Litrature & Case S. Hospital
Litrature & Case S. Hospital
Litrature & Case S. Hospital
Book I: Costing for Hospital Management
Chapter 3
LITERATURE REVIEW &
CASE STUDIES
Key Messages
¾ The review of costing studies relating to hospital and disease based costing
revealed that significant gaps existed in the available costing data. This
suggested that the creation of a systematic costing process that could be
adapted and adopted for different levels of hospitals and diseases would
be of importance in improving macro and micro level economic efficiency
in the health sector.
¾ The survey of management needs revealed that the carrying out of regular
budgeting and planning exercises depended on the existence of a specific
unit to carry out such activities. Likewise though hospital management
meetings were held, such discussions were not based on evidence.
Systematising management cost accounting would be useful in both
cotexts
¾ The study of the pharmaceutical sector revealed that there were cost‐
related problems in the entire process ranging from the estimation of drug
needs to the disbursement of such drugs to patients. Better technical
procedures in estimating drug needs, systematic record keeping processes
and greater interest in stock management were all identified as means of
improving efficiency and achieving cost containment.
¾ The study on the private sector concluded that there was great interest in
costing, financial and economic issues in private sector institutions. Greater
involvement between health institution managers, clinicians and accounts
was considered desirable in achieving accurate cost estimates, which could
then form the basis of a rational pricing strategy in the private sector.
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Resource Book I: Costing for Hospital Management
3.1 LITERATURE REVIEW OF COST STUDIES
This study sought to examine the range of existing costing literature in
Sri Lanka as it related to hospital and disease costs. In addition, an
attempt was made to evaluate different costing methodologies
adopted in these studies given the constraints on data in the Sri
Lankan context with a view to identifying appropriate methodology.
This literature review of cost studies began by classifying the Sri
Lankan cost studies by study topic, costing methodology and data
source. The different costing methodologies adopted in this study
were evaluated, in the Sri Lankan context using a SWOT analysis.
In the case of hospital costs, since the empirical work for this study
focused on three hospitals in Sri Lanka: Sri Jayawardenepura General
Hospital, Teaching Hospital Kurunegala and Base Hospital Kuliyapitiya,
the literature survey too focused on similar hospital categories. In the
costing of diseases similarly, studies reviewed were limited to five
selected diseases: asthma, hypertension and heart diseases (NCDs),
and diarrhoeal diseases and viral fever (communicable diseases).
Cost studies conducted in Sri Lanka in the period post 1990 were
categorized under three different headings: by study area and topic,
costing methodology and by source of data. Such categorization was
important in identifying coverage and trends relating to the costing
methodology as adopted in the Sri Lankan context.
3.1.1 COSTING METHODOLOGY
There seem to be four costing methodologies that can be considered
as separate techniques even though studies sometimes combine these
procedures. These are: a)retrospective accounting; b) retrospective
surveys; c) scenario building; and d) econometric analysis.
A. RETROSPECTIVE ACCOUNTING
This refers to costing conducted for a past period based on ledger
entries maintained by the hospital at central or ward level.
Information used in such an exercise ranges from flow of funds to
the hospital from the state, records of institutional earnings, and
expenditure at hospital and ward level. Two approaches are
commonly used: Costing by cost centres (i.e. costing ward by ward,
laboratory etc.) and activity‐based costing (ABC).
B. RETROSPECTIVE SURVEYS
These similarly estimate costs based on the responses of a sample,
relating to a previous experience of healthcare expenditure over a
specific time period or over an episode of illness.
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Resource Book I: Costing for Hospital Management
C. SCENARIO BUILDING
The technique of Scenario Building involves four steps. The first is
to list out all the known relevant physical or personal
characteristics relating to the facility, the disease or the treatment
procedure under consideration. Secondly the list of assumptions
adopted has to be explicitly stated. These assumptions can be
based on empirical evidence, theoretical know‐how or the views
of experts but need justification and supporting evidence where
ever possible. The third step involves combining empirical
information and assumptions to reach cost estimates. The final
step involves validation of the cost estimates derived in this
manner and the understanding of the limitations arising from the
use of assumptions in the Scenario building technique.
D. ECONOMETRIC ANALYSIS
This mainly involves cross‐section analysis, and can relate to either
the use of international or national/regional information in
extrapolating costing estimates for the country or specific
institutions.
Most studies carried out in Sri Lanka involving systemic costs are
based on a combination of retrospective accounting and scenario
building to cover the gaps in the readily available database. Some
studies, however, underestimate costs by ignoring capital costs
since these are not freely available. Retrospective surveys are the
main basis for indirect and household cost estimation. Scenario
building techniques have been adopted in some studies for
calculating lost earnings.
3.1.2 SWOT ANALYSIS OF STUDIES
Component 2 involved costing methodologies that corresponded to
retrospective accounting and scenario building methodologies. The
SWOT analysis was carried out on all four estimation techniques.
SWOT analysis of studies relating to the selected hospitals and
diseases has identified certain areas for improving costing
methodology. The areas for improvement under the different
methodologies to be incorporated in the EBM study are discussed
below.
A. WITH REGARD TO RETROSPECTIVE COST ACCOUNTING
¾ Understanding the importance of pre‐planning of
accounting procedures to support retrospective accounting
¾ Systematizing the accounting procedures in hospitals
¾ Regular recording of data
¾ Detailed record keeping including on capital costs
B. SYNTHESIZING RETROSPECTIVE COST ACCOUNTING AND
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SCENARIO BUILDING
Carrying out scenario‐building exercises at the selected hospitals
could (i) reveal how well scenario‐building performs in general (ii)
draw on scenario building to validate apportioning techniques (i.e.
utilities).
C. OTHER RELATED ISSUES
¾ Training/familiarization of hospital staff
¾ Familiarization of all hospital administrators
with costing
methodology and its uses
¾ Training of accountants
¾ Dissemination of cost information to the general public
3.1.3 REVIEW OF SELECTED SRI LANKAN COST STUDIES
A. HOSPITAL COSTING
Attanayake et al (2005) clearly illustrates the importance of step‐
down cost accounting but argues that such a procedure is only
possible after undertaking an in‐depth review of all the activities
of the institution.
De Silva, Samarage and Somanathan (2006) conclude that
outpatient hospital costs in tertiary care settings are higher than
for lower level hospitals.
Costing studies done on the specific hospitals where costing
procedures were implemented, the Teaching Hospitals of Sri
Jayawarenapura (SJH) and Kurunegala (KTH) and the Base Hospital
Kuliyapitiya, are limited, so this review of cost studies widened its
scope to consider studies done in all Teaching Hospitals and Base
Hospitals including the above.
With regard to inpatient care, Kasturiratne (2003) finds the
hospital ‘hotel’ costs (without considering treatment costs) that
relate to the male and female wards of the Professorial Medical
Unit of the Colombo North Teaching Hospital to be Rs. 505.70 per
patient day. Costs of treating specific diseases (medication,
investigations and therapeutic procedures) at this hospital per
episode range from a median cost of Rs. 4919.20 for an average
5.2 day stay for Myocardial infarction to Rs. 678.40 for a 2.7 day
stay for Asthma, with the average length of stay and costs for
Ischemic Heart Disease, Stroke and Cirrhosis coming in between.
B. DISEASE COSTING
In Disease Costing, the five diseases examined in Attanayake
(2005) were considered. Bias due to the non homogeneity of
patients, use of multiple sources of treatment, complexity arising
from patients co‐morbidity, difficulty of finding patient samples in
the private sector hospitals for diseases such as asthma and
31
Resource Book I: Costing for Hospital Management
TABLE 3‐ 1: COSTS ESTIMATED IN EACH STUDY
Cost
Study Methodology A H HD D VF
Estimated
Attanayake Systemic Cost Costing of
(2002a) protocols
+ + + +
Attanayake Household Household survey
(2002b) costs (respondents
selected from those
seeking public OPD
care and
+
snowballing to
include private
care)
Attanayake Direct/Indirect Household survey
(2005) (respondents
selected from those
seeking public OPD + + + + +
care
Kasturiratne Treatment Patients at
(2003) cost Professorial Unit of + +
CNTH
de Silva Systemic Cost Hospital data at
(1995) Lady Ridgeway +
Hospital
NCMH WGF Cost to Clinic attendees at
(2006) households of NCTH
clinic Channel patients
+ +
attendance Durdans
Note:
A : Asthma H : Hypertension
VF : Viral Fever HD : Heart Disease
D : Diarrhoea
NCMH WGF : National Commission on Macroeconomics and Health Working Group on Financing
The study of these diseases is complex, and resulted in the
researchers having to restrict their focus and/or adopt certain
modifications to the costing procedures. Some of the problems
identified in the context of these studies (often cited by the
researchers themselves) are listed below:
• In patient surveys avoiding bias due to non homogeneity of
patients – difference in intensity of illness, age or even mere
differences in personality can affect the expenditure pattern
(e.g. distinction between ischemic heart disease and
myocardial infarction in Kasturiratne, 2003; spending on
special foods in Attanayake, 2005);
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1
Attanayake N., 2005, Attanayake N., 2002
33
Resource Book I: Costing for Hospital Management
3.2 MANAGEMENT NEEDS SURVEY
3.2.1 SURVEY METHODOLOGY
During the period between December 2005 to January 2006, a
questionnaire was sent to the management executives in the 26 line
ministry hospitals (Directors, Deputy Directors), and their responses
were sought regarding their perceived needs for the improvement of
hospital management. This was done partly with the intention of
selecting pilot hospitals for the project. The main content of the
questionnaires were directed at finding out the problems faced by
hospital managers and their utilization of basic information with
special reference to the linkage between financial and clinical
information.
Of a sample of 26, 18 responded (9 from 16 Teaching Hospitals, 6 from
7 General Hospitals and 3 from 3 Base Hospitals).
3.2.2 KEY FINDINGS
A. MANAGEMENT
The questionnaire dealt with different aspects of management
including financial management. The questions were designed to
analyze the management skills and innovative thinking of the
executives. Majority (80%) indicated that the biggest problem they
face is the lack of human resources, followed by overcrowding and
a lack of buildings/equipment.
Problems that pertain to human resources are not only due to a
shortage of the workforce but also due to weakness of
management as revealed in the high absenteeism of hospital
employees and low motivation. Strategies to tackle such problems
were not proposed. Instead many responded that it needed the
Ministry’s authority to change the status quo. This shows a lack of
initiative on the part of hospital management.
B. INFORMATION MANAGEMENT
Approximately 80% of the hospital executives answered that they
“Always” or “Mostly” prepared the business plan and budgets
based on clinical and financial information. However, 2 hospitals
answered “Not commonly: one “Rarely”; and one even “Never”.
It was found that the survey results closely related to the
existence of relevant units that are responsible for planning and
budgeting. The four hospitals that prepare neither a business plan
nor a budget plan routinely did not have such units at the time of
survey.
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C. MANAGEMENT COMMITTEE
All the targeted hospitals in the survey hold Management
Committee meetings once a month or every other month. The
average number of committee members is 10. This number varies
from hospital to hospital, ranging from 6 and 13. In most hospitals,
employee‐related matters and physical development are
commonly discussed. Other subject matters differ among
hospitals, depending on the composition of the committee.
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Resource Book I: Costing for Hospital Management
3.3 STUDY OF PROCEDURES AND ISSUES
RELATING TO PHARMACEUTICAL SUPPLY AT
CENTRAL AND PROVINCIAL LEVELS
Pharmaceutical supply is a major share of hospital costs, the
measurement of which is the central objective of this JICA EBM Study.
This section provides an overview of the procedures and issues related
to pharmaceutical supply at Central and Provincial Levels with regard
to Line and Base Hospitals. Understanding the complexities of the
current pharmaceutical supply system will provide insights into
improved methods of recording drug related cost and quantity
information and suggestions for improvements in management that in
turn could make the healthcare system more cost effective.
The research methodology adopted for this purposes is presented in
section 3.3.2. This study focuses in particular on the North Western
(Wayamba) Province as the hospitals being studied: the Teaching
Hospital Kurunegala and Base Hospital Kuliyapitiya, are in this province.
It focuses in detail on both hospitals as procedures for drug
disbursement vary significantly by type of hospital: Teaching Hospitals
come under the Line Ministry and Base Hospitals are controlled by
Provincial Health Ministries.
The next two sections (3.3.3 and 3.3.4), therefore, focus on the
functioning of the MSD and the R‐MSD (see the Pharmaceutical Supply
report for details of other institutions involved in the supply,
distribution and monitoring of pharmaceuticals in Sri Lanka).
Section 3.3.5 examines pharmaceutical supply management by
focusing on the different activities involved in such a process:
estimation, financing, procurement, storage, distribution, monitoring
and quality assurance. The last section (3.3.6) critically examines the
problems relating to the different strata involved in pharmaceutical
supply management, and the recommendations for improving
processes at the different levels, with special attention being paid to
the financial implications of current weaknesses in the
pharmaceutical distribution system and the more appropriate
resource allocation patterns that could be achieved by improving the
management system.
3.3.1 OVERVIEW OF SUPPLY SYSTEM
Under the current system the Director General of Health Services is
the authorized officer to ensure the continuous availability of all
medical requirements of all government hospitals in Sri Lanka. In
keeping with the Cosmetics, Devices and Drugs Act No. 27 of 1980,
with the approval of the Minister of Healthcare and Nutrition, this
authority has been delegated to the Director of the Medical Supplies
Division (MSD). The Cosmetics, Devices and Drugs Act No. 27 of 1980
(as amended by Act No. 38 of 1984) provide the legislative framework
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to control the use of drugs in the country. The act controls activities
such as registration, manufacture and importation of drugs in the
country.
Sri Lanka has eight provinces, and each province is sub‐divided into
health regions. The Regional Director of Health Services administers all
health activities in the region. In each region, there is a Regional
Medical Supplies Division (R‐MSD) through which all medical
requirements of the provincially controlled hospitals in the region are
administered, stored and distributed. Some hospitals come under the
administrative purview of the Central Government and the medical
requirements of these hospitals are supplied directly by the MSD.
Similarly, the five specialized campaign institutions, under the Central
Government, receive their medical requirements from the MSD.
3.3.2 STUDY METHODOLOGY
Understanding the pharmaceutical supply system at central, provincial
and hospital level would allow the designing of more efficient
recording and management systems that would result in cost
curtailment. No systematic study existed of the overall procedure of
pharmaceutical supply: estimation, procurement and drug
management so this report fills that lacuna. Appropriate resource
allocation is particularly important in the context of ensuring
continuous availability of drugs for patients, since the current system
results in shortages brought about by budgetary gaps.
The overall objective of this study is to propose improvements in the
supply system of pharmaceutical items, by analyzing the existing
system. In order to achieve this objective the study attempted to gain
an overall understanding of the procedures of estimation,
procurement, storage, distribution and accounting; to identify the
issues affecting the operating of the present system and remedial
actions for improving the pharmaceutical system.
Medical items are procured, stored and distributed by the Medical
Supplies Division (MSD) of the Ministry of Health directly to Central
Government Hospitals and through Regional MSDs (R‐MSDs) to
Provincial Council Hospitals. Here the analysis is limited to the MSD,
the R‐MSD for Kurunegala, one central government institution
(Teaching Hospital Kurunegala) and one Provincial Council
administered hospital (Base Hospital Kuliyapitiya).
Primary data in this study were collected through interviews and
discussions with relevant officers in the system such as hospital
pharmacists, storekeepers at MSD and R‐MSDs, accountants who are
the key officers involved in financial management and the Assistant
Directors at the MSDs who are involved in management. Secondary
data were obtained from records maintained at MSD, R‐MSD
Kurunegala and Kurunegala Teaching Hospital in order to analyze the
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3.3.3 MEDICAL SUPPLIES DIVISION (MSD) IN THE
MINISTRY OF HEALTH
The Medical Supplies Division (MSD) is the main pharmaceutical
division under the direct administrative purview of the Central
Government, where national requirements of all medical items are
procured, stored and distributed. In addition to supplying the R‐MSDs,
there are 37 major hospitals under the Central Government to which
medical items are supplied directly by the MSD. The MSD consists of
four units, stores and a wharf section.
• Main Functions:
¾ Studying the consolidated annual requirements of medical
items
¾ Placing indents for annual requirements of medical items
with State Pharmaceutical Corporation (SPC)
¾ Receipt of medical items from SPC and storage
¾ Distribution of quarterly requirements of medical items to
Regional Medical Supplies Division and the institutions
under the Central Ministry
¾ Maintenance of an effective drug management information
system
¾ Monitoring of consumption pattern of medical items
¾ Quality assurance of medical items
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¾ Attending Drug Review Committee meetings of hospitals
¾ Coordinating with sectoral and inter‐sectoral agencies
concerned with medical items
¾ Management of donated medical items
¾ In‐service training for staff at different levels
¾ Organizing and attending SPC–MSD meetings to discuss
supply of out‐of‐stock medical items
¾ Support, review, revise and disseminate rules, regulations
and procedures to ensure scientific management of medical
supplies
• Main Units:
The main activities of the units are listed below:
¾ Stock Control Unit: responsible for estimating drug needs,
ordering pharmaceuticals, monitoring and controlling drug
supplies, negotiating transactions with SPC and overseeing
local purchase of drugs
¾ Stores: in charge of receiving, storing and issuing items
¾ Computer Unit: activities include developing software,
maintenance of records of supply, storage and distribution
of medical items and the maintenance of computer systems.
The MSD has a Local Area Network to support inventory
control functions and MIS
¾ Supply Branch: This section oversees the certifying of
vouchers for payments to SPC and other suppliers,
preparation of annual price lists and purchase and supply of
cancer drugs from President’s Fund
¾ Purchasing Unit: responsible for local purchase of medical
items and certifying of vouchers for payments to local
suppliers
¾ Dispatch Unit: Works in tandem with the stores in
maintaining records relating to drug distribution, oversees
the distribution of drugs to different institutions
¾ Wharf Section: responsible for donations of medical items
from international agencies, international NGOS and donor
countries involving activities such as documentation,
port/air freight clearance and storage
3.3.4 REGIONAL MEDICAL SUPPLIES DIVISIONS (R‐
MSD) KURUNEGALA
In the supply system, there are 26 R‐MSDs under the Provincial
Councils which distribute medical items to hospitals in the regions:
numbering 36 Base Hospitals, 159 District Hospitals, 90 Peripheral
Units, 158 Rural Hospitals, 75 Central Dispenses with maternity Homes
and 389 Central Dispensaries.
The study focused on the Regional Medical Supplies Division in
Kurunegala, the area in which the hospitals under study are located.
The R‐MSD Kurunegala is under the administrative purview of the
Deputy Provincial Director of Health Services – Kurunegala. The supply
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Resource Book I: Costing for Hospital Management
of all medical items to government hospitals coming under the
provincial council in the district are his/her responsibility. The supply
and use of drugs is routinely monitored by the Divisional Pharmacist
and in general by the Regional Drug Review Committee. He/she also
directly supervises the activities of the stores with respect to drugs.
The Divisional Registered Medical Officer directly supervises the
activities of the stores regarding surgical/laboratory items. Supplies
are sent from the Medical Supplies Division (MSD), Epidemiological
Unit and the Family Health Bureau. Chief storekeeper is in charge of
the stores and is assisted by two other store keepers and supporting
staff.
The R‐MSD in the Kurunegala district supports the activities of 2 Base
Hospitals, 13 Rural Hospitals, 18 District Hospitals, 18 Peripheral Units,
2 Central Dispensaries with Maternity Homes, 50 Central Dispensaries,
a Chest Clinic, a STD clinic, Municipal Council clinic in Kurunegala, 6
Adult Dental Clinics and 35 School Dental Clinics.
The Regional Drug Review Committee is responsible for monitoring
pharmaceutical quality and usage in the region. The members of this
committee are:
¾ Regional Director of Health Services ‐ Chairman
¾ Divisional Pharmacist‐ Secretary
¾ Regional Dental Surgeon
¾ Officer in Charge of R‐MSD
¾ Divisional Registered Medical Practitioner
¾ All Officers in Charge of institutions in the region
¾ Accountant/RDHS. office
¾ Regional Medical Officer/Anti Malaria Campaign
¾ Medical Officer/Respiratory Diseases Control Programme
¾ Medical Officer/Leprosy Campaign
Many problems faced by the Regional Medical Supplies Division in
Kurunegala (and common to other R‐MSDs as well) are listed in the
last section.
3.3.5 DRUG SUPPLY MANAGEMENT
The different activities related with drug supply management are
briefly listed here.
A. ESTIMATION
• Estimation of drug needs
In keeping with the Annual Work Plan of the MSD, computer
diskettes with a listing of all Hospital Formulary Drugs (Stock
Items) are distributed to all hospitals in May in order to
estimate the annual requirement of drugs for the following
year.
Two methods of estimating drug requirements are:
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B. FINANCING OF MEDICAL SUPPLIES
The following procedures are followed with regard to the
financing of medical supplies:
¾ In March – Year 1, Ministry of Health informs
Secretary/Provincial Councils to prepare and forward the
financial requirements for medical supplies for Year 2.
¾ Similarly Directors of Central Government Institutions are
requested to prepare their financial requirements for
41
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C. PROCUREMENT
• Procurement Policy
Considering financial constraints, nature of drugs, lack of
storage facilities, short shelf life, high variations in annual
demand, price factors etc the present system of supply is to
procure the annual requirement of a drug in one consignment
with deliveries being made from January that year. The SPC
serves as the procurement agent for the MSD. The lead time
required by SPC is eleven (11) months. Procedure varies for
stock and non‐stock items.
For stock items forecasts are made based on national
estimates and national issues in the previous period and
stocks in hand. In the case of special drugs (termed non‐stock
items) hospitals estimate their annual requirements based on
past consumption patterns and procurements are done based
on these requests. Local purchase of drugs at MSD occurs on
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the basis of tenders, as does the purchase of surgical
equipment and laboratory items. Technical evaluation
committees report on the products prior to the tender board
making their decision on the source of procurement.
Composition of the tender board and its chairmanship
depends on the value of the tender being called.
D. STORAGE
Two main activities are involved in this process:
1. Documentation
2. Storage: items may be stored by expiry date, batch number
or as per label conditions.
E. DISTRIBUTION OF DRUGS
Distribution of drugs is done on a pre‐planned quarterly
programme basis with information relating to distribution
schedules being sent to all institutions in advance. However issues
are also made on submission of intermediate requests.
F. MONITORING
Monitoring of drug usage has to be carried out at all three levels:
national, regional and hospital level on a systematic basis if drug
shortages and wastage are to be avoided. The following measures
can be taken in this regard:
¾ Preparing monthly out of Stock, Low Stock reports
¾ Holding a SPC–MSD meeting once a month to discuss the
supply of out‐of‐stock items
¾ A weekly visit to be made by MSD officers to SPC to follow
up on the decisions taken
¾ Mid year Analysis of supply/distribution
G. QUALITY ASSURANCE
The Drug Information Centre maintains and updates a database on
drugs, accessible to medical staff. Reports of adverse reactions are
examined by this centre with the Pharmacist of the Drug
Information Centre functioning as the Secretary of the Adverse
Drug Reaction Monitoring Committee.
The National Drug Quality Assurance Laboratory (NDQAL) under
the Ministry of Healthcare and Nutrition is involved in the testing
of quality of drugs and advocates the necessity to withdraw drugs
where quality is found to be deficient.
The Adverse Drug Reaction Monitoring Committee comprises of
the followings:
¾ Deputy Director General (Laboratory Services)
¾ Director ‐ Medical Technology and Supplies
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¾ Director ‐ Medical Supplies Division
¾ Director ‐ National Drug Quality Assurance Laboratory
¾ Professor of the Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of
Medicine, University of Colombo
This committee meets once a month to discuss reports of adverse
reactions to drugs. Complaints of adverse reactions are received
by Director/MSD and all members are informed accordingly.
Immediately on receipt of a complaint samples available at the
MSD are sent to NDQAL for testing. Immediate measures are
taken to withdraw drugs suspected of severe adverse reactions.
3.3.6 CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF PHARMACEUTICAL ISSUES
The inadequacies and shortcomings of the institutions at the different
levels involved in the pharmaceutical supply process are highlighted
together with suggestions for improving the process of drug supply
management in the tables on the next few pages.
Such reforms in documentation and recording procedures and
processes are of importance in the context of this study, as improving
efficiency and quality of pharmaceuticals can enhance patient
outcomes and contribute to cost curtailment.
TABLLE 3‐ 2: PROBLEMS/WEAKKNESSES/CHALLENGES & CONSTRAINTS
National Leveel (MOH and MSD Regional Levvel Hospital Leve
el Constraints/Challenges
¾ Estimates are prepaared considering prevvious ¾ No attempt to verify estimates or even carry ¾ Poor estimaation ¾ Trainin
ng needed to
year’s financial alloccation. outt cross‐institutional co
omparisons procedures improvve estimation
¾ Estimates for the prresent year are prepared using ¾ Finaancial allocation is no
ot known at the time oof adopted ressulting techniq ques
prices from the prevvious year estimate preparation in drug shorrtages ¾ Good ggovernance to
and wastage encourrage officers to take
¾ Actual consumption n differs from forecastt ¾ Estiimation done on the basis of monthly
consumption connsumption without co onsidering financial ¾ Wide variattion in responnsibility for
Estimation prescription
n inform
mation provision and
¾ Institutions give insufficient information to allo
ocation
patterns estimaates
prepare accurate esstimates ¾ Suppplementary estimatees not prepared by
insttitution ¾ Compu uter facilities needed
¾ Errors in institutionaal estimates
to facillitate estimation and
¾ Supplementary estimates of institutions not ¾ No Divisional Medical Laaboratory Technician tto
monito oring of stocks
submitted on time. preepare estimates for laboratory chemicals
andd glassware
¾ Poor information floow on supply positionn
4
45
¾ Poor monitoring of low stock items
Quality ¾ Supplies are not fro
om reliable sources ¾ Circculars issued by MSD to withhold drugs aree ¾ Quality Assu urance ¾ Better dissemination of
Assuarance nott followed up but left for the MSD to follow
w circulars aree not inform
mation
¾ Supplies not conforming to given specificcations up received on
n time ¾ Better organization and
¾ Tender boards focussing on price rather th
han ¾ Advverse drug reactions rreported by ¾ Records relaating cooperration at the
quality insttitutions are not followed up to Region
nal Level
¾ Some institutions not responding to circuulars ¾ Reggional Drug Review Co ommittee Meetings withheld/wwithdra ¾ Systemms and facilities for
issued on quality asssurance nott held regularly. wn drugs arre not regular sharing of
maintained. informmation at hospital
¾ Lack of follow‐up onn withheld drugs
level
¾ Quality testing not aautomatically done on the
supplies from manu ufacturers whose prod ducts have
been withdrawn fro om use in the past duee to
quality failure.
A.
A SUGGESTIONSS FOR IMPROVEM
MENT
TABLE 3‐ 3: SUGGESTIONS FOR IMPRO
OVEMENT
National Level Regional Leveel Hospital Level Cost Im
mplications
¾ Drug estimation to be done o
one year in ¾ Divisional Pharmacist to
o be made ¾ FFix drug requirementss of hospitals for 3 ¾ Poor estimatioon is leading to drug
advance. responsible for providin
ng accurate years and revise at the end of the period.. shortages andd waste. Drug
an
nd timely information and valid ¾ C
Chief Pharmacist to be made responsible shortages couuld pose a heavy
esstimates. for providing accuratte and timely burden on pattients in terms of
Estimation
information and valid estimates. either having tto bear the drug
¾ C
Consultants to report on drug needs, so costs themselvves or doing
that estimates can b
be revised in line with without drug ss/use of alternatives
their views. that may be leess effective (longer
¾ C
Consultants to be held
d responsible for illness and posssibly greater costs
estimation of special drugs. in terms of
treatment/hospitalization)
47
4
47
¾ SPC‐Imports Department (DHS) section ¾ Coomputer system to bee established ¾ Computer system sh hould be established
to be under administrative p
purview of at RMSD and issues to be made on to record issues to w
wards/units.
Directo
or – MSD co
omputer printed invoiices with ¾ Medical officers should be informed of
¾ Letters of Credit to be established in deescription of item, battch number, price of medical item
ms/drugs.
time for supplies in January. exxpiry date, quantity an
nd value. ¾ Purchase of vital stocks should be
¾ Continu
uous pricing system in
nvolving ¾ Qu uarterly statement off value of reimbursed by MSD..
computter programme to be developed isssues made to be preppared and ¾ Value of medical itemms consumed in each h
and imp
plemented. se
ent to each institution
n in the ward/unit should bee informed to all
Financial Management
¾ Separate register to be maintained for and inefficientt.
special items.
¾ Stocks to be verified annually.
¾ Unserviceable items to be condemned
annually
¾ Ministry to develop ¾ Mal‐distributioon is costly in terms
Distribution
guidelin
nes/procedure for disstribution of of both drug sshortages and drug
special items. wastage.
¾ Stock Transfer Vouchers to b
be prepared
only whhen issues are made.
¾ Regularr monitoring of drug ssupplies to ¾ A medical Laboratory TTechnician ¾ Monthly monitoring of supply and use of ¾ Prevention of drug wastage is
preventt stock shortages and
d drug (M
MLT) to be appointed as the essential drugs. cost effective..
Monitoring
4
49
¾ Blacklistin
ng suppliers with a po
oor record ¾ Insstitutions and the R‐M
MSD to ¾ M
Maintain records of w
withheld/withdrawn ¾ Quality leads tto greater efficacy
regarding quality. maintain records of items. and less damaage in terms of
Assurance
Quality
wiithheld/withdrawn drrugs and to adverse reactiions.
follow up on these issues
¾ Intternal circulars aboutt drug
quuality/withdrawal
Resource Book I: Costing for Hospital Management
3.4 COSTING OF PRIVATE HOSPITAL
SERVICES
3.4.1 HOSPITAL COST ACCOUNTING
A. IMPORTANCE OF COSTING HOSPITAL SERVICES
Both public and private sector health care institutions, need
accounting systems that enable hospital managers to produce an
analysis of cost by service (product). Hospital services costing
could be as simple as calculating per patient cost by dividing the
total cost for patient care by total number of patients treated. This
crude method however will not provide any comprehensive
information on treatment costs, due to the differences and
complexity of each treatment process. In a fee levying system, this
method could not be justified at all.
Some essential features of a costing system are:
¾ the processes should be simple yet comprehensive and
should be consistently adopted over long periods of time,
with any changes in costing methods clearly publicized;
¾ the services should be clearly defined so that cost estimates
could be prepared for each and every service variation (even
if it is not always done in practice);
¾ the costing system should not complicate the patient care
processes or compromise patient care in anyway;
¾ the administration cost of the costing system should not be
a burden to patients or service providers: for the former
would impact on the hospitals competitiveness while the
latter would adversely affect its profit; and
¾ the accounting methods of costing must be based on
verifiable and quantifiable information so that a third party
should be able to verify and understand the costs.
The following sections discuss how costing processes could be and
are adopted in private sector healthcare settings, with Durdans
Hospital used as a case study.
B. DIFFERENCES IN TREATMENT PROTOCOL AND PATIENT
RESPONSES
Developing a costing model for a hospital is a complex task. As an
extremely wide range of services are provided, it is difficult to
devise a uniform costing model appropriate to all services and all
hospitals. Differences in methods and techniques adopted by
clinicians treating similar conditions and individual responses of
patients further complicate the situation. Therefore, even within
the same hospital, the possibility exists for the emergence of two
different costs for the same treatment process. In the private
51
Resource Book I: Costing for Hospital Management
sector this situation is further complicated by the range of
treatment options available.
3.4.2 COSTING IN A PRIVATE SECTOR HOSPITAL
A. COSTING METHODOLOGY
Establishing a costing methodology and the management of
costing procedures in private sector hospitals is extremely
complex. To strike a balance in pricing while facing the dilemma of
“competitive market challenges” and the provision of “quality
Care” is a difficult task faced by private hospital managers.
Costing of services has a direct impact on pricing of services. “Price
comparison”, prior to obtaining hospital services is a common
practice by patients. Therefore, costing has to be done very
carefully by qualified and experienced financial professionals, in
order to maintain competitive pricing. Inputs of medical
administrators to costing could be helpful to financial managers in
computing more accurate costs to be used as the basis for pricing.
Actual cost + Net contribution = Actual price
Most of the time, Accountants propose pricing in such a way as to
maintain a positive contribution. However there are instances
when they propose pricing the service at less than the actual cost,
leaving a negative contribution, in order to gain an advantage
through market competition. Those strategic moves motivated by
market competition, provide some benefits to patients, to obtain
health services at competitive prices, and sometimes lead to
reduction of prices ultimately. Occasionally however this may also
lead to compromising of the quality of service, which is unethical.
These “bad practices” will be carefully observed by the educated
patients and sometimes they will reject those services, whereby
the organization’s ultimate gain is a loss. Therefore, careful
managers of health care services in the private sector are
compelled to maintain a realistic costing policy while ensuring the
quality of services. Simplified costing methodology is considered
as a key feature in good financial management and control.
3.4.3 COSTING METHODOLOGY AT DURDANS HOSPITAL
A. INFORMATION FOR COSTING
Timely and accurate information is of utmost importance in
operating a proper costing system. Manual operations almost
always make costing processes complex and inaccurate. Managing
large healthcare institutions necessitates a Structured
Management Information System (MIS). A well connected
Resource Book I: Costing for Hospital Management
B. CATEGORIZATION OF COSTS
There are different costing methodologies adopted by different
private hospitals. At Durdans Hospital, Strategic Business Units
(SBU) is used as the basic element of costing. The entire services
of the hospital have been categorized into several SBUs and
depending on the volumes of operations and clinical requirements
a single SBU is divided into Sub–SBUs.
TABLE 3‐ 4: STRATEGIC BUSINESS UNITS AT DURDAN,S HOSPITAL
SBU Sub SBUs
Maternity
Paediatric
1 Wards
General
Cardiac
General OPD
2 OPD
Channel Consultation
Coronary Care Units
General ICU
3 Critical Care Units Neonatal ICU
Dialysis Unit
Emergency Treatment Unit
X‐Ray Dept
CT Scan Dept
4 Radiology Dept.
Ultra Sound Scan Dept.
Mammography Unit
In house procedures
Operating Theatre
5 OPD Procedures
(General)
Day cases
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Resource Book I: Costing for Hospital Management
The services provided by the various SBUs are listed and costs are
estimated for each sub‐SBU separately. Pricing of each service is
done according to the actual cost and market price. Certain
services may have to be priced at less than the actual cost in order
to keep the market edge, but the net gain of the SBU is
maintained as a positive contribution.
C. MARK‐UP ON PHARMACEUTICAL ITEMS
Patients as well as society frequently question the justification of a
mark‐up on pharmaceuticals supplied by private hospitals. In
response, one has to analyse the costs involved in maintaining
stores of pharmaceuticals. Those costs are
¾ Stockholding cost
¾ Space for storage and retail marketing
¾ Salaries of staff of relevant units
¾ Electricity
¾ Air Conditioning
¾ Maintenance of special conditions for certain drugs such as
humidity and appropriate temperature levels
¾ Other infrastructure
In order to provide a complete health care package a fully stocked
pharmacy is essential. This is not a visible phenomenon directly
related with individual patient care but the provider is actually
bearing a huge cost in maintaining pharmacy services and
therefore, it is necessary to add at least a portion of these costs to
the price of each pharmaceutical item provided to the patient
through the hospital.
D. OUT SOURCING OF SERVICES
Out sourcing is a widely debated and discussed issue in this
country and is widely practiced in developed countries. Redefining
Resource Book I: Costing for Hospital Management
out sourcing of health services to suit hospital systems is another
challenge faced by health care managers. Considering the capital
investment and direct and indirect costs, out sourcing has become
a popular way of reducing certain costs.
In developing countries “payment on utilization basis” is becoming
popular particularly for high tech diagnostics and therapeutic
equipment. This would ease the burden of maintenance of the
machine and managing manpower to operate them from the user
(the hospital) and instead become just a payment on usage basis.
Assurance of an uninterrupted service is then the responsibility of
the supplier, and the ultimate beneficiary is the recipient of the
service – the patient. Not only a reduction of capital cost but also
the operational cost could be achieved through a properly
designed out sourcing programme.
It should be noted that certain high tech diagnostics and
therapeutic equipment available in the state sector are hardly
used after routine working hours. Leasing out those services after
working hours and on weekends to the private sector could be
beneficial to both sectors, following a thorough feasibility study.
E. REVISION OF COSTS
Generally a cost review is done once a year and adjustments are
done according to inflation rates. Net gains or losses made during
the previous year are also evaluated prior to the revisions.
Sometimes due to unexpected price increases due to the addition
of new taxes and the significant depreciation of the rupee, cost
revisions are done at other times in order to minimize losses but
those instances are rare.
3.4.4 CONCLUSIONS RELATING TO COST ESTIMATES
Cost estimation is routinely carried out in the private sector in order to
maintain the return on investments and to maintain profitability.
Regular review of costs could result in cost‐effective service to the
patients as well as being beneficial to the hospital. Therefore,
establishing a proper costing structure and methodology,
maintenance of proper cost records and scientific evaluations of costs
is essential for proper cost estimation.
It may not be easy to cost a product accurately in health care services
as most of the disease processes are highly individualized. A careful
study of several similar cases however would give broad guidelines for
cost estimates. Therefore, the close involvement of medical
administrators as well as accountants in costing processes is essential.
55