 T
- WAY VALVE
TO GOVER/VCR
SPEE0 /../NE pos/r/oNER
10-60 PS/
SPEED M./74-Ig/24./P7
!..7A//7
/YEC/-K
J. //VA"
S.4/4/17-L4
VAL. ;/..47
ANSAZ1.../NE 0 OR 10c7j
AS 7.54)A., LAVE 0 04' CO1 /S/
SPEED INTERRUPT CIRCUIT
FIG.11
12
No. 61-358
JOHN F. SARGENT
U. S. Army Engineer Research and Development Laboratories
Fort Belvoir, Virginia
Paper No.
67-358
John F. Sargent
U. S. Army Engineer Research and Development Laboratories
Fort Belvoir, Virginia
1
formed the impoundment of fresh water preventing was not uncommon for a root of this plant to demon-
the entry of brackish water by tidal action. The strate a breaking strength of about four-hundred
shoreline of the Chickehominy River is generously pounds. The most innocent-appearing trail through
provided with dense stands of aquatic growth con- these stands of swamp growth abound in this genera
sisting of at least twenty-five genera of plants. which ride the propeller stream through the low-
Certain of these plants form floating vegetational pressure area into the propeller and gear case.
islands twenty to thirty feet in diameter that form The resulting fouling quickly occurs (Figure 3),
impassable obstacles to most water traffic. The stalls the engine, and renders the boat helpless.
following reactions invariably result in immobili-
zation of any watercraft daring this Lorelei:
Figure 3
Small craft would actually run aground on the The long shaft drive was simply an extension of
vegetational islands although in water depths of a conventional outboard shaft, cantilevered close
five to six feet. Boats with a sharp, deep prow to the surface, to allow the propeller to operate
would bale the vegetation ahead of it, straining
thereby using the wake wave for submergence to
the submergents of the island until they separated
avoid the bulk of vegetation4 The use of a con-
from their taproots; the small, free-floating is-
ventional propeller at the end of this shaft is
land resulting would then be pushed into an adja-
common practice in the Far East, but results ob-
cent patdh until the drag exceeded thrust, immobi-
tained during these tests indicated little anti-
lizing the boat. In particular, a plant callpd
fouling improvement over vertical shafts. Conse-
Arrow Arum presented the most serious obstacle to
quently, rule propellers were tested on the long
marine propellers. This growth is a submergent
shafts, both worm type and bladed type. The rule
and averages approximately five to six feet in
propeller is formed by continuous helical blades
length; although extremely flexible and responsive
of specified length. In this case, 7-inch diame-
to changes in current, it is surprisingly strong
ter blades were used having two fixed pitches of
showing a consistency similar to sisal hemp. It
2
for structural strength a weight permlty must be
4.7 and 4 inches. During this application a hull
of 14-1/2 feet length, 7-foot beam and displaoement assumed. Compromises in both these areas were re-
quired to tailor their application to this use.
of approximately 900 pounds was tested using a 6-
horsepower outboard motor. The basic purpose of An experimental investigatiod2) indicated that for
this test was to determine the capability of the a full scale model the weight and vibration involved
rule propeller to operate continuously in heavily would penalize the design. Concurrently with the
above study, two sets of sine disc propellers were
vegetated waters. Open-water speed was approxi-
Complete stoppage of evaluated -- 27-inch diameter set at forty degree
mately three miles per hour.
the propulsion plant was rare, except when the pro- angle of pitch and a thirty-six indh diameter set
peller was deliberately ramm.d into Arrow Arum root at forty degree angle. Using a 50-horsepower en-
mass. However, the effort to control the tilted gine, a speed of approximately 4 knots was achieved
motor-shaft assembly in adaition to motor noises at an engine speed of 1500 rpm using the 27-inch
accelerated operator fatigue. Since the unit was disc; higher engine speeds proved ineffective with
excessive cascading and a drop in boat speed.
jury-rigged, a minor development could correct this
deficiency; but the efficiency needed for high- Using the 36-inch diameter discs, boat speed peaked
water speed was believed far too inadequate for at 6-1/2 knots at an engine speed of 1500 rpm. The
splash from the disc action was considerable and
consideration.
noisy, throwing water into the hull at both forward
and astern operations which necessitated a splash
guard. In swamm operations, the discs operated
satisfactorily, cutting through the vegetation with
little reduction in thrust. Subsequent use of a
disc with a 30-degree pitch allowed an increase in
engine speed with less cascading for the same boat
for all
speed. Steering was inadequate however
disc propulsion due to a combination of turbulence
induced by the discs and buildup of water growth
on the leading edge of the rudder. As a result of
paddle wheel propulsion potential and problems of
complexity, speed, weight, and vibration associated
with the sine disc, evaluation of the sine disc for
propulsion was discontinued.
Figure 4
Figure 6
3
HULL DRAG
BOAT DESCRIPTION
(hull fiberglass, engine gasoline-except as noted)
SPEED
(m01)
P?6 P H LOALED(L1S.) OPNL
WAT
tdintil...
oCui, ro 'OPEN
BULL PROPULSION -.1
2 m 53r NAM SWAMP (LBS)
k. - LOA 111'
, ' L AI pRop 1-4 1-4 ZZS r- 'Z_'', MI @ 7n1Ph
100 hp @ Weedless
A 1250 20'-0" 7'-10" 2'-6" imT15.7543,i 18 11 33 88 2200 500 2000 3600
weedless
110 hp e 3.75" x 30 20 20 * * *
C 1250 20' -0" 7' -lo" 2' -6"
1900
4400 rpm 11.5
Paddles
D 23,, 160 hp @ & Std. 13 10 27 87 1650 715 1250 3230
960 18' -6" 7' -0"
4500 rPm 14" x14"
E 8o hp @ SM.
500 16'-4" 6'-6" 24"
4700 13i:, x 29 14 24 89 600 420 2000 1210
., hn @ Std.
F 500 16' -4" 6' -6" 24" 3g80 - 10.25 x 17 7 17 88 425 315 875 1400
11"
2000 160 hp C. W§te;jet
G Weld.Al. 23'-3" 9'-9" 2'-4- 4500 rpm m-1/ 15 8 lo 89 goo 1000 * 3400
Diem
TABLE 1 RESULTS OF TEST CONDUCTED IN 1963 * Tests not conducted
A synopsized review of these craft follows. Boat D (Figure 9) became an item of considerable
interest since it resurrected the paddle-wheel pro-
Boat A mentioned above proved the best swamp- pulsion wtich was believed a possible solution to
er but was slow and heavy. Boats B and G were the heavy growth. The paddles were 5" by 7-3/4"
waterjet propelled test beds, each with a different attached to a 35-inch effective diameter side-
approach to enable swamp operation; boat B was wheelers (one port, one starboard). Eight of these
fitted with an excessively large inbmkp opening paddles were attached to each sidewheel which turned
(ten to one ratio of opening to pump suction area) at approximately 133 rpm at full engine speed, pro-
to keep flow rates low at that point. Both boats ducing a boat speed of approximately 13 knots,
were obviously underpowered to attain the desired loaded. The relatively high rate of rotation was(3)
open-water speed, but the weedcutter innovation of dictated by the philosophy of using standard, shelf
boat B showed promise; whereas, the low-flow intake equipment. In this case an automotive differential
design demonstrated little improvement over a stand- transmission was instP11d whieh, due to the weight
ard inlet. (Figure 8) involved, prohibited consideration of another re-
duction gear. Also, the paddle wheel size was
Boat C was very similar to boat A except for restricted due to weight and silhouette. The ini-
the spark ignition engine. As uwamp tests eventu- tial installed power was 80 horsepower when paddie
ally demonstrated, the higher torque of the diesel wheels were the sole method of propulsion; this en-
engine proved to greater advantage and no further gine was replaced with a 160-horsepower unit upon
testing of boat C was conducted. incorporating a propeller drive with the paddle
wheel propulsion (Figure 10). As anticipated,
open-water speed of paddle wheel propulsion was
poor, necessitating the additional complexity
and weight of an augumentary outboard drive. In Boats E and F were test beds for a compact in-
swamp operations, boat D performed fairly well al- board-outboard unit that appeared quite attractive
though there were occasions when the sidewheels for satisfying a parallel requirement (viz., to
and hub (Figures 11 and 12) became heavily entwined develop an engine and propulsion kit for indige-
with growths; likewise the steering which was ac- nous craft) which was subsequently cancelled.
complished by brpking one side of the differential These craft operated very well both in open water
was inadequate for tortuous creek and stream opera- and swamps; but their obvious 1-imitations in both
tion. size and power, coupled with the philosophy of
avoiding development costs, precluded further pro-
secutions of their evaluation.
Figure 9 Figure 12
5
Boat H used a commercial fiberglass hull which providing thrust in any direction. During tests,
had excellent sea-keeping capability. Boat J in- it was determined that the boat could maintain
corporated a special design hull of welded alumi- course with only one waterjet operational.
num which was very mefleuverable and, in general,
quite satisfactory. 3oth boats had similar dis-
placements, approximately 3400 pounds in the un-
loaded condition, although the wider beam of boat
J provided less draft in the loaded condition
(9-1/2 indhes compared with 11 indhes). Further-
more, the concentration of weight in the stern
caused a navigational draft of 13 inches in boat H.
Boat H is 23V-7" lonq with an e-o"beam (Figure
13); boat J is 231-g long with a 9'-9" beam
(Figure 14).
Figure 15
Figure 13
Figure 16
6
cooler was kept small by augmenting the cooler with was superior in close-in maneuvering such as docking,
chine tubes on the hull. where it could be walked in a tight berthing with
ease. In swamp. operation, boat H was superior to
boat J because the inboard weedcutter of the latter
failed to chop up the Arrow Arum in short lengths,
which would then wrap around the cutter shaft until
the size of the wrapping began to restrict inlet
flow. Boat E negotiated some of the more dense
stands by providing a bow load so as to induce a
slight trim by the head, and then proceeding at an
engine speed of approximately 2000 rpm. A subse-
quent modification to boat J incorporated outboard
installad weedcutters since the inboard weedcutter
was still needed to accelerate pump prime; full
field tests of this modification will not be com-
pleted until the season of swamp growth occurs next
summer. The weedcutters of both boats are left in
operation during open-water operations since the
loss in power from weedcutter engagement is negli-
gible in clear water.
7
tage over austere metal hulls in permitting some tions and to insure successful swamp operations; a
initiative in hull design and, of course, providing flat spoon bow was incorporated, and turning chines
a hull material easily repairable. The latter ad- aft completed the only deviations in the box-like
vantage is significant since mad dashee over un- shape. The large beam was selected to provide
familiar swamp vegetation concealing logs, rocks positive transverse stability to oppose the large
and stumps exact their *11 of the hull, usni,ily overturning couple created during a hard turn by
in sone remote location. The exhilaration of this the high thrust line. The wide beam and flat bot-
contagious madness to coax out the last bit of tom caused some difficulties in using conventional
power during these spurts is further heightened by speed and powering predictions. Parameters gov-
the knowledge that one's destiny rides on quick erning powering predictions were a 35 mph speed for
and proper reaction. When on collision course, a a flat bottomed hull weighing 3000 pounds and
choice of stop or steer remains and -- if time carrying a 2000-round payload. Neither Taylor's
permits -- a one-word prayer. (A reversing capa- series, nor NAGA s Seaplane Coefficient were appli-
bility is seldom provided due to cost and inef- cable due to the low aspect ratio of this hull
ficiency.) Without strong propeller blast on the (1;2). Further, the speed-length ratio(X., 7.8)
rudders, steerage is sluggish. On the other hand, and the displacement-length ratio 1:
steering is hieily responsive at the upper propel- L - 625,000 )
ler speeds which can be adverse when a hard helm (i--/oo)
is applied at full boat speed; either a spin out caused this hull to be outside Allen NUrray's pow-
will result with the boat wallowing in its own ering curves. However, the classic Crouch and
wake, or the hull will skid and trip. The tech- Hacker formulae (modified planing hull) was rela-
niques of airboat operation can be mastered only tively accurate when gross installed power was
through experience with that particular airboat. reduced 50% for a pusher-type air propulsion.
Assuming a constant of 180-200 for a cargo carrier
Prior to availability of high-powered aircraft having a wide, flat bottom and solving by the Crouch
engines, airboat accidents could be blamed on formula
violations of accepted airboat practices. It was P
v'w (35)2(5000) 19 0
not unusual for a veteran operator to have been C4 (180)a
flipped out of the airboat a few times during his
-
hP
apprenticeship, nor did it discourage him from con- correcting for air propulsion
tinuing operations, asguming he avoided the pro-
peller teeth. However, refinement in later airboat
P-19°
0.50
- 380 hp
design was reflected in lighter boats and greater Checking by the Hacker Modified formula where B =
power as industry improved its products. The in. 7.5
crease in power was warranted to improve amphibious Va(10)1N (35)2(10)(5000)
P = = 2 0 3 hp
capability -- denser swamps penetrated and longer B(404300) (7.5)(40,000)
stretches of dry land negotiated. But a hot hand correcting for air propulsion,
at the throttle demonstrated the folly of using
that reserve power for water speed after the p 203= 406 hp
disastrous results of becoming air-borne were ex- 0.50
perienced. Table 2, below, contains a synopsis of The agreement in results from the two formulae pro-
selected airboats. vided the basis for selection of a 400-horsepower
engine. Based on the rule of thumb that a well-
The airboat hull is a ealm-water boat. Low designed pusher propeller in an alrboat produces
freeboard of most commercial airboats encourages about three pounds of bollard thrust per horse-
flooding from following wake on engine shutdown power in free air, approximately 1200 pounds of
even in calm water. It also allows shipping solid thrust would result. Predicated on prior swamp.
water over the bow from random swells and.wakes test data, this thrust would be apple to power a
of preceding craft, or when attaining the planing boat of this size over dense watergrowths. The
attitude when overloaded. engine selected was an 8-cylinder unit, rated 400
horsepower at 2650 rpm, air cooled; weight of this
The airboat development (Figure 20) for this well-proved engine was approximately 600 pounds.
program was constructed under contract to the A cowling was provided the engine to insure adequate
Engineers Research and Development Laboratories. cooling during sustained, slow-speed, swamp opera-
The hull was constructed of welded aluminum and tions. In mating the propeller to the engine, it
had a length of 20 feet, beam of 9 feet, and depth was decided to incorporate a direct engine cou-
of 33 inches. The beam and length were estab- pling to avoid development costs and weight of a
lished by the required draft. The high freeboard gearbox (Figure 21). A four-bladed wooden pro-
was incorporated to provide a dry ride. A cargo peller of 6-1/2 feet diameter and 44-inch pitch
well of 11-feet length and 7-feet width was lo- was designed for the boat. The diameter of the
cated amidships which, in addition to carrying propeller was limited to this dimension by hull
cargo, accommodated the operator's console and clearance and in order to avoid exceeding critical
troop seats located outboard which folded up snug tip speed of Mach 0.85 at engine speeds up to 2650
to the gunwhale. Forward of the cargo well, under rpm. The propeller was pitched at 44 inches to
the bow deck was a void originally used for stor- load the engine at 2600 rpm; the pitch was devel-
age and subsequently used for fuel tanks to reduce oped at a radial rate which would encourage good
the hazard associated with the proximity of fuel flow characteristics over the full length of the
to hot exhaust pipes. Aft of the well on the deck, blade for engine cooling. During run-in operations,
the propulsion plant was installed and immediately the ERDL airboat confirmed calculations indicating
below, the fuel tanks and batteries. Steering was dynamic instability by porpoising at approximately
provided by two large ruadars of 22-square-foot 2200 engine rpm. It was originally believed that
area, each. A bushguard was added for propeller the high longitudinal thrust line of the alrboat
protection. The hull approximated a box form would form an effective couple to dampen porpoising.
with a flat bottom to keep within draft limita- However, despite the inclusion of engine shims to
8
angle the thrust line down from approximately two ance imposed for overland operations, and increased
to five degrees from the horizontal, porpoising was hull costs. Consequently, the flat bottom was re-
not eliminated. Consequently, a three-quarter inch inforced by reducing spacing of the longitudinals
wedge, two-foot square, was applied at the stern from 15 inches to 9 indhes to reduce span of the
which did correct the problem. Contrary to appre- bottom panelling subjected to pounding and to in-
hensions -- and on the brighter side -- the proba- crease section modulus. The continuous two-inch
bility of kiting, or becoming air-borne, did not channel longitudinPis were strengthened by trans-
occur even in the face of 20-knot winds. The test verses spaced three feet apart, which were of
bed airboat lived up to expectations during concept identical chs,nel, cut and butt-welded between the
evaluation tests, attaining a light displacement longitudinals to form the frames to strengthen the
speed of 43 mph and a loaded speed of 37 mph. Swamp 1/8-inCh bottom. Section modulus was predicated on
operations were outstandingly successful (Fig 22); a 3G loading. Both TIG and MIG processes were used
and the bonus benefits of gumbo-mud operations to weld the hull, but inadequate weld preparation
(Figure 23) provided a mobility that had been lack- caused early failures as explained below. Also
ing. Maneuverability was excellent except at low incorporated in the redesigned hull was the relo-
engine speeds as expected where the propeller wash cation of the fuel tank from under the engine on
was insufficient to enable good rudder thrust. the aft deck to the bow compartment; although the
Furthermore, the lack of a reversing capability -- performance which resulted was more sluggish, the
deliberately omitted due to cost, complexity and boat became a safer draft to service. Shortly after
inefficiency -- caused docking to be difficult. tests had begun in earnest, welding failures in the
Still, for its intended use in relatively primitive transverses began to appear in the vicinity of the
areas, the diversified capability of the airboat center of bottom skin pressure at the outboard
concept for the cost-per-ton-mile of cargo moved sides. The pattern of failure was one of tension
far exceeded any other medium in effectiveness. It in the upper part of the weld joint, confined to
was believed that sophistication of the design by the weld itself. A direct snAlysis of the problem
incorporating nice-to-have features such as propel- was complicated by abnormal usage of the boat
ler shrouding, controllable pitch propellers and wherein impact loads and racking stresses set up by
sound attenuation devices would have nlillified the limited sand-bar and mud-bank hopping exceed normal
austerity targeted. It wss event,.11y deterrained design criteria. However, since failure occurred
that experienced operators could effectively work in the weld and not the heat affected zone, indi-
the boat despite the lack of those features. cating incomplete fusion, the weld procedure became
.....
BOAT DESCRIPTION --- E.- N
FLORIDA AlRB0AT
180 hp 5'-6" D
17, _ou 7, _3,, @ 44" Pitch Semi 32 600 UNK 1450
(Fiberglass) 2650 LI., 2 Blades Inv-V (Zoo)
1966
TABU 2 SYNOPSIS OF SELECTED AIRBOAT
Data is approximate
But the relatively good success realized with suspect. Consequently, weld specimens were pre-
operational Characteristics was not achieved with pared duplicating construction welds by little
some of the meptuRniaal aspects of the design. The surface preparation; i.e., minim1 wire brushing
extremely light weight construction m.nifested the and grease removal. The specimpns were made from
need for local reinforcement by failures of welds two-inch wide samples of 5086- 11112 base metal,
which occurred at the longitudinals near the center 1/8-inch thick, butt-welded together on one side
of pressure. Also, the proximity of the fuel tanks only by MIG method with 5356 filler rod. The
to the engine exhausts constituted a potential ultimate tensile strength realized ranged from 8500
hazard- Subsequently, in transition from the test psi to 12000 psi, with the failure duplicating the
bed to prototypes for more extensive tests, a pattern occurring on the hull; confirmatory tests
slightly redesigned boat resulted. A departure performed on the base metal validated the tensile
from the geometry of a flat bottom hull was not strength of 45,000 psi before welding. Tensile
considered due to draft limitations, high resist- tests conducted on a properly prepared weld sample
of identical material provided an ultimate stress
9
of approximately 41,000 psi with failure occurring used since the re-forming of the oxide film occur-
in the heat-affected zone, as could be expected. red quickly and storage time of the cleaned plate
was unknown.) Distortion waz controlled by
welding sequence and chill bars rigidly clamped to
the metal. Also, to avoid a pocket at the end of a
weld pass, back welding -- one to two indhes -- was
included. As a result of these weld details, the
restructured hull (Figures 24 and 25) withstood 170
hours of rigorous testing without failure.
-
Figure 20
Figure 23
Figure 21
At the outboard sides, the transverses were faired One of the principal objections is the high-
with generous radii to act as hull stiffeners noise level. Measurements by an Octave-Band Noise
formed by the same web of the fabricated tee. The Analyzer indicated 135 decibels (db) at the opera-
flange of the fabricated tee then became merely a tor's seat. Attenuation is provided by earmuffs
three-inch strip welded to the web over the entire which tend to prevent ear damage, although pre-
periphery of the transverse. Weld surfaces were venting voice communication and perception of enemy
vigorously cleaned by stainless'-steel wire brushing; action. In a cUrrent study under contract to these
removal of the entire oxide film was signaled by LaboratoriesM, a reduction in the noise level has
increasing resistance offered the brush by the been implemented by use of a multi-bladed propeller
metal. (Chemical means for oxide removal were not
10
Figure 24
Figure 26
References
11
No. 61359
HERBERT A. MEIER
Department of the Navy
Washington, D. C.
Paper No.
67-359
Herbert A. Meier
Advanced Concept Section
Ship Concept Design Division, Naval Ship Engineering Center
Naval Ship Systems Command, Department of the Navy
Washington, D. C.
The tragic loss of THRESHER in 1963 set into The following requirements of the Deep Sub-
motion a chain of events which was to have a pro- mergence Systems Project have had a major impact
found effect on the new ASR. The Navy's Deep on the configuration of the ship:
Submergence Systems Review Group examined the
national capability for search, rescue, and
1
Rescue Vehicle Handling
inary design approach used and a presentation of
The Rescue Vehicle is a submersible which is data developed at the David Taylor Model Basin in
designed to rescue submarine personnel up to sub- support of the design work. The following data is
marine collapse depths. On I March 1966, proposals for an early version of the design. The beam and
were being evaluated by the Special Projects Office draft of each hull was increased during the pre-
for design and construction of the prototype. It liminary design stage to compensate for weight
is expected to weigh about thirty tons out of the growth and the final version of the contract design
water, and 60 tons with entrained water. Needless was increased in length to accommodate an increase
to say, the devising of a method for the safe in length of the rescue vehicle. Figure 1 shows
handling of such a large object in a seaway is a the ship at the completion of the preliminary
formidable design task. The Naval Ship Engineering design.
Center conducted a thorough feasibility study which
proposed a platform lift system located in the cen-
ter well. The design objectives of this system ASR FY '67
were:
The vehicle should be under positive control MAIN 0K. *8V W L 16-0. ENDURANCE/ IX KTS 10,000
at all times when it is in the air with no pendu-
lous swinging.
Design Approach
2
The principal dimensions and coefficients of these
hulls are identical and are as follows: PERCENT
INCREASE
LBP = 210' 10 IN EHP
Beam each hull = 24' OVER EHF
Draft = 18'
AT 38'
Displ each hull = 1,397 tons SW
Designed speed = 16 knots
SPACING
cP = .55
= .98
LCB = 0.502 aft FP
24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38
HULL SEPARATION IN FEET
TAYLOR E H P :
CATAMARAN
1 cum Both the symmetrical and asymmetrical hull forms
SINGLE HULL -
1
were tested in head and following seas at speeds to
16 knots and sea states up to seven to observe
COMPARISON OF
1
7000 motions and wave formations particularly between
i the hulls. Experience with other catamarans indi-
CATAMARAN POWER
cated vertical magnification of waves passing
i 6 000 between the forward walls of a symmetrical configu-
ration. This was not observed in these tests.
However, at the design speed an extreme pileup of
water between the symmetrical hulls at the after
5000
/ quarter point was observed. This phenomenon had
also been observed during the powering tests.
Since this pileup of water did not occur on the
4 000 asymmetrical configuration and there appeared to be
little to recommend the symmetrical hull from the
/
,4/ , 3 0 00 i
1
powering standpoint the asymmetrical form was
selected.
111/11
Model tests were also conducted on the asymmet-
rical catamaran to determine full scale motion
2 0 0 0 1
characteristics. The model was tested in irregular
uni-directional seaways at various headings corres-
2. 9,,
ponding to five and fifteen knots and sea states
from low five to high six. The natural motion
....---
..----->" periods for the ship as obtained from model tests
are as follow:
3
very encouraging and are best summarized by quoting the existence of six main transverse structural
the conclusions of the DTMB test report: bulkheads, three forward and three aft in addition
to the longitudinal bulkheads port and starboard
1. The ship will be directionally stable and that are extensions of the inboard sides of the
should have good coursekeeping characteristics. hulls.
It will have overshoot angles in zigzag However, these restrictions were more than out-
maneuvers which compare favorably with conventional weighed by the existence of very large and usable
ships. deck area for a ship of this size resulting in
ample space to accommodate the vast increase in
Its turning characteristics will be accept- requirements imposed on this new ASR as compared to
able; the tactical diameters at 16 knots will be its predecessors.
5.2 and 3.7 ship lengths for rudder angles of 25
and 40 degrees, respectively. Structure
The ship can be kept on a straight course at In the early stages of design before model tests
low speeds astern by using about +10 degrees of were available it was necessary to make an estimate
rudder. of the torsional loading imposed on the bridging
structure when the ship is oblique to the waves.
It will be possible to control the ship on For these preliminary calculations it was assumed
straight course even if both the power and steering that the ship was supported on the bottom forward
systems of a single catamaran unit are disabled. end of one hull and the stern of the other hull,
at stations four and eighteen, respectively.
Sea *Heading Speed Heave Roll Pitch A model of the catamaran was constructed and the
State Deg. Kts Ft... Deg.., Deg... cross structure instrumentated with strain gages in
order to determine the loads to be expected in the
5 180 5 10.59 1.44 10.48 full size ship. This was accomplished by measuring
15 12.11 3.68 7.80 the total vertical end moments (port and starboard),
6 180 5 13.29 1.48 11.00 the total torsional moment, and the total vertical
15 17.62 1.24 7.96 shear force acting on the cross-structure configu-
5 210 5 11.20 8.28 6.48 ration during model tests in random seas for
15 10.53 4.60 6.36 various model speeds, and headings. Spectral
6 210 5 13.06 5.44 9.72 analysis of the response were performed and response
15 15.71 5.96 8.64 amplitude operators (RA0s) were derived for each
5 225 5 8.11 6.80 7.56 test condition. The RAOs were then employed
15 11.43 7.48 5.56 together with theoretical Neumann sea spectra to
6 225 5 12.78 19.84 9.00 obtain prediction curves for extrapolating the
15 15.32 20.92 7.16 responses to more sea conditions.
5 0 5 6.81 .96 5.44
15 5.52 .96 2.72 The following conclusions were reached from
6-7 0 5 9.52 1.36 6.24 these tests:
15 11.09 1.28 4.40
5 45 5 7.60 6.76 5.68 The most severe operating condition, from
15 7.04 3.60 3.84 the point of view of vertical shear and moment
6 45 5 11.94 6.76 6.24 loads on the cross structure, is with the ship
15 11.43 5.32 5.20 operating at zero speeds in beam seas.
5 270 5 7.21 20.52 3.76
15 6.48 15.36 2.68 The most severe torsional loads occur with
the ship operating at zero speeds in quarter head
.. Double seas.
00 Stern Seas Amplitude
900 Port Beam Seas 3. The measured responses agree well with the
180° Bow Seas loads predicted on the basis of response amplitude
270° Stbd Beam Seas operatoPs and Neumann theoretical sea spectra for
the severe operating conditions cited above, there-
Figure 5 fore lending support to the extrapolations of these
loads-to the higher sea states.
4
Intact and Damaged Stability The following modes of attaching the rescue
vehicle to the boom are envisioned and will prob-
All catamarans are characterized by high initial ably be tried out full scale to determine the best
stability which in this ship is illustrated by a operating procedure.
G.M. of 45 feet and maximum righting arm of 22 feet.
However, this maximum righting arm occurs at a 300 The rescue vehicle is surfaced and the ASR
angle of heel and falls off rapidly thereafter. overtakes and straddles the rescue vehicle which is
The characteristics for the ASR require a two com- proceeding on a steady course at very low speed.
partment standard of subdivision and this standard The attachment to the rescue vehicle is made by
can be met under the assumption that the watertight remote manipulation of the boom.
doors on the second deck are closed. . For the worst
case of two compartment flooding the resulting The rescue vehicle is submerged and approach-
angle of steady heel with a 33 knot beam wind is es a weighted cable attached to the boom. This
100. cable will have a light and sound source attached
to aid the rescue vehicle in homing on it. Once
Rescue Vehicle Handling this cable has been located the rescue vehicle
attached itself and is towed at low speed by the
As was mentioned previously, the catamaran form ASR to insure proper orientation before ascending.
was chosen primarily to facilitate handling the
rescue vehicle which, because of its size, weight When the rescue vehicle is at main deck level,
and fragility, presents a unique handling problem. it can be moved laterally on rails to a point over
the decompression chambers in either hull for
In extremely calm weather, as an emergency back- transfer of rescuees directly into these chambers.
up, and when transferring from dockside, it is
proposed to use the bridge crane that traverses the Conclusions
midship work area. This crane, which will be used
primarily for handling the McCann rescue chamber The primary reason that the catamaran configu-
and the personnel transfer capsules, will have ration was adopted to solve the unique handling
adequate capacity to lift the rescue vehicle by problems associated with the rescue vehicle. The
attachment of cables to its topside hard spots. other advantages of increased deck area and man-
The rails for the bridge crane will have extensible euverability are important but would probably not
portions port and starboard to permit operation have justified selection of this configuration in
over the side as well as through the well. view of the unknown existing with respect to struc-
ture and motion. The structural problems have prove-n
Normally the rescue vehicle will be launched and to be readily solvable and while there are some
recovered by a separate hoist built into the under- gains in motion characteristics the high accelera-
side of the well. This hoist consists of a powered tions associated with the rapid roll period are
platform riding on vertical rails that can be undesirable and future research could profitably be
lowered into the water at low or zero speed. In directed toward solving this problem. In this
addition to the hoist there is a trolley that moves regard anti-roll tanks should be investigated.
forward and aft on the underside of the bridging
structure between the inboard shells of the ship. It is hoped that the information being developed
This trolley has an extensible boom to which the in support of this first military application and
bow of the rescue vehicle is attached. Once this the several commercial catamaran designs will ulti-
attachment is made and the ship attains a moderate mately result in enough data upon which to base a
speed such that the rescue vehicle will trail its rational decision, early in the design process, on
attachment point the rescue vehicle is moved aft whether a catamaran or a single hull is more appro-
over the platform hoist. priate for a given set of operational requirements.
5
No. 61-360
JOHN H. BRANDAU
Naval Ship Research and Development Center
Washington, D. C.
Paper No.
67-360
by
John H. Brandau
Naval Ship Research and Development Center
Washington, D. C.
Abstract
1 2
2p V NT
Thp energy (ft-lb)
O.P.C. E
Diameter
e Mean roughness height PB
pressure (lbs/ft2) M/LT2
E Euler number (4771:7) Effective horsepower ML2/T3
2 Z1p
(R x V/550) (ft-lbs/sec)
Fn
Froude number (V/153) Brake horsepower ML2/T3
Gravitational accelera- L/T2 (2 ft-lbs/sec)
bigbrake/550)
tion (ft/sec2)
Propeller horsepower ML2/T3
Pump head rise (ft) (delivered)
Power input (ft-lbs/sec) ML2/T3
He
Exit nozzle head (ft)
1
Ps
Shaft horsepower (ft,lbs/sec) ML2/T3 Coefficient, kinematic L2/T
viscosity (ft2/sec)
Thrust horsepower (T x V/550) ML2/T3
PT
(ft-lbs/sec)
Angular velocity 1/T
Vapor pressure (lbs/ft2) (radian/sec)
V
Po Freestream static pressure (1b/ft2)
0 Flow coefficient (Q/Nd3)
Volume flow rate L3/T
Mass density (slugs/ft3) M/L3
(ft3/sec)
a Cavitation index
Shaft torque (lb-ft) ML2/T2
/V2/2g)
Resistance (lb) ML/T2 (H1
2
waterjet system is accompanied by additional hy-
draulic losses, The resistance may change sig- An annotated bibliography and appendices containing
nificantly when the hull is propelled since pertinent background material will complete the
operation of the propulsion system changes the paper.
distribution of pressures on the hull. The in-
take opening in the stern of a ship's hull can General Considerations
strip off the boundary layer which conceivably
On the Consideration of Existing Waterjet Literature
could decrease frictional resistance.
other hand, a force reacting opposite to the
intake induction momentum can suck the hull A major portion of this study involves a con-
down with possible increase in trim and thus form sideration of the available literature regarding
drag. Also, ejection of the jet in the vicinity hydrodynamic performance evaluation of waterjet
of the ship's wake can change the magnitude of propulsion systems. The main purpose of the study
the useful thrust. These examples are given as was the determination of and suggestions for find-
possible interaction effects of hull flow on ing solutions to the problems facing the task of
waterjet flow and vice versa. Determination of acquiring efficient reliable waterjet propulsion
the reaction coefficients for such a problem systems for special types of marine craft.
with experimental verification is a prime need The papers and reports surveyed for this study
in waterjet propulsion research. are varied in their treatment of aspects of water-
The importance of waterjets for marine pro- jet propulsion. Some are feasibility studies, some
pulsion can be ascertained by consideration of are general studies proposing procedures for water-
what this form of propulsion has to offer to the jet propulsion system design, and others fall into
ship designer. It is found to be generally more the category of theoretical and/or experimental
expensive, less efficient, heavier, and the pro- investigations. The experimental work lends itself
pulsor itself is more complicated that a conven- somewhat to a tabulation of variables considered
tional propeller. However, for certain special and measurements made (see Table 2 in the Appendix).
purposes such as shallow-draft operation or high- The information obtained from the literature pertains
power, high-speed operation, waterjet propulsion to the theoretical and experimental treatments of:
may permit the elimination of, or may diminish, (1) waterjet propulsion system components, includ-
unavoidable disadvantages inherent with the use ing pumps, inlets, and ducting; (2) complete water-
of a propeller. (Detailed advantages and dis- jet propulsion systems; and (3) waterjet propulsion
advantages of waterjets will be enumerated in the system installation in a hull including efficiency,
section on General Considerations.) model and prototype testing.
Although waterjet propulsion systems may offer As far as those papers dealing with theoret-
attractive features which would be highly desir- ical approaches or in feasibility studies, an
able for certain marine applications, a number of attempt has been made to briefly present their sig-
significant development problems have to be solved nificant points in the text of the survey chapter.
before the full use of such propulsors can be An annoted bibliography is included to concisely
realized. These problems areas will be discussed provide some insight to the reader on the surveyed
in detail later on in the paper, but to mention a material considered to lie within the scope of
few, they include: (1) proper design of hull this study.
inlet to prevent separation and cavitation, es-
pecially during yaw and heave conditions; (2) op- Applications
timization of system ducting and pump location to
minimize friction losses and pump elevation losses; Emphasis of Important Differences between
(3) design of high-speed axial-flow,waterjet pumps Waterjet Application to: Planing Boats,
capable of meeting cavitation, efficiency, and Hydrofoil Craft, and Captured Air Bubble
off-design performance required for vehicle take- (CAB) Craft
off and cruise conditions; and (4) adequate methods
and techniques for model-scale performance evalua- Current U. S. waterjet propulsion applica-
tion and prototype system performance evaluation. tions include small pleasure .N_aning craft, small
This paper presents a critical survey of the military river patrol boats») and hydrofoil
technical literature currently available on water- craft. Serious proposed applications include
jet propulsion of marine craft. Emphasis is plac- larger military patrol planing boats, high-speed
ed on the real problems which exist today in this hydrofoil and captured air-bubble craft.
area. First, a discussion of naval applications The bulk of the small pleasure boats are of
for waterjet propulsion in light of the advan- the 200 to 300-horsepower range. Several thousand
tages and disadvantages of this type of propulsion are now in service, with propulsors of the Bueh-
is given. Secondly, theoretical treatments and ler,(6) Berkeley, or Jacuzzi design, for the most
experimental performance techniques for evaluating part. European manufacturers have comparable units
system components, and complete installed systems, available. Some idea of the qualitative operational
are discussed. Discussion of performance evalua- performance of complete waterjet-propelled hulls
tion information found in the literature is in- can be obtained, taking into consideration the
cluded here. The literature pertaining to general mission of the craft, by studying reports of owners
waterjet propulsion considerations is treated and operators. Efficiency is not a prime require-
next. This is followed by a list of unsolved ment for private water ski or sport runabouts of
problems existing in light of the conclusions the present waterjet era, and manufacturers rarely
reached by theory and experiment. A recommenda- take pains to determine real efficiency. Instead,
tion for performance parameters and modeling characteristics such as speed, maneuverability,
tdchniques is included. boat handling, noise and vibration, and desire to
Based on this information, conclusions will be eliminate the external propeller for safety's sake
drawn regarding what are felt to be the knowns are stressed.
and unknowns (problems) in the state.of the art. At the present time some of the in-service
designs are good as far as ahead maneuvering and
3
handling, but efficiency is lower than comparable Most statements regarding disadvantages must
conventional propulsion installations. also be qualified in light of application and com-
Recent attention has been given to the use of petitive propulsors. However, it can be stated that:
waterjets for high-speed oceangoing ships,(7,8) of Waterjet systems have higher weight than
the nondisplacement type. At present, serious most other practical propulsor systems. Note that
consideration in this area is mainly limited to the weight of the water in the system above the free
hydrofoil craft and, more recently, air-cushion surface must be included in the system weight.
vehicles including the captured air-bubble (CAB) In general, a waterjet system will not be
type. Certain major design tradeoffs for these as efficient as a propeller system; i.e., more
ships are highly dependent on mission cruising horsepower will be required to perform a particular
range. For the smaller high-speed but short-range function with a waterjet system.
(cruise range duration of a few hours) craft, it The possibility of cavitation at the water-
is essential that the weight of propulsion mach- jet inlet and other places in the inlet system,
inery be kept low; however, high-system efficiency which can adversely affect performance, means that
may not be a critical requirement. High-system there are several sources of cavitation to be con-
efficiency becomes increasingly important as the sidered.
ratio of fuel weight to gross weight increases Impeller access compared with conventional
and, in the case of a long cruise range ocean- propeller designs is poor, making inspection, re-
going craft, fuel weight is significant. At the pair, or removal of debris difficult.
present time, consideration is being given to the
use of CABS, displacing several thousand tons.
for long-range oceangoing service, with hydrofoil System Component Performance
craft, limited to short-range missions. In this
respect, the CAB sidewall configuration is encour- Efficiency
aging with respect to achieving a more efficient
water ducting system than can be realized with a The overall propulsion performance of special-
hydrofoil craft, up-the-strut configuration. mission, high-speed craft is dependent on a number
of significant factors. For a specific mission, at
Apparent Advaftages and Disadvantages a specified design speed, consideration should be
given to: payload, horsepower, specific fuel con-
The selection of any propulsion system is
sumption (SFC), range, dash capability, and gross
based on a value judgment of the advantages and weight, among other factors.
disadvantages of that system. Following is a list
A number of special performance coefficients or
of advantages and disadvantages inherent in water-
merit factors have been proposed to lump together
jets: however, the final application will deter- these variables into a meaningful parameter.
mine how these are weighed and compared with other Examples are the so-called Karman-Gabrielli factor(9)
systems. and Telfer's merit factor. (10f The Karman-Gabrielli
Although practically every publication found factor is defined as:
in the literature of waterjet propulsion mentions 1
certain advantages inherent in waterjets over MKG1 = 8800
--x (equivalent ratio) x
other forms of propulsion, very few unqualified
statements can actually be made in this regard. wpayload
This is due to the fact that a possible advantage x V (1)
of a waterjet is dependent on the particular winitial
application and also must be compared with all The merit factors utilizing total craft weight or
other existing propulsor types. Advantages of displacement, suggested by some authors, are not
waterjet are: as meaningful as those using Wpayload .
4
applications. between the point of measurement and the impeller.
For purposes of discussion of the efficiency This term can be referred to as thrust efficiency
of propulsion in this paper, the term overall pro- nT since it is clearly not equal to the standardized
pulsive coefficient (0.P.C.) will not be used.
propulsive efficiency. So
Instead, the quasi-propulsive coefficient, some-
times called propulsive efficiency ID will be
n= TV
(5)
used.
D
=
PEPB
PD
= (0.P.C.).
PD
(3)
PS
T
RV where
%= (4) is essentially equal to
pump rjet
depending on the
where R = resistance, in general. npropeller,
A rather interesting situation exists here way the flow velocities are
in that this definition of propulsive efficiency chosen;
is not the definition of "propulsive efficiency" by definition is proportional
used by many workers in the field of waterjet nsystem (rS)
to the ratio of internal
propulsion. The expression most commonly found in ingestion and ducting pressure
the waterjet literature is equal to losses to the free stream dynamic
TV pressure; and
Ps
which characterizes the
where Ps = shaft horsepower = PD + shafting losses nhull/inlet (nh/i)
effect on powering per-
formance of the interaction of
the inlet and hull, and which
* ITTC Standard Symbols, National Physical Lab
herein will be defined as
Ship Report 77, September 1965. (1-t) where
5
R
(1-0 = 'T since the propulsor produces drag over (V. - V)
Now if and
T =T
T(1-t)V/550
- npump x njet x nS x nhii (7) Therefore
PD
T(1-t)V/550 pgQH/550 V
X ns x (1-0 (8)
PD PD V+--
2
V.
where v
+
2 2
T = craft thrust,
V = craft velocity, and indicating that ns is chosen to be independent
AV =v -V of the external intake and jet conditions.
jet
But equivalence of the left-hand and right-hand
sides of the equality can better be visualized
if the pump efficiency
Since
T V /550
nhull/inlet
= (1-0 (9)
pgQH/550
is written as P P
nDx
PD PD
The result is
Solving for ns
npump
n.jet x n
system
x (1-0
waterjet
(10)
T(1-t)/550
PD = The determination of true np for a waterjet-
n
S
- T V /550 propelled craft requires a series of experimental
P P V
(1-t) tests of bare hull, appended, and self-propelled
(V. - V)
PD 3
conditions. This will be discussed later under
V + the section on model and prototype testing. How-
2
ever, in regard to propulsion efficiency, the
references pertaining to experimental evaluation
T(1-t)/550 (boat tests)(Refs. 3, 14, 15, 16, 17) provide data
PD
on
nT. Only Reference 16 attempts to correct jet
(T V /550)(1-t) thrust to effective thrust with the reduction of
P P
PDV, V
2 +2
V
_j_
thrust by inlet drag. Reference 18 is a report
on a water channel test of a stationary waterjet
propulsion system which also provides nT results.
nT is inadequate to completely describe the
Cancelling like forms
performance of a marine craft for the following
reason. Conceivably, the magnitude of propulsor
TV
P P thrust for a particular propulsor can be large in
V. comparison to the thrust of a second propulsor and,
V
T
J consequently, PT would be high. However, a sig-
nificant percentage of the propulsor thrust may be
Now for a simple pump (ducted propeller) required to overcome the increased hull resistance
which the propulsor itself adds to the bare hull
resistance. Thus, it is possible to have a high
propulsor PT but, at the same time, a high Ps to
propel the craft at design speed. Although the
resulting nT might be comparable with that of
another propulsor or propulsion configuration, the
P required could be considerably larger. This
S
6
a product of external, internal, and jet effi-
ciencies. As far as overall waterjet propulsion
system installations are concerned, momentum con-
siderations are used in the majority of cases for
C= 12
T
p -1°V A
performance prediction (References 3, 4, 14, 2 p
19, 21-28). since
AV2
n.jpr - g
(17.2
1
v.2 4_ 2 gh)
n
I system
VAV + g j
2
7
2 (V. - V)
J
V 2 (k - 1) Hatte-Davis (Ref. 19)
n. (14)
V.2
k
2
+
2gh
- 1 k2 ( 12 (DLF1 L.
.7
HL = L 2
--- +2gh - 1 V2 k-1) 2g
V V2
2 (k - 1)
n.
= real jet efficiency JP'Hatte-Davis k2(1+K2) - 1 + W1)2 DLF
where k = VJV = jet velocity ratio.
(17)
Although any estimated or assumed system The Hatte-Davis expression (Ref. 19) for nipr
losses should be verified by experimental deter- is based on an approach wherein the inboard losses
minations, the establishment of probable ranges
are not lumped together and are not made propor-
of waterjet efficiency can be looked at by making tional to either inlet velocity or jet velocity,
preliminary estimates of component losses, and as is the case of the Levy or Johnson approaches,
toward this end, it is interesting to make a com- constraints whith are considered unrealistic.
parison of expressions for waterjet system effi-
Thus, it is suggested that for jet efficiency of
ciency of real systems as proposed by:
a real system, Expression (17) should be used in
preference to the others.
Joseph Levy (Ref. 21) v.2
Assuming H = K A type of plot of jet efficiency versus velo-
A 2g
city ratio for various values of the sysem loss
coefficient KL, which is familiar in jet propulsion
2(k - 1)
n. (15) technology (Ref. 26) is shown below (Figure 1).
- k2
k (1
(l + KA) - 1
I0
\\ EQUATION [15] WITH KA=0
KL
I
I
i
01
0203 \\
04
110. vi
05 \ SYSTEM
All ,
\\
LOSSES
---
-
o INCREASING
1
\\
eill=111
.
03
\ i
where lc = 04
r , \
_/1111111111 \I
V = craft velocity,
V. = jet velocity relative to craft,
2
LOCUS OF OPTIMA
\ \\
!
.
8
accuracy of the loss coefficients used in the tion has been given to show that "long life" high-
calculations. speed pump impellers will not face the same prob-
lems.
Comparison of Ideal Propulsion and Ideal Pro-
peller Efficiencies
Surniar
One other interesting area pertinent to this
discussion is the relational-lip of Ideal Propulsive
This then is an attempt to show how thrust
Efficiency and Ideal Propeller Efficiency. It efficiency nT compares to np as a performance
is interesting to note that the uppermost curve of
Figure 1 is a plot of Ideal Propeller Efficiency parameter and, further, to explain why nT is so
(propeller without viscous and rotative losses). often found in use in the waterjet literature
(although it is usually misnamed). Its limitations
By simple momentum theory
should be recognized, however, and the extent to
1 (12) which predictions of "propulsive efficiency"
n -
based on simple momentum ¡et efficiency calcula-
1 +12 --
AV
V
repeated
tions tempered with estimated system losses should
By referring to Figure 2, it can be seen that be carefully controlled.
this can be written as
Some type of analytical treatment can be
applied to a prediction of performance of each
major component of a waterjet system, i.e., the
pump, inlet, etc. Some of the references present
analyses (in varying degrees of complexity) of
the performance of system components and compare
the results with experimental data; e.g., Refer-
ence 20 on impellers.
FLOW
By far, however, the bulk of the available
theoretical work included in the present litera-
ture relies on simple momentum considerations of
ideal jet efficiency and, further, real system
efficiency by introduction of system losses ob-
tained from experimental, empirical, or "crystal
Fig 2- PROPELLER VELOCITY SCHEMATIC ball" sources.
9
other hand, waterjet inlet or exhaust ports), succeeding stage, and rpm is lower than that re-
then a ratio of ns turn out to be simply a ratio quired by a single stage. In a parallel pump
of Ps's at any particular speed. As pointed out design, each pump develops the same head but the
earlier, a comparison of n, for the two systems flow is shared. These pumps could be of the same
would not be a valid indication of relative pro- type as a single large pump but would have a higher
pulsion efficiencies. rotative speed. Parallel pump arrangements usually
require complex plumbing systems.
Ideal jet efficiency and ideal propeller
efficiency are shown to be mathematically equiva- The basic pump type can be based on the
lent. In both cases, corrections must be made required head and flow rate which are determined
for losses in order to achieve the actual effi- from the thrust-speed requirements of the craft.
ciency of a propulsor. Since the waterjet, by However, certain design innovations are usually
design, has more sources of losses than the open required to adapt a design to specifically conform
propeller, it is generally less efficient. to a waterjet propulsion application. One major
consideration here is the establishment of off-
Accurate predictions of waterjet pro- design conditicos which will affect the cavitation
pulsion efficiency will generally not be obtained performance of the pump. Pump cavitation becomes
by applying estimated or empirical system loss a major problem at two operating conditions for
performance data to a jet efficiency figure hydrofoil and planing-type hulls: (a) at or near
calculated by simple momentum theory. takeoff (Figure 3) when the pump impeller is turn-
ing at a high rotative speed and the total inlet
static head is low due to a low ram head, and (b) at
THE WATERJET PUMP cruise or very high planing speed when the impeller
tip speed is at its highest. This second condition
The pumping machinery is a very important corresponds to the conventional subcavitating pro-
component of a waterjet system. Proper design peller limiting speed condition, but in the water-
of the pump requires not only a thorough under- jet case, control of the local pressure at the Dump
standing of the general characteristics of various can delay cavitation inception.
type pumps but, in addition, requires the water-
jet propulsion pump design to be in accord with
the design of all the other components of the pro-
pulsion system. The scope of this report permits
only a brief coverage of the subject of pumps
for waterjet application. An attempt is made to
put forth the major considerations of pump
requirements and characteristics (which are
treated in References 2, 21, 22, 23, and 24) along
with some discussion of performance criteria.
There is much published literature on pump research
and application. The references cited herein do
not form a complete list, but are given with the
SL.
intention of guiding the reader to pump literature.
Fig 3- TYPICAL THRUST - SPEED RELATION
10
minimum conversion to potential energy first between the pressure rise and the rate of flow
(Ref. 31). must exist if dynamic similitude of the hydrodynamic
pump action is maintained from prototype to model.
A good percentage of the pump experimental In pumps, pressure rise is usually spoken of in
research is being complemented with theoretical terms of head.
pump design approaches. The basic analytical
methods follow either a classical approach in However, viscosity cannot be neglected in the
which momentum relations are utilized (see Ref- case of pumps; it is a more important considera-
erences 2, 22, and 31) and textbooks (References tion here than in the case of open propellers. The
13, 32, 33, 34, and 35), or a procedure involving ability of a pump to develop thrust T can be
lifting-line or lifting-surface theory. Certain thought of as being achieved through the pumphead
simple cavitation analyses can be made by apply- rise H and the volume flow rate Q. The head is
ing cascade techniques (References 30, 36, 37, dependent on the density p and viscosity u of the
and 38) to a classical solution. For a more de- pumped fluid, the volume flow Q, the impeller
tailed consideration of blading and internal flow, diameter d, and rotation speed N. By treating the
however, lifting-line (Ref. 37) or lifting-surface product gH (g being acceleration due to gravity)
(Ref. 20) approaches are useful. as the dependent variable and assuming
11
Therefore to pump head rise. Unfortunateiy, it is usually
used in a form which has not been made dimension-
PO Nd3 KHN2d2 PO KR N2d5 less, a factor causing some confusion in pump
Pp =
550 550 research work. Despite this, it is a very useful
parameter for comparing performance of different
Likewise
pumps or of pumps with their models. Specific
27N K jN2d5
torque speed involves only the pump operating conditions
Ps - 550 by means of eliminating impeller diameter between
the head and flow coefficients. By the provision
Therefore, dividing Pp by Ps, that rotational speed be a linear variable, spe-
cific speed can be obtained (Ref. 32) as:
P PO KH N3d5
mn1/2
pump Ps 550- Ns - (22)
H3/4
This form is not dimensionless but, by utilizing
550 gH as the term in the denominator instead of H,
a dimensionless form of specific speed is:
27N Ktorque oN2d5 1/2
NQ
dimensionless N - (23)
S
KH (gH)3/4
OKH 0
(21)
K 2r Addison (Ref. 33) suggests that tLe dimensionless
npump 27Ktorque torque form of specific speed be called characteristic
shape number to distinguish it from the more com-
where
mon form, and the word shape is appropriate be-
gh cause modelling of the pump requires geometric
0 = -QT similarity or, in other words, retention of pump
Nd- "H N2d2 shape.
Thus, it can be seen by comparing (19) and (21)
that By substituion of the coefficients 0 and KH
KT
into (23), Ns can be written as:
(19)
npropeller K 27
torque repeated 1/2
0
KH NS - , 3/4
0 ,H
(21)
nwaterjet pump 27
Ktorque repeated If it would serve any useful purpose, a
characteristic shape number could likewise be
Later it will be shown that n can be written
pump defined for propellers as:
in a form which when multiplied by the jet nozzle
1/2
efficiencyn.is physically equivalent to
NS -
For propeller performance evalua- KT3/4
npropeller.
tion, KT and KQ are usually plotted against J.
but the need for such a parameter is not apparent.
For a waterjet pump, Km and KQ could be plotted
Another point of interest, alluded to earlier,
against 0 or against V,/V, the jet velocity ratio which arises when comparison of propeller and pump
if the pump is running in a moving craft. performance efficiencies are attempted is exempli-
fied by the case of a ducted propeller for which
The major deviations in the use of these efficiency has been calculated by, first, a pro-
specialized performance coefficients occur be- peller efficiency philosophy and, second, by a
cause pump and propeller engineers utilize the pump efficiency philosophy. The difference occurs
performance variables which are most easily meas- in the use of different velocities in the expres-
ured in their respective tests. Many variations s ion
in parameters could be derived from the basic TV
variables as measured. np = 550 'D
Pump designers for many years have used a For the propeller V = V, speed of propeller ad-
parameter termed "specific speed" which originally
vance; for the axial flów pump, V = Vd, velocity
was introduced by a German, R. Camerer, in 1915 inside the duct.
for describing the hydraulic type of water tur-
bines. Each of the three types of pumps mentioned Since the induced velocity inside the duct
above covers a range of specific speeds Ns, and causes the pump flow velocity to exceed free-
attains its maximum efficiency at a point some- stream velocity, the "apparent" efficiency of the
where in thi, range, efficiency dropping off on pump will be higher. Figure 4 shows a set of
both sides of this particular specific speed. comparative efficiency curves for a ducted pro-
Geometrically similar pumps of different sizes peller (Ref. 47), calculated by the two methods
will have similar head flow performance character- and showing a significant difference in magnitude.
istics if operated at the same specific speed
(assuming viscous effects are small). Ns is a Note that n_and
propeller pump
are only
n
number which is proportional to impeller rotative different by the difference in Va (speed of
speed and rate of flow, and inversely proportional advance) and Vd (speed of flow at propeller disc).
12
Vd =V
a
+wa
2
TVd
T [V
a
+ 111.]
2
npump - 550 550
where
S S
wa = total axial induced velocity component
or A V.
npropeller Va
'propeller
. TVa
550
(27) pumpAV
+ - V
a 2
Ps where
Va
-
AV njet
V +
a 2
y.2
2g
in feet of water (31)
H1
a - (32)
V2/2g
13
obtained at various values of a from tests con- WATERJET INLET
ducted in a cavitation tunnel. These tests are
in addition to the open-water performance tests. This section and the following section of
the paper deal with the intake of and the internal
In pump procedures, a single cavitation flow of water in the waterjet system. Waterjet
parameter is used to relate the inlet flow con- propulsors require optimization from the inlet to
ditions to the pump speed and hed rise. This the exhaust nozzle. As pointed out previously, it
parameter is a direct extension of the specific does not particularly pay to strive for a high
speed Ns, and is defined as system efficiency through low jet velocity unless
system losses are also minimized (refer again to
1/2 Figure 1). The attainment of low loss or high
NQ
S - (33) efficiency flow transmission components is a prime
goal. The system component losses which are in-
(gHsv)3/4
volved consist of inlet/diffuser (which can run
where H has replaced H. S is termed suction from 10 to 30 percent), internal ducting (2 to 10
sv
percent), and nozzle (1 to 3 percent).* These loss
specific speed and, when defined in this way,
values are usually expressed as percentages of the
appears to be a valid dimensionless parameter.
ram head V2/2g.
Note that the Thoma cavitation indext is The inlet or scoop location depends on the hull
an expression which is dependent on the pump and waterjet propulsion system configuration.
itself; specifically, it is the ratio of the net Most hydrofoil waterjet foilborne systems incor-
suction static head supplied to the pump to the porate ram-type inlets mounted in the pod at the
pumping head actually developed. Thus, at can bottom of the strut (Ref. 24). Planing boat and
displacement craft usually employ flush or scoop
be seen to be equal to the ratio of Ns and S or
intakes in the hull bottom. Schemes have been
Gt = proposed for side or bow located inlets (e.g.,
see U.S. Patent Office Patent disclosures
In contrast, the propeller cavitation index
2,884,889 and 3,188,997). The major design loca-
a is an expression dependent on the condition of
tion considerations appear to be in keeping thE
the flow; specifically, it is the ratio of the
vertical distances which produce elevation losses
static head to the dynamic head of the free-stream short, keeping the inlet in "green" water to pre-
flow.
vent aeration, providing sufficient water flow
to the pumps to produce the required thrust, and
However, a can be expressed in terms of VR
preventing or delaying the inception of cavitation.
(resultant). The use of Va makes Good inlet system design requires low internal
losses and high resistance to cavitation during
Po Pv the takeoff mode and low external drag during
a -
R 1 2 cruise. From a takeoff mode cavitation considera-
pVR
tion, the critical parts of the inlet are the
analogous to pump at. scoop (water entrance) and the transition from
the inlet to the diffuser duct. The scoop
Summary obviously must capture the free-stream flow effi-
ciently under a range of operating conditions
In summary, the points pertaining to per- between takeoff and cruise.
formance evaluation of waterjet pumps which should
be reviewed are as follows: During takeoff, the ratio of inlet to free-
stream velocity is high (pressure levels in the
Pump efficiency must be multiplied by scoop are low), and internal cavitation is the
p. before direct comparison can be made with primary concern. During cruise, on the other hand,
3 this velocity ratio is relatively low (pressure
conventional propeller efficiency. levels in the scoop are thus relatively high),
and resistance to internal cavitation is therefore .
Pertinent performance parameters for high. But in the cruise mode, susceptability of
waterjet pumps will include flow rate 0, head external lip cavitation may be a significant fac-
coefficient KB, and torque coefficient K tor.
characteristic shape number (nondimensional
specific speed) and a nondimensional form of The net effect of cavitation in and around
suction specific speed. Pump-flow variables such the inlet is two-fold. Cavitation can produce sig-
as flow rate and head will continue to be measured, nificant erosion (cavitation damage) of the inlet
since they are more directly attainable than the material; however, the more important consideration
variables commonly measured in propeller testing.
Cavitation number can be defined in * The magnitude of the loss coefficients stated
various ways (this variation usually arising in here are estimates representative of a range cover-
propellers because of choice in where velocity ing typical planing hull, CAB, and hydrofoil water-
is measured), but for propulsion pumps will jet systems. A sharp bend just behind the inlet
probably be most meaningful if it is based on the and long vertical strut duct, as is required for
ratio of suction head H to head developed by a hydrofoil craft, produce higher losses.
sv
the pump H.
14
is degradation of pump performance due to excessive solutions to the potential flow problem, both
inlet/diffuser head loss and, ultimately, complete linearized and nonlinearized techniques now exist-
choking of the flow which starves the pump. ing. A twq-dimensional method litilizes a distribu-
tion of sources on the mean camberiine of the lip
(See Ref. 48). A more general result applying to
From a momentum exchange standpoint, the
relationship of thrust required and inlet area is; the nonlinear problem can be achieved with a dis-
tribution of sources along the surface of the model.
T = PA. Vi (Vi - Vi) An example of this is the Douglas-Neumann type of
approach applied to arbitrarily shaped inlets (Ref.
where 22, 49, and 50).
Now from a consideration of what useable work Experimental data (Table 2) obtained in
is available from the literature, it is noteworthy relatively recent testing specifically regarding
that examples of both older published empirical waterjet propulsion system inlets can be found in
information reviewed for waterjet inlet application References 14, 16, 18, 22, and 57. The waterjet
and some original new analytic approaches to the propulsion system reported on in Reference 14 employ
problem exist. The theoretical work, for the most dual wake intakes in order to provide a more uniform
part, involves attempts to predict the effects of inflow to the pump. The work reported by Lockheed
the flow field impinging on the inlet by calculat- in Reference 22 was obtained from hydrofoil craft
ing the pressure distribution in the external and ram-type model tests in the Lockheed Underwater
internal areas adjacent to the inlet lip. These Missile Facility (LUMF) at Sunnyvale, California
particular analyses do not yield the inlet loss (variable-pressure towing basin). The data of
coefficient but serve to aid in lip and entrance Reference 57 were obtained from scale-model inlet
angle design.
tests of a strut-type inlet in the Hughes Aircraft
(Tool Division) free-jet facility at Los Angeles.
Methods currently in use are based on
15
The quantities or variables normally measured Froude and cavitation numbers simultaneously.
in experimental inlet studies include: craft velo-
city V, inlet velocity Vi, inlet geometry (lip, Empirical condenser scoop and aircraft oil
angle, size), guide vane geometry, static pressute, cooler scoop data are useful during preliminary
pressure distribution, and velocity profiles. From design.
these data, the following typical parameters are
derived: A quantity of hydrofoil (ram) inlet data is
pressure loss coefficient, velocity ratio (V./V), now available, and the need for CAB or planing
boat-type hull inlet data is evident.
geometry, drag coefficient, pressure distribútion,
velocity profile, critical cavitation number (ac),
and net positive suction head (npsh).
WATERJET DUCTING
A method of displaying inlet performance is to
plot the inlet loss coefficient K, In a waterjet propulsion system, a certain
(as a percent-
amount of ducting must be installed tc move the
age of free-stream velocity head) versus cavitation water from hull inlet to pump and from pump to
exhaust nozzle. Hydrofoil boats with waterjet
number for a family of inlet velocity ratios
V. systems utilizing strut-pod inlets and deck-
mounted pumps require a relatively extensive duct-
This produces characteristic
.
16
pressure. Surface tension as characterized by
Weber number and compressibility by Mach number
can be ignored for water flow in waterjet piping
systems. It is common practice to use the follow- V [1 - am] 1/2
T 1/2
ing dimensionless parameters associated with the
-
above forces: vm
inertial pVZ Po Pv
R - - , Reynolds number where a -
e viscous m 2
inertial v2
, Froude number
Fn - gravity
gZ Po Pv
a -
P 2
V
inertial 1
C = -
P pressure pressure coefficient 1 2
p V
and if a = a (equality of cavitation numbers)
m
Po - p
, pressure coefficient which is Froude scaling.
1 2
Then V /V
pm = (T)1/2
pV
2
where i = characteristic dimension; for pipes In the preliminary design stage of waterjet
is the pipe diameter, and systems, use can be made of published empirical
data on pressure loss coefficients of straight
p = local static pressure. ducting, turns or elbows, vanes, nozzles, and other
transitions. References 13, 22, 23, 24, and 34
The aforementioned dimensionless parameters are good sources of this type of data. Waterjet
provide a basis for establishing dynamic similitude ducting losses are included in the system perform-
of the flow in models of ducting systems. The ance measurements obtained during the boat tests
geometric similarity between a prototype and model described in Reference 14 (British). References
should extend to scaling the roughness of the 50 and 61 by Gibbs and Cox, and Reference 60 by
internal duct wall. Nondimensionally, this would Arcand of Pratt-Whitney utilize published experi-
make relative pipe roughness (e/d) equivalent for mental ducting loss data in arriving at predictions
model and prototype. Relative to the viscous and of system efficiency. Johnson, in Reference 24,
pressure forces which are produced, gravity forces suggests some ranges of magnitude for system loss
are of minor consequence in the flow of fluid coefficients which are apparently based on pub-
through a filled pipe. lished empirical data. The data available in
Consequently, Froude
number can usually be ignored in model studies these references are summarized in Table 2. It
of this type. However, in certain instances can be seen by studying such loss data that fric-
Froude number may be of significance. Although tional resistance is more significant in internal
this parameter is most often associated with free waterjet systems than in the case of an open or
surface gravity effects on flow about bodies, it even conventional ducted propeller.
should be remembered that to have the correct
pressure coefficient or cavitation number over the In summary, it appears that the ducting per-
vertical extent of a model, Froude scaling must formance problem is less critical at the present
be maintained. Thus in cases where the vertical time than that of the inlet. Published empirical
dimension of the body is large relative to the loss data for piping and transition ducting can
depth of immersion, it may be necessary to con- be used in making estimates of losses during system
sider Froude number in order to have the proper layout design. Performance tests of complete inlet
scaling of the pressure coefficient. Con- and ducting systems, or models thereof, should
sidering the diagìam below and setting C definitely be conducted when high propulsion system
of model and prototype equal: efficiency is a requirement. Details of such test-
ing are discussed below in the section on waterjet
propulsion testing.
17
Type of Study Requirements trials, of the propulsor reaction thrust by means
Performance Determination of the horse- of, for example, pump support load cells is helpful
power required to propel a in cases where very precise performance determina-
particular craft at certain tion is required. Assurance that the direction of
speeds. Also comparison of the jet reaction is collinear with the path of the
two or more propulsion boat is sometimes in question. In addition, it
system designs. should be kept in mind that waterjet thrust will
generally have to exceed towed hull drag; by an
Design Determination of the per- amount equal to the additional drag induced by the
formance of various com- propulsion system flow.
ponents of a system in
order that the design of Model Testing
components may be improved
so as to ultimately pro- The principle of model testing is based on
vide improvement in over- the prediction of prototype performance from models
all system performance. by judicious application of various scaling para-
meters. The previous sections on pumps, inlets,
Research Determination of perform- and ducting contain the development of the scaling
ance characteristics parameters which should be considered in the
of system components in a evaluation of each component when modelling. In
systematic program of some cases, it is not possible to simultaneously
experimentation, but in maintain equivalence of all the scaling coef-
which the components are ficients which might be applicable to a particular
not related to a particular component.
design or system.
Pump models should be tested at the specific
Performance testing of complete propulsion speed Ns, suction specific speed S, and Thoma
units under full-scale speed and load conditions cavitation number of the prototype to assure
finds wide application in the range of low horse- cyt
power waterjets. On the other hand, high-powered that dynamic similitude at corresponding points in
units requiring high efficiency and reliability the model and full-scale flows is achieved. How-
necessitate the expense of constructing models ever, experience in pump testing indicates that
and using specialized testing facilities such scale effects can produce significant correlation
as variable-pressure water channels, high-speed problems if the physical size of a model is very
towing basins, and cavitation tunnels. Several small relative to the prototype (Ref. 33).
static waterjet test facilities (Ref. 31) have
been put into operation by industry. Regardless Model testing of inlets can be satisfactorily
of whether testing is accomplished on a prototype accomplished by considering one or more scaling
or model, certain performance parameters presented parameters, depending on the design and application
in the previous discussions on pumps, inlets, and for the inlet. The full-scale boundary layer
ducting are required to characterize performance. existing at the inlet should be modelled when
Table 1, which appears below, is intended to definitive model experiments are conducted. It
present the pertinent parameters which was shown that similarity of the pressure
characterize hydraulic performance and to coefficient and thus the cavitation number at all
list the measurements required in evaluating points of the inlet flow will require Froude scaling
such parameters for the components of a in addition to maintaining the cavitation number of
waterjet system. the prototype. This is important when the vertical
dimension of the inlet is large relative to the
Table I should be used as a testing guide. depth of submergence or dynamic head, or when it
Straightforward performance evaluations (study is desired to scale the pressure gradient in a
Type 1) on protot3pe craft may require only a diffusing inlet. The internal inlet flow depends
limited number of measurements such as ship primarily on testing above a critical Reynolds
speed, payload, shaft horsepower, and fuel con- number. In internal flow, it is apparent that the
sumption. On the other hand, performance evalua- duct wall frictional stress T. is dependent on
tions aimed at the achievement of high perform- Reynolds number and relative pipe roughness coef-
ance designs (study Type 2) will require the ficient (e/d).
acquisition of most of the measurements and para-
meters listed in Table 1. In most cases, such Eventually complete systems or subsystems must
measurements can be made while testing components be built and tested. Sometimes, components such
or systems either as prototypes or scale models. as the inlet and the supply ducting are tested
In general, experimental data are more difficult alone (Refs. 19 and 22), and in other cases the
to obtain in dynamic testing than in static entire waterjet system is performance tested in
testing. However, all of the suggested data have an open-sea test boat. Reference 22 by Lockheed
been obtained successfully in tests of proto- presents results of inlet and ducting performance
types and models of waterjet-propelled craft. measured on one-tenth scale models of subcavitating
These include photographic data on cavitation and supercavitating hydrofoil boat ram induction
phenomena at the hull inlet. systems tested in LUMF basin. Indications are that
the inlet and turning losses are high relative to
The use of an accurately measured jet velo- duct losses for this type of ingestion system.
city for calculation of waterjet thrust from Reference 19 by Boeing describes cavitation inlet
measurements of tt-e system mass flow rate is, in testing on one-half scale model ram-induction
general, a satisfactory means for obtaining systems on the hydrofoil test craft LITTLE SQUIRT.
thrust. The additional measurement, during Ducting losses are included in these measurements.
18
TABLE 1
Pump static net positive suction Design range Flow coefficient (0), Statis pump per-
head (Hsv)*, static head coefficient (KH), formance and
pump head, flow rate, mechanical
torque coefficient (Kg),
rpm, shaft torque, reliability,
impeller inflow, static nimpeller' npump' cavitation break-
thrust, velocity dis- specific speed (Ns), down
tribution. Also, if
suction specific
pump intake pressure is
speed (S), Thoma
controllable, cavitation
cavitation number (ad
effect on performance,
cavitation breakdown
Pump Hsv, pumphead, flow rate, Design rpm Same as above Overall system
dynamic rpm, cavitation observa- range, range performance and
tions under transient of inlet velo- reliability
intake flow conditions city ratio under real en-
(Vi/V), range vironmental
of exhaust conditions
nozzle areas
Water hull- Head loss (pressure drop), Hi-Suction/Low Inlet velocity ratio Optimization of
inlet dynamic cavitation inception head at take- (Vi/V), cavitation inlet geometry
speed, inlet velocity off to maximum number (a), inlet loss to provide re-
ratio (V./V), inlet drag, ship speed or coefficient (KLi) quired flow, low
inlet préssure distribu- cruise and dash internal losses,
tion, visual cavitation condition low drag, high
observations, pre-diffu- cavitation re-
sion and boundary layer sistance
ingestion
Internal Head loss, flow velocity Over speed Duct loss coef- Optimization of
intake ducting profiles, cavitation range ficient (Ku) size and geo-
observations metry for pump
inflow velocity
profile and
minimum duct
losses
Internal Head loss Over speed Duct loss coef- Optimization of
exhaust range ficient (Ku) size and geo-
ducting metry for mini-
mum duct losses
Nozzle Head loss Over pump 7. Optimization of
speed range size and geo-
or jet velo- metry for opti-
city ratio mal nozzle-pump
(V/V.) over matching
J '
range of
nozzle exit
areas
Net positive suction head (He) is equivalent to the total static head at the pump entrance.
Extensive instrumentation must be installed in the pump operates in, and, as in most endeavors, time
the ducting system to separate the various losses and economics available to particular propulsion
produced by the inlet, the diffuser, the pump, system development. Perhaps the first choice to be
and the other components of the system. made is that of deciding to test a model rather than
the prototype hull installation. In general, model
Testing a Water-jet System testing allows closer control of test conditions
There are a number of alternate methods of but requires that proper scaling procedures be
performance testing a complete waterjet propulsor, implemented. Modelling is often undesirable if the
which vary in technique and scope. In addition prototype system is itself small in size and power,
to the criterion of study type mentioned above, and involved in low-budget development programs.
choice of methods depends on the answers to such But considerable model testing should be performed
in cases where the propulsion system is relatively
questions as what performance criteria are de-
large and must meet stringent requirements of
sired, how large the hull is, what power range
19
performance as in important military craft applica- References 3, 19, and 22. Actual prototype craft
tions. installations have been tested and the results re-
ported in References 3, 14, 16, and 17, all of
For really definitive propulsion performance which contain static and dynamic test results,
determination, resistance and propulsion tests except Reference 3 which contains only dynamic
must be run separately. In general, this requires results. Reference 18 presents an example of test-
some type of towing tank facility (Ref. 3). A ing a unit in a stationary condition in a flow
normal resistance test should be conducted with- channel. The boat tests reported in References
out appendages called for by the propulsion system 14, 16, and 17 are relatively complete in the
at various trim angles, corresponding to the anti- measurement of dynamic waterjet performance.
cipated propelled trim. A second resistance test
aimed at establishing the static effects of the Experimental Procedures
waterjet hull openings on drag could be run with
all propulsion system appendages in place, but The following are examples of methods of
with the propeller or impeller not rotating, re- determining hydrodynamic propulsion performance
peating the trim angles of the first test. Fin- characteristics of installed waterjet systems,
ally, a propulsion test should be run to ascertain listed along with the type of study for which the
the overall effective trim and resistance which procedure is applicable.
the craft experiences under the action of all
drag and lift forces produced by the hull, the Design. Test a waterjet-propelled hull
propulsion system, and the interaction of these model having both hull and internal pumping system
forces. Testing should include effects of turning scaled to the same linear ratio. This procedure
and sideslip on waterjet performance. In the case is often impractical because of the expense in
of small planing boats, it is possible to test the complete modelling of pumps. In addition, although
prototype craft in a towing basin over the actual scaling hull speed by Froude number and machinery
range of design speeds. From the standpoint of speed by specific speed are compatible as far as
achieving an ideal propulsion analysis, this type producing the proper scaled internal-flow velo-
of testing involving the prototype craft is ideal city, the range of model ducting Reynolds number'
if all pertinent parameters are measured. How- will be lower than full scale and must be main-
ever, the self-propulsion testing of a waterjet tained above 1 x 105 (based on pipe diameter) in
prototype craft in open-sea conditions (which is order to keep the model internal-flow pressure
the case for a great percentage of actual installed drop reasonable.
waterjet performance determinations)(Refs. 3, 14,
16, and 17) usually does not furnish sufficient Design. Test a hull model having the
information, mainly because it is difficult to proper external propulsion system characteristics
separate resistance and propulsion forces. It of the inlet. This procedure is recommended for
should be realized that it is much more difficult propulsion tests of the hull inlet/diffuser com-
to obtain detailed performance data on waterjet ponent. It requires the use of a "sucker" pump
systems than on propeller systems since the re- which establishes the correct scaled flow velocity
quired appendages can be removed easily in the at the waterjet inlet and means to maintain the
latter case. Further, the conducting of bare hull full-scale cavitation number as well as to simulate
resistance tests and the determination of the pro- the full-scale boundary layer. LITTLE SQUIRT
pulsor thrust add to these difficulties. As (Ref. 19) tests and tests of the hydrofoil craft-
stated earlier in the section on efficiency, if type inlets in the LUMF facility utilized this
the goal is to compare propulsion efficiencies of technique.
two different propulsors, a comparison of shp's
should suffice. Design. Test a prototype craft at full-
scale speeds in a towing tank and measure towed
Some difficulty exists when attempts are and propelled performance separately. This method
made to separate dynamic testing of the propulsor has the advantage of alleviating scaling problems.
and hull. Testing complexities will vary depend- However, for most testing tanks, it is limited to
ing on whether a test is being conducted to pre- boat hulls no greater than about 20 feet in length
dict the overall performance of a waterjet-pro- and 8- to 9-foot beam, and to waterjet-system horse-
pelled model which is free to trim and heave or powers of about 200 to 300.
to characterize the propulsor perfumance, in
which case the hull (or portion of the hull) is Design or Research. Test a prototype
restrained in trim and heave. From the section waterjet propulsion system mounted on a "mockup"
on efficiency, it was concluded that a definitive of a portion of the prototype hull which is fixed
performance criterion, nil , is: in trim and heave. Such a test could be run in a
waterjet towing basin or a circulating free-surface channel.
nD
waterjet pump
xxnjet system
x (1-t)
An example of the latter is reported in Reference
18. This procedure requires that the hull-inlet
flow conditions be known and simulated on the
= "mockup."*
nT(1-0
* A very important consideration is involved.in
Any good prediction of the performance must include testing waterjet ingestion systems in hull models or
a reasonable estimate of (1-t). References 3, 4, mockups mounted stationary in flow channels. Unless
14, 19, and 21 through 26 which contain perform- the transverse hull dimension is small compared to
ance data include calculations of nT but not rip. channel width, it is doubtful that meaningful mag-
nitudes of the added hull drag from interaction
The experimental work which has been done, of the induced flow by the waterjet system will
as listed in Table 2, includes the hull-inlet be obtained.
sybsystem which has been investigated by the
20
Performance. Test a prototype installa- self-propelled mode for a waterjet propulsor.
tion in open sea and measure Ps and PT (by jet
flow). Most of the published data available in Experimenters might be encourated to
this study pertaining to installed propulsion attempt full-scale testing in order to alleviate
performance were acquired by this method. It the problems of modelling. However, full-scale
is the cheapest and easiest test procedure. Ad- testing provides significant measurement diffi-
vantages include the fact that there are no scal- culties such as separating resistance and propul,
ing problems; disadvantages are that there is less sion factors.
control of weather and test conditions, and it is
not possible to separate xtsistance and propulsion A type of "open-water" propulsion test
forces from these measurements. Hence it is more for a waterjet propulsor could be run with a
difficult to improve performance. suitable hull simulation inlet. It requires test-
ing a prototype waterjet over a range of trims,
Performance or Design. Test a prototype boat speeds, inlet velocity ratios, and yaw con-
craft in open-sea conditions and measure thrust ditions in order to provide adequate performance
reaction and inlet drag, in addition to the other data from which extrapolation can be made when
usual pertinent quantities. This approach would actual hull dynamic characteristics become known.
provide significantly more data for determining
rip than would Method 5. (See References 16 and Several waterjet test stands have been
specifically built for testing a complete propul-
17.)
sor under simulated inflow conditions, prior to
dynamic testing.
Performance. Test a prototype system or
component on a hull on which auxiliary propulsors GENERAL AND FEASIBILITY LITERATURE SURVEY
such as engine/propellers or aircraft deck-mounted
jet engines can very effectively be used to help
A large portion of the existing waterjet pro-
propel the hull so that the water pump can be
pulsion literature deals with general considera-
tested at various combinations of thrust and ship
tions of and feasibility studies for the applica-
speed. This provides performance data on the pump
tion of waterjet systems to various types of marine
or inlet of a general nature with less dependence
craft. At the same time, considerable emphasis in
on the hull than for a fixed thrust/speed character-
the area of military ship and boat designs has
istic test setup.
recently been placed on feasibility studies which
attempt to consider all significant engineering
In summary, the significant points of this
aspects of a design, integrally with the intended
section are:
mission of the craft. As in many associated areas
of technology, it is obvious that the availability
Model testing or testing of waterjet
of high-speed computers has encouraged designers
propulsion system components in cavitation or other
and planners to conduct more studies of this type.
specialized facilities becomes feasible during
Certainly, feasibility studies which consider
preliminary design of systems requiring high
mission, structures, propulsion, etc. are necessary
efficiency.
at some point in the technological development
process. Consequently, without well thought-out
Modelling of entire installed waterjet
sound scientific-type feasibility considerations
propulsion systems is made difficult, or impossible,
for specific applications, the full effectiveness
if requirements include scaling of Froude, cavita-
of the waterjet propulsor cannot be realized.
tion, and Reynolds numbers simultaneously.
The waterjet propulsion systev is a special-
The inlet and critical hull section can
purpose propulsor which is probably superior to
be model tested independent of the rest of the
other types for some specific applications, but
waterjet propulsion system if an auxiliary
with the passing of time, "tradeoff" analyses
"sucker" pump is used.
become more critical to good system application.
Thus the reports and papers on waterjet propulsion
If Froude and cavitation numbers are
dealing with application feasibility studies are
maintained, proper C distribution of the model
worthwhile, but:
inlet and diffuser Pwill result.
Systematic theoretical and experimental
Internal flow scaiing should entail
work now needs to be done on system design and
holding C and Reynolds numbers simultaneously
performance evaluation.
for scaling pressure and viscous forces.
Feasibility and general studies need
Shear stress scaling depends on the
factual, verified scientific evidence for perform-
Reynolds number and relative roughness (e/d)
ance factors such as loss coefficients, efficiencies
effects on the dynamic pressure pV2).
of systems, etc.
For installed waterjet propulsion systems,
Indeed, in a final analysis, a system may or may
a definitive test of performance requires separa-
not be "feasible" for a particular application
tion of resistance and propulsion forces.
depending on the actual system efficiency, and it
is unlikely that this can be determined by "guess
A waterjet propulsion system may create
work." Some of the papers are inherently limited
a more significant overall effect on hull per-
in value since they contain unproven overly-
formance than does a more conventional propulsor.
optimistic or overly-pessimistic performance coef-
Thus resistance measured in nonpropelled drag
ficients; however, practically every reference
tests is less indicative of the actual dynamic
resistance which the hull experiences in the makes some contribution to the technology.
21
References 22, 23, 24, and 61 relate to studies Momentum theory has been used to show that
of feasibility of applying waterjet propulsion high ideal jet efficiency requires a low ratio of
to certain mission craft. A much larger number jet velocity to craft velocity as well as low
of the references were found to contain informa- system (inlet and ducting) losses. The calculation
tion on general considerations for application of real jet system efficiency by simple momentum
of waterjet propulsion to various types of craft. theory is not an accurate approach to the deter-
These reports include References 1, 3, 4, 7, 8, 9, mination of system performance.
19, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 50, 58, and 60 through 67.
A brief summary of each of these reports is con- Certain misconceptions pertaining to
tained ir the annotated bibliography list at the various efficiencies have been noted in the litera-
end of the paper. ture which tend to confuse proper performance com-
parisons. These include the misuse of propulsive
CONCLUSIONS RV
efficiency (n = - ) with thrust efficiency
D PD
In the Introduction a statement of the scope TV
(n = - ) as well as of pump efficiency (n pump )
of this paper included: T
Ps
with propeller efficiency (np). Actually
A critical survey of the pertinent tech- -
nical literature with emphasis on the significant np
=n pump x
njet
.
Two basic shortcomings were found to prevail Historical note on the development of this
within the existing waterjet literature. First, important craft.
a lack of experimental data and synthesized design
methods was noted and, second, a number of design Smith, M. S., "Tomorrow's Water Craft will
parameters were found to be loosely defined. Use Water Jets - How and Why," Great Lakes Section
Suitable progress in the improvement of waterjet of Society of Small Craft Designers (Apr 1965).
propulsion performance will require extensive
research and development work in the areas of A short, interesting discussion of waterjet
propulsion system and hull design. This work propulsion of small craft. The paper makes
should be built upon the proper use of performance reasonable statements on the advantages and
parameters and evaluation techniques. It is hoped disadvantages of waterjets.
that the attempt made here to survey the state of
the art will provide some guidance to workers in Wechsler, L., "Where Are Marine Power Plants
the field of technology of waterjet propulsion. Headed?" SNAME Paper No. 20, Spring Meeting
(May 1966).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Paper discusses extent to which power plants,
Appreciation is expressed to Dr. Wm. B. transmission systems, and propulsors limit
Morgan for his interest and his numerous helpful speed of: 100-ton Gems, 100-ton hydrofoils,
suggestions offered during the writing of this 5000-ton CABS, 5000- and 10,000-ton displace-
paper. The author is also grateful to Mrs. ment ships; claims state of the art can pro-
Shirley Childers for the typing of the manuscript. vide machinery needed in next 10 years if
developmental work is done on turbines,
reduction gear, propellers, and pumps.
LIST OF REFERENCES AND ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Sheets, H. and Mantle, P., "Air Cushion Craft
Taggart, R., "Special Purpose Marine Propul- Propulsion," AIAA Paper No. 66-731, Los Angeles,
sion Systems," ASNE Journal, Vol. 71 (Aug 1959). California (Aug 1966).
Interesting historical summary of marine
Electric Boat Company engineers discuss ad-
propulsors.
vantages of various propulsion devicds for
air-cushion craft.
Papir, A. N., "Axial Pumps of Waterjet Pro-
pulsion Systems," Shipbuilding Publishing House
Gabrielli, G. and von Karman, T., "What Price
(translation), Leningrad (1965). Speed," Mechanical Engineering (Oct 1950), p. 775.
(Russian). An extensive coverage of axial
This interesting paper presents a graphical
pumps of waterjet propulsion system. Paper
23
representation (Karman-Gabrielli line) of tested (single and dual). Static and under-
minimum power requirements for given maxi- way tests were conducted, including a powering
mum speeds of a wide range of vehicles. comparison with a propeller. Engine ratings
ranged from 188-238 horsepower for these
Rossell, H. E. and Chapman, L. B., "Prin- tests. A discussion of the practical problems
ciples of Naval Architecture," SNAME Publica- encountered, including: hydraulics, hull/pump
tions, Vol. II (1955). interaction, weeds, and instrumentation.
The measured horsepower data are poor, as
Authoritative textbook on naval architecture. stated by the authors.
A useful reference containing standard
definitions of performance parameters. Aschauer, G. (Twin Disc Clutch Company),
"Waterjet Propulsion Tests," (Three reports:
Saunders, H. E., "Hydrodynamics in Ship October 1962 - Apr 1963).
Design," SNAME Publications, Vols. I and II
(1957). Cooperative testing was conducted by the Twin
Disc Clutch Company and Sewart Seacraft Inc.
Authoritative textbook on ship hydrodynamics; Experimental tests were run on a commercial
valuable reference book. waterjet propulsion system (conventional and
much-modified). A three-volume report
Kuchemann and Weber, "Aerodynamics of Propul- covering tests of September 1962, November
sion," McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York 1962, and April 1963 was written. These
(1953). appear to be the same type of tests as re-
ported in Reference 16. The present setup
A textbook containing a complete treatment included thrust-load cells mounted under
of propulsion analysis momentum methods. the pump mounts.
Runs two prototypes in open water and measures Hatte, R. and Davis, H., "Selection of
gross performance and comparison between Hydrofoil Waterjet Propulsion Systems," AIAA
test results. P.C. is looked at. A stimu- Paper No. 66-732, Los Angeles, California
lating discussion by several noted British (8-10 Aug 1966).
engineers is included.
Hydrofoil boats - selection method for a
Delao, M. M., "Experimental Results on Low waterjet propulsion system - recommendations
Speed Waterjet Propulsion Systems," (Buehler for waterjet propulsion system selection
Corporation), AIAA Paper No. 66-718, Los Angeles, criteria. Discussion of trade-offs and
California (Aug 1966). system considerations. Considerable experi-
mental 1/2-scale model hydrofoil inlet data,
A Buehler pump built for hullborne propul- acquired on Boeing's LITTLE SQUIRT, are
sion of a Navy hydrofoil craft is described. known to exist. Discusses ducting loss and
Static and dynamic experimental performance problems facing waterjet propulsion inlets
tests on the 16 1/2-inch diameter pump and describes LITTLE SQUIRT.
designed for the 9-knot craft were conducted.
Specifications included a direct 2500-rpm Dumov, A., "Calculation of Pressure Head
drive, 175-horsepower, specific speed Characteristics of Axial Helical Impellers,"
above 26,000, suction above 21,000. Problems Foreign Tech. WPAFB, FTD-TT 63-497 (Jun 1963).
of flow choking and head reduction by cavita-
tion were experienced. The design approach Russian method of calculation for design of
is given with test results for 5- and 7- axial-helical impeller, pressure head
bladed rotors that were tested. characteristics and rate of flow from impeller
configuration, lifting-line theory used in
Price, H., "Development Testing of M-185 internal hydraulic calculations; short
Aquajet in the Penn-Yan Boat," Curtiss-Wright experimental correlation test.
Corporation (WAD) Report No. 2 of Project XE-726
(17 Jan 1963). Levy, J. (Aerojet-General), "The Design of
Waterjet Propulsion Systems for Hydrofoil Craft,"
The report describes Curtiss-Wright Penn- SNAME Presentation, Southern California Section
Yan boat waterjet tests. It appears to be (May 1964).
a good experimental analysis of the perform-
ance of a 25-ft boat at speeds in excess Discusses the duct losses. Optimization
of 34 mph. Several inlet designs were process for general waterjet propulsion
24
installation; paper considers in general: Discusses P.C. in general terms.
struts, ducts, scoops, velocity ratio,
nozzle depression angle, possible pump Jackson, S. B., "Some Considerations of Jet
configurations, and states: "Propulsion Propulsion of Ships," Shipbuilder and Marine
pumps, unlike civil engineering pumps, Engine Builder (May 1960), pp. 324-327.
require output as kinetic energy." .
Discusses thrust versus speed and cavitation. General waterjet propulsion considerations.
Gives condenser scoop data and discusses Testing done on Aerojet-General's waterjet
inlet parameters and wake intake. Empirical propulsion test stand (Report 2798, Jan 1964).
curves presented and recommendations for "Hydrocket" and "nozzle pump" were tested,
applying the data to-examples of waterjet hydraulic theory presented, and performance
ducting systems discussed. Looks at tests varying relevant parameters: flow rate,
application to large, ocean displacement suction pressure, velocity distribution,
vessels (shown to be less efficient than speed, torque, thrust (test stand reaction),
propeller); author gives a practical design etc. Includes experimental curves.
procedure.
Wislicenus, G., "Fluid Mechanics of Turbo-
Johnson, V., Jr., "Waterjet Propulsion for Machinery," Vols. I and II, McGraw-Hill Book Co.
High-Speed Hydrofoil," AIAA Paper No. 64-306, (1947), Dover Publications (1965).
Washington, D. C. (Jun-Jul 1964).
Textbook. Refers to existing classical pump
Good discussion of duct losses and other theory.
system losses. Design procedure for water-
jet propulsion on hydrofoil craft. An 80- Addison, H., "Centrifugal Pumps and Other
knot, 500-ton craft example. Interesting Rotodynamic Machines," Third Edition, Chapman-
pump discussion, practical considerations Hall Ltd., London (1965).
of size, speed, cavitation, single and
double suction; discusses off-shelf state- Textbook. Refers to existing classical
of-the-art pumps and hydrofoil waterjet pump theory.
propulsion configurations.
Hunsaker and Rightmyer, "Engineering Applica-
Traksel, J. and Beck,W..,"Waterjet Propulsion tions - Fluid Mechanics," McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
Marine Vehicles," AIAA Paper No. 62-245, San New York (1947).
Diego, California (Mar 1965).
Textbook. Refers to existing classical
Optimization study of a waterjet propulsion pump theory. Gives empirical data and ways
system using internal and external energy to treat duct losses.
balance. Discusses mission, payload,
thrust vectoring, waterjet propulsion Stepanoff, A. J., "Centrifugal and Axial Flow
system design for hydrofoil based on Ref. 2. Pumps," John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York
(1948).
Gongwer, C. A. (Aerojet-General), "Influence
of Duct Losses on Jet Propulsion Devices," Textbook. Refers to existing classical pump
Vol. 24, No. 6 (Nov-Dec 1954). theory.
This paper shows the effect of system losses - Acosta, A. J., "Hydrodynamics of Turbo
on. njpr
Machines," California Institute of Technology,
Report 79.9 (Nov 1965).
Kilgore, U., "The Propulsive Coefficient for
Jet Systems," Great Lakes Section of Society of Summarizes experimental study, intent to
Small Craft Designers (Apr 1965). understand turbo-machinery flow, and uses
25
results in developing design theory; Textbook. Refers to existing classical
cavitation tunnel was built. This paper pump theory.
and its references (1,2,3,4,5) considered
cavitating inducer, scaling, and cascades. 45. Hydraulic Institute, "Standards of Hydraulic
Series should add considerably to pump Institute."
technology.
Handbook of empirical pump data.
37. Stripling, L. and Acosta, A. J., "Cavitation
in Turbo Pumps," Transactions ASME (Sep 1962). 46. Laverne, M. E., "New Similarity Parameter for
Jet Pump Cavitation," ASME Cavitation in Fluid
Good experimental study along with an Machinery, Winter Meeting, Chicago (7 - 11 Nov 1965),
analysis of cascade flow representing a
simple cavitation model. Estimates of A dimensionless similarity parameter for a
cavitation loss and cavity shapes made; jet pump is derived. (Uses a high velocity
model tests done at Rocketdyne. Conclusions jet injection versus rotating impeller.)
contain pointers on blade profiles and Similarity parameter includes cavitation and
suggestions for better performance. is analogous to S.
38. Wong, G., et al (Rocketdyne), "Suppression Van Manen, J. D., "Propellers in Nozzles,"
of Cavitation and Unstable Flow in Throttled International Shipbuilding Progress, Vol. 1,
Turbo Pumps," Journal of Spacecraft, Vol. 2, No. 1 (1954).
No. 1 (Jan-Feb 1965).
Ducted propeller efficiency shown to vary
Theoretical and experimental check on with definition of efficiency.
method to suppress cavitation and unstable
flow in throttled turbo-pumps. Critical S Rasmussen and Chisholm, "Calculation of
increased by 20 to 50 percent. (Critical S Pressure Distribution of Inlets for Hydrofoil
is 2 percent loss in pump head due to Craft Waterjet Propulsion Systems," TM 55-21-17,
cavitation.) High energy fluid bled from LMSC/805078 (Apr 1965).
turbo-pump discharge and injected upstream
of inducer. Uses water in testing. Analytic, inlet parameters studied, Smith-
Pierce, pressure distribution. Reference
39. Hale, M. R., "Design of Ducted Impellers Douglas Aircraft Report ES 26988 (Apr 1958).
Using Vortex Line Analysis and Optimizing Com-
puter Techniques," University of Adelaide, Hess, J. L. and Smith, A.M.O., Douglas
M. E. Report R 65/2 (Mar 1965). "Hydrojet Aircraft Engineering Report 1528, 17th Meetting
Ducted Propulsion System - Impeller Induced of ARS (Nov 1962).
Vibratory Pressures and Performance Character-
istics," Thesis, University of Adelaide (1967). A practical method for the calculation of
two-dimensional distribution of bodies in
Design of ducted propellers using vortex fluids.
line. Computer program included.
Doyle and Hynes (Gibbs and Cox), "Procedure
40. Guinard, F. and Acosta, A., "Experimental for Preliminary Design of Waterjet Propulsion
Study of Axial Flow Pump Cavitation," California System for Hydrofoil Ship," G&C M-66-2 (Mar 1966).
Institute of Technology Report E-19.3 (Aug 1953).
Inlet data generated by Reference 2 are
41. Jekat, W. K. (Worthington Pump), "A New tabulated here. Includes Lockheed's
Approach to Redesign of Pump Cavitation, the waterjet design procedure.
Hubless Inducer," ASME Paper No. 66-FE-8, Denver
(Jan 1966). Dudley, S. A., "Flow Characteristics of Main
Condenser Injection System Based on Ship Board
Similar to Reference 37 except on a Tests," New England Section SNAME Paper (May 1958).
"hubiese' (inside-out) inducer.
Compilation of accumulated condenser scoop
42. Jekat, W. K., "R and Incidence Effects inlet test data.
on Inducer Cavitation,' ASME Paper No. 66-WA/FE-31,
New York (27 Nov - 1 Dec 1966). Hewins, E. F., "Condenser Scoop Design,"
SNAME Transactions, Vol. 48 (1948).
Follow-up on Reference 41 in presenting
additional experimental results. Dated but valuable inlet design reference.
43. Miller, M. J. (Crouse and Sandercook), Weske, J. R., "Investigation of Suction Con-
"Summary of Experimental Investigation of Three denser Scoops, Based on Model Tests, Journal
Axial Flow Pump Rotors Tested in Water," ASME ASNE, Vol. 51, pp. 191-213 (1939).
Paper No. 66-WA-FE-24, Winter Meeting (27 Nov -
1 Dec 1966). Valuable condenser inlet model study which
includes effect on hull drag.
Experimental work on rotors downstream of
an inducer. Schmidt, H. F., "Theoretical and Experimental
Study of Condenser Scoops," Journal ASNE, Vol. 42,
44. Addison, H., "Pump User's Handbook," Isaac pp. 1-38 (1930).
Pitman and Sons Ltd., London (1958).
26
A dated but interesting study. Arcand, L., "Waterjet Propulsion of Small
Craft," Pratt-Whitney Report FR-1813 (Apr 1966),
Frank, J. L., "Pressure Distribution and Ram Also presented to SNAME, Florida Section, Spring
Recovery of NACA Submerged Inlets at High Sub- 1966.
sonic Speeds," 'MCA RM A-50E03 (Jul 1950).
Study of waterjet propulsion application to
This report presents ram recovery and mass small planing boats up to 50 feet and 40
flow ratios for NACA submerged inlets for knots, gives design procedure for power
aircraft air ingestion. Plots of pressure requirements.
distribution over the ramp and the inlet
extreme given. Angle of attack was 0.2 to Dunne, J., "Hydrofoil Propulsion System and
1.2 deg, M 0.3 to 0.875. Maximum ram Design," Hydrofoil Symposium No. 2G, SNAME,
recovery ratios were at M = 0.6 to 0.8. Seattle (May 1965).
Nichols, M. R. and Pierpont, P. K., "Pre- Hydrofoil propulsion systems, machinery pro-
liminary Investigation - Submerged Air Scoop pulsion plant, general discussions on various
Utilizing Boundary Layer Suction for Increased forms it can take. Papers states that "pump
Pressure Recovery," NACA TN 3437 (Apr 1955). model testing may be very costly."
Contractor, D., "CAB Inlet Layout Study," Taggart, R., "A Development Program for an
Hydronautics TR 656-1 (Sep 1966). Improved Hydraulic-Jet Propulsion Device,"
Trelor Contract, ASNE Journal, Vol. 71 (Aug 1959).
Conceptual design layout to optimize ducting
for a large CAB ship. U.S. Army Transportation Corps contract
prompted the author to do a development
Arcand, L., "Evaluation Study of Waterjets program study for waterjet propulsion. Paper
for SES, Destroyers, and Hydrofoils," Pratt- lists practical problems including hull
Whitney Report GP-64-126 (Jan 1965). design. Includes considerations for design
of hull duct, impeller machinery, and control
General layout studies for hydrofoils, CABS, systems, and recommends brief experimental
destroyers, and planing boats. Analytical program for tests of hull model, duct model,
curves of gas-turbine water-pump installa- and impeller.
tion presented.
"Hydrojets are Here to Stay," Rivers and
61. Doyle, J. P. (Gibbs and Cox), "Study of Harbors (Feb 1961).
Propulsion Transmission System for 500-Ton,
60-Knot Hydrofoil," Report M-62-19 (Nov 1962). A spirited, but naive, presentation of
purported success of a device called "hydro-
Comparison study of the feasibility of hydro- jet." It does not appear to be very factual.
foil propulsion (500-ton, 80-knot) by:
Lorenz, E., "Comparison between Two Methods of
waterjets, 90-deg drives, MARJET, air props,
Marine Propulsion," Great Lakes Section, Society
gas turbines, electric motors, chain drives,
of Small Craft Designers (Jun 1963).
tape drives, inclined shafts.
27
This short paper by a Michigan Wheel
Company representative compares a
waterjet installation with a conven-
tional propeller installation and presents
very limited data indicating superior
efficiency of the propeller system.
70. Lerbs, H., "The Present Status of Theoretical
Research on Ship Propellers with Respect to its
Technical Application," David Taylor Model Basin
Translation 243 (Jan 1952).
TABLE 2
1111111
Summary of Experimental Waterjet Work
16666s6 Ms 123452 7flIOLLl2t3441324I1tI 19 20 1 22 3 24 25 26 27 209304233343533333339401424344434447193043233343336 57 se 59 eo 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 SO 69 70
DIIIIIIIMICKIMUDOEMENIEEMMINOCEMOINEMIIMERIONEMIENIMIEMOIMOMILIM
IIIMEME11
1111111111EMEGEEEMOMMINEMME
aM11111111110010111M13111111MIIIMIMMOODEMEIMMI1111111111111111011111111111
1111111111113111131111111MINEMINEINIMEMMINMEMIIMIIIII
..,........-,. , .
r"-- .,,,c->. ,
^-., 13911
11191111111111MMIIIIIMMEN
011111111111111111111111
.1011................................................................O
i ".
SKP
011111111111111110
MIIMMIIMMEM1111111111111111111111111111
13OEIDENIMM1111101
MMMMMMEIMIMIEIIIIIMIIMMMMOIOIIIIMEEEIIMOMMMMMEMMMIIEMMMEIMMIIIMMOMMIIMIMIIMEMIIMIIO
IIIIIIIIIIIIIMAIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMI IIIIIIIIIIIIIIII41111111111
i :::. MIIIMIIIIIII1111:1111111111.11
1113000EIIIIINIM111101111111111.11111101
MEIIMI1111111111111110131:1131311111111111111111111111
.r.
SUP
1110111111111111=1131301
111011111111XIMOOMINMIIIIIIINIMMIIIMMINIMMIIMMIEMMENEENIIIMM
11101111111111190000M111111111111111111111111131
NIEMIIIIIMIIIIIMODEIE113M111111111111111111
.1146146 C66.14.46 5644.4, 4St -tsp. 141141.
28
No. 61-361
D. N. CONTRACTOR
and
VIRGIL E. JOHNSON, JR.
HYDRONAUTICS, Incorporated
Laurel, Maryland
Paper No.
67-361
5.08
WATER JET PROPULSION
1
V. is the velocity of the water in the stream Energy Equation
tube.
The energy equation for a streamline passing through
The momentum of the water leaving the system may be the pump is:
expressed as
HR+H-H
L
-h =H.j s
[4 ]
fpV.2 dA
A. In the equation above, HR is the total head re-
covered by the inlets and is equal to the total head Ho of
where
the approaching flow minus the head loss of the inlet. The
V. is the jet velocity, and total head of the approaching flow Ho can be written as
is the area of the jet.
V2
Thus the net thrust of the boat is ho +C2 2g
A.
fpV.2dA - f
Ai
pVi2dA [1]
where
'A. dA
C2 2 r
VdA
In most cases, the jet velocity is uniform over the A.
area of the jet and hence the first term of Equation [1]
pQV., here Q is the discharge. If the flow
wbecomes
y2 y2
o
However, the inlet of the water jet system may be H =ho+C
R 2
°
2g 2g
located in a place where the boundary layer along the
hull may have a substantial thickness. In this case, the
momentum of the inflow to the system can be written as Or
V2
Cl pOV0 , HR =ho + (C2 -
R)
2g
[5]
2
Thus, it can be seen that the overall efficiency of
V2 V.2
a water jet depends on the following quantities; the pump
ho + (C2 - R) + H - K1 zg - h =
2g s efficiency q , the loss coefficient K, the velocity ratio
[ 6]. -
V.2 V2 0 j
A'. and the velocity distribution of the flow approaching
the inlet. In order to study how the efficiency varies with
H = h -ho + 2g
- (C2 - R -
these parameters, Equation [91 is presented in Figure 2
s zg
for different values of the loss coefficient K. Curve 1
Or
V.2
shows how 171 varies with 0V N., for K = 0.
j This curve
H - (C2- R - K1) +h shows that even under ideal conditions the efficiency q
2g 2g
will be 100 percent only when VA'. = 1.0. The overall
0 j
efficiency hi is obtained by multiplying q by the pump
where
efficiency n. The remaining curves show the effects on
h =h -h . Ti of varying values of K from 0.1 to 1.0. In Figure 2
it can be seen that .r71 reaches a maximum value at a
Overall Efficiency
j
particular value of 0V /V.. At low values of V N.,
the curves for different values of K essentially coincide
0 j
with each other, indicating that q is only a function of
The overall efficiency n is defined as the ratio of
N. and q and is independent of the loss coefficient
output energy to input energy. Thus, o
K. At high values of V AL, is a function of both
0 J
/V. and K.
TV
o
0j
- [7]
pgQH
p
The optimum value of and the value of VA'.
0 j
at which it occurs, is obtained by differentiating Equa-
o 1
[10]
2
V
° ( 1 -C V) nopt. VV.
J opt. +
V V 1
- - [8 ]
2
V From Equation [101 , it can be seen that the
1 - (C2-R -K - 2 V. locus of points of optimum efficiency is a straight-line as
o
shown in Figure 2.
3
Pump Selection where
NPSH Net positive suction head,
The head and discharge requirements of the pump = Total head of flow at the entrance
required in a water jet system must be obtained from the to the pump.
thrust and speed requirements of the boat. The general
layout of the water jet system is decided upon from the It has been the experience of pump designers that
special requirements of the btsat such as shallow-water when pumps are designed to operate at N 8,000,
operation, maneuverability, inboard or outboard con-
figuration, etc.. An initial value of the loss coefficient they are likely to cavitate resulting in vibration, noise,
K, is estimated from the layout. The optimum value of impeller damage and a drop in the efficiency. By careful
j
V /V. is obtained from Equation [10]
o
and from a
know[edge of Vo, the design jet velocity V. can be ob-
design, this critical value can be raised slightly. The net
positive suction head should not generally be determined
when the boat is operating at the cruise condition. This
J
tained. Equation [21 can then be used to determine consideration results because the net positive suction head
A. and Equation [6] to obtain the pump head H. The is lower during boat speeds which are lower than the
maximum or cruise speed. Thus, most displacement type
pump discharge Q is equal to A.V.. These values should boats require a large thrust under static conditions or very
JJ
be used to re-evaluate the loss coefficient K. If it is low speeds to accelerate quickly to their design speed.
different from the assumed value, the procedure should Since the NPSH is a minimum under static conditions, the
be repeated. pump should be designed to operate at its maximum rpm
without cavitation occurring in the pump under this low
The head and discharge requirements thus derived value of the NPSH. Certain high-speed craft, for ex-
can be met by a single pump or by multiple pumps in ample, hydrofoil craft and captured-air-bubble vehicles,
parallel or series. The type of pump most suitable for a have cruise speeds considerably above the speed at which
given application depends on the value of a parameter a ''hump" occurs in their speed-resistance curve. It is
called the specific speed essential in the design of propulsion systems for such craft
to provide adequate thrust at the 'take-off' speed and
hence the pump is designed to operate cavitation-free
N V-Q- under these conditions.
N '
H3/4 Application of Water-Jet Propulsion to Small Boats
N - NVQ
ss
(NPSH)3/4
4
Width to depth ratio of inlet, under laboratory conditions. When the pump is in the
Ratio of inlet velocity V1 to boat water jet, the inlet to the pump is different from the lab-
speed V., oratory test conditions and hence its performance will be
altered. Because of these uncertainties, it is advisable to
Ramp angle of inlet.
test a model of the prototype in a water channel.
Use of multiple parallel units instead of a single
Accordingly, one of the water-jet units designed for
water jet unit results in an Obrall weight reduction.
the Ski-Barge was fabricated, installed in the Variable
Pump rpm can be increased when using multiple units
Pressure, Free Surface Water Channel at HYDRONAUTICS,
while keeping the suction specific speed constant. Thus
Incorporated and tested for its performance characteristics.
smaller pumps can be used and the gear reduction between
A general description of the High Speed Channel at
the engine and the pumps can be smaller. The reduction
HYDRONAUTICS, Incorporated, and its capabilities is
in weight of the water jet units must be balanced against
given in Reference 3. The details of the tests of the water
the increase in engine weight that might occur due to the
jet unit for the Ski-Barge are presented in Reference 4.
use of multiple engines.
A schematic drawing of the experimental set-up in the
channel test section is shown in Figure 5. The following
Multi-staging, the practice of using pumps in series
quantities were measured to evaluate the performance:
influences the geometry, weight and efficiency of the
water jet system. It influences the geometry of the system
Net thrust of the water jet, T.
since two or more axial-flow pumps may be used instead of
a single mixed-flow pump or two or more mixed-flow pumps Channel velocity V.
can be used instead of a single centrifugal pump. In gen-
Jet velocity V. and jet area A.
eral, multi-staging has a tendency to increase the overall
weight of the system and in the particular studies of the Pump rpm
Ski-Barge, multi-staging required more power for the some Torque on pump shaft.
mission.
These quantities were measured with the model op-
The variations, that can be studied in the optimiza- erating under three different conditions. First, the per-
tion procedure of the design parameters of the water jet formance of the model under static conditions was studied.
components are limitless. the influence of the water jet Second, the performance of the model at different channel
inlet on the overall performance is particularly significant. speeds was evaluated. Finally, the static reverse thrust
For the Ski-Barge, it was determined from the optimization performance of the model was measured.
studies that the following inlet design required a minimum
of power: When a boat is operating under static conditions,
the efficiency of its propulsion system is, of course, zero.
Width to depth ratio = 2.0 Thus, another parameter must be used to compare the per-
Inlet to boat velocity ratio =1.0 formance of different systems. Such a parameter is CM,
Ramp angle =15°.
the figure of merit, defined as:
The final design of the water jet unit for the Ski-
Barge is shown schematically in Figure 3. The design con-
T3/2
sists of four water jet units, two on each side of the boat. Cm - 12
Two marine engines are to be used as the prime movers,
each engine being coupled to two water jet units. De- NrpA P
tails of the machinery layout in the boat are shown in
where
Figure 4. These water jets have been designed to provide
enough thrust to propel the boat at 20 knots. Under static T is the thrust in pounds,
conditions, a total thrust of 1400 pounds will be available. p is the density of water,
A reverse thrust capability is obtained by deflecting the A is some representative area, e.g. pump area,
jet through an angle of 150° - 180°. In this manner, a and
reverse thrust of 70-80 percent of the forward thrust will P is the power absorbed.
be achieved. The weight of water jet propulsion systems
can range in general from 5 to 15 percent of the total dis- This parameter is independent of the rpm of the pump ex-
placement of the boat, the lower figure being applicable cept for Reynolds number effects, but will vary when the
to large boats. The weight of the propulsion system for geometry of the system is changed. Changes in the jet
the Ski-Barge is about 12 percent of the boat's displace- area can be considered to be changes in the geometry of
ment. Details of the preliminary design of these units the system and the figure of merit Cm can be used to
are presented in Reference 2.
determine the optimum jet area. The figure of merit for
The need for testing models of water jet systems can- the water jet unit tested ranged from 0.6 to 0.7 for dif-
not be overemphasized. In the design of the water jet sys- ferent jet areas. At the optimum jet area, the unit was
tem, the loss coefficients of the components are not always capable of delivering 400 pounds of thrust at 2320 rpm
available and engineering judgments mus4 be made. Pump and absodoed 28 hp. The same parameter Cm is used to
characteristics are known only from experiments conducted evaluate the static, reverse thrust capability of the unit.
5
The area of the jet and the inclination of the jet maximum efficiency occurs can be used to obtain V. and
to the keel of the boat were changed systematically and the pump speed at which that jet velocity can be achieved
the jet area and inclination that resulted in the maximum
value of Cm were selected as being optimum. Thus, it
can be obtained from the curves of V/nD versus V /V..
o o j
The absolute values of the thrust and power under these
was found that the optimum jet area was 12.0 sq. ins, and conditions can then be calculated from the thrust and
that the optimum inclination was 20 degrees with the
keel of the boat. The figure of merit Cm was calculated
power coefficients at the same value of V /V..
o j
to be 0.53, when operating at the optimum settings. Thus, As explained previously, the overall efficiency of a
it is possible to achieve up to 80 percent of the forward
thrust in the reverse direction.
water jet unit operating at a small value of V A/.
o j
(soy 0.2) is dependent only on the pump efficiency and is
independent of the internal loss coefficient. Hence, a
By far, the largest number of tests were conducted knowledge of the measured overall efficiency enables the
under dynamic conditions, that is, with water flowing in
pump efficiency to be estimated. It is to be expected that
the channel at velocities up to 20 knots. this efficiency will be lower than the efficiency measured
in a laboratory test because of the non-uniform inflow
The performance characteristics of water jets are
conditions to the pump when operating in a practical water
presented in much the same way as for propellers. Thus,
jet unit. Knowing the pump efficiency, the loss coef-
a thrust coefficient, a power coefficient and overall ef- ficient may be estimated from the peak overall efficiency.
ficiency are defined in exactly the same way as for pro- These values are helpful in determining whether the water
pellers, and these parameters may be examined for various
jet unit is performing according to design expectations.
values of the advance ratio. The advance ratio may be
o o j
defined as V/nD or V / v.. The use of Vo/V. as the ad-
j The inlet of the water jet unit is of the flush type
vance ratio is more desirable, since the curve of efficiency since the Ski-Barge is designed to operate in shallow water.
versus V /V. provides some indication of the pump ef- In order to improve the flow into the inlet, a series of
o j vanes were installed to direct the flow properly into the
ficiency and the loss coefficient of the system. inlet. These vanes were adjustable and both static and
dynamic tests were conducted with the vanes set at dif-
The test program for the water jet unit was con- ferent angles. Under static conditions, the optimum vane
ducted over a wide range of variables. The procedure angle was 150 to the horizontal and under these conditions,
adopted was to maintain the channel velocity at a constant the figure of merit Cm increased by 15 to 20 percent above
value Vo and to increase the pump rpm from 1000 rpm to
the value obtained without vanes. Under dynamic con-
2500 rpm in steps of 250 rpm. At each rpm, the thrust, ditions, the efficiency of the system increased 2-3 per-
torque and jet velocity were recorded. These tests were centage points above the efficiency without any vanes.
repeated for channel velocities from zero to 35 fps in Thus it can be stated that vanes in the inlet improve the
steps of 5 fps. This procedure was repeated for several performance of the craft.
jet areas, with and without vanes in the inlet of the water
jet, and with and without any trim of the boat. A few tests were conducted with the model at a 20
trim. These results indicated that a slightly higher thrust
Providing a water jet system with a variable area and efficiency were obtained at 2° trim than at e trim.
nozzle is the most effective method of operating a water A better performance is to be expected since the losses in
jet system at its peak performance for different operating the inlet decrease with increasing trim.
conditions of the boat. Thus, for the cruise condition,
there is one area of the jet for which the overall efficiency The tests on the water jet unit showed that all design
is a maximum. However, this same jel area will in gen- criteria were met for the different operating conditions of
eral, not be the area which produces a maximum value of
the boat.
Cm under static conditions. Generally, a larger ¡et
area is required under static conditions than during cruise. Application to High-Speed Hydrofoil Craft
Figures 6 and 7 present the performance character- In the design of a water jet propulsion system for
istics of the water jet unit for the Ski-Barge. Figure 6 large, high speed hydrofoil craft, certain special problems
shows how the thrust and power coefficients vary with are encountered and the following section deals with pos-
V /V.. For small changes in the jet area, the thrust and sible solutions to those problems. The problems relate to
o j keeping the efficiency as high as possible while minimizing
power coefficients do not change significantly. However, the weight of the propulsion system. As explained in a
for large changes in the jet area, say greater than 35 per- previous section, the peak efficiency depends on the loss
cent, the thrust coefficient will decrease and the power coefficient K and the pump efficiency. The pump effi-
coefficient will increase. Figure 7 shows how the effi- ciency for large hydrofoil cr rrt can be expected to be 85-
ciency varies with V /V. for different jet areas. It can
o j 90 percent because of the high Reynolds number at which
they operate. Obviously, the loss coefficient K must be
be seen in Figure 7 that there is one jet area which results
in the maximum efficiency, and this area should be chosen as small as possible. It should be recalled that the value
of K is not just due to the energy loss in the system but also
j
for cruise operation. The value of Vo /V. at which this
6
includes the term 2gh/V.2 where h is the height of the minimum and hence the weight of 'on-board water is
very low. Deflection of the jet by means of flaps is easy
centerline of the pumps above the free water surface. In
to accomplish to maneuver the hydrofoil craft. Because
the case of high speed hydrofoil craft operating in sea
of these outstanding features, such a design concept or a
states as high as 6, h can be large and this height con-
similar one merits the consideration of everyone interested
tributes to a larger K and lower peak efficiency. Despite
in high speed hydrofoil craft.
this increase in the value of K, an examination of the
minimum losses that occur in such a system indicate that
Application to High Speed 'Cab' Vehicles
an overall efficiency of approximately 60 percent is en-
tirely possible.
In recent years, considerable interest has been given
to the design of high speed 'Captured Air Bubble' vehicles.
The weight of a water jet system can become ex-
Water jet propulsion is a strong contender for the propulsion
cessive and is a handicap that must be overcome. The
of these vehicles. HYDRONAUTICS, Incorporated has
weight of the system consists of the weight of the water in
made a series of conceptual design studies of water jet
the system, the weight of the pumps and ducting and the
propulsion systems for a 'CAB' vehicle. These studies
weight of the reduction gears between the prime mover
and the pumps. The weight of the water in the system can were made for the David Taylor Model Basin under Con-
be reduced by decreasing the path of the water from inlet tract number NI 67-413(X) and the details of this work are
reported in Reference 5. The particular 'CAB' vehicle
to outlet consistent with maintaining a low loss coefficient.
for which these studies were made has a displacement of
There are several known methods of reducing the weight
of pumps and these methods must be used to the maximum
4000 tons and is shown schematically in Figure 9. The
extent to minimize the weight of water jet systems. These water jet propulsion system is designed to fit into the two
methods will now be discussed. First, use of an aluminum side skegs of the vehicle. Six marine, gas turbine engines
alloy for fabrication will reduce the weight, without were selected as the prime movers to drive six pumps. The
sacrificing stre'ngth. The use of multiple pumps in parallel design requirements for these pumps were estimated on the
is a well known method of reducing the weight. For ex- assumption of a certain loss coefficient and overall ef-
ample, a single double-suction centrifugal pump is pre-
ficiency. It is anticipated that these pumps would each
ferred to two, single suction centrifugal pumps. This be about 5' in diameter. The purpose of the studies con-
weight reduction is partly due to the fact that when pumps ducted by HYDRONAUTICS, Incorporated was to deter-
are used in parallel, the total discharge is divided between mine whether the assumed loss coefficient was realistic,
the number of pumps. Because of the lower discharge, the to indicate the design problems and to suggest solutions.
pump speed can be increased to maintain the same suction The layout of the three water jet systems and the gas
specific speed. Furthermore, it is known that pumps that turbine engines in each skeg was also considered to be a
operate at higher speeds will be smaller to deliver the same problem. The hydrodynamic problems that must be solved
head and discharge. Increasing the rpm of the pump also for this "CAB" vehicle will now be discussed.
reduces the weight of the reduction gears between the
prime mover and the pumps. Inlet Design
The design of a water jet system for a hydrofoil craft In the design of water jet propulsion systems for high
as shown in Figure 1(c), though simple, will be very heavy. speed water craft, special attention should be given to the
If the methods of weight reduction enumerated in the last design of the inlets because the inlet loss is higher than the
paragraph are to be utilized, a new system would have to loss in any other component, and at high speeds, the inlet
be designed. One such design has been presented by is likely to cavitate. The inlet must be designed in such a
Johnson in Reference 1. The design described in Reference way that it provides enough water for the pumps under all
1 is for a 500 ton, 80 knot hydrofoil craft. An anal ysis of operating conditions of the ship, with a minimum loss of
a water-jet system similar to that in Figure 1(c) reveals energy and without cavitation occurring anywhere in the
that its weight would be about 150 tons. This weight is inlet. Another requirement of a satisfactory inlet is that
prohibitive and to be practical should be reduced to 5-10 it should add as little drag to the ship as possible.
percent of the total displacement of the craft. This novel
design presented in Reference 1 and shown schematically There are two operating conditions of the ship that
in Figure 8, consists of placing multiple, double suction are critical in the design of inlets: (a) the cruising con-
pumps in the struts connecting the hydrofoils to the hull of dition and (b) the take-off or "hump resistance" condition.
the craft. All the pumps are located in the struts and have The inlet should perform satisfactorily under both con-
a common shaft parallel to the strut. The inlets to the ditions. Two types of inlets have been considered for the
pumps are located near the leading edge of the strut and 'CAB' vehicle. The first is the submerged or flush type and
the discharge is directed back through the trailing edge of the other is the scoop type. Each of these inlets is de-
the strut. The drive shaft terminates in a right angle gear scribed in the following section along with advantages and
box at the top of the strut. This design of a water jet sys- disadvantages of each.
tem has several advantages from the point of view of ef-
ficiency and total weight. The efficiency will be high Submerged or Flush-Type Inlet
because the overall loss coefficient K will be small . Since
there is little or no static lift, the NPSH will be high and This type of inlet has been studied in considerable
for the same suction specific speed, a higher pump speed detail for use in aircraft engines and Reference 6 is a de-
and hence a smaller pump diameter can be used. The path tailed report on its experimental performance. The vari-
of the water from the inlet to the outlet is reduced to a ables that influence the performance of a flush inlet are
7
the ramp angle a, the width-to-depth ratio w/d, the Scoop-Type Inlets
planform of the inlet and the ratio of inlet to approach
velocities VI/V. An examination of a large amount of Scoop inlets have been used in the past in ships
ta supply water for condensers and in airplanes as the
experimental data reveals that an inlet with a curved
main air-induction system for jet engines. Performance
diverging planform, a 50 - 70 ramp angle and a w/d
data of scoop inlets for specific applications are available
ratio of 3-5 offers optimum performance. The loss coef-
in technical literature such as References 7 and 8. A
ficient of such an inlet is shown in Figure 10, as a func-
more general report similar to Reference 6 on submerged
tion of V1/V. In order to check on the possibility of inlets is not known to exist for scoop-type inlets. The
cavitation occurring in the inlet, the measured pressure inlet loss of a scoop inlet is much lower than that of a
distributions must be examined. For the 'CAB' vehicle submerged inlet and this is one of its advantages. How-
under consideration, the minimum allowable pressure ever, the drag of a scoop inlet depends on the shape and
coefficient length of the fairing behind it and will in general be
larger than the drag of submerged inlets. The problem of
hv -h a -h cavitation occurring on the scoop is similar to that on the
p des.
- lip of the submerged inlet and an adjustable lip is the
vo solution to that prob1em. The final choice of inlet must
2g be made only after experimental studies of both internal
loss and external drag are conducted on both types of
has been calculated to be -0.12 during cruise and -0.5 inlets.
during take-off. There are two regions in a flush inlet
where negative pressures are to be expected. The first The conceptual studies conducted revealed that
location is along the inner surface of the ramp and the the losses can be kept low enough so that an overall ef-
second is on the lip of the inlet. By selecting a small ficiency of 60-65 percent can be realized. The problems
enough ramp angle, the minimum pressure coefficient that must be faced include the proper choice of the inlet,
C along the ramp can be made greater than -0.12. cavitation-free design of inlet and perhaps of the jet
Pmin nozzle, and the arrangement of the systems in the skeg.
It is a much more difficult task to keep the lip from The overall weight of the system can be kept between 5
cavitating. and 10 percent of the displacement of the craft.
8
Johnson, V. E., Jr., and Goodman, A., "The
HYDRONAUTICS Variable-Pressure, Free-Surface,
High-Speed Channel ASME Symposium on
'Cavitation Research Facilities and Techniques,'
1964.
(o)
1.0
CURVE I
K=0
0.8
K = 0.1
0.6
C
K 0.
/ LOCUS OF PTS.
/6./1- OF MAX .
02
V
FIGURE 2 - PLOT OF n- VERSUS .-N ° FOR WATER JET SYSTEMS
9
DIFFUSER OUTLET
/6-1/2" DIA. NOZZLE DIMEN.
ligra
DIFFUSER INLET SHAFT HOUSING 4" X 3"
3" X 6"
SHAFT TO
4"
,dilrIENIESM1111*-A
R =4-1/2" GEAR BOX
PUMP DETAILS: INLET LENGTH =1.5. -.14- DIFFUSER LENGTH = 1.5' -44- PUMP AND NOZZLE = 1.5'
INLET TIP DIA. = 6-1/2"
OUTLET TIP DIA. = 8" 4.5'
SPEED = 2300 RPM
HEAD =41.5 -H20 ELEVATION SIDES ADJUSTABLE TO CHANGE
JET VELOCITY IN MAGNI TUDE
DISCHARGE = 1700 GPM
AND DIRECTION
PROPULSION SYSTEM DETAILS:
VVV. =1.0
w /d =2.0
3"
= 1 5°
SHAFT HOUSING---''
611
PLAN
PROFILE CIECEEZCIM
Et,
13121S11
lo) EII=2: 1101
13122SCIIIIIMICI
EICTUMMEME1111
1210=12231IN
I . nI/
,W.ct ED4EC,U.7/. ,,,[1:
El
ENGINE LOOP -GSOLNE
P CA SOLI
10
RIGHT ANGLE SCREW JACK
GEAR ROX (2) ( TO CHANGE SUPPORTED ON TOP OF
TRIM ANGLE) HIGH SPEED CHANNEL
POWER DRIVE TO
75 H.P. MOTOR TO MANOMETER
FRAMEWORK TO
SLUICE GATE SUPPORT WATER JET
TOTAL HEAD TUBE
THRUST AND FOR JET VELOCITY
TORQUE GAGES
BAFFLES
LINEAR
BALL BEARING
CHANNEL BOTTOm
I-2
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
02 04 06 08 1.0
/6.
11
PUMPS
PLENUM /JET DERECTION FLAPS
PLAN VIEW
HULL
32 PUMP UNITS
WATER ROM
SCOOP INLET
FIGURE 7 - PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF A WATER JET FIGURE 8 - MULTIPLE IMPELLER PUMP ARRANGEMENT WITH PUMPS IN STRUTS
UNIT FOR THE SKI-BARGE. EFFICIENCY AND OF HYDROFOIL CRAFT
V /nD VERSUS Vo /V.
o j
r- A
AFT FLAP
AIR BUBBLE
ELEVATION
L- A
SECTION A-A
12
0.5
Vi
d
a
CURVED DIVERGENCE; :J., = 0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
..,
6
z
o
u
,5
'-'
,..,
ca
>
.
o 02 0.4 06 08 1.0 12 4
/Vo
-0.2
LIP INCIDENCE
-0.4 (ROTATING ABOUT
POINT A)
C de,. AT TAKE-OFF
0-5°
Oe
-0.6
\ OUTSIDE SURFACE
---- INSIDE SURFACE
-0.8
-1 2
o 02 04 06 08 10 1.2 1 4 1.6
V1/Vo
13
No. 61362
Paper No.
67-362
1
PROPULSION SYSTEM DESCRIPTION possible, however, the results are presented in
ratio form, so that the conclusions reached are not
Early evaluations indicated that water injected limited to this particular engine.
into the relatively high-temperature exhaust gas of
a turbojet causes the net thrust to decrease The design point performance studies were con-
because the water vaporizes in the hot exhaust gas, ducted for a speed range from. 25 to 100 knots.
absorbs energy in the form of latent heat of vapor- Engine net specific thrust was calculated as a
ization, and thus subtracts from the available function of the mass ratio of water to the gas gen-
energy in the exhaust which is recoverable as use- erator airflow. This ratio was systematically in-
ful thrust. Similarly, water injected into the creased until a continuous decrease in specific
exhaust of a mixed-flow turbofan engine results thrust was obtained. J13-type gas generator mixing
calculations were based on the use of property data
only in a small thrust increase.(4) This single,
most important fact essentially eliminates turbo- from the Gas Tables and Steam Tables. 6,7)
jets and mixed-flow turbofan engines from consider-
ation as potential marine propulsion systems using A ram pressure recovery (RPR) factor, defined as
the momentum exchange water-injection concept. An the fraction of the dynamic pressure head (created
alternate system is the turbofan engine where the by the forward velocity of the vehicle) recovered
fan and the gas generator flow streams are dis- In the ramscoop water inlet, of 0.70 was used for
charged through separate exhaust nozzles. all cases. This factor, although low by aircraft
practice, is presently representative of the frac-
tion of the free-stream dynamic pressure head that
is recovered after water has passed through the
WATER MANIFOLD
r SPRAY NOZZLES
ducts and elbows of the water inlet system. (8,9)
The total pressure in the water inlet ducts was
MIXING DUCT FAN EXHAUST NOZZLE
assumed equal to the free-stream static pressure
INLET
plus the pressure recovered from the inlet kinetic
Low'rn
PREssuRE
BURNER
RAMSCOOP
BOTTOM HULL LINE --
WATER In all cases it was assumed that the fan dis-
iNLET
charge air velocity is diffused to Mach 0.20 by the
FIG. I- SCHEMATIC LAYOUT OF A HYPOTHETICAL HIGH-BYPASS-RATIO time it reaches the water injector location. It was
TURBOFAN ENGINE WITH FAN DUCT WATER INJECTION
also assumed that the injected water and the fan dis-
charge air are thoroughly and ideally mixed within
the mixing duct before reaching the discharge nozzle
A schematic diagram illustrating the use of inlet plane. Further, it was assumed that kinetic
water injection in a turbofan engine with separate and thermal equilibria are attained in the mixing
exhaust streams is shown in Fig. 1. The fan dis- duct before the exhaust nozzle inlet plane. Thermal
charge duct (comprised of the mixing duct and the equilibrium was not assumed to be attained within
exhaust nozzle) is necessarily larger than those of the fan exhaust nozzle, but rather, the air temper-
a conventional turbofan engine because of the in- ature drop was assumed to be 10 F greater than for
creased mass flow and the reduced velocities of the water. However, kinetic equilibrium of the
the two-phase air-water mixture. A ramscoop water mixture was assumed within the exhaust nozzle.
inlet, through which the injection water enters
the system, is located below the water level. A Both specific thrust and system propulsive ef-
duct leads from this inlet to a water manifold ficiency were calculated at each water-injection
surrounding the engine, and appropriate water- rate. Specific thrust is defined as the total
injection nozzles extend from this manifold into engine net thrust divided by the gas generator mass
the fan discharge duct as shown. No pump is in- flow and includes thrust losses due to the momentum
cluded in this system, since its use would not only drag of the water and air captured by the water and
add mechanical complexity and weight but would also air inlets, respectively. System propulsive effi-
result in performance levels no different from ciency is defined as engine thrust horsepower
those produced by a shaft-turbine-driven waterjet. divided by the gas horsepower available at the exit
of the gas generator. System propulsive efficiency
PERFORMANCE ASSUMPTIONS as defined in this paper is slightly different from
the more conventional efficiency term propulsive
The characteristics of the gas generator selected coefficient (PG). Propulsive coefficient is defined
for the study were assumed to be those for the as the system propulsive efficiency divided by the
Pratt & Whitney JT3-type engine.(5) It was further power turbine adiabatic efficiency. Power turbine
assumed, for the majority of calculations made, adiabatic efficiency was assumed to be 0.85. This
that the bypass ratio of the fan was 4.0-to-1.0, is primarily a bookkeeping difference resulting
from the fact that the water-augmented turbofan
and its pressure ratio 1.5-to-1.0. Wherever
2
engine produces no net shaft work output. The ad-
RESULTS BASED ON USE OF A JT5- TYPE GAS GENERATOR
ditional drag due solely to locating the ramscoop FAN PRESSURE RATIO.15-TO-1.0
inlet below the waterline was not charged to the FAN BYPASS RATIO . 4.0- TO-1.0
propulsion system, since this drag varies with
operating conditions and therefore must be con- 600
sidered separately for each particular vehicle ap- BOAT SPEED 25 KNOTS
plication. A complete list of assumptions and E
specifications used in the analysis is presented in ti 500
Table 1, while a discussion of the results obtained
from a detailed analysis of the two-phase flow be-
4.1
WATER- TO -GA S GENERATOR AIR
havior in the fan mixing duct and exhaust nozzle is 3 400- PAASS RATIO CORRESPONDING
TO ONBOARD VATER WEIGHTS
presented in Appendix I. OF
co 50 KNOTS A - 5,000 LB
Comparative performance levels and weights for B-KpooLe
-7..!
(SEE TEXT)
shaft-turbine-driven waterjets and supercavitating
marine propellers used tu evaluate the water7aug-
mented turbofan are based on published data.°-°, 11)
m 200
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
HIGH-BYPASS-RATIO TURBOFAN
X 100 - WITHOUT WATER INJECT ION
The following section contains a detailed dis-
cussion of the theoretical design performance char-
acteristics of the water-augmented turbofan engine Z.3
I i I
at speeds from 25 to 100 knots, the off-design per- a 1
400
1
500 600
U) 0 00 200 300
formance of this propulsion system at 50 knots, and WATER-TO-GAS GENERATOR AIR MASS FLOW RATIO-LB/LB
the results of an illustrative hydrofoil boat ap-
FIG.2-PERFORMANCE VARIATION OF A TURBOFAN ENGINE
plication. In addition, discussions of the per- WITH WATER INJECTION RATE AND BOAT SPEED
formance characteristics of gas-turbine-driven
waterjets and supercavitating propellers used in
marine vessels similar to those considered for the
water-augmented turbofan engine are presented. of gas generator air, respectively. The shapes of
the curves illustrated are typical of design-point
curves which would occur at other speeds. The
Engine Design-Point Performance
The theoretical design-point specific thrust of initial increase in thrust results from the in-
the water-augmented turbofan engine is shown in creased mass flow through the fan duct. As the
Fig. 2 as a function of water-to-gas generator air water-to-air mass flow ratio increases, however,
mass flow ratio and vehicle speed. The maximum diminishing returns are experienced, and the spe-
values of specific thrust are 576, 341, and 192 lb cific thrusts eventually decrease from their re-
thrust/lb/sec of gas generator air for vehicle spective maximum values because of the increasing
influence of the inlet water momentum drag. It
speeds of 25, 50, and 100 knots, respectively.
These values compare with the dry engine specific should be noted that the high levels of thrust can
thrust ratings of 121, 118, and 106 lb thrust/lb/sec be partially attributed to the fact that little
25, 50 and
Boat Speeds
100 knots
Compressor Pressure Ratio 13.8
Compressor Efficiency (polytropic) 90%
Fan Bypass Ratio 4.o
Fan Pressure Ratio 1.5
Fan Efficiency (polytropic) 90%
Turbine Efficiency (adiabatic) 85%
Nozzle Velocity Coefficient (exhaust) 0.98
Inlet Air Temperature 60 F
Inlet Water Temperature 60 F
Static Pressure in Mixing Duct 21.2 psia
Water Ramscoop Pressure Recovery Factor (RPR) 0.70
Wáter-to-Fan Air Exhaust Nozzle Velocity Ratio 1.0
Temperature Difference Between Air and Water
at Exit of Fan Exhaust Nozzle 10 F
Mixing Duct Drag Coefficient O
3
FAN BYPASS RATIO 4.0 -TO-1. 0 Since the inlet water duct would most likely be
FAN PRESSURE RATIO 1.5-T0-1.0 a fixed-geometry design sized for a particular boat
SYSTEM PROPULSIVE EFFICIENCY PROPULSIVE speed, some performance compromises will have to be
COEFFICIENT X POWER TURBINE EFFICIENCY made to operate the water-injected turbofan engine
CALCULATIONS BASED ON USE OF P IS WA J13-TYPE GAS GENERATOR
over a range 6f boat speeds. For example, if the
water-inlet duct were sized to handle the water
50
flow corresponding to maximum specific thrust at 50
knots, this duct would be approximately 4 times too
large to handle the water required for maximum spe-
**** 40 cific thrust at 100 knots (see Fig. 2). Conversely,
)- WiTH FAN DUCT WATER INJECTION
a duct sized at 50 knots would be only the size
o
2
la
/ necessary to handle the water flow necessary to
5
iiu. 30 // achieve maximum specific thrust at 25 knots. In
BYPASS RATIO
11-
o
FIG. 5- MAXIMUM SPECIFIC THRUST ATTAINABLE AT VARIOUS
o. BYPASS RATIOS WITH A JT3 -TYPE GAS GENERATOR
100
5
ONBOARD WATER WEIGHT- 101)00 LB
The performance of a waterjet propulsion system
HYDROFOIL BOAT DISPLACEMENT- 76 TONS
TURBOFAN USES JT3 -TYPE GAS GENERATOR installed in the hydrofoil ship whose drag curve is
70 shown in Fig. 6 was also estimated in order to com-
pare it with the water-augmented turbofan engine.
The design thrust of the waterjet system at 69
-J 60 knots was specified to be the same as that of the
o water-augmented turbofan. The waterjet pump is
estimated to weigh 8400 lb, the shaft-turbine engine
z 50 11,800 lb, the water within the pump and its ducts
20,000 lb (essentially double the dry system com-
8 ponent weights), and the total system weight,
4o
42,220 lb.(14, 15) By comparison, the dry weight
of the water-augmented turbofan engine is estimated
4 to be approximntely 9800 lb. Upon adding the on-
g
board water to the turbofan weight the total system
weight is approximately 19,800 lb. A weight break-
CC 20 down for each propulsion system is shown in Table 2.
Water-Injected Turbofan
Component Weight - lb
Gas-TUrbine-Driven Pumpjet
Component Weight - lb
6
DISPLACEMENT -76 TONS results serve to emphasize that onboard water con-
CRUISE SPEED-69 KNOTS
ONBOARD WATER WEIGHTS. stitutes a relatively small fraction of the total
TURBOFAN - 10,000 LB
WATERJET -20,000 LB displacement. Although the hydrofoil ship selected
PROPULSIVE EFFICIENCIES.
TURBOFAN - 36% was relatively small, a similar advantage is shown
WATERJET -50%
HYDROFOIL DRAG SHOWN IN FIG. 6 when multiple units of the water-augmented turbofan
engine are compared with waterjets driven by shaft-
0.5
turbine engines in larger hydrofoil ships.
7
approximately a 25% reduction in the theoretical net turbofan engine with respect to all the loss mecha-
specific thrust for the example presented in this nisms inherent in the two-phase flow behavior in
study, when large-capacity, present-state-of-the-art the fan discharge duct, but it means to provide an
spray nozzles are used in which mean droplet diame- indication of the representativeness of the results
ters greater than 400 microns are obtained. of the system analysis presented in this paper.
Specifically, it is desired to know the relative
The use of a water-injected turbofan engine can importance that the mean droplet diameter of the
benefit the payload and/or the range of a hydrofoil dispersed liquid and the air-water injection
ship propelled by a waterjet or supercavitating velocity ratio have on the obtainable thrust aug-
marine propeller. An advantage of the water-injec- mentation of the turbofan engine. Therefore, the
ted turbofan system not previously discussed is that specific geometry and set of flow conditions con-
it is a low-draft system with only the water ram- sidered below are but an example and not an optimized
scoop inlet protruding below the hull line. In configuration. More extensive design considerations
addition, this system is one in which propulsive may lead to a different fan discharge duct geometry
engine power, although considerably reduced rela- and flow conditions and, most likely, to lower per-
tive to design conditions, is still available if formance losses than estimated here.
the primary ramscoop inlet areas should become
congested with foreign matter. The use of this The propulsion system considered for the two-
unaugmented power may be beneficial in certain phase flow analysis is illustrated in Fig. 1. The
types of landing craft where movement beyond the specific design conditions used in the analysis are
beach area is required. A further subtle advantage given in Tables 1 and 3. In addition, the length
results from the fact that occasional air ingestion of the mixing section and the convergent half-angle
through the water ramscoop will not unload the of the exhaust nozzle of the fan discharge duct were
turbine, as might occur in a waterjet, and thereby chosen arbitrarily to be 9.2 ft and 30 deg, respect-
cause shock loading on the pump and drive shaft ively. The length of the exhaust nozzle was chosen
parts when the water flows through the ducting. to give complete expansion of the mixed stream to
atmospheric pressure. The selection of the above
conditions is believed to be representative of a
APPENDIX I typical configuration.
Two-Phase Flow Analysis The analtical study of the air-water flow be-
The preceding analysis of system performance was havior in a fan discharge duct was completed through
based on a number of simplifying assumptions with the use of an existing computer program which solves
regard to the air-water flow behavior in the fan the system of differential equations describing a
discharge duct. The principal uncertainties of this one-dimensional, two-phase flow model. These
analysis lie in the lack of knowledge of the thermal equations, which form the basis for the theoretical
and velocity lags between the two phases and the performance levels of all water-augmented turbofan
effect of droplet size and air-water injection propulsion systems in this paper, were taken from a
velocity ratio on these lags which, in turn, affect paper by Bailey, et al.(16) The model includes a
the net specific thrust of the propulsion system. momentum and heat balance based upon the velocity
The object of the analysis described herein is to and temperature differences which Occur between the
investigate the air-water flow behavior in a fan continuous gas medium and the droplets of the
discharge duct by means of an analysis which in- uniformly dispersed liquid medium. It is assumed
cludes more detailed consideration of the effects that the total energy of the two-phase system is
of momentum and heat transfer between the two phases fixed, that the gas is nonviscous except insofar as
of the exhaust stream. it exerts a drag force upon the particles, that the
transfer of heat between the particles and the
It is not the purpose nor within the scope of the adjacent gas occurs by convection, the droplets are
present analysis to optimize the water-augmented uniformly sized, and that each droplet has the same
8
uniform temperature. The relative volume occupied for 100-micron diameter droplets. In this case no
by the droplets is assumed to be negligible. The droplet shattering took place and both thermal and
effects of variable gas properties and particle dynamic eqUilibrium between the two phases is essen-
drag and heat-transfer phenomena, not restricted to tially achieved before they reach the exhaust nozzle.
Stokes flow, are included in the computer program. For droplets having initial diameters greater than
4o0 microns droplet shattering was normally achieved
One aspect of the flow of liquid droplets in a before leaving the duct. This would give an
flowing gas stream which is not included explicitly enhancement in performance because of the resultant
in the computer program is droplet shattering. The smaller size of the droplets leaving the duct. How-
condition at which liquid droplet shattering occurs ever, this effect was offset somewhat for droplets
is specified by a critical value o the WTber number, having initial diameters greater than approximately
viz., We = Pg (vg-vi)2 D9/20 , 6. 02, 17) Whenever 250 microns because dynamic equilibrium was not
this criterion was fulfilled within a flow calcula- normally achieved for these droplets within the
tion, it was arbitrarily assumed that the droplets mixing section of the fan discharge duct. The
took on a new diameter equal to one-fourth of their final exhaust velocities of each phase are shown
initial.value whereas all other conditions remained in Fig. 10 as a function of initial droplet diameter,
unchanged at that location. The computer calcula-
tion was stopped and restarted as required until v9, , .119 FT/SEC
the end of the exhaust nozzle was reached. PO - MICRONS
= 100 MICRONS x 60
VIN= 2
Ui
150
Dee, and the ratio of the air and water velocities
AIR VELOCITY, Vg Vg at the droplet injection plane, Viej. A similar
plot is presented in Fig. 11 for the net specific
thrust obtainable from the specific water-augmented
WATER VELOCITY, V,
turbofan engine configuration chosen for this study.
9
DESIGN CONDITIONS SPECIFIED IN TABLE IC
BOAT SPEED 50 KNOTS
Properties of Steam. John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
420 New York, 1950.
FIG. II- PERFORMANCE OF WATER-AUGMENTED TURWOFAN ENGINE 11. Carstens, J. P.: Preliminary Evaluation of Gas
Turbine-Powered High-Speed Planing Boats. UA
Research Laboratories Report B,110052-21,
November 1963.
can be achieved only with very fine nozzle orifice
diameters. These nozzles would be low capacity and 12. Elliott, D. G.: Analysis of the Acceleration
a prohibitively large number may be required to of Lithium in a Two-Phase Nozzle. Proceedings
produce the desired liquid flow rate. On the other of 1963 High-Temperature Liquid Metal Heat
hand, large capacity spray nozzles, although they Transfer Technology Meeting. Oak Ridge,
would give relatively coarse sprays, would degrade Tennessee, December 1964.
system performance to only a small degree relative
to 400-micron particles. This relaxes considerably 13 Gill, J. D.: The Hydrofoil Commuter. Boat
the design criteria of the liquid spray nozzles to Construction and Maintenance, February 1965.
be used to inject water into the fan discharge duct.
Thus with relatively little effort, the thrust of 14. Fact Sheet, FT3C-9 Marine Gas Turbine. Pratt &
the water-augmented turbofan may be as much as 100% Whitney Aircraft, East Hartford, Conn., May 17,
greater than that of a dry turbofan engine. 1965.
) Military Turbofan Installation Handbook, JT3D Martinelli, R. D., and D. B. Nelson: Prediction
Engine. Installation Engineering, Pratt & of Pressure Drop During Forced-Circulation
Whitney Aircraft, East Hartford, Conn., April Boiling.of Water. Transactions ASME, 70, pp.
1959. 695-702, August 1948.
Keenan, J. H. and J. Kaye: Gas Tables. John Vance, W. H., and R. W. Moulton: A Study of
Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York 1956. Slip Ratios for the Flow of Steam-Water Mixtures
at High Void Fractions, A.I.Ch.E. Journal 11,
Keenan, J. H. and F. G. Keyes: Thermodynamic pp. 1114-1124, November 1965.
10
No. 61-363
S. WAY
Westinghouse Electric Corporation
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Paper No.
67-363
1.08, 5.08
ELECTROMAMETIC PROPULSION FOR CARGO SUBMARINES
S. Way
Westinghouse Electric Corporation
Research and Development Center
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15235
Abstract 500
Use of large submarines for cargo transport A further advantage of the submarine tanker is
has been frequently suggested. Of particular that an economical cruising speed may be maintained
interest is the tanker application, where loading even in very rough seas. The surface ship must
and unloading operations and cargo storage are reduce its speed, the wave resistance increases,
simplified. and there are the usual dangers and ship damage
that may attend bad weather at sea. The hull
The submarine tanker offers certain advantages design, for these reasons, may also be lighter for
over a surface ship.l1/2) The principal gain comes the submarine than for the surface tanker.
from the reduced resistance at high speeds, due to
the absence of wave drag. A comparison is shown in These apparent advantages of the submarine
Fig. 1, for vessels of 20,000 dead weight tons.* tanker are offset by several disadvantages. Chief
The point of breakaway of the drag curves depends of these is the requirement of larger draft. A hull
on the Froude number u2/g4,1/3, so that for larger of circular section is desirable to minimize re-
tankers this point shifts to higher speeds. Gen- sistance, but since the diameter may be as large as
erally, however, at speeds above 20-22 knots the 80 feet for a large submarine tanker, the draft at
submarine would have an advantage, and at a speed the normal surface condition may approach 65 feet.
of around 30 knots this advantage is quite This is considerably more that is allowed in many
appreciable. (Fig. 1 based on Ref. 2 data.) channels and estuaries. Passage in Panama or Suez
canals would be restricted for the larger tankers.
It should be kept in mind in such comparisons To reduce draft, an elliptical or rectangular hull
that the ratio of dead weight tonnage to displace- could be used(2) but then there appears to be a con-
ment will be less for the submarine than for the siderable increase in resistance. Even with the
surface ship because of the main ballast tanks circular hulls the resistance goes up due to bottom
(about 10% of submerged displacement). This means effects in shallow waters. The submarine tanker is
that the submarine hull displacement tends to be only feasible with a nuclear power plant**, and the
larger, for given dead weight tonnage, than for the initial capital cost of the vessel may be consider-
surface ship. Drag comparisons should therefore be ably higher than that of a surface tanker of the
on the basis of the sane dead weight tonnage, as is sane dead weight.
the case in Fig. 1.
Dead weight tonnage usually refers to cargo (pay load) plus useful load.
**
Further developments may indicate some possibilities for fuel cell systems.
-1-
1-
In the present paper the possible application magnets, and requiring large energy storage in the
of electromagnetic propulsion to the submarine electrical circuits.
tanker is discussed. Electromagnetic submarine
propulsion has been considered by several investi- The internal duct direct current System, while
gators(4-9). It held little promise till it became simple in concept, leads to a water jet of high
evident that large electromagnets could be made velocity, and gives a jet efficiency
from superconducting metals. Analysis shows that
by means of electromagnetic propulsion it might be
2
possible, for large submarines, to realize a sig- I, - u.
(1)
nificant increase in propulsive efficiency, thereby 1 + j
giving additional advantage to the submarine tanker u
concept. However, it is very clear that there are
many difficult problems that arise in construction where.isjet velocity and u is boat speed. This
and applying the electromagnetic propulsion system. jet efficiency must be multiplied with the electro-
It is the intention of this paper to be descriptive magnetic pump (duct) efficiency, To, to obtain the
and to highlight the problem areas, emphasizing the propulsive efficiency
difficulties as well as some of the advantages of
the electromagnetic system of propulsion. No at- = lj ID (2)
tempt is made to evaluate economic factors.
Since ui/u must be about 1.4 to 1.5 for a duct of
2. Electromagnetic Propulsion Methods reasonably small size, ni becomes about 0.8; the
product in Eq. 2 then becomes less than 0.7 in most
Electromagnetic propulsion of a submarine can cases, and this propulsion system is not attractive
be effected either with an internal flow or exter- from the efficiency standpoint.
nal flow arrangement, and either by use of a direct
current system or an induction system. These The external field system, by virtue of apply-
several methods are shown schematically in Fig. 2 ing small body (Lorentz) forces to a very large
a,b,c,d. The internal flow systems use an electro- expanse of surrounding water, can achieve an ni
magnetic pump, either in simple crossed field(7,8) essentially unity, and the propulsive efficiency 71
arrangement, 2a, or in the form of a linear in- can be quite high. The magnetic field, however,
duction motorl9), Fig. 2b. The external field spreads out from the hull into the surrounding sea,
method may also use either direct currents and a factor which could, under certain circumstances,
crossed fields(6), Fig. 2c, or a varying magnetic be troublesome.
field with induced currents(9), Fig. 2d.
Advantages and disadvantages of the several
schemes are indicated below:*
B
Internal, d.c., Fig. 2a
---.,
f----
-F -
U--.',-----
ji 98
1
___ ---'
1
-i
_ -.c::-___',..,,
ui u ------
,
r
,, o ,,
,
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
Compact, slight external field
Low larger power plant
u.
l
, - B
CZ=
Advantages: Good 1. Low flow disturbance
Advantages: No electrodes
C. d.
Disadvantages: Low n. Non-superconducting magnet.
Spreading magnetic fields
Fig. 2-Methods for electromagnetic propulsion The implied advantage of no electrodes for 2b
and 2d should not be taken too seriously, as pre-
In the induction method, a magnetic field of liminary experimental studies have shown that pola-
intensity proportional to sin 2v(x-ct)Ps. is provided rization losses at the electrodes are negligible.
by energizing a number of magnet coils successively.
Circulating currents are induced in the conducting For the ensuing discussion in this paper it is
sea water that interact with the magnetic field to assumed that an external flow dc arrangement is
provide rearwardly directed forces on the water. used.
No electrodes are necessary. The magnetic wave
speed, c, must be larger than the water flow speed.
This induction motor method has the disadvantages
of not being amenable to use of superconducting
*These advantages and disadvantages refer only to the relative merits of schemes of Fig. 2, not to
the merits of electromagnetic propulsion vs. propeller drives.
- 2 -
3. Theory of the External Field The curvilinear coordinates p and * are derived
Direct Current System as the real and imaginary parts of a function of
the complex variable x + i y:
A multipole system may be used as indicated in k
Fig. 3. A 6-pole arrangement is preferred because w = 9 + i* = Ln -
it leads to an acceptably good efficiency while (vb)k + (5)
keeping the stray field inside the hull'reasonably
low. A simple 2-pole configuration could yield The magnitudes of the gradients of T and * are
higher efficiency, but tife problem of shielding
against the internal field is more serious. equal and are denoted by h:
dw
h = laT . Igrad pl = i grad * (6)
a
magnet Coil
The magnitudes of E and f then become
2b
veh bh
E.- --__ , = R
ok (7)
e
Magnet Conductors
Parameter pe is the value of 9 on the electrode
= kJ,
2k = No. of Electrodes
k = 3 in Case Shown
surface, the latter being chosen to conform to a
Electrode surface of constant T in order to insure that E
and f are perpendicular vectors. There is a rela-
e tion of Te to the angle 6e where the electrode
surface meets the hull (see Fig. 3):
Fig. 3Electromagnetic submarine configuration I Schematicl
At the outset, we shall summarize certain re- The active field region is assumed to be of
lations that apply for the case of 2k electrodes length "a" along the middle section of the hull.
and exciting conductors': The assumption is made In this region the current density is expressed as
that the field configuration has an active length
at least four times the hull diameter. The equa- 3= (f + 171 x f) (9)
tions are given in two dimensional form, neglecting
end effects. The water flow along the sides of the Since vectors f, T1, f are perpendicular and since
hull in this active field region is assumed to have 3 x S (the Lorentz force) is to be in the same
uniform velocity u. The latter assumption is justi- direction as it follows that 1.1 x f is oppo-
1-1,
fied on the basis of the use of the center section sitely directed to E. Since the ratio of magnitude
only for the Propulsion system, and the relatively of B and E is a constant, we may introduce the
small momentum changes given the water in the constant parameter, n:
'"stream tubes" by the sm.11 applied Lorentz forces.
There will be reduced velocity in the boundary u-f-
B Bo b
layer, of course, and this will tend to lead to n - u Irv- pe
larger dissipative joule losses. It is possible that e
Icertain design measures can mitigate the latter
losses. In any case, the theoretical limitations Uxf= -nf
in the present treatment may be removed in ensuing
more detailed analyses. The magnitude of the current density is then ex-
pressed as:
The electric and magnetic fields for a confi- (12)
guration as that in Fig. 3, but with 2k electrodes, j= E(1-n)
are described in terms of-two conjugate harmonic Or
functions p and which are proportional to the
electric and magnetic potentials: (1-n) (13)
e Te
3
Integration of j B in the external region, and the electrode shell, depends on considerations
consisting of the 4k sectors, gives the total of the limiting critical field B for the super-
propulsive force: conducting material. Figure 3 shEws, schematically,
in section, the outline form of the magnet winding,
o o which is circular in cross section, and the
electrode. The field B exists at the point
F 4 ka j B 4 t* (15) r b, e. A/2k - 6. Calculation of B at r b
leads to the relation
-g/ 2
Pe
B B sin k 6 (25)
o cr
Substitution from (14) gives directly
The angle Oe where the electrode intercepts
F = 2A Ve a Bo a b (1-n) (16) the hull is slightly removed from the periphery of
the magnet coil, as indicated in Fig. 3. We may
relate 5 and ee by means of a multiplier w:
The thrust power then becomes
e . - w 5 (26)
Fu . 2g u Ve a Bo ab (1-n) (17) e 2k
PT
In this way we obtain the relation of ye and 6, in
The current, I, from one electrode to its
place of (8):
neighbor, on one side, is found by integrating
current density j along the + x axis fram b toco: -1
-tanh o cok 6) (27)
(cospe
The propulsive efficiency in an operating sub- Design calculations may be made as follows:
marine is determined by the condition that the
voltage Ve is sufficiently high to make the thrust Assume hull form, dimensions L, b, a and
equal to the hull drag. This means that coefficient CD, and determine a.
Select an appropriate value for Ber, and
1
2g Ve a Bo a b(1-n) 7 pu2 S C, (22) electrode number 2k.
Calculate V for various speeds u.
Select w and 5 and determine Te.
where CD is a drag coefficient based on wetted Calculate 71 for various speeds u.
surface, S. Calculate drag for each speed from
- 4 -
(i) Calculate current 21 from one anode by However, in order to avoid excessively large
diameters for hulls of large displacement, a larger
value will here be assumed. It is also advantageous
PE
21 . (32) to have an approximately cylindrical portion of the
2Ve k hull amidship to facilitate application of electro-
magnetic propulsion. The hull form adopted for the
If we compare designs with different k-values, present study is similar to that treated by Russo,
several alternate assumptions could be ri fie. One et al(2) for the 30,000 DWT version, designed for
possibility is to hold 6 constant while varying k. 30 knots. (Table 4 of Ref. 2). This hull has a
This procedure leads to higher efficiencies with cylindrical center body of 20% L, and a ratio Li2b
larger k values; however, by holding 5 constant or 8.75. The combined length LE of the fore and
while increasing k the amount of superconducting aft figure of revolution portions is 80% L and the
material is considerably increased, and also surface area of these portions is 0.7374 (2x b LE).
refrigeration power requirements. Therefore, one The total hull wetted surface is
may proceed on another assumption, namely, keep the
product 0th constant while varying k. It then turns S . 0.7874 (22 b L) (33)
out that the amount of superconducting material
remains constant, as well as the total electrode The prismatic coefficient of the hull is 0.60. The
surface area. In this case, better efficiency is profile of the hull is shown in Fig. 5.
realized with small k-values.
Lc
5-Assurried ha form
0. 8
111111111 Hull dimensional parameters for submarine
\ mum
11521 tankers of three submerged displacements are given
in Table 1. In this table LEF and LEA are the
mill
0.7 lengths of the figure of revolution forebody and
afterbody, respectively, and Lc is the length of the
cylindrical center body.
0.6
\ Table 1
-
0. 4
0.
----
kb= 0.2
kb= 0.15
MEN 3
LE?
LEA
Lc
meters
meters
meters
meters
50.6
75.6
31.5
9 11.35
63.6
95.1
39.7
14.3
80.2
119.8
50
S meters2 7025 11180 17780
0. 6 metric tons 22500 45000 90000
O .002 003 . 004 .005
It is possible that an elliptical hull section of beam to depth ratio 2:1 could be applied without
excessive increase in drag, but for the present discussion the circular form will be assumed.
ActpPlly a slight reduction is introduced into CD to allow for the possibility of future refinements
of hull forms. This should, of course, be taken into account, along with the lower roughness
contribution, in making comparisons with conventional submarines.
- 5-
given by Russo, et al(2) and Todd(3), but with the The general arrangement of the submarine tanker
modification that a smaller roughness contribution for the Case (a) or (b) configuration is shown in
is assumed, 0.0001 being used instead of 0.0004. Fig. 7. The magnet coils, of long rectangular
We assume that the electromagnetic submarine tanker form, lie along the sides of the hull, the
is built with an exceptionally smooth hull, free electrodes forming slightly protruding bulges which
from plate overlaps and other sources of parasitic run axially.
drag. A 15% allowance has been used for appendages,
as in Ref. (2). The aft section of the hull might be used for
the power plant. Far astern it would also house
In Eq. 28, parameter a appears. The value of steering motors and aft trim tank. The latter
a for the assumed hull configuration is 27.6. could be placed in the vertical and horizontal fins.
Number 3 main ballast tank might be in the forward
For the specific tankers under consideration part of the aft section.
we make assumptions as follows:
The forward section could contain crew's
Case (a) Case (b) quarters, control and navigational aids, stores and
supplies, the No. 1 main ballast tank and the for-
CD . 0.00156 = 0.00156 ward trim tank. Also, air conditioning equipment
CD
k =2 k =3 and trim pumps could be located here.
Rcr = 7 tesla B. . 7 tesla
a . 4.5 mho/m a = 4.5 mho/m., A tubular passage way, or tunnel, with steel
p = 1030 kg/m3 p = 1030 kg/m' walls, running through the center section, would
=1.1 cc=1.1 connect fore and aft sections of the hull. This
=27.6 =27.6 tunnel might be of radius about 0.3b, and could
6 =0.10 6 =0.08 have at least two decks. Refrigeration equipment
k6 . 0.20 k6 . 0.24 for the cryogenic system could be located in the
Bo = 1.39 tesla = 1.664 tesla lower portion. The steel walls would constitute a
Bo
9e = -2.203 9, = -2.019 pressure barrier against the sea pressure, and
0.428 4- =o.1+28 would also serve as magnetic shielding.
FWD Trim Tank Cargo Tanks
1 Control RM Reactor Mach. Shop
1_ - u
Tunnel
Aft Trim
1 + 1.157 i 1 + 1.322 T.
PT, PE, 2Vh and 21 are given in Tables 2a and 2b for /1 MBT - 112 MBT I3MBT Engine RM
the tankers of three displacements, and for three Refrig. Equipt.
Air Cond. System
speeds of 5, 10 and 15 meters/sec (9.7, 19.4 and
-Stues
29.1 knots). Knts reW OmierS
lO 20 30 Fig. 7-Disposition d tanks and eqwpment in hull
1.0
Speed, u meters/sec
10 15 If a is L/2 and if we have prismatic coefficient 0.6,
Knots
then V is about 0.6 of the hull displaced volume.
10 The liquid cargo would exist at a pressure equal to
1.0
that of the sea, at the hull bottom.
6
Table 2 (a)
Table 2 (p)
S.dg (35)
JI-Lo =
where the integration extends around the winding. ---- N Evacuated Space With
Outer Envelope
Evaluation is most simply made if the path of Radiation Shields
One sees that for small 6, the effect of neighboring meters2 ; b b meters ;
rm
windings disappears and the current J is related to
the field at radius b b by the usual relation. (37)
meters
To use the superconducting material most
rm
effectively, the winding should preferably be in
the form of a hollow annulus, in cross section, as Total mass of the composite material in the k
shown in Fig. 8. Outer radius of the annular magnet coils is given by
bundle is designated rm, and its thickness is t.
The conductors would be of composite construction; 3000 k At (2a + 2x b sin !y) (38)
with optimized design it is anticipated that the Wm
composite would consist of about 10% void for
liquid helium circulation, 81% shunt conductor Values are given in Table 3 of J, rm, Am, t and
material and 9% superconducting material with a Wm for the Cases (a) and (b). The thickness t
7
Table 3
Case(a), k . 2 Case(b), k =3
Il metric tons 25,000 50000
, 100000
, 25000
, 50000
, 100,000
b meters 9.0 11.35 14.3 9.0 11.35 14.3
rm meters 0.90 1.135 1.43 0.72 0.908 1.144
10-7 J amps 3.13 3.95 4.98 2.497 3.145 3.965
An meters2 0.314 0.396 0.499 0.250 0.315 0.397
t meters 0.0555 0.0555 0.0555 0.0554 0.0554 0.0554
Wm metric tons 372 589 940 419 665 1055
10-7 Fm newt.imeter 1.052 1.376 1.736 0.693 0.872 1.100
Fm lbs/in 60,200 78,600 99,600 39,650 49,900 63,000
Magnet Bed
remains nearly constant for all cases, a result
Magnet Bed
that may be anticipated from relations (56) and Insulating
(37). Spacers Electrode
U-Strap
The mass of composite magnet material varies Double Wall
as the square of the scale factor, while Csveries
as the cUbe. Hence, the larger the submarine, the
more favorable the situation as regards the rela-
tive weight of the magnet.
F. . J2o
10_7 J2
7;7 newtons/meter (39)
The major advantage of the low conductivity
Values are given in Table 3 for the several cases. spacer method of support is that the casing
It is seen that F is extraordinarily large, but structure of the magnet can be fastened to the
that Case (b), wiTh six poles, has some advantage hull structure by simple tie-bands.
over Case (a) with four poles.
A rough estimate may be made of the refrigera-
There are two ways, illustrated in Fig. 9 (a) tion power requirement for the magnet. With well-
and (b), that might be considered to provide force designed thermal shielding and evacuated space in
transmission from the winding to the main hull the region between the outer jacket of the winding
structure. One involves the use of tie rods. The and the tubular casing, the heat infiltration due
other would use spacers of high compressive strength to radiAtion across this space will be about 0.14
and low thermal conductance. In both cases, the watts/m'. For the 50,000 metric ton submarine of
heat flow inwards must be carefully considered. In Case (a) the casing area is about 3900 sq. meters,
the case of tie rods, the heat leakage can be kept and for Case (b), about 4380 sq. meters. Corres-
within acceptable limits, but the structure is ponding heat leaks are 546 watts and 614 watts.
complex. In the case of the spacers the structure Refrigeration power required would be, for this
is greatly simplified, but it is not known whether portion of the heat leakage, approximately 546 kw
materials, and a design configuration, can be in Case (a) and 614 kw in Case (b). The other
found to keep the heat leakage within bounds. major part of the heat infiltration would be that
due to conductance along the tie rods. The tie rod
Calculation of required tie rod dimensions, heat leakage, with vapor cooling, and rods 3 meters
for rods running radially inward 72" apart, and long, would be such as to require an additional
assuming high strength material of 300,000 psi refrigeration power of 660 kw for Case (a) and 590
working stress, leads to 4.9" diameter-rods for kw for Case (b). Thus, for 50,000 tons,.the tie
Case (a) and 3.9" diameter rods for Case (b). The rod method of coil support could lead to combined
total number of tie rods for all coils is 271 for radiation and conduction refrigeration power re-
Case (a) and 382 for Case (b) including restraints quirements of about 1200 kw for either Case (a) or
on the end turns. Tie rod heat leakage will be ).
about 10% lower in Case (b) than Case (a).
- 8 -
With the use of insulating spacers, the final
solution would depend on the ratio of compressive m (42)
N u + 1
strength to thermal conductivity for the spacers.
Here also, two stage or vapor cooling would help For a spherical body the factor N is 4x/3. In
reduce refrigeration power requirements. The order to lift an iron object from the sea bottom,
feasibility of the spacer method of construction the value of f would need to be 6680 dynes/cm3,
from the standpoint of refrigeration requirements considering the buoyancy as well as the weight.
has not yet been ascertained. A design goal might (Electromagnetic units used in the present calcula-
be set at keeping refrigeration power less than 5% tion). The following lifting distances, d*, between
of the power PE, at the top speed of 29.1 knots. hull bottom and sea bottom are found by evaluation
The great simplification of structure and assembly of the r.h. member of Eq. 41 on the vertical axis:
could justify acceptance of higher refrigeration
power in the spacer support method than in the tie Table 5
rod method.
Lifting Distances for Steel Ball on Bottom
Stray Magnetic Fields
Case (a) Case (b)
For naval submarines the spreading magnetic met. tons 25000 50000 100000 25000 50000 100000
field outside the hull might be objectionable, and 2b meters 18 22.7 28.6 18 22.7 28.6
in that case a large k-value would be selected for d* meters 7.5 8.60 10.0 6.75 8.00 9.50
the design. For the tanker application, the
spreerling external field is chiefly of concern as it
may lead to unwanted attractive forces on iron It would be preferable to maintain a bottom clear-
objects, either boats on the surface, or debris on ance somewhat larger than d* to guard against metal
the bottom. pick-up. Elongated objects, oriented toward the
hull, will have an N-value somewhat smaller than the
The strength of the external magnetic field in value for the sphere.
teslas is given in Table 4, along lines passing
through windings (0 = W2k) or centered between The field inside the hull could prove hazardous
windings (e = o). to personnel unless shielding is used. The value of
B on a radial line passing through the center of a
Table 4 magnet winding (0 = W2k) is given by
- 9 -
A cylindrical wall of thickness 0.01b at r2 0.3b enclosing jackets can be estimated from the
will probably suffice in Case (b). relation
, 1 aU
Gas Evolution (45)
= 2A Za'c
Gas will be evolved at the electrodes amounting
to one gram equivalent for each 96,500 coulombs of where a is the coil radius and U is the energy
electricity. At the anodes, 0.25 gram moles of 02 stored in the field.
are released, and at the cathodes 0.50 gram moles of
H2 If current 2kI flows out of the anodes and into
the cathodes, the number of gram moles released per
second is
0.75 x 2kI
n - _ 1.555 x 10-5 Ik
g 96,500
v = 22.4 x 1.555 x l0
is then 10 atm. E. 2.
Preliminary experiments have shown that the in- 7. Model Experiments
sulating effect of the gas bubbles is quite negligi-
ble. Gas evolution would not appear to be a serious In 1966, at the University of California in
problem. Santa Barbara,* a model 10 feet long, of 900 lbs
displacement was constructed. This model had as its
6. Designs with Self-Restraining Coils objectives (1) demonstration of an operating ex-
ternal field electromagnetic submarine, (2) pro-
It is conceivable that the electromagnetically vision of an interesting design project for mechanical
propelled tanker could be designed with a self- engineering students.
supporting coil. In this case, the simplest con-
figuration would be a magnet coil in the form of a The model, designated EMS-1, was of bipolar
circular ring. The cryogenic chamber would be of field arrangement, as illustrated in Fig. 11.
torroidal form. 10001
We might here consider either an external field
or an internal duct arrangement. The external con-
figuration is pictured in Fig. 10a. The coil would
extend laterally outwardly, leading to a vessel of
quite a large beam. The draft might thereby be
slightly reduced, which would be an advantage.
There would be some lessening of propulsive efficiency Y
because of the relatively smaller active field region,
but this would be offset by a reduction of refrigera-
j;
tion power requirements because of the much simpler
ie'
problem of coil support in this case. Only the
weight of the coil would have to be carried by the
I- fiedroatoindIc sower.. mewl
supports.
The winding itself would restrain the electro- The author was serving as Professor of
magnetic forces. The tension in the coil and Mechanical Engineering during the period.
The center section consisted of a basic structure Todd, F. H., "Submarine Cargo Ships and Tankers,"
of 17 3/4" O. D. steel tube of about 1/4" wall 3rd Symposium on Naval Hydrodynamics,
(after machining) with recessed troughs on the side Scheveningen, Holland, September, 1960.
formed from half sections of 5" pipe. This
assembly formed a spool, on which was wound the Rice, W. A.; U.S. Patent 2,997,013, August 12,
magnet coil. The coil consisted of two windings, 1961.
about 1275 feet each, of No. 4 aluminum wire, plus
an additional 1200 feet of No. 12 coppdr wire. Way, S., "Examination of Bipolar Electric and
Magnetic Fields for Submarine Propulsion," Pre-
liminary Memorandum, Communication to U.S. Navy
Bureau of Ships, October 15, 1958.
Power for magnet and electrode circuits was Way, S. and Devlin, C., "Prospects for the Electro-
provided by five series connected 6-volt lead- magnetic Submarine." (Paper to be submitted to AIAA
acid batteries of 217 a.h. each. At the high Propulsion Specialists Conference, July 17, 1967).
current drawn by these two circuits, discharge time
vas about 20 minutes, and ampere hours available
fell to 72. Notation: (MES units, except as noted.
Vector quantities written with bar,
Tests were made of this model(11) and the magnitudes without bar, e.g. E and B)
design operating speed was realized. Separate
tests indicated negligible polarization effects at 5, j current density
the electrodes. S, B magnetic induction
P, E electric intensity
8. Concluding Remarks 11, H magnetic field intensity
M induced magnetization
The submarine tanker offers some advantages f force per unit volume on magnetized body
and some disadvantages; the principal disadvantage 171, u flow velocity, or ship speed
is the large draft in the normal surface condition. uj jet speed
With electromagnetic propulsion it appears possible x,y rectangular coordinates
to realize an added gain in propulsive efficiency r,0 polar coordinates
that should further enhance the competitive position k number of anodes or cathodes
of the submarine tanker. However, this will be V electric potential
possible only if (a) certain difficult problems of Ve half voltage between electrodes
magnet design and support can be solved, (b) the half current from one anode
refrigeration power can be kept less than about 5% current in magnet coil (amp. turns)
of the full load power, (e) economic considerations B, value of B at r b, 0=0
do not rule out the electromagnetic tanker on the critical B for superconducting material
basis of higher capital costs. Ecr
hull radius of submarine amid ships
hull length
Lc length of cylindrical center body
References length of forward figure of rev. section
IEF
LEA length of aft figure of rev. section
Sheets, H. E., "The Engineering of Submarines." LE= LEA + LEF
Mechanical Engineering, January, 1962, p. 37. A. cross-section of conductors in winding
rm radius of annular conductor
Russo, V. L.; Turner, H., and Wood, F. W., thickness of annular conductor
"Submarine Tankers," Transactions of the mass of composite material in mag. coils
Society of Naval Architects and Marine Wm
force per unit length on mag. conductor
Engineers. Vol. 68, 1960, p. 693. BT hypothetical B-value, uniform field
-11-
11-
Bi hypothetical B-value inside shielded region permeability of free space, 4g X 10-7
N demagnetizing factor of magnetized body relative permeability
d* lifting distance, iron body on sea bottom qV conjugate harmonic functions
ri,r2 inner and outer radii of interior tunnel W p + i* w()
ng gm. moles gas evolved per sec. x + iy
vg liters gas evolved per second interaction parameter 2aoBo2Lpu
U energy in magnetic field interaction parameter 2a0Ber-d/pu
ratio UB/E value of e where electrode meets hull
CD hull drag coeff. based on S, appended hull ratio x/2k-ee to
surface area of bare hull half angle subtended by mag. winding
drag of fully appended hull value of p on electrode surface
PT thrust power electrical conductivity of sea water
PE electric power to electrodes density of sea water
a length of active field region 8*,pe* optimum values for max. n
a defined by Eq. 24 submerged displacement, met, tons
rl propulsive efficiency, PT/PE E normal displacement at surface
jet efficiency Ve cargo storage volume
MHD duct (pump) efficiency value of dy/d0
I
-12 -
No. 61364
Paper No.
67-364
Abstract
1
Table I. considerably among these vehicles. In
Summary of Life Support Requirements military submarines (crew size - 70 to 130
men) this volume ranges from,about
orma 800 ft3/man to about 1200 fti/man while in
Requirement Design Point research submarines and space vehicles
(crew size - 1 to 7) it is as little as
Oxygen consumption 2.2 lbs/man-day 50 1t3/man.
Carbon dioxide expiration 2.4 lbs/man-day
Military submarines and research sub-
Water intake - food and marines have individual life support sub-
drinking 6.2 lbs/man-day systems whereas in space vehicles all life
support systems are integrated into one
Food intake 1.4 lbs/man-day loop to provide all functions of the
(dry basis) environmental control system (ECS). In
the case of the military submarine the
Waste output - solid and life support system is of secondary
liquid 6-7 lbs/man-day importance compared to the weapon system
and the power supply system. The life
Temperature range 60-80°F support components were developed
separately as the requirements developed
Relative humidity 40-70% and were located in the spaces available
after the primary systems were arranged.
Life support units are therefore at
The operating environments (external and different locations throughout the ship.
internal) of inner and outer space vehicles
are compared in Table TI. This table Research submarines are usually a one
illustrates some of the vast differences of a kind vehicle and must be designed and
that exist in these two hostile external fabricated at a moderate cost. This again
environments. leads to separate life support subsystems
rather than a completely integrated
Table III lists the design criteria in environmental control system.
order of importance for the three types of
vehicles under consideration. For modern In the case of space vehicles there are
military submarines and research subMarines, usually a number of vehicles of thesame
minimum equipment volume is usually the design. Weight must be optimized with
controlling criterion for non-nuclear sub- cost not as important. These criteria
marines electric power is also a con- lead to an integrated life support system.
trolling factor. For deep-diving research
submarines (greater than about 5000 ft.) Another general difference fs in the
minimum weight assumes increased importance. area of reliability. Ail systems of a
For space vehicles weight and power are space vehicle must be very highly
usually the principal controlling criteria. reliable. The present space missions have
Power is usually converted to an equivalent no time for performing maintenance and
weight penalty for space vehicles. emergency rescues would be most difficult
to perform. The crew is free to abort a
There are other general differences mission at only certain times during orbit.
between the various types of vehicles being
considered which are worthy of note. The Military submarines carry spare parts,
floodable or free volume per man differs perform maintenance on life support eluip-
Table II. Comparison of Environments
Notes: (1) Except for high pressure He/Op mixtures used in some diving (Sea Lab
Project), salvage, and rescue-operations.
(2) Currently under review by NASA.
2
Table III. Controlling Factors for Hardware Selection
Some of the ways of providing the Table IV summarizes the types of oxygen
necessary oxygen for a closed system are supply utilized in the three vehicle
applications under consideration. In the
reviewed below,
summary tables in this review paper the
High-Pressure Gas Cylinders or Spheres research submarines include those that are
This approach to oxygen supply has been operational or under construction for which
Because of the
widely used on military submarines, researdh information was available.
submarines, and space vehicles. Gaseous long mission requirements of the modern
oxygen is stored at pressures ranging from military submarine, storage of the
2,000 to 7,500 psi and bled into the necessary oxygen is not feasible. The
atmosphere as required. power availability and the unlimited supply
of water make electrolysis a natural
solution to the oxygen supply problem. A
Cryogenic Oxygen Storage
Cryogenic oxygen may be stored in few weeks eqoply of oxygen is maintained in
insulated spheres either subcritically or oxygen flasks as a back-up to the electroly-
supercritically. Supercritical storage is sis system. (Some earlier submarines employ
usually used in space applications to oxygen flasks as their main source of oxy-
eliminate phase separation problems. gen and chlorate candles as a back-up.)
3
For research submarines compressed oxy- Table V.
gen in conventional flasks is commonly used. Carbon Dioxide Removal Methods
The cost of this approach is moderate and
the logistics are not difficult at pressunm
of about 2000 psig. Also weight and volume Modern military submarines:
are not as critical for missions of less Monoethanolamine scrubbers
than 24 hours. For the longer missions (regenerable)
(and deeper depths) weight becomes much Back-up - LIOH absorption
more important and the use of liquid oxy-
gen, chlorate candles, or superoxides must Research submarines:
be considered. LiOH lAr/blower) - 9 vehiclesDI
LiOH passive) -'1 vehicle
For the Mercury space vehicle compressed Sodasorb w/blower) - 4 vehicles
oxygen at 7500 psi was used in weight Baralyme w/blower) - 1 vehicle
optimized (but costly) spheres. For the Baralyme passive) - 1 vehicle
Gemini and Apollo vehicle with their longer
mission, supercritical oxygen was used to Space Vehicles (Mercury, Gemini and
give a lower weight penalty and a one Apollo):
phase fluid. It is reported that the LIOH (w/blower)
Russian manned space vehicles use an
-active chemical believed to be super- Russian space vehicles:
oxides for the oxygen supply as well as Superoxides
CO2 removal system.
(1)Electric Boat's STAR series can use
III. Carbon Dioxide Removal superoxides as alternate.
Methods presently utilized for removing
CO2 from sealed environments are reviewed The military submarines with their long
below. missions require a regenerable CO2
removal system. Since ample power is
Lithium Hydroxide available, this also lends itself to a
Lithium hydroxide (Li0H) is used in a regenerable system. The use of a mono-
granular form and can absorb about 0.9 lb ethanolamine system is very difficult to
CO2 per lb of Li0H. It does tend to dust beat based on the volume required to
and an efficient filter must be used. provide a specific scrubbing capacity.
Although normally used with a blower, it Lithium hydroxide canisters are carried
can be used passively or by spreading on on all submarines as a back-up to the MEA
flat surfaces for a no-power, emergency scrubbers.
situation.
Lithium hydroxide, Baralyme, and Soda-
Baralyme sorb are all used on research submarines.
Baralyme is a trade name of a granular The LiOH is the best based on weight and
material containing approximately 80% volume requirements but its dust is very
Ca(OH)2 as the principal absorbent, plus a irritating. Baralyme and Sodasorb are
dye as a color indicator. It also contains frequently used for short missions (less
an "activator" (barium octahydrate) to than 2)4 hours) because they are somewhat
obtain gOod reaction rates with low CO? easier to handle. For longer missions
concentrations. LIOH is usually used to obtain minimum
weight.
Sodasorb
Sodasorb is similar to Baralyme in that All the U.S. space vehicles to date use
it also contains about 80% Ca(OH)2 and a LiOH for CO2 removal to obtain minimum
dye. Sodasorb (commonly called soda lime) weight. In the case of the Russian space
contains NaOH and KOH as an 'activator-. vehicles it is reported that they utilize
superoxides for both oxygen supply and CO?
Monoethanolamine removal to obtain minimum weight.
Since the advent of nuclear submarines,
much research has been done to optimize a IV. Trace Contaminant and Odor Control
CO2 removal system for submarine applica-
tion. Many liquid absorbents have been A large number and variety of contamin-
investigated and evaluated. The optimum ants are produced in a closed system by the
absorbent (for minimum volume) is a solu- crew members, machinery, and materials of
tion of monoethanolamine (TA) and water. conatruction. Many of these trace con-
MEA has the ability to absorb CO? when cool taminants are difficult to detect and/or
and to release it when hot, which allows a measure quantitatively. Methods used to
regenerative system. remove trace contaminants are summarized
below.
Activated Carbon
Table V summarizes the types of CO2 For any mission of more than a day,
removal systems employed in the three activated carbon filters are usually used
vehicle applications under consideration. to remove trace contaminants from the
atmosphere. Most carbon is located in a
4
main carbon filter. In research sub- a heavy CO and aerosol contaminant load.
marines and space vehicles this carbon is The inboard main storage battery gases
usually placed with the CO2 absorbent. In hydrogen when on charge. Cooking,
military submarines and some research sub- materials of construction, lubrication and
marines small carbon filters are also fuel oils all contribute to the contaminant
employed at spot locations such as the load of a submarine. Therefore, today's
sanitary tank vents. submarines have two catalytic burners,
about 1 lb carbon for every 75 ft3 of
Purafil floodable volume, and several electro-
Purafil is a trade name for a relative- static precipitators.
ly new odor control material consisting of
activated alumina in the shape of spherical Research submarines do not usually have
pellets impregnated with potassium perman- the contaminant problems of a military sub-
ganate. Purafil destroys odors by the marine. The crew does not smoke and there
processes of adsorption and chemical is usually no cooking. Batteries are
oxidation. usually stored outboard. The summary
table shows nine research vehicles with no
Catalytic Burners special provision for contaminant control,
Activated carbon filters effectively the others using carbon and Purafil. In.
remove the majority of trace contaminants: the case of one vehicle, with Inboard
the carbon, however, does not remove light batteries and a three day design mission,
gases such as hydrogen, methane, and CO. the explosive limit of hydrogen in air
Disposing of these light gases at a rea- could be approached under the worst condi-
sonable temperature can be accomplished tions. If the mission were to be several
only with the aid of a catalyst. days longer, a catalytic burner would
probably be required. All space vehicles
Electrostatic Precipitators use activated carbon even for short
ContamIñants can occur as aerosols, missions as little as one orbit. The
which are defined as particulate matter, difference between these short missions
either solid or liquid, s-spended in the and the inner space short missions is the
atmosphere, with particle sizes usually internal pressure. Since the space
less than 1 micron in diameter. Aerosols vehicles operate at reduced pressure, many
reduce cooling coil efficiency and increase of the materials of construction are sub-
electronic and fan failures by collecting ject to outgassing and therefore trace
on surfaces exposed to air flow. Electro- contaminants can become more of a problem.
static precipitators utilize electric However, there is a compensating factor in
forces to separate aerosols from a gas that space vehicles have a finite leak
stream. D.C. voltages as high as 15,000 rate, thus some purging of contaminants
volts ionize gas molecules, which impart naturally occurs. Submarines, obviously,
their charge to aerosol particles. The cannot purge atmospheric contaminants in
charged aerosols are then collected on a this way.
collecting plate.
V. Temperature and Humidity Control
Table VI summarizes the type of trace
contaminant control methods used in various The types of temperature and humidity
applications. control methods employed in various vehicle
applications are summarized in Table VII.
Table VI.
Trace Contaminant Control Methods With an abundance of available power and
an excellent heat sink, the modern military
submarine has no problem maintaining.
Modern military submarines: temperature and humidity throughout the
Catalytic burner ship at comfortable levels. Air condi-
Activated carbon tioning plants provide chill water to
Electrostatic precipitator cooling coils throughout the ship. Some
present day submarines have about 220
Research submarines: tons of refrigeration of the vapor-com-
No special provision - 9 vehicles pression type using Freon as the refrig-
Activated carbon - 5 vehicles erant. In addition, they have about
Purafil - 1 vehicle 210 tons of the absorption type with
Activated carbon + Purafil - 1 vehicle LiBr as the refrigerant.
Absolute filter - 1 vehicle
Space vehicles:
Activated carbon Research submarines usually cannot
afford electrical power for operating an
air conditioning unit. Many short-mission
The military submarine is sealed up for research submarines have no provision for
many weeks at a time, longer than any other temperature and humidity control other than
vehicles that are being compared. The heat transfer through the hull. Ambient
length of mission contributes to the con- temperature within these submarines depends
taminant load of a sealed system. The crew on a balance between the heat load within
members are allowed to smoke which produces the vessel and the temperature of the
5
Table VII. VI. Water/Food/Waste Management
Temperature/Humidity Control Methods
Water management is an important element
of any life support system. The minimum
Modern military submarines: water requirements for food and drinking
Freon compression and absorption purposes are about 6.2 lb/man-day. Thus,
refrigeration; sea water heat ex- it is the most important requirement from
changer for heat sink a logistic point of view.
6
there are several other minor waste sources, Military Submarines
e.g., food scraps and packaging. The MEA scrubbers, as currently
designed, maintain a 002 level of about
Of the above wastes the sanitary waste one per cent. The Bureau of Medicine has
will be discussed since it is the most recently recommended a maximum level of
difficult to handle in a closed vehicle. 0.5 per cent CO2 for extended missions,
The methods used are summarized in Table and the Navy is endeavoring to develop
IX. Modern military submarines use fairly equipment to meet this level. As one
conventional flush (sea water) facilities. possible approach, General Dynamics is
The sanitary waste is collected in "hard" developing and optimizing a mixture of
tanks and blown over-board every 1-3 days sodium superoxide and sodium peroxide in
with compressed air. (Activated carbon is high density form for use in an all-
used in the tank inboard vent for odor chemical system for generating oxygen and
control). For research submarines of short removing carbon dioxide (see Figure 1).
mission duration (up to 2)4 hours) waste The high density chemical bricks are
management facilities are either minimal or stored in watertight and gas-tight con-
non-existant. For longer missions inboard tainers with a pull-tab on the bottom.
storage with a chemical disinfectant The containers are loaded into the unit
(phenolic or iodine complex compound) is with the bottom opening of each can over a
used. A special toilet design is used to spray nozzle. Water is then passed through
allow for odor control and use of minimal the spray nozzles against the bottom of the
flush water quantities. For space vehicles chemical bricks. Oxygen gas is released
the urine is vented; feces is collected and a sodium hydroxide solution formed
using a "glove" bag, mixed with a dis- which flows to the bottom of the reactor.
infectant (phenolic complex), and stored. This caustic solution Is then circulated
through a packed column to scrub CO2 from
Table IX. the air, which is also forced through the
Sanitary Waste Management packed column. This complete 02 producing
and CO2 removal system would require only
slightly more volume than one MEA scrubber,
Modern military submarines: plus storage volume for the chemical bricks.
Conventional flush facilities; waste The big advantage of this type of system is
stored and discharged out-board every its simplicity compared to the high
1-3 days Pressure electrolytic oxygen generator
and MEA scrubber.
Research submarines:
No special provision - 11 vehicles
Urine bottle + emergency bags -
2 vehicles
Chemical toilet - 1 vehicle
Chemical disinfection and storage -
2 vehicles
Space vehicles:
Urine vented; feces stored in bags with
disinfectant
7
Research Submarines VIII. Conclusion
As noted earlier, minimum weight
becomes very important as mission depth This brief review and comparison of the
is increased. To reduce weight (as com- various life support systems used on
pared to compressed gaseous oxygen) one of modern military submarines, research sub-
the following three approaches will marines, and space vehicles illustrated
probably be used: (1) chlorate candles plus some of the similarities and differences'.
Li0H, (2) liquid oxygen plus UGH, or (3) of these systems under various applica-
sodium or potassium superoxide (to both tions. The results of these comparisons
supply 02 and remove CO?). A two-man shows that there are many similarities in
superoxide system has been tested at the life support system of the inner and
Electric Boat in a sealed environment and outer space vehicles. ' It is concluded that
is presently designed for use in the STAR life support systems-for deep-diving
III research submarine. The use of regen- research submarines (except for heat
erative techniques for CO2 removal are not rejection) have the greatest similarity
anticipated in the next géneration research with space vehicle systems in that both
submarine because of the difficulty of dis- types of vehicles are usually weight
posing of the CO2 at deep depths. Oxygen critical, have a small crew, low volume to
recovery from the CO2 is not considered to man ratio, and low power availability.
be feasible because of the limited duration
of most underwater missions and the limited
availability of power.
Space Vehicles
A program recently completed by General
Dynamics Corporation (joint effort of
Convair division and Electric Boat division)
for NASA-Langley illustrates the integrated
life support system of the future. This
future system utilizes a semi-closed physio-
chemical approach. Carbon dioxide is
removed with Molecular Sieves (using silica
gel to pre-dry the air). The CO2 is driven
off by heating and is reduced in a catalytic FIGURE-2
reactor by either the Bosch reaction or the
MULTIFILTER WATER RECLAMATION SYSTEM
Sabatier reaction. Electrolysis of the
product water supplies 02 for breathing and
H2 for recycle.
For space missions beyond Apollo it is
anticipated that fuel cells (with their by-
product water) will not be used, therefore,
water reclamation will be utilized for all
waste sources except feces. A filtration
system suitable for reclamation of atmo-
sphere condensate or wash water is shown
in Figure 2. The unit illustrated weighs
only 10 lb and will produce 370 lb of pot-
able water; it is equally suitable for
space vehicles or for long mission, deep
diving submarines.
8
No. 61365
Paper No.
67-365
1
assumptions is feasible. In particular, investi- area which is within a small radial distance from
gations into the states of stress near general the hole; this region of the shell may be treated
as a shallow shell. Also, the shell thickness
curvilinear holes8 and reinforced curvilinear must be small to allow the use of a shallow, thin
holes9 in shells have been conducted. Approxi- shell theory.
mate methods involving perturbations of the
boundary shape are employed, and solutions are The behavior of the region of the shell which
formulated in terms of a series of circular is influenced by prescribed stresses and de-
boundary solutions. The applicability of the cir- formations on the circular boundary, based on
cular boundary results is thus extended to prob- linear, shaLlow, thin shell theory, may be de-
lems concerning other boundary shapes. scribed by the single complex nondimensional
differential equation
Many studies dealing with the problem of op- 4
timum reinforcement of circular cutouts in flat VO +gip2C, .0 (2)
plates have been performed (e. g., Ref. 10). No
attempt has been made in the present paper to The complex function is
define criteria for optimum reinforcement and
then study the effects of curvature on these
criteria, but an effort has been made to estab- = W - iF (3)
lish parameters and to present the results in a
form which might serve as suitable input for and
(4)
future optimization investigations of this kind. = a20/ aE2
shell is indicated in this figure, but for the deri- circumferential coordinate.
vation of the influence coefficients, only the prin-
cipal dimensions of the shell are needed. These A circular boundary implies that the boundary
are the shell radius R, uniform thickness t, conditions must be written for an edge of con-
boundary radius a, and material properties de- stant radius. It is therefore useful to introduce
scribed by elastic modulus E and Poisson' s the dimensionless polar coordinates defined as
ratio v. The curvature parameter is defined as
E= r cos rl =r sin El (5)
9
82 = a- [12 (1 - v2)] 1/2/8 Rt (1)
The stresses and deformations which describe
If the ratio of the boundary radius to the radius the conditions in the shell are shown in Fig. 2.
of curvature, a/R, is small, the effects of con- The definitions of these stress and deformation
ditions within the boundary may be confined to an quantities in terms of the normal displacement and
stress function are given in Appendix A, and the
bia relationships between the dimensional and non-
432-a2 [12/i -V211112/ 8R)
dimensional quantities are contained in Appendix
Y. E IE B.
2 //2)
p.2 (1.-v )/(1
T ° trIt Er, 1/, 77e
STRESS COUPLES
& ROTATIONS
e7)
STRESS RESULTANTS
& DISPLACEMENTS
2
Problems concerning the shell loaded by a uni- Once the unknown coefficients Cn and Dn have
form axial tension are symmetrical with regard been determined for a given unit periodic bound-
to both the g and r, axes, and so the solution to the ary stress quantity, and the solution function
governing equation, and the influence coefficients thereby determined, the influence coefficients are
obtained from this solution, will be required to given directly by the periodic edge deformations.
possess symmetry in g and n. The appropriate The quantities W and W, may be determined
solution to Eq. (2) which possesses the required
symmetry conditions and which is bounded at a directly, and the U and V displacements are de-
large distance from the boundary is termined by the procedure outlined in Appendix A.
The influence coefficient formulation may be
= (El -iE2 (An+il3n)H1n(pr(2i)1/2)cos ne written in matrix form as
n=0,2,4,...
N
Uo 11 12." rr0
+ (E3 - iE (An+iBn)H1n(pr(2i)2)cosne (")21
N
rr.
V2
The E functions are Nre2
+ e-(1-i)p)/2 ukk
E1 - iE2
Nre2
E3 - iE4 = (e (1-i)3g e-(1-i)P,F)(1 +0/4 W2
rro
3
N00' which may be written as prescribed conditions at the boundary, with the
effects of these conditions disappearing at large
distances from the boundary. The total solution
[Nee N is then obtained by adding the uniform stress
rr state to the residual stress solution. Thus, for
the hole problem, when the uniform state of
Nre stress under axial tension represented by the
single stress N = 1 is subtracted from the
rr total solution, the boundary conditions for the
Qr total solution, which require that the stresses
vanish at the hole, imply that the boundary con-
ditions for the residual problem are, at r = 1
The influence coefficients have been obtained
for discrete values of ,3 of 1/4, 1/2, 1, 2, and 3,
where the periodic representations are carried Nrr = - (1 + cos 28)/2 M
rr =0
through enough terms to ensure convergence.
The corresponding values of k are 14, 14, 22, 26, Nr8 = sin 20/2 Q'r = 0 (13)
and 34.
When obtaining solutions for specific problems
involving circular boundaries in the shell, the For the rigid inclusion problem, the boundary
values of the stresses at the boundary will be of conditions restricting the deformations at the in-
primary interest. These stresses will be repre- clusion for the total problem imply deformation
sented in terms of ratios of the average stress boundary conditions for the residual problem
o-AV
to the stress in the shell far from the
boundary cr,,, and as a ratio of the maximum bend- U = -(1 -v)/2 - (l+v)cos 28/2 W=
ing stress crb -to cr Thus, in terms of the non- V = (1 + v) sin 26/2 W, =0
dimensional stress quantities, these ratios be-
come (14)
°-AVkle, Nb/a,, = 6M(D/Et3)2 (12) Results for the circumferential membrane and
bending stresses at a hole are shown in Figs. 3
with D and o- defined in Appendix B.
and 4. The maximum membrane stress con-
centration increases steadily with increased
curvature, while the bending stress concentration
Review of Previous Results increases much less rapidly.
4
8.90o o
so
800
70°
-lo
b8
30°
o b."
cc
2 3 co
CURVATURE PARAMETER, i9
Mixed stress and deformation solutions are Figure 6. Radial Bending Stresses at a Rigid Inclusion Under Tension Loading
also possible, and Fig. 7 shows the circumfer-
ential membrane stresses at a hole constrained
against normal displacement and rotation, but
allowed free surface displacement so that the
membrane stresses vanish. These results fall
between those of the completely free and complete-
ly constrained boundary.
CURVATURE PARAMETER, ß
5
numerical results are shown in Fig. 8, and the boundary conditions may be related through the
limiting cases with free and constrained bound- matrix.
aries are indicated. The reinforced hole problem.
that is treated in the next sections of this paper is N N
another example where shell influence coefficients, rr rr
used in conjunction with influence coefficients for
an attached elastic body, describe the complete Nr9 N
re r
stress conditions.
Ur Ur
Formulation of Reinforced Hole Problems
Vr Vr
The configuration of the shell and reinforcement
are shown in Fig. 1. Dimensionless parameters rr rr
which relate the geometric and material properties
of the shell are: the reinforcement width ratio QTr Q'r
= b/a (15)
Wr Wr
where b is the reinforcement radius and a is the r=1
radius of the boundary between shell and reinforce- Wr, r r = a
ment; the shell curvature parameter, ß defined by Wr, r
Eq. (1); the modulus ratio (19)
V= Er/E (16) For the problem where the inside of the ring is
unconstrained, the stress quantities at r = a will
be specified. By denoting these specified boundary
where the subscript r denotes the reinforcement; conditions by the column matrix T, the matrix I can
the Poisson's ratio parameter be partitioned to yield
v2r)
(1 (17) -^
N U
r-- rr r
and the thickness ratio II III V
(18) r9r r
=
tr/t
rr Wr
With the shell conditions represented by influence
coefficients which relate stress and deformation Qtrr Wr, r
quantities at the circular boundary, influence coef- r=1 r= 1
ficients which connect the conditions at the inner
and outer boundaries of the reinforcement will allow (20)
the determination of stresses and deformations at
each boundary as a function of the boundary condi- A modified form of the shell influence coefficient
tions at the inside edge of the reinforcement. The matrix u given by Eq. (10) can now be written to
stress and deformation quantities involved in the relate the boundary stresses and deformations,
1 I 1
f 1 f
y
b"
8
F4
V. 0.3
a121112
/
//,/ AV
0°
XS
7
14
--- 21
o REF. 3
co e. 900
r AV
CIRCULAR
RIGID
HOLE
INCLUSION XC
6
which are continuous across the boundary, where For the general problem when both the rein-
the shell quantities are written in terms of the forcement and shell have equal curvature, the
corresponding reinforcement quantities (see Appen- matrix I defined by Eq. (19) is determined by em-
dix B); thus ploying the total solution to Eq. (2). This total
solution involves the solution as represented by
N Eq. (5) with the addition of an equal number of
U
r rr terms involving the Hankel functions of the second
2
N kind Hn which do not decay with increasing argu-
V
r re r ment. After writing the solutions in terrns of the
unknown coefficients at both edges of the reinforce-
Wr rr ment r = 1 and r = a, the influence matrix I is ob-
tained by elimination of the unknown coefficients.
r, Q'r
r =1 r =1 The problem considered by this paper concerns
the case where the reinforcement is flat. The ma-
(21) trix I is then determined in two separate steps by
with employing the membrane and bending solutions for
a flat annular plate (see Refs. 11, 12). The influ-
w
lo -yT 0 ence coefficients are then written in two separate
equations for the membrane and bending solutions
O Ti..t
IL O l'7211
(2 2 ) N N
rr rr
The stress conditions at the boundary are then N N
rer re r
-1
N
rr Ur Ur
Nrer Vr r= vr r =1
11+111
(25)
rr and
Q'r
r =1 rr rr
(23)
Q'r Ib wrr
and the deformation conditions can be obtained
from Eq. (21). Additional influence coefficients Wr
can be obtained for other quantities of interest.
In particular, the circumferential membrane
stress N 00 can be determined in terms of other W,rr r = a rr r =1
stresses by _
(26)
N IV or V N
rr The matrices I and Ib are then used to obtain ma-
eer r = a or trices II and III in Eq. (20). The matrices IV and
r =1 N V as given in Eq. (24) are also modified, with only
rer the membrane stress and displacement quantities
being involved.
Ur
The prescribed boundary conditions represented
Vr by the T matrix are obtained by considering the
problem of a solid reinforcement in the shell under
a uniform tension loading. The residual problem
rr is then defined by applying stresses T at the bound-
ary r r a which are of opposite sign from the
stresses in the solid reinforcement at this radius.
Q'rr The total stress conditions are then obtained by
adding the solid reinforcement stress states to the
Wr residual stress solutions.
An alternative approach to the solution consid-
Wr'r r =1 ers only the required equilibrium at the boundary
between the reinforcement and shell (see Ref. 3).
(24) Specifying the stresses and displacements at r r 1
in the continuous shell with no reinforcement by S
where all the conditions at the boundary are known. and L, respectively, compatibility of the shell
7
and reinforcement deformations after applying an 16
additional residual loading is enforced by the equal-
ity
-6
14
N T.1 1L1
rrr 12
Y.1.833
1 II NrOr 0-7772
+ Sr r b8 10 REINFORCEMENT, r a
rrr SHELL, r 1
Q' 0.0961
rr _ 0.938
r=1 r=1 r =1 0.833
(27) _ --0.750
NO REINFORCEMENT
where Eq. (20) with T = 0 has been employed. The
residual solution is then added to the stresses and 4 0.0 961
deformations represented by S and U to obtain the 0.938
total solution. The advantage of this approach to
the problem is that the solution to the solid inclu- 2
CURVATURE PARAMETER,$
2 3
8
o
T p, 1
T1 = 1 NO RE I NFORCEMENT
Y. 1.833
82 Y. 0.546
8.7172
REINFORCEMENT, r
2---- SHELL, r 1
a
NO RE I NFORCEMENT
-- REINFORCEMENT ,
SHELL, r =
r
8
0 0.833
Q. 0.750
0.833
03
0.938
0.961 -- 0. 961
0.938
1 2 3
CURVATURE PARAMETER, P
0.833
Figure 10. Circumferential Bending Stresses Under Tension Loading
for y1.833 3
2
CURVATURE PARAMETER,P
Mg
7 T1 1
c0-9 Al
ß1
NO REINFORCEMENT
Y. 0,546
I
-7T12
1 f Ti
6 24
8=72 I I
b8 00.961
-5 5
/3. 0
b21 0.938
4 16
a. 0.961 REINFORCEMENT r a
cc O. 938
0.833 12
roz. Ts:7- O. 833
0.750
REINFORCEMENT, r .0
SHELL, r 1
SHELL, r
31
= 1
20
o, 2 3 0.5 1.0
1
Figure 11. Circumferential Membrane Stresses Under Tension Figure 13. Maximum Circumferential Stress for Equivalent Weight Reinforce-
Loading for Y 0.546 ments in an Aluminum Shell
maximum stress at the inside edge of the re- problem concerns the effects of the suction and
inforcement, with an insignificant variation in discharge valves on the deformations of a sub-
the shell stresses. The bending stresses thus marine hull. The valves and adjoining hull were
become a factor when curvature is present. represented by a system of discrete elements,
and the deformations at distinct points on the
The reinforced shell model has been applied valve and hull were determined. Because of
to a practical problem which was approached the existence of two circumferential frames in
using a different method of analysis. 13The the discrete element model, a uniform axial
9
tension loading was used to compare the deforma- of the material and geometric parameters could
tions obtained in the shell at the valve intersec- then be generated. Weight minimization proced-
tion. The comparison of the two results is shown ures could also be developed, and the effects of
in Fig. 14, where the radial and normal displace- the bending stresses fully defined. The flat re-
ments are presented. Although the two models inforcement bending stresses could then be com-
did not exactly correspond, because of the frames pared to the corresponding curved reinforcement
and the fact that the reinforced hole model's param- stresses, and explanations of the erratic behav-
eters (a. = 0.75, T = 1.2) could only be estimated, ior of the flat reinforcement stresses could be
the agreement is still reasonable. found.
Additional symmetrical loading conditions,
in particular a uniform pressure loading, can
also be investigated by making appropriate
changes in the boundary conditions imposed by
the uniform stress states in the shell before the
i3 FL 1T 1. 2
effects of the reinforcement are considered.
1
-I a -0.75
Skew-symmetric problems, such as when the
MODEL
shell is loaded by torsion, can also be solved
by generating appropriate sets of skew-symme-
DISCRETE
ELEMENT
REINFORCED
HOLE
tric shell and reinforcement influence coeffic-
DIS PLACEMENT
ients. The necessary solutions to the governing
RADIAL - shell equations have been determined.3'4 The
NORMAL --- extension of the results for circular boundaries
in the shell to other curved boundaries is also
possible, 8, 9 and efforts toward their end would
o greatly extend the generality of the results.
Experimental investigations of the effects of
curvature on stresses at a circular boundary in
the shell have been restricted to problems in-
volving holes. A summary of some of the limi-
o ted experimental data is presented in Ref. 4 for
2
300 400 500 600 700 800 900
circumferential membrane stresses at holes
0 10° 200 under loading by tension, pressure, and torsion.
C I RC UMFERENT I AL COORD I NATE,
Additional experiments where membrane and
Figure 14. Displacements in the Hull at the Discharge Valve I ntersection
bending stresses at the hole and in the shell
were measured are reported in Ref. 3; the
loadings imposed were axial tension and tor-
sion. With the extension of the theoretical
investigations to problems concerning rein-
forced holes and shell intersections, the need
Conclusions for experimental correlation becomes evident.
10
= -(1 -1/)(W'9/r)'r (A-3)
6Van Dyke, P., "Stresses in a Cylindrical Shell Mre
with a Rigid Inclusion," AIAA J. 5, 125-137
(January 1967). where the Kirchhoff shear terms are defined
7ErMgen, A. C. and Suhubi, E. S., "Stress Q'r =Qr + (mre/r)' Q'e =Qe + Mre'r (A-4)
Distribution at Two Normally Intersecting The displacements are given by
Cylindrical Shells," Nuclear Structural Engi-
neering 2, 253-270 (September 1965).
'r =F '00 /r2 + F'r/r - vF , rr
2
U - 8 (3 sin 2
.
W
8Savin. , G. N. and Guz, A. N., "On the State of
Stress Near Curvilinear Holes in Shells,"
Izvestiya Akademii Nauk SSSR, Mekhanika V.e/r + U/r =F'rr -v(F'eeir2 + F'r/r)
Mashinostroyeniye, 7, No. 6 (1964); transl. by
NASA, Washington D. C., NASA TT F-423 (May
1966). 8 (32 cos2 W
forced Circular Cutouts in Plane Sheets," The stress and deflection quantities are repre-
NACA Technical Note TN-1852 (April 1949). sented in periodic form by
11 Tirnoshenko,
.
S. and Woinowsky-Krieger, S.,
Theory of Plates and Shells (McGraw-Hill
Book Co., Inc., New York, 1959), Chap. 9. Nrr' N00' ,M ,M M00' Q'r
12
Timoshenko, S. and Goodier, J. N., Theory
.
11
APPENDIX B and the displacements by
The barred dimensional quantities are given = UaNref/Et = V aN ref/Et (B-4)
in terms of the dimensionless quantities W and
F by
The stress at infinity is defined in terms of the
F = F a2Nref reference stress by
= a2NrefWADEOli2
(B-1) =N refit (B-5)
Nref is a reference membrane stress, chosen as The nondimensionalization of the shell and
the axial membrane stress for the axial tension reinforcement quantities is carried out using the
problem; the bending stiffness is given by respective geometric and material properties.
The following examples illustrate typical re-
D = Et3112 (1 - v2) (B -2) lationships between dimensionless shell and re-
inforcement quantities
The dimensional stresses are given in terms of N =N U = Ur/yT
the nondimensional stresses by rr rrr
2
= NNref T\71- = MNref(D/Et)1/
M
rr = TM
rr W = Wr/}'T
(B-6)
= Q' Nref(D/Eta2)1i2 (B-3) where the subscript r denotes the reinforcement.
12
No. 61368
Paper No.
67-368
A brief review of battery Characteristics is pre- Lead-acid cells have been used on most deep submer-
sented. The mission of a deep submergence vehicle and gence vehicles where the batteries are located external
the parameters that affect battery cell selection are to the pressure hull. Unless low-energy density rules
mentioned. The proper choice of battery cells, as out the lead-acid battery, it will probably see extensive
related to power system optimization, is discussed in use for a long time to come. It is a proven, inexpensive,
the light of economy, weight and volume trade-offs. The rugged, reliable, and relatively easy way to service
conception and design of a battery power system is dis- source of power. It also has a high cell voltage, rela-
cussed, including electrolyte reservoirs, pressure tively long cycle life and trouble-free service life.
compensators and gas vent valves. The results of a There are no off-the-shelf units designed specifically for
battery system test program are covered including use external to the pressure hull. All installations have
capacity, charging, gassing and significant findings. been adaptations of automobile, truck, golf cart or
industrial cells. This has resulted in larger, heavier,
Introduction and in some cases shorter-lived installations than could
be obtained from cells especially designed for the ocean
Submersibles in the past were characterized by rela- environment. Table 1 presents some characteristics of
tively shallow dive depths requiring only highly buoyant candidate cell types.
pressure hulls due to the low hydrostatic pressures
encountered. As dive depths increased, so did wall
thicknesses and weight premiums, until the hull ratio of Silver-zinc cells are currently being developed for
weight to displacement became unity and above. Ways deep submersible use in the ocean environment. This
to reduce weight or increase buoyancy became para- cell type is characterized by its high energy density,
mount. This led to employment of power system storage tolerance to high rates of discharge and long dry storage
batteries external to the pressure hull. In this location life. Its disadvantages are high cost, short cycle life
they could be operated at ambient sea pressure wherein for deep discharge cycles, short wet storage life and
a savings in volume and weight could be realized. difficulty in determining state of charge.
Problems of temperature control and ventilation became
ones of pressure compensation, insulation and material
compatibility with a few added ones of maintenance, The silver-cadmium cell combines the high energy
control and reliability. density of the silver anode with the long life of the cad-
mium cathode. As was shown in Table 1, the energy
Enter now the desirability of using the more exotic density is somewhat less than that of silver-zinc, but
series of alkaline electrochemical couples such as silver- the increased cycle life may overcome this for some
cadmium and silver-zinc in lieu of lead-acid cells and the applications. Cost per cell is close to that of silver-zinc,
advantages to be gained may be somewhat offset by added but more cells are required because the nominal cell
problems of maintenance, cost and control. The primary voltage is lower. The silver-cadmium battery can be
reason for using these cell types is to obtain higher charged fast and has a long dry storage life.
energy densities than are available with the lead-acid
type. The disadvantages, on the other hand, should be
evaluated with care to ensure that not too great a penalty
is being paid.
NO. OF VOLTAGE
TYPES ENERGY DENSITY* CELLS FOR PER CELL EST**
W-hr/lb W-hr/in3 12 VOLT OPEN AV LIFE
BATTERY CIRC. VOLTAGE
11 1. 1 6 2. 1 1. 9 1600 Cycles
LEAD-ACID 5-10 yr
(INDUSTRIAL)
50 3. 0 8 1. 86 1.55 100-200 Cycles
SILVER-ZINC 1 yr
1.58
1
Mission Usage Data: Though excellent to project duty cycle
for a similar or expanded mission, usage data would
Factors in a deep submersible mission which can contribute only general information in regard to cell
affect battery selection are: dive depth, energy require- life due to the many variables encountered throughout
ments, response time, standby requirements and per- its operating life. Certainly usage data from a num-
missible maintenance requirements. ber of similar systems could prove valuable but to
date a fleet of deep submersibles with batteries
Required dive depth, if much over 6000 ft, and nomi- external to the pressure hull is not a reality.
nal energy requirements will place a premium on
available space and allowable weight. This generally In a general nature several factors do affect battery
will require a high specific energy, high-cost power life and should be optimized within the limits of other
system to prevent the round robin increase of buoyancy constraints to obtain as high a cell life as possible. Cycle
requirements, drag, and additional power requirements life sensitivity to depth of discharge is probably the most
that could accompany the use of a less compact power important, primarily for the silver-zinc combination with
storage system. silver-cadmium and lead-acid following in decreasing
order of vulnerability.
Energy requirements will determine battery size and
weight once the cell type and depth of discharge have Percent recharge is another factor which should be
been selected. This selection can have a direct influence neither too low, which would allow the battery to dis-
on hull size and configuration. Peak power drains could charge deeper each cycle, nor too high, which could
influence cell selection or affect choice of cell construc- damage the cell by over temperature and excessive water
tion after a specific couple has been selected. Some or active material loss. It has been stated that recharg-
cell types are less degraded by high discharge rates ing a cell each cycle to the value of the previous discharge
while others are more responsive to low rates. will shortly lead to cell exhaustion. This means that cell
inefficiencies are applicable, to some extent, to cycling
Mission response time or turn around time can at all states of charge and not just to overrate charge and
influence battery charge time which in turn could affect over capacity charge.
average power available, mandatory maintenance period
and cell life. Limitations on charge time tend to move By following all the guidelines of evaluation and
available capacity per cycle toward the discharge side of selection, one would expect to obtain a near optimum
the voltage time curve. This reduces voltage control battery power system within the framework of the design
and increases the likelihood of inadvertent cell requirements. To realize this goal, the finished system
reversal or premature dive termination to prevent it. must be operated within the established parameters. If
Reduced charge time may require charging at a high this is not the case, projected performance and cost
current rate which, if too high, can generate heat and should be re-evaluated in the light of the changes or the
produce gassing. Excessive heat and gassing will reduce system should be modified to rectify the discrepancy. In
cell life and can cause catastrophic failure if allowed to the event the system falls short of expectations whilebeing
continue. Excessive gassing will increase periodic operated within established criterion, the system suffers
maintenance requirements due to water loss by untimely derating. One instance of capacity deratinz
electrolysis. which occured on a contemporary submersible apparently
was due to the cell type selected.
Standby requirements will affect charge condition or
the procedure necessary to maintain charge. It can also Other reasons for derating after the fact could be:
affect per cycle cost if utilization rate is low.
Reduction of usable capacity to obtain more
Limitations on periodic maintenance can place con- reserve capacity.
straints on cell selection if power requirements are not
overriding and would certainly affect system design to Reduction of usable capacity (depth of discharge)
some degree. to extend cycle life.
Battery Cycle Life Reduction of usable capacity due to the replace-
ment of silver electrode cells with less expensive
Probably the most important factor affecting overall types as an economy move.
power system cost is battery cycle life which, anfor-
tunately, is one of the most elusive factors in the Reduction of usable capacity when compensating
selection and performance of electrochemical couples. oil is masking plate area because of lowering
The lack of data or, more specifically, the lack of electrolyte level due to lack of cell maintenance.
correlating data, lead to doubt or low confidence in
regard to the anticipated life of a given battery installa- Power System Optimization
tion. Several factors contribute to this situation probably
not the least of which are as follows: An optimum battery power system would be one which
offered the highest energy density, longest life, mini-
Test Method Variation: Due to the large variety of mum care and the lowest cost consistent with mission
battery cell constructions and sizes available, as well and configuration constraints. Unfortunately, not all
as the large number of usage criterion, manufacturers these attributes are enjoyed by any one electrochemical
and users are forced to test systems on the basis of couple. The primary difference is high energy density--
specific requirements and cannot obtain much gen- high cost on the one hand and low energy density--low
eralized data. Data is available but, though excellent cost on the other. This difference is accentuated more so
for the purpose for which it was taken, is not suitable when cycle life and wet shelf life are included. The
for accurate correlation. This is because depth or immediate effects of this dilemma are high costs if energy
rate of discharge is variable, criterion of failure is requirements are mandatory, and lower energy if cost
inconsistent, or cells failed due to inadequate charge factors are overriding. It is possible to reduce the cost
and, in reality, were recoverable simply by of a silver electrode system by reducing discharge depth
recharging. to gain cycle life. This will increase the size of the
2
battery in terms of rated capacity and increase the cost or potting the cell tops to provide the required insulation.
per battery, but may result in a net cost savings over the The oil should be one that is relatively unaffected by and
life of the submarine. Now an added constraint, wet non-miscible in sea water, weak sulfuric acid solutions
life, primarily for silver-zinc cells comes into the pic- for lead-acid cells or potassium hydroxide solutions for
ture and the desired cycle life may not be obtainable. the alkaline cells. It should also be unaffected by battery
This factor also precludes a smooth trade-off transition gases and possess good dielectric properties. The cell
between silver-zinc and lead-acid when cost, as well as top terminal potting should possess good dielectric
discharge depth and cycle life are involved. It is pos- properties and not absorb water at high pressures. It
sible to evaluate these factors for a specific couple and should provide good adhesion properties to cell top and
attempt a near optimum configuration on a cost basis if electrical insulation materials, and it should stand up to
some flexibility can be obtained on system size and the mechanical abuse it will experience in service.
weight.
The pressure compensator should consist of an elastic
CONSTANT ENERGY-SILVER-ZINC member which contains a sufficient volume of oil to sup-
,, --TDTAL ENERGY COST-4 x10-6
I FOR 80%
ply the battery throughout the extremes of pressure,
8 ..
LEAD ACID WT
DEPTH OF
CANSTANT REPLACEMENT RATE
temperature and entrained gas volumes to which the
-LEAD ACID VOLUME
FOR 33 -3 mscHaKE
compression, _ DRAle
Vot LEAD-ACID1 ACID BOTTLE
Av
op
- AP [ CELLS W/ BAFFLES
B oil GAS-LADEN OIL
DRAIN
ELECTROLYTE
Where Vot = Total oil volume Vob + Voc COMPENSATING OIL RESERVOIR ED Ng COMPENSATING
0E
+ ri Ave + nVabove
Figure 2 . Industrial Cell Installation Schematic
yob = Volume of oil in battery box
Test Program
V = Volume of compensator
oc Figure 2 presents a schematic of a lead-acid battery
system meeting the basic requirements mentioned pre-
= Number of cells viously with the added provision of an internal manifold
system with check valve to prevent gas-contaminated or
AVe and Vabove (See "Cell Top Reservoir" acid-contarninated oil from contacting the cell terminals.
discussion) A configuration of this nature was constructed and tested
4
at pressures up to 2700 psi at the Hydromechanical The test program was conducted in three phases.
Laboratory Facility of North American Aviation's Los Phase 1, to establish the system's performance level
Angeles Division (see Figures 3 and 4). For testing, prior to submersion for the pressure testing; Phase 2,
this system contained a single industrial type lead-acid the pressurization tests in which the cells were dis-
cell of 780 amp-hour rating. A configuration was also charged at different rates and various pressures up to
tested which contained a 12-volt automotive-type battery 2700 psi (6000 ft dive); Phase 3, or post submersion
of 220-ampere hour rating. The terminals were potted
and a differential density head type compensator was
used. See figures 5 and 6.
PRESSURE TEST INSTALLATION SCHEMATIC
kI VF
several cells of the same type fell short of published ROOM TEMP -74T
values by as much as 21%. It was also possible to IUD
RI CiLL LOCATION
6
during standby conditions in which it reduced to a mini- During the Phase 2 testing of the industrial cell an
mum value several hours after charge termination where intentional malfunction test was performed. The purpose
it remained nearly constant. Standby gas was found to of this test was to simulate excessive gassing and test
be mostly hydrogen. One factor which has a large the elimination of same by the venting system. The
influence on cell top reservoir and compensator sizing gassing was produced by additionally charging the fully
is the residual gas retention of various cell types. Large charged cell at a 100-ampere rate for one-half hour while
volumes of gas can remain on plates, raising the electro- the cell and its ICR system were submerged and pres-
lyte level. Then vibration shock and application of surized to 2700 psi. As the system was de-pressurized,
pressure will reduce this volume, thus lowering the no malfunctions were encountered and 42,000 cc of gas
electrolyte level. Results of testing showed the residual were successfully expelled by the venting system.
gas retention of the industrial-type cell to not exceed
manufacturer stated values of 1/2 cc per ampere hour of Conclusion
cell capacity for this type construction. The gas reten-
tion by the pasted plate-type automotive battery, on the The results of this test program are encouraging in
other hand, was found to exceed this value so cell top that the performance of the industrial cell capacity was
reservoirs and compensator volumes would have to be commendable and that it showed good repeatability
proportionately larger for this type construction. throughout the testing. The performance of the cell's
insulation compensation and gas removal system was
Venting essentially as anticipated. It is felt that this system
concept, with minor modifications, is suitable for estab-
Two types of gas vent valves were utilized in the lishment of guidelines for the battery power system for
system test program. One was a poppet-type with a the North American Beaver Mark IV design now in
cracking pressure of 1 1/2 psi. To provide a back-up progress.
design for this conventional type, a heavy fluid trap valve
was constructed and installed in the industrial cell ICR
system. The problems that could be encountered with
conventional vent valves are sticking when operated in a
fouling atmosphere with the result of sea water entering
the battery box or loss of compensating oil if even a
small leak is maintained over a period of time. The References
advantages of a fluid trap valve are that it is leakproof,
jamproof and maintains an accurate cracking pressure. F. Solomon and G. W. Work "Present-Day Long
The conventional poppet-type valve permitted loss of Life Silver-Zinc Secondary Batteries" Pro-
compensating oil during Phase 2 system tests because of ceedings of the 4th International Symposium on
contamination of its poppet seat. Although the fluid trap Research and Development in Non-Mechanical
vent valve did not suffer this problem, it will have to be Electrical Power Sources. Brighton, England,
maintained periodically to ensure that the fluid does not Sept. 1964
oxidize excessively in the sea water environment. It is
possible to place a thin film of inert high density oil over J. A. Keralla and J. J. Lander "Sealed Zinc-
the trap fluid to impede any chemical action that may Silver Oxide Batteries" 16th Annual Power
OC CUT .
Sources Conference. May 1962
7
No. 61369
A. H. KEIL
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Cambridge, Massachusetts
Paper No.
67-369
1
and gaps in engineering capabilities and Deep Submergence Systems Project; and a
technology, and being followed by system assembled ad hoc for a specific
requirements for specific engineering mission--the search and recovery system for
and technological developments (Figure 1). the lost nuclear weapon at Palomares,
Spain." The paper demonstrates the need
The importance of developing the for systems integration in order to suc-
capabilities for fullest utilization of cessfully and economically carry out the
ocean resources makes it mandatory to assigned mission; illustrates the signif-
review this process carefully. Such a icance of individual facets (such as navi-
review indicates two shortcomings. Pro- gation, underwater communication, logistic
jections of requirements for advances in support) for the effectiveness of those sea
ocean engineering based on "realization systems; and highlights the special problems
of gaps" is insufficient and too limited which arise when working at or near the
if it is based on present technology alone; ocean/air or ocean/ocean bottom interface.
that is, if the opportunities offered by
possible advances in ocean engineering The first two examples, the Polaris
and undersea technology are not taken into Fleet Ballistic Missile System and the
account when the need for advanced capa- rescue system of the Deep Submergence
bilities is established; and the conglom- System Project are excellent demonstrations
eration of the various requirements for of how engineering development was planned
advances in ocean engineering is not neces- and carried out in the direction which
sarily a meaningful set of overall require- appeared most promising for overall systems
ments. The following analysis of a few performance, for instance missile technol-
examples will substantiate these conclu- ogy and navigation for the FBM system; and
sions and bring out an additional important hull design, hull material and hydrodynamic
issue. control for the rescue vehicle: Application
of elements of technological forecasting can
Naval warfare underwent a drastic be found in both.
change beginning in World War II with the
realization of how underwater acoustics The perspective which technological fore-
can aid submarines and how powerful a help casting provides to planning for the future
it can be against submarines. This real- can be illustrated by the following example:
ization coupled with the application and If needs for advanced capabilities in aero-
development of modern technology and in- nautics had been established in the early
formation theory brought about the capa- 30's, they would in all probability have
bilities of modern shipborne sonars. We been for larger and faster airplanes with
see here a systematically planned evolu- longer endurance and better payload and
tion based on technology which was pushed the requests for engineering advances would
in the direction of the most promising re- have been primarily better reciprocating
turns, taking advantage, when possible, of engines, better aviation gasoline, and bet-
basic scientific advances such as informa- ter airframes. The possibility of estab-
tion theory and new technologies, such as lishing requirements for an "air trans-
the modern computers. However, two points portation system at supersonic and high
must be realized: That the key to ulti- subsonic speeds" would not have been no-
mate success for shipborne sonars is the ticed except if technological forecasting,
systems approach, not only for the sonar that is extrapolation toward future possible
system itself (transducer, receiver, data technology, had indicated such potentials
processing, display), but especially in as the jet engine and the new aerospace
the integration of the sonar system into materials.
the ship; and that the drastic advances in But the interplay between technological
naval sonar capabilities required and forecasting and establishing needs for
brought about extensive studies of sound advanced capabilities alone is not suffi-
propagation in the ocean, which in turn cient--except if basic policies exist which
lead to many studies in applied oceano- identify the urgency of the needs. It was,
graphy to explain observed performance and for instance, apparent in the early 1950's
to explore possibilities for further sonar that man could reach out into outer space
advances. if high thrust rocket motors, high energy
Three striking and very illustrative rocket fuels, precision space navigation
examples were described by Craven and systems, lightweight rocket structures,
Searle at the June 1966 meeting of the heat shiel4s for reentry vehicles, etc.,
Marine Technology Society. They are: "A were developed. If a decision to reach
system whose engineering is well advanced-- out into outer space had been established
the Polaris Fleet Ballistic Missile Sys- at that time, the process of technological
tem; a system in the process of engineer- forecasting,coupled with analysis of the
ing development--the rescue system of the impact of these projections on the ability
2
to reach the goal, would have caused the oceanography, but must include techniques
initiation of many relevant systematic for extensive surveys as well as the con-
developments which later had to be carried duct of such surveys (which are not neces-
out on a crash basis. sarily of scientific interest). These
surveys must include coverage of those
The marine Resources and Engineering physical characteristics which are control-
Development Act of 1966 provides the broad, ling for the actual work to be accomplished
forward-looking policy for ocean engineer- in the oceans. Specific examples are ocean
ing. Implementation requires proper per- bottom reflectivity with respect to sonar
spectives for establishing the specific applications, noise characteristics of
advanced capabilities with respect to the marine life, bearing strength of ocean
exploration and utilization of the oceans bottoms for erection of bottom installa-
and their resources. tions, settlement of bottom material which
This makes it mandatory, therefore, that has been stirred up by activities on or
the requirements for new developments be near the bottom, and fouling and stress
based not only on existing capabilities and corrosion for deep-sea installations.
technologies, but on technological fore- Non-Military Utilization of Ocean
casts which must not only be visionary but
Resources
credible. Only through the process of
carrying out technological forecasting and This objective concerns the utilization
exploring the impact of projected technology of ocean resources as, for instance, off-
on future ocean engineering capabilities shore oil fields, fish resources of the
does it become possible to determine what oceans, minerals in the ocean itself or
ocean engineering capabilities to ask for in the ocean bottom, or the energies in
and which developmental efforts to empha- tides; and the engineering for coastal
size. This process is shown schematically processes. Included here are the engineer-
in Figure 2. ing means toward utilization of the re-
tources as well as the planned development
of new resources as, for instance, in the
case of fish.
Broad Objectives Present Projected
for Advances of Technology Technology Ocean Transportation Systems
Ocean Engineering
Capabi I i es
i
This objective deals with shipborne
transportation systems, but must include
future oceangoing systems, which are based
Concept Formu lation on a technology quite different from the
for Projected Ocean
Engineering Systems present displacement ship technology.
This study must be closely interlocked with
projected world markets and projections in
the economic posture of the United States
and other countries. It must further be
Envisioned Scope of closely interlocked with land-based trans-
Ocean Engineer in g
of the Future portation systems including the harbors
and ports as links between the two.
FIGURE 2: IDENTIFICATION OF SCOPE OF OCEAN Military Utilization of Ocean
ENGINEERING OF THE FUTURE (SCHEMATIC) Environment
III. A Projection Toward Future This objective deals with naval systems
Ocean Engineering required to carry out the Navy's mission,
Ocean engineering of the future will be and making fullest use of the ocean
directed at the following four broad environment. These systems cover the
objectives: various areas of naval warfare and include
sea-based deterrence, ocean surveyance and
A. Exploration of Marine Resources military support to other nations, as well
This objective is aimed at expanding as policing and protecting future ocean
that knowledge of the ocean environment installations and ocean activities.
needed for accelerating the development of The following examples are offered to
ocean resources; and development and stimulate thinking in broad perspectives
provement of supporting vehicles, equipment required for determining the scope of
and instrumentation. This exploration of future ocean engineering. They also illus-
ocean resources is not synonymous with the trate the interplay of present and projected
scientific developments of the earth sci- technology, systems concepts and broad ob-
ences, but complements them. Exploration jectives.
of ocean resources is naturally dependent
on advances in earth sciences and especially Should we abandon the idea of expanding
3
existing congested harbors and ports (which a 95% reduction is necessary for applica-
may have been ideally located for the econ- tion to aircraft.
omics of the 19th century) and instead plan The question of whether such ships are
the creation of artificial harbors? With meaningful or not can only be answered by
the expected increase in traffic problems reviewing their possible use for naval
in our cities, why add to the problems? systems or ocean transportation systems.
Why not plan for new harbors surrounded by There is no question as to their signif-
new industrial centers (refineries, steel icance in the military sense because of
mills, shipyards, etc.) at strategic loca- They will, how-
their far superior speed.
tions which appear most desirable in light ever, also be meaningful in the commercial
of future urban development, future pat- sense for transport of high-speed cargo in
terns of land transportation and future the world market: Speed has always attrac-
industrial developments in the United
ted a market.
States?
Should we definitely plan to search for
The exploitation of the fish resources oil resources under the ocean bottoms, even
of the ocean has come to the point that at water depths of 1000 feet or more, or in
some of the species have been decimated the arctic? Should we prepare for commer-
drastically and some are close to extinc- cial exploitation of these resources?
tion. Should the United States, therefore, These questions have already been answered,
consider the development of fish and/or because the oil industry already invests
crustacea ranches on the continental shelf in such studies and it is of great value
for United States use; and off the coasts to analyze the progress this industry made
of underdeveloped countries for their use? because of determined efforts and the sure
This requires an analysis of whether such expectations of good economic returns.
a development is feasible in light of the Exploration of oil fields took advantage of
basic behavior of marine life; projections the technique of seismic soundings and the
as to what extent it might be possible to industry developed it further. Drilling
control the ocean environment in selected for oil at promising land sites was always
areas; and derivation of needs for specific an operation of chance--but offshore dril-
technological advances. It then requires ling increased the problems by an order of
an evaluation of whether such a development magnitude. Ingenuity, determination and
is politically feasible in light of inter- brute force have produced a variety of
national laws. Furthermore, the economic offshore drilling rigs and truly ingenious
aspects must be analyzed to determine techniques for drilling and tapping ocean
whether such a project is economically bottom wells. New problems arise as tech-
feasible (that is economical in terms of niques developed in this manner for such
returns) or whether it is of such impor- special applications as the offshore oil
tance that a large economic investment will fields in the Gulf of Mexico, are applied
become mandatory as a matter of national in different environmental conditions such
policy. as in the swells off the California coast
Should the United States establish a or in the icebound regions of the arctic.
new high-speed cargo capability (50-100 IV. Interrelation of Specific
knots) for ocean transportation, or a Ocean Engineering Efforts
capability for oceangoing naval ships in
this speed regime? Recent technological The wide scope and large diversity of
forecasting by the Maritime Administration applications of ocean engineering makes a
and the Navy made it clear that the prin- systematic review of possible advances
ciple of the air cushion vehicles seems to necessary. The following analysis is
make it technologically feasible to develop attempting a systematic approach, but does
large oceangoing surface ships with cruising not claim to be comprehensive.
speeds in the 80-120 knot range, if specific The first step consists in developing a
engineering developments are carried out. list of specific sdbjects in the four broad
These large surface effect ships appear areas of exploration of marine resources,
feasible with modern gas turbine propulsion non-military utilization of marine resources,
They cannot be used with existing nuclear ocean transportation systems, and military
power plants because of their specific utilization of marine environment (see
weight (lb/horsepower). However, with Figure 3). These subjects are then related
advances in design of nuclear power plants to specific mission oriented projects of
and with resulting reduction in specific broad nature. It should be noted that the
weight, the surface effect ships would be projects listed in Figure 3 are just a
the first mode of high-speed transportation few examples of the types which must be
to benefit: Only a 50% reduction of the considered. To further illustrate the
specific weight will permit use of nuclear content and flavor of these projects, a
power plants for surface effect ships while
4
few are discussed in more detail. Figure 4. Again it must be kept in mind
that the specific engineering developments
Specific mission oriented Vote.* listed are only selected examples of what
of brood nature .
must be considered. Again a few of the
*: : examples are discussed to demonstrate the
i 12 1 , g g i type of development of "engineering prod-
.I i
"Ir.
I -i 1 ot L.
-
ti i i 4 g.a s e ucts" envisioned here and to stress the
--
t-. w
/7.: 1. 1¡.,.1;
2
il I ! 1 "e a a- iw 0. ee j a
Li
need for imaginative thinking.
altZ.611"111: ...7
1 1 The FLIP SHIP, for instance, is a pro-
tilt gnerated jection beyond presently employed "spar
Genitra I requirertronto
by brood objectives in. IIi Ii .1 1
I I AS it
= io' E 8
rz buoy" type vehicles which offer the advan-
Group Specific Subject
Exploration of Applied Phyical Oceanography X X XXXX X
tage of very small response to ocean waves.
Mari. Rsources Applied Mar. Biology X X X X X This advantage has been dmonstrated by
Applied Marine Geology X X X X X X
Applied Chemical OceanagraPhY X X X Scripps' research platform FLIP; Cousteau's
Non - military Petroleum Product X X X X X
Utilisation of Fish and Other Protein Sources X X X X
Buoee Laboratoire; the SPAR of the Naval
Mar. Resources Plants X X
Minerals X XXX X
X
Ordnance Laboratory, White Oak; and the
Frosh Water X
Energy X Perpendicular Ocean Platform (POP) of AC
Ocon
Transportation
Improved Surface Ships
Submarine Applications
X
X X X X
X X X X Electronics Defense Research Laboratories.
Systems Novel Graf t X X X X However, all these applications are "small
Militar y Anti - submarine Warfare X X X X
Utilisation of Submarros Warfare X X scale" vehicles with no means of propulsion.
Marine Sea - baud Crotrronce X X X X
Environment Policing of Ocean Activi ti.. X X X X X The FLIP SHIP envisioned here is a new type
of self-propelled long endurance type ocean-
FIGURE 3: CORRELATION OF BROAD OBJECTIVES going surface ship which upon arriving at a
REQUIRING ADVANCED OCEAN ENGINEERING WITH desired location can erect herself to float
SPECIFIC MISSION ORIENTED PROJECTS OF A in a vertical position in the manner of a
BROAD NATURE (EXAMPLES ONLY) spar buoy. In this position about 75-80%
Underwater communication deals with the of the length of the ship is submerged,
determinatiOn and explanation of the acous- with only 20-25% of the bow portion remain-
tic and electromagnetic propagation in the ing above the surface. The ship in the
oceans as needed for sonar operations and vertical position is rather insensitive to
for all types of communication under water, surface waves, thus providing a working
and the coupling of this background with platform with very little motion in ocean
technology in producing efficient and waves. The propulsion of such a FLIP SHIP
reliable communication methods. could be two Voith-Schneider propellers
installed port and starboard near midships.
Fish ranching techniques are concerned This would not only offer the advantage of
with such questions as, "What are practical being able to turn the ship when in the
fences for selected species of fish?"; vertical position into any desired direction,
"Which valuable species of fish lend them- but would permit the generation of forces
selves to controlled breeding and raising in the vertical direction to eliminate the
in the ocean in a manner similar to chicken last amount of vertical motion. .Such a
raising?" and "Which ocean areas lend them- ship offers direct access to all types of
selves to such ranches and how can the undersea activities anywhere in the deep
natural food supply for the fish be aug- oceans, independent of wind and sea condi-
mented and controlled?". tions. It could be used in the "man-in-the-
Search and rescue capability addresses sea" project (with a sea-lab type structure
the problems which arise from greatly attached to or integrated into the FLIP SHIP)
increased activities in the ocean whether and many types of oceanographic research.
it be the submarine and small vehicle It could be used as mothership for search
operations, the man in the sea activities, and rescue as well as for a number of
the search for space project objects, etc. retrieval operations working with small
deep-sea vehicles or a tethered detachable
Harbor location and design were discussed capsule which could be lowered from the
before as an example of a radically differ- stern of the ship when the ship is in the
ent approach to harbor problems. Instead vertical position.
of starting with existing harbors and
improving them, why not analyze first what Small deep-sea vehicles are mandatory
the harbors of the future should be and tools for most undersea activities. Only
where they should preferably be located-- through their use can man operate in the
and then use modern excavation techniques deep oceans. They provide the key to search
to establish such a new harbor? and rescue operations, but will also be the
"work boats" for most of the future undersea
These mission oriented projects of activities. Vital for their application is
Figure 3 are related to specific engineer- the provision of reliable all-weather support,
ing developments in the matrix shown in because their endurance is inherently limited.
5
This stresses the need for reviewing con- V. Considerations for Advancing
cepts for such vehicles in the framework Ocean Engineering
of the system in which they will be used.
The preceding chapters proposed how the
As progress is made toward oceangoing plat-
content and scope of projected ocean
forms with practically no motion in waves,
engineering (that is, ocean engineering
new concepts for such vehicles may well
capability and undersea technology) could
emerge, as for instance, the tethered cap-
be derived through concept formulation
sule mentioned before in connection with
(which is based on existing technology and
the FLIP SHIP. technological forecasting) and system
Instrumentation for all undersea appli- analysis applied to specific projects aimed
cations is a wide and rapidly growing field at accomplishing the established broad
faced with a multitide of problems. The objectives for future new and improved
salt water environment makes it extremely utilization of the marine resources. It
difficult to use electromagnetic waves for also showed the wide spectrum of ocean
signal transmission within the ocean. engineering efforts and the importance of
Signal transmission, which is vital for specific ocean engineering advances to many
extensive instrumentation efforts, must areas of application.
therefore depend on underwater sound which The purpose of the following discussion
results in only moderate transmission ranges is to advance some thoughts to identify
and rather low information transfer rates; which steps will bring about advances in
or transmission via cables which imposes ocean engineering needed for the exploration
other severe problems which are also common
of ocean resources and the engineering
to most sensors, such as the large hydro- developments toward utilization of these
static pressure, the corrosion due to the resources (see Figure 5).
combination of sea water and stress, and
the secondary effects of marine life. The Envisioned Scope of
Ocian Engineering of
most common problems encountered with ocean the Future
instrumentation is the neglect to consider
the impact of the ocean environment and to lt
underestimate the problems of placing, main- Needed Advanced Capabilities
In Ocean Engineering and
taining and retrieving large and complex Undersea Technology
instrumentation arrays.
Review of Figure 4 indicates that many
Systematic Advances Focus Projects Development of
of the specific developments in ocean In Specific Fields Professional
engineering are common to several applica- Resources
tions and that they draw on advancing ocean
engineering capability and undersea tech- FIGURE 5: STEPS FOR ADVANCING OCEAN
nology as the common basis for the achieve- ENGINEERING ON A BROAD FRONT
ments to be expected from ocean engineering A. The Need for Systematic Development
in the future.
Advancing Ocian Engineering Capability Review of possible future ocean activities
and Undersea Technology
makes it apparent that they are dependent
t I
1:.2glr:o
e, z - I -12 211'4:-
g.-- material which can be used for the construc-
Sal':
..--
-- ,...1"E S. a t .
2 2.1 cn ,..-
:
tion of pressure hulls for any type of deep-
.= in' r a
. 71 211;2 t.taó
sea applications. Such studies have been
-1. = I
' ,,
1,-*
iiiCa0,80.1241z..8
g t; N N g : going on in connection with the combatant
-I
submarines of the Navy for decades, but the
....
Ocean Bottom Mappirg and
Geological Surveys
XXXX X X X x
impact of "deep submergence" has seen a
iMining øf Ocean Bottom Minarais X X X X X x
greatly increased activity during the past
f Control of Coastal Waters X x
six to eight years. A broad attack was
I Search and Rescue Capabilities
X X X XXX X X
Of fshore 011 Drilling Techn4ues x steels, titanium and aluminum alloys, glass
!
Tx X
sign-speed Ocean Tr anew lotion reinforced plastics and glass and sintered
Design of N. Harbors X X
materials are being investigated and many
FIGURE 4: IDENTIFICATION OF OCEAN ENGINEER- payoffs of this systematic development effort
ING AND UNDERSEA TECHNOLOGY (EXAMPLES ONLY) are already apparent in the application of
6
the results in nearly all present ocean engineering it is necessary to establish
engineering projects. several new focus projects because of the
wide range of ocean engineering applica-
Closely coupled with materials develop- tions. To be of greatest benefit, they
ment must go the development of the must have meaningful mission objectives
capability to design with new materials and and at the same time spur on those engineer-
thus take fullest advantage of new develop- ing developments which appear to have the
ments. However, the development of design most impact. Considerations of the type
capabilities has also a direct influence presented in Figures 3 and 4 should be
on material developments in specifying helpful for the establishment of focus
acceptable material properties. projects.
The development of power plants (power C. The Need for Development of Professional
generation) and methods of energy conver- Resources
sion also requires long lead times. We
face here the wide spectrum from batteries Ocean engineering is in many respects in
and fuel cell to a variety of nuclear power its infancy and so is applied oceanography
plants, as well as problems of thrust with the exception of the military aspects
development for propulsion and control. of underwater acoustics and the efforts of
the oil industry in finding and tapping
One of the most severe handicaps for offshore oil fields. The problems of de-
working on the ocean bottom, both for fining a program of higher education can
divers and for manned deep-sea vehicles, therefore be compared with the problems
stems from the fact that the divers as which a department of aeronautical engineer-
well as the vehicles are nearly neutrally ing of the early 1930's would have had if
buoyant and it is therefore difficult to a curriculum in anticipation of the require-
exert a force without being moved in the ments of present day aeronautics and astro-
opposite direction. Here is a wide oppor- nautics had to be developed. However, two
tunity for good old-fashioned mechanical
constructive comments can be made with re-
engineering to develop tools and mechanical
spect to ocean engineering education:
devices required to carry out work on the
ocean bottom. Such education must concentrate on the
principles in order to provide a sufficiently
Working on the ocean bottom requires
broad foundation for the wide variety of
"seeing" what is being done. Unfortunately,
applications to come. Only a graduate
the nice clear waters we remember from degree in ocean engineering is considered
pictures of coral reefs do not exist every-
appropriate because of the wide range of
where and even if they exist, any activity
applications in ocean engineering and the
on the ocean bottom tends to stir up sedi-
many disciplines involved.
ment and cloud the view. The need for
developing sonar techniques adapted to the The basic training in relevant disci-
human operator is great. plines must be supplemented by association
with actual ocean engineering. Firsthand
B. The Need for Focus Proiects
experience of the ocean environment must
Progress in engineering cannot be be gained by participation in experimenta-
accomplished alone by systematic develop- tion at sea. This should be followed by
ments in special fields. Actual engineer- active participation of the students in a
ing must be carried out and experience must project aimed at concept formulation be-
be gained by designing and building engi- cause it develops the perspective and the
neering products and operating them in the thought process which links basic engineer-
environment for which they are intended. ing principles with their application in
the effort to develop useful and practical
In order to advance ocean engineering
engineering solutions.
it is therefore necessary to establish
"focus projects" which are aimed at VI. Conclusions
accomplishing major important objectives
TO bring about an orderly advance toward
and which at the sane time provide for the the type of ocean engineering the future
evolution of experience in ocean engineer-
requires, the following is considered
ing. The space program had such focus
necessary:
projects in Vanguard, Explorer, Gemini and
Apollo. Typical, but much more restrained Imaginative concept formulation
focus projects in ocean engineering were studies based on existing technology and
the various sonar developments of the Navy, technological forecasting, aimed at meeting
the recently established Deep-sea Rescue meaningful broad goals.
System, and the development of the under-
water acoustic range in the Bahamas. Definition and execution of a number
of focus projects, each aimed at accomplish-
For the systematic advance of ocean ing a major pertinent objective and at the
7
same time assuring evolution of engineering (4) Development of professional resources
and operational experience by actually by providing educational opportunities in
designing and building advanced engineering those engineering principles relevant to
products and operating them in the ocean ocean engineering and simultaneous training
environment. in the thought processes which are typical
for applied oceanography, as well as con-
(3) Initiation of systematic develop-
cept formulation and technological fore-
ments in those areas of undersea technology
casting and system analysis pertinent to
which are critical and which require long
the exploration and utilization of ocean
lead times. The results of these develop-
resources.
ments will provide the base for further
advances in ocean engineering in the future.
8
No. 61310
SCOTT C. DAUBIN
General Motors Corporation
Santa Barbara, California
Paper No.
67-370
1
Displacement: Crew 2
Surface (Diving Trim) 15,500 lb
Reserve Buoyancy 3,330 lb Dimensions:
LOA 17 ft 0.0 in.
Pressure Hull: Beam (Extreme) 8 ft 8.25 in.
Shape Sphere
Dimensions ID-80.174 in. Main Power:
Batteries
t- 0.935 in. No. of Cells 120
Material HY-100 Steel Cell Type Delco Type 847
Collapse 11,700 ft
Yield
Location Outboard
Failure Mode Total Energy 40 kwh at 20°C
Payload: Motors (propulsion)
Personnel and Effects 440 lb Number 4
Scientific Instruments 581 lb Function 2 - Horizontal
(and/or ballast) 2 - Vertical
Total Payload 1,021 lb Power (ea shaft)2 hp
Endurance:
Speed-Power
Motor- Speed Propulsion Auxiliary Endurance Ftange
Order (kts) Power (kw) Power (kw) (hr) (mi)
Full 2.5 5.36 1.20 6.1 15.3
Fast
Transit 2.0 2.75 1.20 10.1 20.2
Econ
Transit 1.5 1.16 1.20 17.0 25.5
Search 1.0 0.34 1.20 25.9 25.9
Maneuver 0.5 0.04 1.20 32.2 16.1
Stop 0.0 0.00 1.20 33.3 00.0
Environmental:
02 Storage 160 scf
CO2 Absorbent 25.0 lb (Li0H)
Atmospheric Endurance (nominal) 65 hrs for 2 men (130 manhours)
Environmental Sensing:
Direct Optical Ports at north and south poles of sphere. Internal
optical system to operator and observer. Outboard
system above and below for full spherical visibility.
TV TV camera outboard fore and aft. 3r solid angle
visibility, each. Double monitor inboard.
Illumination Illumination, 250 w mercury vapor lamp. Full
train and elevation on fwd and aft bottomside mounts.
Integrated Sonar Upward and downward fathometer and underwater
System telephone. Precision sonar for search, homing,
beacon acquisition and terrain avoidance.
Manipulator System: Six degrees of freedom electro-mechanical ma-
nipulator. 50 lb underwater weight handling capa-
bility at 49" reach.
2
UPPER OPTICAL DOME
PIPING
PENETRATOR
ELECTRICAL
PENETRATOR
VERTICAL
PROPULSION UNIT
MAIN VENT
OPTICAL DOME
3
1800
OPTI CAL HATCH
PROPULS I ON MA I N VENT DOME
CENTRAL
CONTROLLER
OPTI CAL
RETRACTABLE ASSEMBLY FWD
MAST
VERTICAL SHOT TANK
PROPULS I ON
MOTOR
SONAR
MONITORS
TV MONITORS
Wf
mom PRECISION
SONAR TRANDUCERS
INBOARD VERNIER
TRIM TANK
LOAD
PlIFI I
i..41zi
HYDRA UL IC illib
/ TV CAMERA
I NTEG RATED
SONAR MONITORS
o
A I R FLASK
FOUNDATION
TV MONITORS
HORIZONTAL AUXILIARY
PROPULS I ON MOTOR BOARD
4
Equation (2) permits calculation of effective 3. Pressure Hull
horsepower:
Retention of symmetry and simplicity were de-
EH? = 0.109 V3 (3) sign objectives of the spherical pressure hull, Fig-
ure 6. Such efficiencies of design would produce a
References (2) and (3) were used to calculate pro- high operating depth to weight ratio, 1.028 feet per
peller efficiency and hull efficiency. At 3 knots lb; furthermore the elimination of any optical view-
the following numbers were found: ing port from the shell matched well the require-
ments of the new optical system discussed in the
Bare Propeller Efficiency - 0.335 section below. The viewing ports are located in the
Shroud Efficiency Correction* - +0.076 centers of the hatches which are found at the poles
Net Propeller Efficiency - 0.411 of the sphere. The only remaining deviations from
Hull Efficiency** - 0.960 spherical symmetry are six conical penetrations
Propulsive Coefficient - 0.395 arranged about the upper hatch in the thickened
section of the hatch insert forging; five of these
This propulsion coefficient with Equation (3) pro- penetrations are for electrical penetrators of 37
duces the shaft horsepower-speed function (where conductors each and one is for a piping penetrator
V is in knots): of two channels.
SHP = 0.276 V3 (4)
100
zo
0.50 si.90) 44D 4. Buoyancy and Trim Systems
3
so 1-
- 10
2.29
Three systems are provided by which the net
60 actual) buoyancy of the submarine may be varied. Table
0.40 10
50 5
4
2.24
(design)
IV summarizes the characteristics of these
40
3
2
7 systems.
9
30
YIELD STRENGTH 2
(thousands of psi) 1.5
The main ballast system with a displacement
of 3,330 lb provides about 20°Z, surface re-
COLLAPSE DEPTH serve buoyancy. The tank is flooded by
0.30' (thousands of feet) opening the two motor operated main vent
K FACTOR ALDI ILIARY
SCALE
7- 10-2 valves in the tank top. The tank is de-
YOUNG'S MODULUS
(millions of psi)
tIR watered by blowing with HP air through
solenoid operated valves.
FIGURE 7. SPHERICAL PRESSURE HULL DESIGN The vernier trim system provides for pre-
NOMOGRAPH cise and reversible adjustments in submerg-
ed displacement. It is used primarily for
out and then welded to the polar regions of the acquiring and maintaining a neutral trim, or
sphere. Thus only three principal welds were a trim as otherwise specified, at the operat-
made: the equatorial weld and two girth welds at ing depth. It consists of the central trim
latitudes of approximately 600 north and south. tank in the pressure hull, the forward and
Welding was in accordance with Navy instructions aft trim bladders, the hydraulic trim pump,
for HY 80 steel: only certified welders worked, and associated piping, valves, and fittings.
electrodes were carefully conditioned and handled, To increase displacement, and hence buoy-
the hull was preheated, and once a weld was start- ancy, oil is pumped from the tank to the
ed and the root pass inspected welding was contin- bladders; to decrease displacement oil is
ued without interruption until completion of the bled back into the tank from the bladders.
joint. The hull was rotated on trunions to permit Fore and aft trim may be adjusted through a
complete downhand welding. Each weld was in- range of +250 by transferring oil between
spected by three methods: magnetic particle, X- the bladders.
ray, and sonic.
The shot ballast system provides for com-
The entire hull and hatches were stress re- pensating variations in loading between
lieved at 1150°F for one hour. Because of their in- dives and for the application of net negative
creased thickness the insert forgings and hatches or positive buoyancy during deep descents
had previously been stress relieved alone for one or ascents for the purpose of conserving
hour. Impact, bend and tensile samples were battery energy. A motor driven ball stop
stress relieved along with the sphere; results are meters shot out of the two tanks.
shown in Table II. After stress relieving the
sphere was subjected to a detailed measurement In emergencies various items can be jettisoned
program. An arm pivoted at the center of the either to acquire buoyancy or to extricate the ve-
sphere measured the radius at each 3 degrees of hicle from entanglements. The two 120 volt marn
latitude between 69°N and S on each of eight merid- batteries can be dropped separately, each provid-
ians. At each measurement point shell thickness ing about 750 lb of positive buoyancy. Should the
was measured sonically. In addition, the spheric- shot metering mechanism fail the shot tanks can be
ity of the outer surface was checked with a special dropped as units. The manipulator can be jettison-
fixture machined to the exact arc of the nominal ed in event of entanglement. A protective cover
outer radius. These measurements, summarized and an arming switch protects all emergency
6
,
Physicals before Stress Rel. Physicals after Stress Rel.
No. Item Tested Yield Tensile % El. R/A Yield Tensile % El. R/A
' .
I Wldg. Proc.Test
Plate
p* Mill Test Report 109, 100 123,900 22 66.5
w .904 Reduc. Sect
Tensile 120,575 130,531 19 121,381 133,073 13
w .898 Reduc. Sect
Tensile 124,722 132,238 15 117,453 133,370 11
p .505 Reduc. Sect
Tensile (Hemi-
sphere Parent) 132,867 140,360_ 20 63.5
w Side Bends OIC OK
p Charpy's (Mill) 60 - 62 - 64 at -120oF
p Charpy's (H&C)** 32.5 - 32.5 - 39.5-120oF
0at
w Charpy's (H&C) 38 - 42 - 44 at -60 F 24 - 25 - 25.5 at -600F
ll Hatch Insert
Forging
p Mill Test Report 104, 900 120, 600 21 70
p Mill Test Report 104,500 121,000 22 70
p Tensile .506 Re-
duc. Sect 126,866 137,065 19 64.8
p Charpy's (Mill) 51.5 - 61 - 60.5 at -120°F
p Charpy's (Mill) 58.5 - 63 - 66 at -120°F
p Charpy's (H&C) 17 - 19 - 23 at -120°F
p Side Bends OK
III Hatch Cover '
Forging
p Mi 1 Test Report 103,000 119,200 20 65
p Mill Test Report 103,200 119,400 22 71
p Tensile .357
Reduc. Sect 102,000 117,700 21.0166.0
p Charpy's (Mili) 58 - 66.5 - 68 at -1200P
p Charpy's (Mill) 57.5 - 58 - 61.5 at -120°F
p Charpy's (H& C) 21.5 - 24.0 - 27.0 at -1200F
p Side Bends
, OK
* "p" denotes test made on parent metal; "w" denotes test made on welded specimen.
**H&C - "Halm & Clay"
TABLE II PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF DOWB HY 100 PFtESSURE HULL
MATERIAL BEFORE AND
AFTER STRESS RELIEF
7
Type Buoyancy Range Main A uxi lia ryEmergency
Buoy- Battery Battery Battery
Variable ancy Wt. Moment
System Wt. Disp. Mat'l (lb) (ft-lb) Type Lead Acid Silver Zinc Alkaline
Main Volts
Ballast (O. C. ) 120 30 30
(Reversible) x Water 3,330 0
Ampere-
Vernier Hours 366 72
Trim Fwd- 240 KWH 40 1.82
(Reversible) x Oil 512 Aft - 320
Number
Shot Cells 120 16 5
Ballast
(Non- Iron 900 Fwd-1,535 Mfg. R.z. Cell Elements: Yardney Eveready
Reversible) x Shot Aft -1,535 Model No. DELCO Type Model Vlodel No.
- 847 HR-72 520
Cases:
TABLE W BUOYANCY AND TRIM SYSTEMS AC-DRL
SUM IVIA RY
Special
Development
release controls from inadvertent operation.
Three separate sources of power are available to TABLE V DOWB BATTERY CHARACTERISTICS
operate the emergency circuits: the emergency
battery which has no other function, the auxiliary
battery, or a spare battery which may be tied into
the system through terminal posts.
5. Energy Storage, Conversion,
and Distribution
Energy is supplied by three functionally dis-
tinct batteries: the main battery, the auxiliary
battery, and the emergency battery. The main
battery provides electrical energy for the propul-
sion system and most of the DC loads internal to
the pressure hull and most of the AC loads via the
main DC/AC inverters. The auxiliary battery sup- FIGURE 8. DOWB MAIN BATTERY
plies low voltage DC circuits which require a sep-
arate source and backs up the main battery through transmits sea pressure to the electrolyte. Copper
the emergency DC/AC inverter; the hydraulic trim bussing connects the cells together rigidly and per-
pump motor is the heaviest load supplied by the manently to form a 12 volt battery; these intercell
auxiliary battery. The emergency battery provides connections are jacketed with molded polyurethane. 1
power to the emergency release system exclusive- Thus pressure compensated and insuluted, the bat-
ly. The main battery is located outboard; the aux- teries are immersible in sea water. Heavy duty
iliary and emergency batteries are located inboard (60 amp), in-line, pressure proof, underwater con-
in the pressure hull. nectors connect to the end terminal to permit "un-
plugging" of the 12 volt batteries from one another
Table V outlines the characteristics of the for removal and maintenance. A fiberglass battery
principal battery systemS.. tray contains each 12 volt battery and provides
means for attaching to the load skirt. A dielectric
The main battery consisting of two separate oil supplied from a central reservoir through a
120 volt batteries is supported by the load skirt in header manifold floats over the electrolyte. Gas
two concentric rings. These separate batteries escaping from each cell rises to the header, on the
are named "inner" and "outer" in accordance with way passing through a baffle assembly to separate
their position relative to the load skirt. The elec- electrolyte carried over, and then passes to the
trically independent inner and outer main batteries reservoir and,after sufficient volume has been col-
may be paralleled through the main propulsion lected and pressure built up, out the gas bleed
switching circuit. valve. See Figure 9.
Each main battery consists of ten 12 volt The 120 volt DC is converted to 115 volts, 60
batteries connected in series. Each 12 volt bat- cycle, single phase AC by two solid state inverters
tery, Figure 8, consists of 6 separate cells of 400 watt rated load each (500 watt intermittent).
whose cases and tops are molded of unplasticised, An emergency 100 watt inverter, for use when the
Type I, polyvinylchloride by the intrusion process. main batteries are gone, is powered from the aux-
Reference 5. The flexibility in the cell wall iliary battery. AC circuits have the selection
8
Figure 11 shows one of the oil filled, pressure
compensated, three phase induction propulsion mo-
tors. A pressure compensating system pressuriz-
MPS
es the internal volume of the motor 5 psi in excess
/WWI 11 /3. of ambient to insure that any seal leakage will be
outward; an oil reservoir on each motor contains a
5% reserve volume. A planetary 6.25:1 speed re-
ducer is driven by the motor armature and drives
-7 ,,,,,rdwounsumininorIMMAIWIf the output shaft on which the propeller mounts. The
141 ,SIA14.1017SWl speed reducer, a development of the General
Motors Research Laboratories, Reference 6,
known as the "friction drive" resembles a planetary
reduction gear with one major exception: there are
no gears, only wheels and rings with smooth con-
tact surfaces. Friction between the elements de-
velops the output torque. An essential feature of
the GM friction drive is that the inter-element con-
tact friction is a function of the output torque,
thereby providing high efficiencies at low torque
levels and the capability of generating large output
torques with no slippage. High efficiency and low
I I
9
FIGURE 12. DOWB PROPULSION CONTROLLER
7. Sensing Systems
Three environmental sensing systems, the op-
tical system, the TV system, and the integrated
sonar system, provide to the operators information
on the vehicle's environment.
FIGURE 13. DOWB OPTICAL DOME
Optical System
A pressing need in the design of underwater The integrated sonar system contains the following
vehicles is improved viewing capability: field of units:
view, visual acuity, and operator comfort. DOWB's
optical system, interposed between the external Precision Sonar
light field and the observer, brings the image to Underwater Telephone
the observer rather than vice-versa, which is the Fathometer
rule in most existing vehicles. DOWB's observers Beacon.
view the surroundings from a comfortable seated
position. The system provides full hemispheric Figure 14 is a block diagram of the integrated
visibility, top or bottom, for each of two observers sonar system; Table VI summarizes system
The optical axis is coincident with the polar axis of characteristics.
the spherical pressure hull. An optical dome con-
taining a 1800 wide angle lens assembly is mounted SONAR
TRANSDUCER
UPWARD
FAT HAM PHONE
on the outboard side of each hatch, Figure 13. HEAD
SCÁNNER
TRANSDUCER
Light gathered by the dome is refracted and trans- MECHANISM
o
separate images for each observer. The arrange- SCAN INDI ACTOR
SONAR
(CRT) (PPP
ment of the optical system is shown in Figure 3. ELECTRONICS
VERTICAL
Each observer may choose independently to see the I SCAN INDICATOR
"upper" or "lower" hemispheres. The observers' ) (CRT) (type E)
bearing and all elevations above 450 may be insert- VOICE UNDERWATER UNIT
Because sea water is relatively transparent to FIGURE 14. BLOCK DIAGRAM DOWB INTE-
acoustical energy, sonar provides the primary
means of underwater detection and communication. GRATED SONAR SYSTEM
10
Precision Sonar
Azimuth Elevation U/W
Beam Beam Fathometer Telephone Beacon
Carrier Frequency 225 175 30 8.05 16
(kHz)
Modulation PM (P1) PM (P1) PM (P1) FM (F3) PM (P1)
Pulsewidth 0.5 0.5 10 4
(ms)
Pulse Rep. Rate Variable (See Below) 0.33 0.1
(13P s)
Output Power (peak,
acoustic)(watts) 100 10 1 6 10
Receiver Bandwidth 20 20 3 2
(kHz)
Beamwidth 3x45 3x3 Up - 30 (cone) Up - 180 45 (cone)
(°) Down - 10 (cone) Down - 180
Display Type P(PPI) Type E Digital Speaker
(7" CRT, P7 Voltmeter
Phosphor) (1' res.)
Range Capability 570 on 0.1 sq yd
(yards) target
1500 on beacon
Range Scale/Scan 1000/3/0.835
Rate/Pulse Rep. 500/5/1.67
Rate 100/25/8
(yards/deg per 50/50/160
sec/pps)
Notes Auto Scan Sectors Compatible 7 day life
340° with UQC
30° at any angle
Maximum Power
Drain (watts) , 273 70 100
12
500
opening of top hatch in seas which otherwise
15°
would swamp vehicle.
11. Quality Assurance Program
o Quality is assured by instruction, inspection,
documentation, and test. The following procedures
were invoked:
R. H. 60%
Contractor specifications were required on
R. H. 70%
other systems, including sonar, TV, in-
verters, underwater lights.
R H. 80%
13
DOWB Interior Volume, Nominal 140 cu ft
Nominal Respiration Ftates: Per Man Per 2 Men
02 1.0 scf/hr 2.0 scf/hr
186 scc/min 372 scc/min
CO2
0.8 scf/hr 1.6 scf/hr
149 scc/min 298 scc/min
CO2 Scrubbing Effctiveness:
Chemical Absorption at 60% Eff. LiOH 4.46 scf/lb
NaOH 2.68 scf/lb
Scrubber Flow Rate 20 scf/min
Atmosphere Change Time 7 min
Atmospheric Replenishment Chemical Supply:
160 scf 160 man hours
02 (in 2 Q80SCF Flasks)
LiOH* 25 lbs 139 man hours
NaOH* 40 lb 134 man hours
Instrumentation:
02 Indicator Teledyne, Inc. TAI Series
Model 320 Cell Type B-1
02 Flowmeter Brooks Instrument, Rotameter
Model 1110 Sapphire Float
Scale 50-500 scc/min
CO2 Indicator Scott Draeger Ch 251 (1%)
Ch 235 (.1%)
CO Indicator Scott Draeger Ch 289
14
No. 61311
F. G. ARCHBOLD
North American Aviation, Inc.
Anaheim, California
Paper No.
67-371
F. G. Archbold*
Manager, Submarine Construction
Ocean Systems Operations, North American Aviation, Inc.
(capabilities desired)
VEHICLE REQUIREMENTS
Program Scheduling
PRELIMINARY DESIGN COMPONENT DESIGN CRITERIA
Planning for:
Long Lead Material Items DESIGN Design Reviews
Construction
Quality Control
Quality Verification of Components
Testing
Trials, Evaluation &Acceptance
Logistics & Support Facilities
For All of Above
TESTS
DOCUMENTATION
wpoee
r .
PRO
IE01
ter
strum
POSE UNE
EODL RACE
SIET>ON 8-13 SecnON A-A
71.0.,6u A in kIEr< Ir IWO EVO (IE MOP SO, A
s/Avikol Afar EA, WE,. AP 2. ¿C 20 II e G
BEAVER CHARACTERISTICS
Personnel 4 or 5
Operational Depth 2,000 ft
Factor of Safety 2
Speed Maximum clean hull - 5 knots
Continuous 2 1/2 knots approx.
Endurance time @ 2 1/2 knots 12 hours
Enckirance life support system 44 hours
Number of viewports Forward Sphere - 10
After Sphere - 1
Maneuverability 6 degrees of freedom
Hull Dimensions:
Length overall 25 ft
Height 8 ft 6 inches exclusive of removable motor
Beam 9 feet 6 inches exclusive of removable motors and guards
Weight in air 27, 000 lbs approximately
Total battery capacity 55 Kilowatt Hours
Payload 2,000 lbs
Droppable Weight Batteries 2500 lbs
(2) Manipulators 400 lbs
Variable Ballast Trim System 1474 lbs water
Condition "N" submerged
(2) External Hatches 25 inches in diameter
Main Ballast System Approx. 48 cu. ft; 3000 lbs air pressure at surface
GM 0.5 ft min.
BG 0.3 ft
6
Control Sphere Arrangement Flooded Hull Structure
Man-in-the-loop consideration has dominated the
arrangement of the equipment of the forward sphere.
All of the equipment will be located so that the lower
forward portion of the sphere, with its multiple view-
ports, is available to personnel for direct viewing.
Under cruise operation the pilot, while in his seat on
the port side, will have a presentation from the sonar
and the television camera directly in front of him,
together with the instruments reporting heading,
velocity, depth, trim, and the controls of the vehicle.
The vehicle controls are portable and can be moved to a
location at the viewports from which the Beaver can be
conned while the pilot is looking directly at an object
ahead or below. The observer or the manipulator
operator's seat is on the starboard side and can be
folded up to improve access to viewport. The manip-
ulator controls will be in a portable box on the star-
board side so as to be at hand for all viewing locations.
In the course of discussions on viewing at the
Woods Hole Workshop, a comment was made by one of
the pilots of the French Archimede. He noted that he
had not found one optimum position for the body in view-
ing but rather felt the ability to shift around and use
different muscles was really the important considera-
tion. In view of the extensive ex-perience of that Slide 4
speaker, we have attached considerable weight to this
observation and have attempted to achieve this in the The external hull will be formed from aluminum 5086
control sphere, particularly for the observer. for fixed structure and large easily removable panels of
Two of the viewports have been located to have a
fiberglass. The manner in which loads will be carried
by the strength members of the flooded structure can be
view of the work area that will be most important when seen in Slide 4. Attention has been given in the design
the manipulators are in the upper-shoulder alternate to achieve simplicity for fabrication in which the port
location. It has been noted that an extendable light and starboard sides will be built up separately, then
boom on the port forebody will bring light directly over joined with the top open. The flooded structure can be
the point at which work will be accomplished with the substantially completed, and many of the components
arms. installed prior to joining the pressure hull to it. The use
of watertight and blocked electrical penetrators with
The life support in the control cabin consists of a screwed connections at the external boundary of the
self-contained oxygen supply, and a lithium hydroxide pressure hull will facilitate making up wire harnesses
carbon dioxide removing system with 44 hours endur- while there is good working room in the pressure hull
ance. Two Mark 6 SCUBA packs are provided for cavity of the flooded hull. Closeout will occur near the
emergency breathing. Figures 4 and 5 identify the end of the construction period when the pressure hull is
equipment as presently contemplated and arranged. lowered into place and followed by the upper section of
the flooded structure. This sequence has the advantage
Diver Lockout (Aft) Sphere Arrangement of reducing interference during assembly. It permits
cabin work in the pressure hulls to proceed in parallel
The after sphere will accommodate two men in with work on the outer hull, and it facilitates achieving
diver's equipment. The hatch has been sized at 25 economies in total construction cost.
inches to permit them to go through it without removing
their diving gear. The arrangement is shown in Flooded Hull Arrangement
Figure 6. A self-contained oxygen supply and a lithium
hydroxide carbon dioxide removal system will be pro-
vided with instrumentation suitable for pressurized
conditions. Internal air bottles sufficient for diving
activities to 200 feet are planned for the first of the
Beaver operations. As subsequent need arises for FLOODED HULL ARRANGEMENT
diving operations at increased depths, additional bottles MARKER BOUY PROPULSION MOTOR
will be provided external to the sphere for mixed gases
POWER DISTR
which will be supplied through piping and a valve
installed during original construction. No structural FWD HATCH TRUNK
Slide 5
7
TV Sag-We,'
P/.5?ce,4
4)/A19 co44,7,05s
V4./.42,e3v7Zxe
.e-4,4,ve-77e
c7/t1,4is:5"
/40e,f/Zie
0-Y412
,f xe2
erfi24"-r/-
427; .47,4ve-L
,GL-7,/?-1 _re21%3-o9
40/..s/oz.4y
&z.oe//94-z--Fe
2is,14 /t//r
e rIZZA/ .a/S,Z49/ A'44 /EL /47/1/AP'
Figure 4. Control Sphere
8
0.05Y?ZLf-4/4%.0.44/lE
...1;2440:e ad-azely
I I I
.._,,,
..__..,
,
oxy<jevg/
c---GV%/0/3"
.:9/1/,11.4eZE.
,4fM/Z7
AA/7;E -
e--.44//TOZ
fr/, 4 0. C)
r
,i4E-144412ej"
7-y,o/e.,4zs A71_.1
,a/l/X4E4/.2410,,Ly
Af7,705.44/44-,eg
-0PAIGLI-,95/E:ee" Zi.O.Wair/P
izge/Z/Ty
OXY454eV
7Z2e4efe" e-A6.5.404
/1417/p/
297-- /4/71,-2,e4C
il/ithei4P,4/.4",
-4-qp
<
PREss.
Q3')DIFF. PumP VALvE
I VN/ AV1 POS/T.L'N
[EMERELIEF
VALVE,
Low PREs5.
QL) DIFF, Key. '2 WAyTo cowqcN PcgT
Pump IIAL1;1 PC)SITION vALVE
FILTER 2W 2 PosiTit
vALvs
<4ECPZ. V4Lve -HP,Er
F Low
N0TE: 4Lt. vALves
If CELLS
-
30)..
I
(-)
CBI
#2 BAT. COATA/Nrn
K3 -
45cy-Lis , ..-L.
1-0 1 <
T
11 30 V be + S HUN T
o K1
Clii
43 BAZ CONTAINER Il
/5 CELLS =
I .30V DC ( K4 3 K5 (' K7 )
_ _J
(2B/
*4 BAT CON7i9/N.E/t K2 KI
I IS CELLS I
ri
L
-
30V DC
__
--- ,
o
131 A's
_L
/5-CELLS' ---4-,
I
[I1-0 30 V DC 1 I
T
L _ __I A' I 'T
0 II
C8/ A'6
BIIT.C647A/NR
/5CELLS cx)
130VDC I
rL__ A2
o
CB/
t(3 A'4
30V DC
OIL FILLED
DISTRIBUTIDA BON
AUX. 8US
s'tÌ
N ++ +
IN IERTER INVERTER INVERTER
/NVERTER 30410C A/11,1
(POR T) CONTL.
(STBD) HYD. SYS.
(TOP)
-->> PRESS HULL
Figure 10. Preliminary Electrical System Schematic Loads Propulsion and Auxiliary Power
PRESSURE SPHERE
7--
GONTAU.S
DIVER
LOCKOUT
toiTEH LJTE
STROBE- ft I f- -7
U16fi7 7o/4t.1 *2 TV IIIr7ppin
2 7:143AT II
S'S.TR2O84.1 ST3ROBEI
F-
UNIT CAMERA LCAMERA LÇANDS.4 601409 _..LL /6HT LI6NT
PAN ASSY 1, IRO,/ Zorv (FUTURE PROVIS/ON)
J 15,0W
cONTROI. 5
PRESS.SPHERE
30VDC
() 3OV DC
T I I OII. FILLED
)-(f) IL
DISTRIBUTION
BOx
II II i _LI Ii
-T-RFF 7)(3 7.47 7:6(6-7
PARrar
ASSY
FLA2LJ6N fo.2 Rah) r3 FLOOD 041100D ;snoop Bowl it6HT (35-6 ...,60w)
PERFORMANCE CURVES
z-EFFICIENCY (Y.)
80-
AC MOTOR (GEARED)
70
DC MOTOR HYD
60 DC MOTOR (GEARED)--
50
40
AC MOTOR I HYD
30
ZO
10
2,KTS 3ITS 41(15 5,KTS
o
Slide 8
Slide 10
IV. Beaver Capabilities
In Slide 10, the Beaver is performing a work
Observation or Data Acquisition operation by means of one manipulator positioning the
submarine and the other performing the operation.
Several manipulators have been built, tested and
evaluated in tanks. Improvements are continuously
being made. This experience, plus the simulation
studies we conduct on the effect of man-in-the-loop in
manipulator operations, has provided the basis for a
continuing program of upgrading, which is carried on
to optimize this very important adjunct of the vehicle.
Slide 9
Slide 9 gives a view of the Beaver in normal
operation for observation or data acquisition in which
the pilot is in his seat and the observer at a porthole.
If desired, for a limited time, two observers can be at
the portholes.
Using points of attachment built into the original Slide 11
flooded structure, it is expected the pods containing
special sampling and data-taking equipment will be
attached to various portions of the hull to expand the It is our present intention to carry a rack of four
range of scientific missions of which the Beaver is exchangeable tools in addition to the tool on the arms.
capable. Likewise it is expected to be able to fit coring These can be exchanged at the worksite while submerged
devices and bottom sampling tools at a later date. The adding versatility to this device and expanding the work
built-in flexibility of being able to remove equipment, tasks the Beaver will be capable of performing. It is
particularly in the diver's sphere and to replace it with presently planned that these will be stowed on the port
other devices, plus the relatively large payload alloca- side forward. These tools consist of a hookhand
tion which was made in sizing the vehicle, makes this (Slide 11) which can be rotated, a stud gun (Slide 12),
possible. a cable cutter (Slide 13), an impact head (Slide 14),
and a centrifugal pump (Slide 15). This is but the
beginning of what will be an expanding group of tools
and work capabilities.
18
Slide 12
Slide 15
Diver Operations
Slide 16
It was noted previously that specific design
features to support diver operations have been included
Slide 13 in the after sphere. Slide 16 depicts one situation of
divers at work. At time of delivery an air pressuring
system within the after sphere will be provided that
will permit diver operations to 200 feet. Capability
for operations at a greater depth will be added.
The ability to hover, the high maneuverability,
the provisions for underwater telephone, lighting,
photography, and the ability to use ground tackle will
result in an excellent diver support platform.
The structure has been designed to permit internal
pressure equivalent to 1000 foot depth. This will permit
the Beaver not only to operate with divers at depths
greater than 200 feet, but also to surface with divers
still under pressure and to be lifted onto a decompression
tank for purposes of transferring the men to the tank.
This will eliminate the need to tie up the vehicle while
the men go through their decompression cycle, which
becomes particularly important as the divers go to
greater depths.
Slide 14
19
Persoimel Transfer Another very important planned use of this
submarine is for the transferring of personnel and
equipment at atmospheric pressure to underseas
habitats. We believe that in many fields of oceano-
graphic development and exploration this mating capa-
bility will prove extremely useful and will enhance the
value of this submarine to potential users. The slide
shows Beaver mated to an underseas structure in a
typical evolution.
V. C onclusion
The features we have incorporated into the
Beaver design give ample evidence of our conviction
that the time is appropriate to bring emphasis to bear
on developing increased ability to perform useful work
tasks with manned submarine vehicles.
It is my opinion that Beaver and similar vehicles
will contribute most valuably toward accomplishing the
many worthwhile tasks that lie awaiting in the seas
Slide 17
around us, in expanding our knowledge, and in
helping to garner needed resources from the
ocea.n.
20
io. 61-312
Paper No.
67-372
Introduction
The exploration and exploitation of the world and need not be specially developed to fit into
oceans has been greatly stimulated in recent times small irregular shaped spaces.
by the development of an ever-increasing number
of manned submersible vehicles. The vehicles to Recognizing the need for a large, long stay
date range from small, lightweight and highly time submersible capable of providing habitability
maneuverable vehicles such as Alvin, Deepstar for six or more occupants, Grumman has under-
4000 and the various Star series boats to the taken the development of a prototype vehicle. The
larger, heavier and less maneuverable vehicles submersible will evolve from a design conceived
such as the Aluminaut and Auguste Piccard. In by Jacques Piccard and will be similar in certain
addition, the bathyscaphs Trieste and Archemede respects to Piccard's earlier mesoscaph PX-8,
have permitted manned exploration of the greatest the "Auguste Piccard." The code name for the
depths. Thus, a large selection of submersibles first prototype vehicle is PX-15. The PX-15 is
is presently available, each more or less tailored being constructed in Europe, with completion of
for a specific range of mission tasks. It is inter- tests expected in early 1968.
esting to note that most of the available vehicles
are relatively small with a limit on the number of The PX-15
occupants from 2 to 4. The habitability afforded
by the majority of these small submersibles is Gulf Stream Drift Mission
also extremely limited providing free volumes of The first anticipated use of the PX-15 will be
from 35 to 60 cu ft/man. These values compare to perform a submerged drift in the Gulf Stream
with approximately 53 cu ft/man for the Gemini from a point near Miami, Florida, to a point off
spacecraft. The limited mobility afforded the Halifax, Nova Scotia, a distance of approximately
occupants in the small submersibles is perhaps 1450 nm. This mission was conceived by Jacques
the major influence which dictates the small Piccard and will permit a team of scientists to
amount of submerged stay time permitted. remain in the depths of the Gulf Stream continu-
ously for several weeks and achieve a comprehen-
Within the next few years, we at Grumman sive survey of day-to-day phenomenon. In addition
anticipate an increasing need for larger, more to the scientific value of such a venture, we will
habitable submersibles which will be capable of derive a considerable amount of useful experience
operating at continental shelf depths for periods in the operational problems associated with a large
of days rather than for periods of hours. Some of submersible. The lessons learned during this
the benefits to be derived from this approach mission will assist us in determining what design
include: changes, if any, will be required for later
It provides a vehicle which can carry groups missions.
of scientists or teams for research into the
research area at the same time thus per- Preliminary studies have indicated that the
mitting simultaneous observation of the same most suitable depth to be explored during the first
undersea phenomenon. drift is about 200 meters. However, from this
Trained scientific team members need not be depth it is expected that periodic excursions will be
cross trained in boat operation in order to made up to 100 meters and down to 400 meters. At
provide operating crew backup. 200 meters depth, the temperature in the middle
It permits continuous submerged observation of the stream will be between 15° and 17°C. As
for long periods of time and in relative the temperature of the stream increases to.ward
comfort. the east, the drift can be controlled by monitoring
It permits observer rotation and relief in the temperature changes and periodically propel-
search type missions. ling the submersible back to the desired isotherm
It provides absolute payload capability for
large amounts of internally carried equipment. The average speed of the Gulf Stream off the
This equipment can be of conventional design Arnerican shore is about 4 knots at the surface,
-1-
1.5 to 2 knots at 200 meters and I knot at 400 Figures 1 and 2. A summary of the vehicle's
meters depth. In addition, the stream flow varies chief characteristics follows:
with the time of the year, providing higher speeds
in May and lower speeds during October. With an Weight 130 tons
average submerged depth of 200 meters, the Length 48'
average speed of the PX-15 is expected to be 1.5 Beam 13'-4" without motors;
to 2 knots for the entire trip. Thus the distance 18'-6" with motors
traveled per day will be between 36 and 48 nm. Height 20'
The anticipated mission duration will, therefore, Max. Operational. 2000 ft.
be between 4 and 6 weeks. Depth
Collapse Depth 4000 ft.
Since the PX-15 will remain continuously sub- Battery Capacity . 750 kwh (1000 hr. rate)
merged throughout the mission, it will not be able Propulsion four 25-HP, three-phase,
to determine its position accurately in latitude and variable-frequency
longitude. It is essential that all data recorded electric motors
during the drift be correlational with respect to Power Conversion two variable-frequency,
depth, latitude, longitude and time. For this solid-state inverters
reason, a surface support vessel will be used to powering the main
track the course of the submersible throughout its propulsion motors
drift. The support vessel will be equipped with two fixed-frequency,
suitable communications and navigational equip- solid-state inverters
ment to permit position fixing with respect to powering the propulsor
shore installations while establishing the position pod rotational motors
of the submersible with the aid of sonic detection one fixed-frequency,
gear.
solid-state inverter
powering various on-
At the start of the mission, the PX-I5 will be board equipment
towed to its dive point off Miami. Self-propelling Visibility 29 viewports (placed to
to the dive site does not appear practical in view permit all around
of the limited amount of electrical energy that can visibility)
be provided. A tow to port at the termination of Payload 5 tons minimum
the drift will also be required. Much of the exter- Life Support 6 men for 4 weeks plus 2
nal configuration of the vessel must, therefore, weeks emergency reserve
be designed to withstand the wave slap conditions Emergency Drop- 5 tons
resulting during the towing operations. pable Ballast
Max. Submerged . in excess of 4 knots
A primary requirement of the mission will be Speed
to permit silent, stable operation at various depths.
As a result, the PX-15 has a variable buoyancy The structural arrangement of the hull, shown
capability which will permit precise adjustment of in Figure 3, consists of a ring-stiffened cylinder
vehicle displacement. In order to minimize the with hemispherical end closures. The hull is
requirements on the variable buoyancy system, fabricated of 1-3/8-inch thick steel plate having a
the PX-15 has been designed to have a bulk modu- yield strength of 80,000 psi. Structural rings
lus greater than that of sea water, i.e., it will be spaced uniformly along and inside the hull provide
less compressible than its surrounding environ- sufficient support to the shell to permit safe opera-
ment thereby permitting the vehicle to establish tional depth to 2000 feet while maintaining a mar-
any desired equilibrium depth. The compres- gin of safety of 2 on hull collapse. This combina-
sibility characteristics of the PX-15 are such that tion of hull plating and reinforcement also provides
a difference in ballast of one pound will effect a a hull bulk modulus in excess of 400,000 psi.
change in depth of approximately 10 feet at con-
stant temperature. However, the actual change in In order to permit relatively easy modification
ballast required to provide a predetermined change of the hull for future missions, the initial design
in depth is rather complex since it is affected by makes use of a hull mechanical joint located near
the change in water temperature with depth and the the center of the hull and employs integral hull
heat generated within the cabin by both occupants flanges which are bolted together. Low pressure
and equipment. As a result, the vehicle is not sealing is provided by a conventional "0" ring seal
expected to arrive at a stable equilibrium depth or while high pressure sealing is provided by metal to
even a small amplitude system before one day or metal contact of the machined mating surfaces.
more after a dive has been initiated unless the This separation joint will permit future hull modi-
variable ballast system is used actively. fications for more advanced vehicle uses which will
Configuration be discussed subsequently.
The general arrangement and the current Two "soft"main ballast tanks are mechanically
internal arrangement of the PX-15 is presented in attached to the hull, one on each side, and provide
-2-
48.73'
OBSERVATION AREA
FRESH COLD WATER TANKS LAVATORY INVERTERS AND MESS
PLAN VIEW
TRANSFER CHAMBER
BUNKS (SMALL ITEMS TO SURFACE) COCKPIT FOWARD HATCH
AFT HATCH
-3-
additional buoyancy to the vehicle when it is sur- connected in series-parallel. They provide 168
faced. This additional buoyancy provides adequate VDC to two fixed frequency inverters which power
freeboard to permit ingress-egress through either the propulsor positioning motors and 336 VDC to
of the vehicle's two hatches. These main ballast two variable frequency inverters which power the
tank assemblies are normally completely flooded main propulsion motors. In addition, the battery
during submerged operations. Diving from the provides 112 VDC for exterior lighting and 28 VDC
surface is accomplished by permitting water to for on-board equipment. It is interesting to note
enter these tanks from the bottom while air is that the weight of batteries carried is roughly 25%
vented off at the top. After surfacing, stored com- of the vehicle gross weight.
pressed air, carried in high-pressure tanks lo-
cated in faired compartments above the main bal- Propulsion for the PX-15 is provided by four
last tanks, is valved into the main ballast tanks at 25-hp, AC electric motors powered from two
the top, blowing out the entrained water at the variable-frequency, solid-state inverters. This
bottom. configuration provides speed control of the vehicle
and sufficient power to propel the submerged PX-
Variable buoyancy control is provided by two 15 to speeds in excess of 4 knots. In addition, the
pressure-resistant ("hard") tanks located beneath propulsion motors can be fully reversed and ro-
the hull in the lower keel section. The vehicle is tated in the vertical plane thus providing up, down
neutrally buoyant near the surface when these and reverse thrust capability. By applying forward
tanks are half full of water. Allowing water to thrust with the motors on one side of the vehicle
enter or blowing water out by compressed air pro- and reverse thrust with the motors on the other
vides vertical maneuvering capability for the side of the vehicle, the PX-15 can make still-
vehicle within its operational depth limit. water turns within its own length. The degree of
sophistication displayed by this propulsion system
Electrical power is supplied by lead-acid is not required for the Gulf Stream drift mission.
batteries housed in the free-flooded keel section. It is incorporated into the vehicle at this time to
These batteries are pressure-compensated to sea permit study of large vehicle maneuvering re-
ambient, and consist of up to 378 individual cells quirements.
VIEW C-C
DETAIL X DETAIL Y
-4-
Life support provisions for a mission duration equipment and materials within the hull. Lithium
of up to six weeks have presented a number of hydroxide is used for CO2 absorption. In order to
interesting problems. The design of the various conserve electrical power, the LIOH will be used
life support elements is based, in part, on the in panel configurations located throughout the
metabolic requirements of the crew which are vehicle to permit the natural convective currents
summarized in Table I. In addition to these within the cabin to circulate through them. These
requirements, a supply of water is required for panels also contain activated charcoal for odor and
washing and toilet facilities. certain contaminant removal. Contaminants which
are not processed by the charcoal will be neutral-
As shown in Table I, approximately 500 lbs. ized by an active odor removal unit which consists
of oxygen will be required. Containment of this of a chemical absorbing section and a catalytic
amount of gas in standard high-pressure cylinders burner section. This burner will be activated
would have resulted in an unacceptable oxygen periodically whenever the contaminants reach sig-
supply system weight of 5,000 lbs. However, nificant levels. Contaminant levels will be deter-
liquid oxygen (LOX) stored in standard containers mined with "Drager" gas detector tubes. Approx-
was found to weigh only 1,000 lbs. In addition, imately 40 different detector tubes will be available
the minimum rate of vaporization of the liquid to monitor the range of anticipated gas contami-
oxygen was found to be below the minimum oxygen nants. Since many contaminants can be toxic even
consumption rate for 6 crew members, thus making in small concentrations, careful control of all
it ideally suited for the drift mission. equipment used in the cabin is being exercised in
order to minimize the source of potentially dan-
Purification of the air requires control of CO2, gerous contaminants. This passive system has
odor and contaminant levels, the latter being been demonstrated in a 100-hour test of the PX-15
generated by man's metabolic processes and by the life support and waste management system*.
Table I
Life Support Requirements
PX-15
Item W W Remarks
#/Man-Day 6 Men
42 Days
# Total
Intake:
Food 1.23 311 Freeze dried and heated
for use. 2800K Cal/day.
12-40-48 diet. Food
does not include water.
Water (Tot) 6.00 1,512 Potable stored.
Oxygen 2.00 504 Moderate activity levels.
Total 9.23 2,327 Total input.
Outgo:
CO2 2.25 567 Gaseous.
Water (A) 3.10 781 Urine.
Water (B) 2.68 676 Respiratory.
Water (C) 0.85 215 Perspiratory.
Water (D) 0.22 55 Feces (water only).
6.85 1,727 Total Water
Feces 0.13 33 Feces (solid only).
Total 9.23 2,327 Total Output
*Grumman OSR-67-1 A Four Day Manned Test of the PX-15 Life Support System - F. J. Abeles
-5-
A considerable quantity of water will be re- payload lift and other operations with a manipulator.
quired by the crew during the drift mission. In To provide these capabilities the following are
addition to the 1, 512 lbs. of potable water indicated required:
in Table I, an additional amount of 1, 512 lbs. is a landing gear for bottom sitting
provided for washing. Half of the potable water is a larger variable ballast capability for payload
stored in tanks which are in good thermal contact pickup
with the hull plating, thus providing cool drinking a larger attitude trim capability for off-center
water. The remaining potable water is stored in payload pickup
superinsulated tanks at approximately 210° F . This a manipulator
water will be used in the reconstitution of freeze emergency systems for ballast dump or jet-
dried food. Stored hot water was chosen in pre- tisoning to ensure safe recovery in the event
ference to electrically heating cold water primarily of abnormally high breakout forces or fouling
on the basis of minimum weight and electrical of the manipulator or landing gear.
energy. Approximately 22.5 kilowatt hours of
energy would be consumed from the battery to heat Future versions of the PX-15 will probably
the water. For a lead-acid battery, this energy incorporate the landing gear and manipulator with
is equivalent to 1, 500 lbs. of battery weight. The their supporting systems. Grumman designs are
superinsulated tanks, on the other hand, weigh currently on the boards as part of a design study
440 lbs. of our follow-on vehicle -- the Grumman Submer-
sible #1 or GSV-1. These designs are directly
Temperature and hurnidity control of the applicable to later versions of the PX-15 as well.
cabin atmosphere appears to be controllable by
purely passive means. Based on a sedentary crew One highly desirable aspect of large submer-
activity level of 400 BTU/Hr/Man and an average sibles is their potential for adaptation with a diver
heat generated by cabin equipment of 680 BTU/Hr., lock-out capability -- something like a mobile
it appears that the cabin temperature will remain Sealab -- with mission durations of approximately
between 63°F and 81°F for the expected range of seven days or more. We believe that the ability
sea water temperatures in the Gulf Stream without to send divers out on-the-spot at the time of the
the need for cabin wall insulation. The uninsulated first visual sighting of an underwater find, and to
cabin walls will condense atmospheric moisture remain on the site for extended time, will repre-
and maintain a relative humidity between 40 and 70 sent a significant improvement in capabilities over
percent during the drift. current systems. Grumman's follow-on vehicle,
thé GSV- 1, will incorporate this capability.
For missions in colder water, active heating
and dehumidification will be used.
Future Development The GSV-1
The operational advantages of large payload, The GSV-1 is an adaptation of the PX-15
passenger comfort, long submerged stay time, etc. design and will provide greatly increased capabili-
accrue to the large submersible at the expense of ties for undersea work. It is primarily directed
maneuverability. In the PX-15 the loss in maneu- toward commercial exploitation of the ocean's
verability has been partly overcome through the resources.
use of relatively larger motors than are usually
found on submersibles. The four 25 HP propulsors As previously described, the PX-15 hull is
provide a power-to-weight ratio comparable to being built with a mechanically joined splice at
smaller vehicles now operating. about its mid-point. This will make it possible to
use either the PX-15's forward section, or its
The use of larger motors results in a loss in twin, to complete the GSV-1 vehicle after its new
cruise performance due to electrical power losses sections have been qualified.
in conversion. As a consequence, the specific
range of the PX-15 is not as high as it might be. The GSV-1 is currently in the Preliminary
The low specific range is not of practical signifi- Design stage. Its present configuration is shown
cance for the PX-15's first missions -- the Gulf in Figure 4. Its resemblance to the PX-15 is
Stream Drift and Investigation of Large Submer- obvious. A characteristics summary comparison
sible Operations and Handling. Follow-on con- is shown in Table II.
figurations envision the use of alternate propulsion
configurations which greatly improve the submer- The GSV-1 configuration incorporates a land-
sible's range and powered endurance. ing gear, manipulator, and diver lock-out capabili-
ties. The landing gear is of the twin pontoon type
Although the PX-15 embodies many advantages and offers several advantages:
of a large submersible, its initial configuration It can be made self-buoyant, thereby pre-
will not possess several advantages which a large serving the reserve buoyancy of the hull which
vehicle can provide. These are: relatively large provides for payload lift.
payload-pickup capability at operating depth, and It provides tankage volume which can be par-
bottom-sit capability providing a stable base for titioned and used both as a large variable
-6-
Table II
GSV-1 PX-15
Weight 173 ton.s 130 tons
Length 61 ft. 9 in. 48 ft.
Beam 19 ft. 18 ft. 6 in. with motors
Height 22 ft. 10 in. 20 ft.
Maximum Operating Depth 2000 ft. same
Collapse Depth 4000 ft. same
Battery Capacity >750 kwh 750 kwh (1000 hr. rate)
Propulsion (2) 25 hp (4) 25 hp
(1) 7.5 hp steerable
Payload >9 tons 5 tons minimum
Life Support 3 men fwd) 2 wks 6 men for 4 wks plus 2 wks
6 men aft ) emergency reserve
Emergency Droppable Ballast 5 tons same
Max. Submerged Speed approx. 4 kts. >4 kts.
62'
16 5.6"
13 3.4,-
ballast tank for payload pickup and as a vari- The gear may present some problems with re-
able trim tank to permit off-center payload spect to bottom breakout forces. For this reason,
pickup. it has been designed so that each bottom surface is
It provides a stable base for using the mani- a steel plate shoe weighing several thousand
pulator on the bottom. pounds which can be pyrotechnically released as
It provides a convenient mounting place for emergency ballast. The steel plate also serves as
specialized payload containers. armor for the tankage against bottom irregular-
It provides a low pad pressure for sitting on ities. It will also be possible to jettison the entire
unconsolidated bottom soils. landing gear assembly for emergency purposes.
-7-
Consequently, the GSV-1 manipulator system can The bottom-sit/payload pickup capability is
be added to the PX-15 without major retrofit. shown in Figure 5. Depending upon the mission,
a 5,000 lb. pickup or a 5,000 lb. bottom-sit can be
Gross location of the manipulator is achieved provided by varying the internal ballast load.
by means of a swinging linkage which allows the
whole mechanism to be stowed aft alongside the The manipulator is of relatively conventional
battery box-keel as shown in Figure 6. design having eight degrees of freedom. It is
operated from a crew station located at the forward
Manipulator capabilities will include a 500- end of the boat. This crew station is located in the
pound lift at a reach of 10 feet. The working en- section of the boat which is obtained from the PX-
velope is shown in Figure 7. 15 or is a twin of the PX-15's forward section.
6000
(r)
ii 5000
4000
a_ 3000
o
2000
o
1000
>--
r""=11
o
o 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
BOTTOM - SIT FORCE-LBS
SWING AXIS
CP
"Zb
cD
9-
MANIPULATOR
BOOM
Lil-B° A° Af
OA' CH' PO'
MAX.P POI" Pf
fAIN 006pAl",,H
N4AX. L.t:r FE4""
M
MIN
472-4"-
4.5)
-8-
GSV-1 diver operations are carried out from hull. A diving compartment formed by a closure
the aft compartments of the boat. This is shown dome similar to the one forward was considered.
best in the Inboard Profile, Figure 8. The GSV-1 It was rejected because of advantages to be gained
is divided into three compartments. The forward from the smaller separate ball, as follows:
compartment is similar to that of the PX-15. It Axis of the diving hatch can be vertical.
houses the operational subsystems of the vehicle -- Permits use of an overhead hatch to facilitate
propulsion an.d maneuver, trim and depth, naviga- transfer of saturated diving personnel to a
tion, communications, caution and warning, etc.-- surface decompression chamber.
and the operating crew. It is kept at sea level Small diameter permits cleaner aft body
pressure at all times. Life support is similar to fairing and reduced drag.
the PX-15's. A small diameter chamber mounted off-center
provides greater diver clearance for a given
The forward compartment is forrned by a landing gear length.
closure dome when the new aft section is spliced to A mechanically joined diving chamber can be
the PX-15's forward section. The dome is a part easily reconfigured as experience is gained
of the new assembly. The second, or midsection with diver systems or can be replaced with
compartment is designed for operation at either sea special purpose ball modules for such tools
level pressure or at ambient water pressure for as coring or drilling.
saturated diving operations. Systems will be quali- Diver egress-ingress can be monitored with
fied for hyperbaric operation to 1, 500 feet but direct vision view.
expendables and replaceable diver gear will be
sized for 800 feet operation. This is expected to Diver operations could be carried on without
be the practical depth limit for extended dives in the use of a separate, third chamber by providing
the early period of GSV-1 operation. a hatch in the end-bell of the hyperbaric chamber.
However, this configuration would practically
Six divers can live and work completely self- eliminate a particularly attractive mode of diver
operations called bounce or yo-yo dive at Grumman.
sufficient for saturated diving periods of up to In a yo-yo dive, the divers are pressurized to am-
seven days in the midsection compartment. Com- bient water pressure in the small ball while the
plete housekeeping and life support facilities are remainder of the vehicle is held at one atmosphere.
provided. The principal areas are identified in The divers operate outside while being monitored
Figure 8. by a tender who is a member of the diving team and
is at hyperbaric pressure in the small ball. At the
Diver Lock-Out conclusion of the work period -- perhaps as long as
Diving operations are conducted through a four hours -- the divers return to the ball and the
bottom hatch in the aft section compartment. This diving team is decompressed to one atmosphere.
compartment is a separate ball eight feet in At depths below several hundred feet, the divers
diameter -- smaller than the basic hull's 10 feet never reach complete saturation so the decompres-
diameter -- and is mechanically joined to the basic sion times -- even for several hours out -- are
-9-
relatively short. Preliminary Grumman studies support. Common supplies will be used for Oz
indicate a complete turn-around from one atmos- and electrical power.
phere to ambient to one atmosphere could be made
in about 8-10 hours. This appears to be a practi- The use of separate systems has an additional
cal diver team work cycle since the men are advantage. It permits the aft sections of the GSV-1
resting during the decompression period. Further- to be developed as "man-rated" chambers at the
more, once the divers return to one atmosphere, working pressures of depths to 800 feet. It is
they will rest more comfortably and be able to possible to conduct this development on land since
complete a debriefing without the complications of the pressure vessel is designed to withstand high
garbled communications in the hyperbaric helium internal pressure in order to decompress satura-
environment. ted divers slowly with the GSV-1 at the surface.
It is anticipated that all of the hyperbaric systems
Using the small ball for yo-yo diving con- development will be completed before a front end
serves pressurizing gases if they are dumped upon is joined. It will also be possible to check out the
decompression, or the energy used to recompress operations of the diver system and diver lock-out
the gases to storage pressure. The third chamber in shallow water operations before the final assem-
for diving also permits several dive teams to bly of the GSV-1 with its front end.
alternate using the yo-yo technique.
Other Modifications
A helium-oxygen environment will be used for Other modifications to the basic PX-15 under
the GSV-1 diver operations to 800 feet. Systems consideration for the GSV-1 are less obvious on
will be designed to withstand operating pressures first inspection. These modifications are in the
to 1,500 feet but will be sized for 800 feet opera- areas of functional subsystems performance.
tion due to a projected diver limitation. The yo-yo
dive technique looks sufficiently attractive that One principal modification will be in the Pro-
Grumman believes the forward and midsection pulsion and Maneuvering System where the sub-
chambers will often operate together at one atmos- stitution of an active rudder is planned using a low
phere. Accordingly, a large 4-foot diameter hatch HP motor with a ducted propeller. This can be
will be provided in the closure bulkhead between seen on the General Arrangement Drawing, Figure
the forward and mid-sections to permit relatively 4. The low HP motor can also be employed for
easy passage. The interior hatch to the diving low speed cruise between 1 and 2 knots offering a
ball will have a 30-inch diameter clear opening significant improvement in specific range -- n. mi!
and the bottom diving hatch will have a 36-inch kw-hr. -- and powered endurance for holding posi-
clear passage to accommodate divers with equip- tion in a current. The drawing shows only two of
ment. the PX-15 25 HP motors retained for obtaining
vertical thrust, fast acceleration, maximum speed
Incorporating a hyperbaric chamber and diving and rapid in-place yaw rotations. This is planned
chamber in the GSV-1 requires changes in design pending results of actual PX-15 operation with the
approach for these chambers compared to the PX- four motors and analysis of the maneuverability
15. No trapped air pockets can be permitted unless requirements.
the equipment and structure have been designed to
withstand an external pressure of about 670 psi The PX-15 Navigation and Guidance subsystem
(equivalent to ambient water pressure at 1,500 will be augmented in the GSV-1 to achieve capability
feet). Orifices for venting must be sized to limit for self-navigation near the bottom. Addition of a
pressure differentials during rapid pressurization. doppler sonar (for long-range bottom navigation)
Generally, decompression will be slow for diver and a device for interrogating bottom emplaced
physiological reasons. The original PX-15 ring transponders (for local navigation) are being
stiffener design, Figure 3, is a box section which considered. A forward-looking sonar will provide
is sealed after stress relief. In the GSV-1 mid- an obstacle avoidance capability. A digital com-
section., these stiffeners must either be vented or puter and X-Y plotting board will be used to pro-
redesigned. A T-frame design is being studied. cess and display data.
All systems with internal fluids at ambient The PX-15 communications gear will be aug-
cabin pressure, such as the water supply and waste mented by an intercommunications system between
management system or emergency wet cell bat- compartments and divers, through which surface
teries, must be vented or pressure-compen.sated communication can be fed. A surface buoy with
to work in the GSV-1 aft chambers. Without R.F. handline will be added for emergency and
special design features, it is difficult to employ recreational communications from the surface.
common systems in such areas as water supply Sound powered phones will be required for diver
for chambers operating at different pressures. communications.
Common systems are possible for gas supplies
where storage pressure is greater thanthe working The foregoing modifications to a PX-15 type
pressure of either chamber. In the GSV-1, sepa- submersible -- added landing gear with payload
rate systems will be used for water supply, waste pickup and bottom-sit capabilities, manipulator
management, environmental control and life installation and capabilities for saturated and yo-yo
-10-
diving from the boat at depths to 800 ft. -- for use in mid-1969. By 1970, we at Grumman
represent the principal near term avenues of believe that the utility and performance capabili-
manned submersibles development at Grumman. ties of the large manned submersible will have
The GSV-1 embodying these changes will be in been demonstrated, leading to greater and greater
development through 1968 and should be available demand for services.
No. 61-313
Paper No.
67-373
12.15
THE DESIGN FOR A SELF-CONTAINED, ARTICULATED,
ONE-ATMOSPHERE UNDERSEA SUIT
1
built into the suit will incorporate conventional The one-atmosphere suit's major role, Litton
CO2 scrubbing and oxygen storage in order that feels, will be in deploying the mass of underwater
the replenishment of the life-support system can workers that the economic exploitation of the con-
be quickly and easily effected. Bottom time of 2 tinental shelves will require. Anyone familiar
to 6 hours at depths up to 600 ft will be possible. with divers will agree that the good ones are
Tending requirements, because of the elimination highly-trained specialists, who are at the same
of air lines, will also be minimal. These capa- time highly-motivated and somewhat temperamen-
bilities should find wide utility in the offshore tal. In order to go deep, divers must be superior
construction and offshore petroleum industries. physical specimens in top shape with a built-in
Those techniques the offshore oil industry now immunity to risks. They must, moreover, have
depends uponfor connecting gathering lines to acquired a good working knowledge of the physio-
completed wells for example can be greatly sim- logical effects of pressure and the various gas
plified by the extended bottom time the one- mixtures utilized in deep diving. Otherwise they
atmosphere suit makes possible. The installation, would not be able to work confidently while sub-
maintenance and protection of submarine pipeline jected to these sometimes disconcerting and dis-
and cable systems connecting offshore drilling and turbing effects.
production structures will also be greatly
facilitated. It is easy to understand, therefore, why good
divers are already in short supply. And as under-
These suits should also assist the U. S. Navy water activity increases, this scarcity could reach
in conducting its underwater operations. These critical proportions. The one-atmosphere suit
would include: offers one sensible means of restoring this situa-
tion. With it, the average construction worker,
The search and retrieval of objects at depths rigger, welder or fish pond operator can be put
where the use of current diving techniques is im- down to the underwater work site in a self-
possible or impracticable, such as downed air- contained air atmosphere, under the physiological
craft and/or special equipment carried by the working conditions familiar and reassuring to him.
downed aircraft.
The history of the development of articulated,
The installation of submarine pipeline supply one-atmosphere diving suits roughly parallels
syste,ins providing part of the logistical back-up that of the hard hat diving suit. Progress in re-
of an amphibious landing. cent years, though, has not kept pace with that of
the hard hat and other compressed gas diving
systems. In the late 1930's however, observation
The development, installation and maintenance chambers and articulated suits were the only
of special harbor defense systems. means of getting below the 300 ft limit for com-
pressed air diving.
In addition, a fully-armored diver will be
immune from attack by sharks, jelly fish, and Articulated diving suits generally have been
other injurious marine organisms. designed around one of two basic types of joint,
the bellows or the ball and socket. The Taylor
suit, designed in 1838, is representative of the
The one-atmosphere diving-suit will also offer first. (See Figure 1) The joint articulation in
a readily available means for engineering and other this suit is provided by means of what today is
supervisory officers uninitiated in the diver's termed a convoluted joint. This type of joint
world for making detailed personal inspections utilizes a bellows-like arrangement of ring stiff-
under water. This will be increasingly important eners and fabric (in this case, leather). This
as efforts are made to readapt U. S. coastlines to joint system is essentially a forerunner of the
maximize the commercial and military utility of type of joint used in today's space suits. One of
the available waterfronts and harbors. the oddities of the Taylor suit is the fact that the
hands and feet are left unprotected, destroying
The articulated, one-atmosphere suit's unique whatever hopes the designer might have had in
capabilities, Litton feels, will earn it a vital role developing a workable suit. The state-of-the-art
in underwater activities. It is important to keep of the time obviously was not up to handling these
in mind, however, that this role will be a com- difficulties, which is not surprising. Even today,
plementary one. The armored diving suit, as the design of the glove is still a critical problem.
these suits have been termed traditionally, will
not and cannot supplant existing techniques. Scuba A more sophisticated version of the above suit
systems, for example, will certainly continue to was designed by Tasker in 1881. (See Figure 2)
be used in shallow work. One-atmosphere suits He proposed to use a one-atmosphere suit articu-
will not assume the pioneering role Sea Lab is lated with bellows joints and to provide the re-
playing in enlarging the scope of man's underwater quired watertight integrity by covering the suit
activities. Nor will the Litton suit have the far- with an ordinary flexible diving dress. One of
ranging survey and search capability of existent the major problems facing the designers of this
underwater research vessels. type of suit then was the lack of a suitable fabric
Figure 3. Philips Suit, Figure 4. The Car-
1856 magnolle Freres Suit,
1882
Figure 1.
The First Articu-
lated Armored Suit, Figure 2.
By Taylor, 1838 The Tasker Suit, 1881
3
(1 91 9). This suit, shown in Figure 7, utilized
oblique, rotary joints to provide articulation. This
suit is similar in concept to the "hard" suit NASA's
Ames Laboratory is investigating for space work.
The only articulated suit with a credible per-
formance record, however is the Neufeldt and
Kuhnke (1 91 3 to present). Variations of this suit
were used by an Italian salvage company to sal-
vage the gold off the S. S. Egypt, sunk in 438 ft of
water. A large protuberance was built onto the
back of the suit to act as a ballast tank. The suit
also contained a self-contained life support sys-
tem. First versions of the suit had 12 ball-and-
socket or spherical joints, later versions had only
six in order to make it easier to keep the suit
watertight. These patented joints, shown in Fig-
ure 8, utilized two rows of bearings in order to
reduce friction between the inner and outer spher-
ical surfaces. The joint was kept watertight by
rrxeans of a strip of rubber so configured that the
pressure of the water tended to push it down on
the polished surface of the ball. A variation of
this suit is currently being offered for sale by
Roberto Galeazzi Ltd; (Figure 9).
Figure 9. Galeazzi Suit
In recent months, however, it has become ap-
parent that the role of these newer devices, too,
is somewhat specialized. These devices, the sub-
mersibles, the robot manipulators, and the
helium-oxygen diving systems, are expensive to
maintain and operate, are highly complex, and
require extensive supporting organization. It is
equally apparent that a suitable system has yet to
be developed for handling fast-developing survey,
salvage, and sub-sea repair operations on an
economically sensible scale. Such a utilitarian
system must have a good depth capability, ade-
quate mission time, be easily transportable, re-
quire a minimum of support equipment, and be
easily deployable into and out of the water. These
requirements are met effectively by the one-
atmosphere articulated suit. The mobility prob-
lems hampering earlier one-atmosphere suits,
Figure 8. The Neufeldt moreover, have been solved by recent state-of-
and Kuhnke Suit the-art advances in suit technology pioneered by
Litton.
4
for use in space. Since 1955, Litton has been de-
veloping and pe rfecting the art of building c onstant-
volume anthropometric pressure suits. This
understanding of the physical and engineering con-
straints involved in developing workable articula-
tion under pressure resulting from Litton's space
suit programs provides the basis on which the one-
atmosphere diving suit is being developed.
The Litton space suit has been designed specif-
ically to perform useful work in space and, as
such, differs significantly from the "emergency
only" character of the currently-used fabric suits.
The outstanding characteristic of the Litton suit is
its mobility. This results from the suit's ability
to maintain a pressurized, constant-volume exo-
skeletal enclosure while accommodating nearly
the full range of body motions with minimal energy
expenditure by the suited subject. Conversely, the
ability to move freely in a soft, or fabric, suit is
physically limited by the tendency of the suit and
its articulations to seek maximum volume (mini-
mum energy) positions. This causes the soft suit
articulations to become rigid in a single position,
or to flop in a bistable manner from one minimum
energy position to another. Figure 10. The Litton Mark I Suit
5
The progressive development of the Litton space
suit is shown in the following figures. (See Fig-
ures 11 and 12.) The progress shown in simplify-
ing and improving the design is rather remarkable(4)
The movement torques in the latest suit, the RX-4,
are less than 1 ft lb. The comparable torques in
fabric suits are in the order of 10 to 20 ft-lb.
L.
Iry NI
tottLsil 1
f'
11407
4111
MR IF
II
I i
Figure 13. Artist's Representation of the Proposed
Figure 11. The Litton Figure 12. The Litton Litton UX Underwater Suit
RX-1 Suit RX-3 Suit
TABLE I
An artist's representation of the underwater Wrist flexion-extension hinge
suit is shown in Figure 13. The similarity to the Wrist abduction-adduction hinge
space suit is evident, as are the differences due Wrist supination-pronation rotational
to the much higher stresses to which the suit will Elbow flexion hinge
be subjected. Litton is confident the space suit's Shoulder flexion-extension rotational (hinge)
successful pattern of development can be dupli- Shoulder abduction-adduction hinge
cated by its diving suit. Moreover, the progres- Ankle flexion-extension hinge
sive improvements already made in the design of Ankle abduction-adduction hinge
the basic elements of the prototype suit confirm Knee flexion hinge
this. Hip rotation rota.tional
Hip flexion hinge (rotational)
The technical problems found in the adaptation Hip adduction-abduction hinge
of Litton concepts to the diving suit are severe; Waist flexion hinge
primarily because the pressure differen.ce is 3.7
to 5 psi in the case of the space suit and 270 psi in pressure from zero to twenty atmospheres. This
the case of the diving suit. Moreover, the joints is compatible with the muscular strength of the
and seals in the case of the diving suit have to be man operating the joints.
absolutely watertight whereas in the space suit
some leakage can be tolerated. Figure 14 shows the basic structure of a rotary
seal for an articulated diving suit. The major
The design of the rotary seal is based on the applied force is axial thrust, equal to the applied
analysis of the forces that tend to close the seal pressure P multiplied by the area of the seal R2.
and prevent a leak as distinct from the forces that The axial thrust is absorbed by the main thrust
tend to cause friction. Conceptual separation of bearing consisting of two steel bearing races and
the two kinds of forces permits optimization of a row of large bearings. Another row of smaller
geometry and first order compensation of forces bearings forms an angular contact bearing that
so that the net torque required to turn the seal in- controls the concentricity of the elements and pre-
creases less than 30 percent for a change of applied vents separation of the seal under no-load conditions.
6
SEALING CONDITION: Ps> P
Since we have seen that Pi remains essentially
TORQUE: T RK [Ps - Pl A constant, so does the torque. The area A is the
K ° FRICTION COEFFICIENT a.rea of contact between the sealing lip and the
A CONTACT AREA
THRUST
SEALING PRESSURE
sealing washer:
PS
A = 2 Rd
where d is the radial thickness of the sealing lip;
it appears therefore that the torque can be made
as low as desired by making d thin enough. There
are, of course, practical limitations but they are
such that seals can be built with a net torque that
AXIS
is acceptable for the intended application. As the
thrust load increases with the applied pressure, the
Figure 14. Basic Structure of a Rotary Seal for an
thrust bearing deflects elastically a.nd tends to
Articulating Diving Suit close the seal thereby increasing the sealing pres-
sure Ps beyond the value sufficient to create a
seal. This effect can be counteracted by under-
The seal proper is formed at the interface be- cutting the sealing lip so that it is supported by
tween a sealing washer of relatively soft and slip what amounts to a very stiff diaphragm. The di-
pery material (teflon) and a sealing lip of ground, mensions are chosen so that the sealing lip tends
lapped and polished hardened steel. A seal is to deflect away from the sealing washer by the
formed when the mating parts are pressed to- same amount by which the sealing elements tend to
gether with a pressure sufficient to plastically de- come together.
form the softer material so that it flows and fills
the microscopic surface irregularities of the Figure 15 shows typical test results from a 4-
harder material. The major component of the inch seal intended for the wrist pronation-supination
friction coefficient is due to the flow of the plastic axis of a diving suit. The effect of varying the
material out of the way of the microscopic promi- pre-loading pressure Pi as well as the effects of
nences of the harder material and into the micro- the lip undercut are shown.
scopic depressions. The sealing washer is backed
by an elastic washer (soft rubber) which is initially
squeezed at assembly by an amount sufficient to
create a pre-loading pressure on the seal. This T (FI-LBS)
preload pressure Pi must be adequate to obtain 16
the required deformation of the plastic material
and therefore to form a seal. The elastic washer
is exposed to one side of the fluid pressure of the
external environment. When this pressure is in- 14
PRELOAD
creased above the internal pressure, it is applied .014
to both sides of the sealing washer: directly on Ai
the side of the sealing lip, as the fluid tries to 12
.
push the seal apart, and indirectly on the side of
the elastic washer, as the elastic washer transmits
the applied pressure as a hydrostatic pressure to
!PA..
10
61,5
8
11
eAA
008 0
Ps = P + P
6
4
stays essentially constant and equal to the pre- ,,. :"."'"" U.012
NDERC UT
IPJ::::::::::,..gll
loading pressure Pi, that was initially chosen to
be adequate to provide a seal. The torque T re- 2 - s.,
quired to turn the seal is equal to the tangential
force multiplied by the radius. The tangential
force in turn is equal to the coefficient of friction o
K multiplied by the contact area A multiplied by o 50 ilk 150 200 250 PSI
7
A typical hinge-like articulation, embodying an results at 240 psi and was subsequently re-designed
application of the rolling convolute principle to a to improve results and produce an entire arm.
knee joint for use with a space suit is shown in (Figure 17 presents the initial results.) The
Figure 16. It consists of a number of metal hoops mobility (convolute) joint was, in addition, tested
that are nesting in each other. A rubberized fabric to destruction to develop confidence levels regard-
sleeve is held captive between the hoops and acts ing materials and fabrication techniques used. In
as the pressure barrier. The hoops contain and this test, the joint met the design specifications,
shape the fabric so that folds or convolutes are thoroughly proving the intrinsic worth of the con-
formed between the hoops. The axial load in this volute principle. Design improvements already
case is pure tension, that can be conveniently ab- incorporated in subsequent test elbows will allow
sorbed by a flexible steel cable joining all the the joint to withstand substantially greater
hoops. The first and last hoops are welded to the pressures.
rigid portions of the suit structure. When the
a.rticulation is flexed the fabric convolutes roll in
and out of the spaces between the hoops, and the
symmetry is such that the volume generated on the 20
FABRIC
Figure 17. Torque Test of Rolling Convolute Joint
HOOP
CABLE
FABRIC
, HOOP Litton's efforts in the underwater suit field
FABRIC
began late in 1964. The initial efforts were cen-
RESTRAINT tered on proving the feasibility of the concept.
This was done by the design, fabrication, and test
of a rotary seal and elbow convolute.
SWAGED
BUSHING
SECTION AT CABLE
Current efforts are directed toward the develop-
(ENLARGED) ment of a wrist and glove. Divers rely heavily
SWAGED BALL
upon their sense of touch in finding their way
(EACH END OF CABLE) around under turbid conditions.
So, in many ways, the development of a work-
able glove is the key to the usefulness of an under-
Typical Hinge-Like Articulation,
1-'igure 16.
water suit. Litton has now designed and built a
Embodying Application of Rolling Convolute
prototype wrist joint providing 60° of freedom. A
Principle to Knee Joint for Use with Space Suit mock-up of the thumb and knuckle articulation in-
dicates the problem of designing a workable hand
The articulation becomes more complicated can be solved.
when it is designed to withstand a higher external
pressure, because the axial compressive load Description of Suit
must be absorbed by an adequately strong mechan-
ical linkage. The objective of the Litton Underwater suit
development program is to design and test an ar-
In the development of an entire articulated arm ticulated constant-volume undersea suit. The
or leg several convoluted joints of similar design overall design parameters and proposed capabil-
but of different sizes are integrated in an assembly ities of the Litton underwater suit are described
that follows closely the shape of the human body in the following paragraphs.
and places the axis of each articulation near the
corresponding anatomical point. The articulations Depth
are connected by rigid sections that can be changed
in length for adjustment to the individual inhabi- The suit is designed to withstand a working
tant's measurements. pressure of 270 psi (600 ft). Crushing depth is in
excess of 1000 ft, providing a safety factor ap-
Such a rolling convolute joint that has been proaching 2. All suit sections are made up of
developed for the diving suit along these princi- spherical, cylindrical or conical elements in order
ples, has been investigated with encouraging to best withstand the high hydrostatic pressures.
8
Mobility
The rotary joints, which are essentially radial
bearings incorporating watertight seals, are placed
at the wrist, a-rm, shoulder, thigh and leg. The
torques required to turn the smaller rotary joints
such as the wrist seals will be less than 3 ft-lbs.
The larger joints will range upward to approxi-
mately 8 ft/lbs in the case of the thigh. Bending
or flexural motion in the arms and legs is pro-
vided by the constant-volume and convolute joints
which allow up to 1100 of planar motion.
The range of motions of the flexural and rotary
joints is given below in Table II. The combination
of these movements will allow the UX to move
across the ocean floor, climb over obstacles, and
move about in a swimming mode if necessary.
The range of elbow and shoulder movement is
shown in Figure 18 and demonstrates that there
is adequate arm mobility for the performance of
any underwater task.
TABLE II
Buoyancy
9
The stability of the suit with a 185-pound man Balance under compression is obtained when
but without the life-support system and the dis-
posable ballast was computed graphically. The t-r Ew (2. 5 - 2u)
metacentric height is approximately 0.5 inch; in Es
other words, the suit is in essentially neutral
equilibrium. An upright position can be assured where Ew is the bulk modulus of water (330, 000
by locating the CG of the life-support system and psi); hence
that of the disposable ballast below the center of
buoyancy of the suit. It should be noted that the t = 0.021 r
CG of the suit alone practically coincides with the
CG of the man standing in it, so that the man will which is close enough to the value given above to
not experience any unusual equilibrium problems provide first-order compensation.
when moving about.
Glove Parameters
Structural Considerations
The ultimate utility of the UX concept is depen-
Unstiffened suit elements will be used when dent to a large degree on the development of a
such simple forms can provide adequate structural practical glove. In many cases a diver's hands
stability within the allowable weight. are his eyes because the diver's own movements
stir up so much sediment that the visibility is re-
The elasticity of these suit elements, more- duced to zero.
over, must approximate the compressibility of
sea water to provide a first order compensation The essential degrees of freedom of the human
for the change of volume with compression. De- hand are ten, if the last two fingers operate as a
sign pressure is taken at 450 psi, equivalent to unit. Prosthetic devices for amputees have been
1000-ft depth, giving a safety factor of 2 at 500 built with as little as zero degrees of freedom (a
feet. The suit material is 316 stainless steel rigid hook), one degree (pincers), two (three-
which provides the best possible corrosion pro- prong pincers) and more. Medical authorities
tection for the structural elements, having state that three-prong pincers offer an amputee as
much manipulative dexterity as he requires for all
Density 0.28 pounds/cu. in. normal tasks.
Young's modulus E = 29 X 106
The glove Litton is developing for its under-
Yield point Kc = 65,000 psi water suit will have considerably more dexterity
Poisson's ratio = 0.3 than the three-prong pincers and consequently
should be more than adequate for general under-
There are various criteria for the stability of thin water use. For unusual tasks, specially con_fig-
'shells under external hydrostatic pressure. The ured tool-holding or prosthetic devices can be
simplest, based on the yield point is affixed to the arm instead of the glove.
10
diver is insufficient to keep him warm, an auxiliary CO2 becomes available, such a device will be in-
heat source will be incorporated into the suit to corporated into the suit. Lights, if required, will
supplement the diver's body heat. be furnished in separate, self-contained battery
units.
The water temperatures to which the divers are
exposed will vary from 0°C to28°C. Most operations Test Program
are conducted in cold waters, ranging upward in
temperature from 10°C to 20°C. This coldness of the
undersea environment has been one of the major A full-scale hydrostatic and environmental test
obstacles to prolonged deep diving. The internal program has been carried on parallel to the design
temperature of the Litton suit will therefore be effort to accelerate the process of refining com-
maintained at temperatures of 80°F ±3° (27°C) in ponent design. The Space Sciences Labora.tories
order that the diver dressed in the suit can with- currently possess a 48-inch hydrostatic sphere
stand the cold water temperatures for the desired suitable for testing complete limb assemblies to
times. (Relative humidity will be maintained at 1000 psi. A smaller chamber for testing rotary
approximately 40 percent). seals is also available.
Communications
The authors would like to acknowledge the kind-
The UX is designed to operate primarily as a ness of Siebe Gorman & Co., Ltd., Chessington,
self-contained diving systems. Freeing the diver England, for allowing us to reproduce the drawings
from the encumbrance of cables will reduce tend- of the armored diving suits contained in Sir Robert
ing problems and cable drag and will allow him Davis' book, DEEP DIVING AND SUBMARINE
maximum freedom of action. Generally, however, OPERATIONS. This book, the copyright to which
the diver will be lowered to the bottom by cable. is held by Siebe Gorman, is without question the
Once on the bottom, he will disengage himself from definitive work on the early history of diving and
the cable and proceed to the work zone. Under underwater exploration and makes fascinating
these conditions, communications will be main- reading.
tained by means of an acoustic communication
system. If the maintenance of clear communica- References
tions is of critical importance, it will be possible
to substitute a standard diver's telephone system Davis, Sir Robert H., "Deep Diving and Sub-
for the acoustic system. marine Operations" (The Saint Catherine Press
Ltd. , London 1962) 7th ed., Book II Chapt. 4
p. 595.
Instrumentation
Scott, David, "Seventy Fathoms Deep, " (Fabe,
Sufficient instrumentation will be provided in & Faber Ltd., London) p. 129.
the UX suit to ensure diver safety and allow him to
maintain his orientation in the underwater environ- William Elkins, Space Sciences Laboratories,
ment. Nevertheless, this instrumentation will be Litton Systems, Inc. "Development of a
kept to a minimum to both simplify the diver's Constant-Volume Joint," Technical Memoran-
monitoring problems and reduce field maintenance dum 64-47 (1964).
problems. The instrumentation provided will in-
clude gages for monitoring pressure and the amount Space Sciences Laboratories, Litton Systems,
of replenishment oxygen remaining, plus a clock "Development of a Constant-Volume Pressure
and compass. In addition, if a suitable and reli- Suit, " Interim Report, Contract NAS 9-1278
able device for indicating the excessive build-up of (1964) .
11