Choa Reclamation and Ground Improvement

Reclamation and Ground Improvement
by BO Myint Win and Victor CHOA
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Preface v
Preface
Large major reclamation projects are being implemented mostly in the Far
East. The creation of land by means of reclamation has benefited many
small and land-scarce countries. Through reclamation, their airports and
seaports, which produce high noise levels from their operation, can be
relocated away from the city. Examples of these types of reclamations are
several offshore and foreshore airports and seaports constructed on reclaimed
land in Japan, Korea, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Macao, and Singapore.
Hazardous materials, such as petrochemical and chemical products, can
also be stored on the reclaimed land away from the city. Several islands
have also been expanded or reclaimed for human settlement.
Because of the difficulties faced in reclaiming land in such countries
especially on tropical and recently deposited soils, much experience has
been gained in the following areas: reclamation, ground improvement, and
the design and construction of shore protection structures such as rock bunds,
retaining structures, caissons, and quay walls.
Reclamation is usually carried out in such a way that earth structures
are built on natural or man-made earth using geomaterial. It is not surprising
therefore that geotechnical engineers play an important role in constructing
geomaterial on the geo-foundation. Moreover, geomaterial also needs to
be improved by applying various geotechnical methods of improvement.
For the above reasons, many geotechnical engineers have gained a
great deal of experience from such big reclamation projects. This book is
the result of the experience gained by the two authors who were actively
involved in the reclamation and ground improvement works of large projects
in countries in the Far East, such as Singapore, South Korea, Indonesia,
Hong Kong, and China. This book, Reclamation and Ground Improvement,
should prove useful to practicing engineers, project managers, and
contractors who are involved in reclamation and ground improvement
projects. It may also be used for graduate level courses.
vi Preface
The authors would like to thank Dr A. Vijaratnam, former Chairman

of SPECS Consultants Pte Ltd, for his encouragement and interest in our
research work in this area. Our gratitude also goes to Mr Law Kok Hwa,
Senior Vice President of the Engineering Division, PSA Corporation, for
his understanding and awareness of the importance of geotechnical
engineering in port and reclamation projects and for giving the first author
the opportunity to be involved in overseas land reclamation and ground
improvement projects.
We are indebted to Mr Hiroshi Tsujimura, Project Manager, and
Mr Jan Kop, Deputy Project Manager, of Toa-Jan De Nul Joint Venture for
reviewing our draft manuscripts for Chapters 3, 5 and 6 and also providing
some material and information. Our thanks are also due to Dr Y. M. Na and
his staff at Hyundai Engineering and Construction for their help in the
preparation of this book and providing information and material. In addition,
we wish to thank Professor Bergado of the Asian Institute of Technology,
Thailand, for his help in reviewing Chapters 10 and 11, and Associate
Professor Wong Kai Sing of Nanyang Technological University, Singapore,
for reviewing Chapters 9 and 12. We also express our appreciation to
Mr Tom Teo Khoon Hock of CEP Singapore for reviewing the chapter on
instrumentation in this book, and to Mr N. Cortlever of Cofra Ltd for his
kind review of Chapter 10. We would also like to extend our thanks to
Dr V. R. Raju, Managing Director of Keller Foundations (S E Asia) Pte Ltd,
for reviewing Chapter 15 and his valuable contributions to Sections 10.5
and 15.4.
Last but not least, we would like to acknowledge Mr Tun Lwin, of AL
Technology, Singapore, Mr Nay Tun Oo of Econ-NCC JV, Mr Hla Shwe,
and Mr Joel. Z. Indedanio, formerly of Hyundai Engineering Construction,
for their assistance in the preparation of the manuscript for this book.
Bo Myint Win (Dr M W Bo)

Contents vii
Contents
Preface v
1 ■ Introduction 1
2 ■ Site Selection 7
2.1 Engineering Feasibility 7
2.1.1 Consideration of the coastal engineering aspect 7
2.1.2 Consideration of the geotechnical aspect 8
2.1.3 Consideration of the environmental aspect 9
2.2 Economic Feasibility 9
2.2.1 Reclamation cost 9
2.2.2 Soil improvement cost 12
2.2.3 Shore protection cost 13
3 ■ Sourcing of Reclamation Material 15

3.1 Types of Fill Material 15
3.1.1 Clay as reclamation fill 15
3.1.2 Sand as reclamation fill 16
3.1.3 Hill cut as reclamation fill 18
3.1.4 Rock as reclamation fill 18
3.1.5 Boulders, cobbles and granular materials 18
3.2 Method of Exploration of Fill Material 19
3.3 Method of Extraction and Transportation 19
4 ■ Site Investigation 23
4.1 Site Investigation at Borrow Areas 23
4.2 Site Investigation Prior to Reclamation and Soil
Improvement 25
4.2.1 Seismic reflection survey 25
4.2.2 Boring and sampling 25
viii Contents
4.2.3 Field vane shear test (FVT) 28

4.2.4 Cone penetration test (CPT) 30
4.2.4.1 Undrained shear strength from CPT 35
4.2.4.2 Over-consolidation ratio from CPT 37
4.2.4.3 Coefficient of consolidation due to
horizontal flow (Ch) from CPT 37
4.2.5 Flat dilatometer test (DMT) 39
4.2.6 Self-boring pressuremeter test (SBPT) 43
4.3 Soil Investigation During Reclamation 47
4.4 Post-improvement Soil Investigation 47
4.4.1 Cone penetration tests (CPT and CPTU) 51
4.4.2 Dilatometer test (DMT) 53
4.4.3 Self-boring pressuremeter test (SBPT) 54
4.4.4 Cone pressuremeter test (CPMT) 54
4.4.5 Seismic cone test 57
4.4.6 Use of CPT for compaction quality control 59
4.4.7 Auto-ram sounding 59
5 ■ Reclamation Equipment 61
5.1 Dredgers 61
5.1.1 Backhoe dredger 61
5.1.2 Grab and clamp shell dredger 64
5.1.3 Dipper 65
5.1.4 Barge unloading dredger 67
5.1.5 Bucket ladder dredger 68
5.1.6 Cutter suction dredger 68
5.1.7 Suction dredger 70
5.1.8 Trailer suction hopper dredger 71
5.2 Transportation Barges 74
5.2.1 Conventional barges 74
5.2.2 Bottom-opening barge 74
5.3 Dredging Accessories 75
5.3.1 Discharge pipes 75
5.3.2 Floaters 76
5.3.3 Dredge head 77
5.3.4 Discharge pump 78
6 ■ Reclamation Methods 79
6.1 Dry Method 79
6.2 Hydraulic Reclamation Method 79
6.2.1 Direct dumping 80
Contents ix
6.3 Rehandling from A Rehandling Pit 81

6.4 Hydraulic Filling 83
6.5 Sand Spreading 86
6.6 Pumping Inside the Bunds 89
7 ■ Environmental Control During

Reclamation 91
7.1 Seabed Sampling 91
7.2 Seabed Monitoring 94
7.3 Beach Monitoring 94
7.4 Current Measurement 94
7.5 Wave Measurement 98
7.6 Water Quality Measurement 99
7.7 Suspended Solid Test 99
7.8 Silt Barricade 101
8 ■ Types of Coastal Protection 103

8.1 Rip-Rap 103
8.2 Retaining Rock Bund 104
8.3 Breakwater 109
8.4 Headland 110
8.5 Vertical Wall 111
8.5.1 Cantilever, counterfort and gravity walls 112
8.5.2 Sheet pile wall 113
8.5.3 Caisson 116
8.5.4 Box gabion 118
8.6 Quay Wall 119
8.7 Composite Retaining Structures 119
9 ■ Stability of Slopes and Retaining

Structures 121
9.1 Stability of Natural Slopes, Rock Bund and Rip-Rap 121
9.1.1 Natural slope of sand 121
9.1.2 Stability of rock bund, rip-rap, headland and
breakwater 122
9.1.3 Method of slices 123
9.1.3.1 Ordinary method of slices 123
9.1.3.2 Bishop’s modified method 124
9.1.4 Force equilibrium methods 124
9.2 Stability of Retaining Structure 128
9.2.1 Rankine earth pressure theory 128
x Contents
9.2.2 Coulomb earth pressure theory 130

9.2.3 Bearing capacity of retaining structure 132
9.2.4 Stability against overturning 134
9.2.5 Stability against sliding 135
9.3 Flexible Retaining Structure 139
9.3.1 Sheet pile wall in purely cohesive soil 142
9.4 Computer-aided Stability Analyses 144
10 ■ Improvement of Compressible Soil 151

10.1 Preloading with a Vertical Drain 155
10.2 Vacuum Preloading 158
10.3 Preloading by Lowering the Groundwater Table 160
10.4 Ground Improvement by the Electro-osmosis
Method 161
10.4.1 Principle of electro-osmosis 162
10.4.2 Application of electro-osmosis in the field 165
10.4.3 Design and layout of electro-osmosis 165
10.5 Vibrocore Replacement (Stone Columns) 166
10.5.1 Installation procedure 167
10.5.1.1 Wet method 167
10.5.1.2 Dry method 168
10.5.1.3 Offshore method 169
10.5.2 Equipment 169
10.5.2.1 Vibrators 170
10.5.2.2 Custom-built equipment 170
10.5.3 Quality control 172
10.5.4 Design of stone columns 172
10.5.5 Performance of stone columns 174
10.5.6 Applications of stone columns 176
10.6 Cement and Lime Columns 176
11 ■ Characterization of Soft Clay 179

11.1 Physical Characteristics 179
11.1.1 Bulk unit weight of soil 179
11.1.2 Water content of soil 180
11.1.3 Specific gravity of soil 180
11.1.4 Natural void ratio 182
11.1.5 Dry unit weight of soil 182
11.1.6 Atterberg’s limits 183
11.1.6.1 Liquid limit by the Casagrande
method 183
Contents xi
11.1.6.2 Liquid limit obtained by a cone

penetrometer 185
11.1.7 Grain size distribution of soil 187
11.1.7.1 Sieve analysis 187
11.1.7.2 Hydrometer tests 190
11.1.8 Chemical tests 192
11.2 Consolidation Tests 192
11.2.1 Oedometer test 193
11.2.2 End of primary consolidation test 198
11.2.3 Consolidation test with the Rowe Cell 200
11.2.4 Constant Rate of Loading (CRL) test 202
11.2.5 Constant Rate of Strain (CRS) test 204
11.3 Shear Strength Test 206
11.3.1 Laboratory vane 207
11.3.2 Direct simple shear test 208
11.3.3 Triaxial test 210
11.3.3.1 Unconsolidated undrained
test (UU) 211
11.3.3.2 Consolidated undrained triaxial
compression test with measurement of
pore pressure 212
11.3.3.3 Consolidated drained triaxial
compression test 213
11.3.3.4 Triaxial extension test 214
11.3.3.5 Stress path test 214
12 ■ Design Process for Land Reclamation and

Soil Improvement 219
12.1 Bearing Capacity of Seabed Soil 219
12.2 Settlement of Reclaimed Fill 220
12.3 Primary Consolidation of Compressible Soil 220
12.3.1 Magnitude of settlement 220
12.3.1.1 Normally consolidated soil 220
12.3.1.2 Overconsolidated soil 222
12.3.1.3 Underconsolidated soil 224
12.4 Time Rate of Consolidation 227
12.5 Time Rate of Consolidation for Multi-layer
Conditions 231
12.6 Time Rate of Consolidation with Radial Drainage 235
12.7 Smear Effect Due to Mandrel Penetration 240
12.8 Well Resistance 244
12.9 Software Available for Consolidation Analysis 247
xii Contents
13 ■ Application of Geotechnical Instruments

in Reclamation and Soil Improvement
Projects 253
13.1 Types of Possible Geotechnical Problems in Land
Reclamation 253
13.2 Types of Measurement 254
13.3 Selection of Location for Geotechnical Instruments 254
13.4 Types of Geotechnical Instruments 256
13.4.1 Deep reference point 258
13.4.2 Settlement plate 259
13.4.3 Liquid settlement gauge 261
13.4.4 Deep settlement gauge 267
13.4.5 Multi-level settlement gauge 270
13.4.6 Earth pressure cell (EPC) 277
13.4.7 Piezometers 280
13.4.8 Casagrande open type piezometer 287
13.4.9 Water standpipe 290
13.4.10 Inclinometer 292
13.4.11 Automatic monitoring instrument 296
13.5 Monitoring Program and Frequency 298
13.6 Assessing the Reliability of Measured Data 299
14 ■ Quality Management in Prefabricated

Vertical Drain Projects 305
14.1 Selection of Vertical Drain 305
14.2 Planning and Selection of Vertical Drain Rigs 308
14.3 Types of Mandrel 310
14.4 Types of Anchor 310
14.5 Installation 310
14.6 Quality Control on Prefabricated Vertical Drain
Material 312
14.6.1 Dimension of the drain 312
14.6.2 Apparent opening size (AOS) 312
14.6.3 Tensile strength 315
14.6.4 Permeability 317
14.6.5 Discharge capacity of drain 317
14.6.5.1 Definition of discharge capacity 318
14.6.5.2 Determination of required discharge
capacity 319
14.6.5.3 Factors affecting the measurement of
discharge capacity 321
Contents xiii
14.6.5.4 Field measurement of discharge

capacities 328
14.7 Verification of Field Performance 330
15 ■ Densification of Granular Soil 343

15.1 Determination of Required Densification 344
15.1.1 Degree of densification 344
15.1.2 Required depth of compaction 348
15.2 Dynamic Compaction 349
15.2.1 Influence depth 350
15.2.2 Shape of pounder 352
15.2.3 Lifting and dropping mechanism 352
15.2.4 Field measurement during dynamic
compaction 354
15.2.5 Degree of improvement 357
15.2.6 Normalized crater depth 360
15.2.7 Most compacted point 362
15.2.8 Aging effect 364
15.3 Muller Resonance Compaction (MRC) 365
15.3.2 Procedure of compaction 365
15.3.3 Monitoring of performance 370
15.3.4 Most compacted point 370
15.4 Vibroflotation 371
15.4.1 Onshore vibroflotation method 372
15.4.2 Offshore vibroflotation method 374
15.4.4 Procedure of compaction 376
15.4.5 Quality control 377
15.4.6 Design procedure 377
15.4.7 Monitoring of performance 378
15.4.8 Achievable cone resistance and most compacted
point 378
15.4.10 Applications 381
15.5 Conclusion 381
16 ■ Contract Management for Land Reclamation

Projects 383
16.1 Contract Document 384
xiv Contents
16.2 Specifications 385

16.2.1 Local authority requirements 387
16.2.2 Performance specification 387
16.2.2.1 Settlement 388
16.2.2.2 Effective stress gain 389
16.2.2.3 Shear strength 390
16.3 Method of Measurement and Payment 391
16.4 Setting Up of Project Management Team 392
References 393
Index 403
Introduction 1
CHAPTER 1
Introduction
This book documented the entire process of land reclamation as well as the
associated ground improvement methods used. Expansion of land is
generally necessary near or at the foreshore area of existing cities, especially
in Asia. Many major land reclamation projects have been or are being carried
out in Japan, Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Macao, Singapore, Malaysia,
and Indonesia. The differences in the value of existing land and the cost of
land creation, especially in countries such as Japan, Hong Kong and
Singapore, have made it economically viable to carry out land reclamation.
Many countries have increasingly relocated their airports and seaports on
reclaimed land. Unfortunately, most of the foreshore areas in the Far East
are frequently underlain by soft clay, which causes large settlements after
formation of the land. Ground improvement for the area covered by soft
clay therefore becomes necessary. In addition, loosely deposited fill requires
densification in order to eliminate liquefaction potential and to increase
load-bearing capacity.
The process of reclamation starts with site selection involving two
major considerations: engineering and economic feasibilities. Studies need
to be carried out in order to ensure that the project can be implemented
both practically and economically. In engineering feasibility analysis, several
aspects such as coastal, geotechnical, and environmental impacts are taken
into consideration. For economic feasibility, although reclamation cost is a
major consideration, the cost of ground improvement and shore protection
have also to be taken into account. The process of site selection is described
in Chapter 2.
Chapter 3 discusses the various types of materials used for reclamation
and their suitability. A brief description of the exploration and extraction of
fill material is also included. Granular material, if available, is the most
suitable for use as reclamation fill because it is easy to handle and upon
deposition provides the land with no drainage problems.
Chapter 4 describes in detail the stages of site investigation, which is
2 Chapter 1
generally required for both borrow areas and reclamation areas. For
reclamation projects which require huge quantities of fill material, the
borrow sources are usually situated offshore. Borrow material explorations
mainly involve quality assessment and volume quantification. At the
reclamation area, several stages of site investigation—such as investigations
prior to reclamation, during reclamation, and during ground improvement
and post-reclamation—are required. Prior to reclamation, site investigations
are generally carried out to profile the underlying soil and to obtain the
geotechnical parameters required for design purposes. Site investigations
during reclamation are carried out so as to ensure the quality and suitability
of the fill material and to monitor the improvement of the underlying soil,
whereas post-improvement site investigations are essentially to assess the
extent of improvement of the underlying seabed soil. Several types of in-
situ testing equipment, which are suitable for the characterization of soft
clay and granular soils, are described and discussed together with their
method of use and interpretation of results obtained.
The various types of equipment which are used for the extraction of
offshore sand, transportation, and hydraulic filling are described in Chapter
5. They include sand transportation barges, some accessories of dredgers
such as dredger pumps, discharge pumps, discharge pipes, and floaters.
The special sand spreader used for reclamation on very soft clay and its
usage are also discussed in this chapter. There is also an explanation of
land equipment used in the reclamation, such as bulldozers, backhoes and
transportation trucks.
Chapter 6 discusses the various methods of land reclamation, such as
the dry method, hydraulic filling, sand spreading, and so forth. The methods
described in this book are, however, not exhaustive. New methods and
equipment for reclamation are continuously being introduced by specialist
dredging contractors to cater to the different depths of seabeds, increasing
haulage distances, varying underlying seabed soil, and types of fill material.
Several steps of environmental control required during reclamation
are suggested in Chapter 7. In order to assess the possible changes of seabed
morphology, seabed sampling, seabed monitoring, and beach monitoring
are usually carried out. The effects of reclamation on the coastal process by
changing currents and water patterns have to be monitored and controlled.
To be able to control the quality of the surrounding water, water quality
measurement, suspended solid measurement and clarity measurement are
required, and examples from some reclamation projects are cited. The best
way of containing and isolation is the installation of silt barricades around
the whole affected area.
Introduction 3
The newly formed reclaimed land is prone to erosion by wave and

current actions. Therefore, suitable types of shore protection need to be
built along the edge of the reclaimed land facing the sea. The selection of
the type of protection is generally based on the depth of seabed, future
usage, area availability, and type of underlying seabed soils. Several types
of shore protection structures and their suitability are discussed in the
Chapter 8.
Since the reclamation slope, shore protection slopes, and retaining
structures are often constructed on soft clay, it is essential that the structures
are safe during and after construction. The method of designing slopes and
shore protection structures are explained in Chapter 9, including the factor
of safety calculation, and applying force and moment equilibrium methods.
Earth pressure theories, which are based on active and passive pressure
calculations for retaining structure stability analyses, are also briefly
discussed. Load-bearing capacity analysis for retaining structures, stability
against overturning, and sliding are also explained. An analysis of flexible
retaining structures and computer-aided stability tests is also included in
this chapter.
Most land reclamation projects are carried out on soft clay soil and
the duration required for consolidation settlement deters immediate
development after formation of the land. In order to reduce the time required
for settlement and to eliminate future settlements, ground improvement
becomes essential in these land reclamation projects. Chapter 10 describes
the various methods of improving compressible soils. The method of
eliminating future settlement by preloading is introduced first. This is
followed by alternative methods of preloading, such as applying vacuum
pressure and groundwater level lowering. The popular soil improvement
methods, which are commonly used for accelerating the consolidation
process, such as the use of sand and prefabricated vertical drains, and electro-
osmosis are also explained with some examples. Methods which not only
increase the load-bearing capacity but also accelerate the consolidation
process in the surrounding soil, such as vibrocore replacement (stone
column) are also explained.
In soil improvement works, the characterization of the soft clay to be
treated is essential. The various methods of laboratory tests—from physical
and chemical tests to consolidation and strength tests—are extensively
discussed in Chapter 11. The frequent measurement errors which are made
in the simple physical tests are explained with some examples. Some special
consolidation tests, such as the hydraulic Rowe cell test, end of primary
consolidation test, constant rate of loading and constant rate of strain tests,
4 Chapter 1
and their interpretations are discussed with examples illustrating the

similarity and differences of the different methods. Various types of strength
tests using triaxial equipment and the stress path method with a GDS
instrument are also described in this chapter.
The basic design process of land reclamation and ground improvement
projects involves the prediction of magnitude and time rate of consolidation.
Prediction of time rate of consolidation is required in order to estimate the
total volume of fill required and volume losses due to settlement. The
prediction of time rate of settlement is necessary to determine the time
required to complete the major part of settlement or to decide on the necessity
of ground improvement. These processes are explained step by step, with
several example calculations in Chapter 12. The predictions of magnitude
of settlement are explained for all types of soils, such as normally
consolidated, over-consolidated, and under-consolidated soils. The
predictions of time rate of consolidation are explained for both single and
double drainage conditions, as well as multi-layered conditions. The
prediction of time rate of consolidation using the vertical drain system is
extensively explained with several examples illustrating the perfect drain
condition, with smear effect, and with well resistance effect. Computer-
aided analyses are also briefly explained in this chapter.
The application of geotechnical instruments is essential in land
reclamation and ground improvement projects. By monitoring the
geotechnical instruments, the progress of consolidation can be evaluated.
Instruments are also utilized to control the construction process. With this
monitoring method, the safe construction of earth or retaining structures
becomes possible in different ground conditions. The monitored data can
be analysed to obtain in-situ geotechnical parameters. Chapter 13 describes
the various geotechnical instruments that have been used in land reclamation
and ground improvement projects. The processing of monitored data as
well as various precautions needed in the interpretation of data are
extensively discussed.
Since huge quantities of prefabricated vertical drains are used in mega
reclamation projects, it is necessary to adopt a good quality management
system in the projects. Generally, a few hundred million meters of PVD are
used in such ground improvement projects and only a good management
system can provide the assurance of consistent performance of the drains
in the project. Chapter 14 explains the selection of PVD, the installation
rig, and accessories such as mandrels and anchors. Quality control and the
strength of PVD are also explained in detail. The physical parameters, such
as the dimension and apparent opening size, which control the hydraulic
Introduction 5
properties, are discussed with examples. Hydraulic parameters, such as

permeability, discharge capacity which generally control the performance
of PVD, are also described with several examples, including the method of
testing. Factors affecting the measurement of discharge capacity are
explained with examples. Verification of field performance using
geotechnical instrumentation data, in-situ tests, and laboratory tests are also
discussed in this chapter.
Ground improvement in land reclamation projects requires not only
improving the underlying soft clay but also that of the loosely placed granular
fill. Since granular fill, such as sand and gravel, is generally deposited to
the desired level in two or three lifts by hydraulic filling, and much of it is
done under water, it is not possible to compact the thick layer of sand using
conventional surface compaction methods. Therefore, densification using
deep compaction methods becomes the best method to achieve the required
density of the granular fill. Chapter 15 explains how the required density
and depth of compaction is determined, depending upon the future usage
and future specification. Various deep compaction methods, such as
Dynamic compaction, Muller Resonance compaction, and vibroflotation
methods are described.
Finally, Chapter 16 covers the topics of contracts, specifications, and
management of land reclamation and ground improvement projects. Two
major types of specifications, such as method specifications and performance
specifications are introduced and their pros and cons discussed. The method
of measurement and payment is also briefly discussed.
Site Selection 7
CHAPTER 2
Site Selection
Expansion of land is generally necessary near or at the foreshore area of an

existing city. It is also economically worthwhile to expand the land near a
city since land cost at such locations is usually high. However, studies are
required to assess the feasibility before carrying out the reclamation projects.
Site selections for many reclamation projects are limited by usage since
many are associated with port and airport facilities. Due to the increasing
concern over noise pollution, several airports are being relocated to offshore
areas for which land reclamation is required.
2.1 ■ ENGINEERING FEASIBILITY
One important aspect that needs to be considered before the selection of a

land reclamation area is engineering feasibility. Among the various
disciplines to be considered, the first is coastal engineering.
2.1.1 ■ Consideration of the coastal engineering aspect
The preferred reclamation site from the coastal engineering point of view
is a sheltered area, such as a bay with a shallow and a low gradient seabed.
If the area is sheltered, the loss of reclamation material during reclamation
and after formation of land as a result of erosion by current and wave actions
is minimized. In addition, minimal shore protection is required since the
area is in a sheltered zone. The type of shore protection along the edge of a
reclamation area is selected based on the extent of the area, the stability of
the slope, and the expected force of the waves and currents. Generally, a
layer of rip-rap with a stable slope is suitable for a shallow area with less
severe wave and current action. A thick layer of graded and armor stones,
with several berms provided for stability purposes, is required for areas
with significant wave and current action, or locations with a deep seabed.
A physical or mathematical model can be set up to observe the changes
in the current, wave, and sediment transportation process caused by
8 Chapter 2
reclamation and the construction of shore protection works, as well as to

assess the suitability of the proposed shore protection structures.
If there are constraints on the area available especially because of
navigational use, vertical walls are generally recommended. For a shallow
seabed, a cantilever wall is most cost-effective, and sheet piles or a retaining
wall is needed for a deep seabed underlain by soft ground. Sometimes
expensive caissons are constructed when a stronger structure is necessary.
Details on the types of shore protection structures are described in Chapter 8.
2.1.2 ■ Consideration of the geotechnical aspect
Generally, reclamation is carried out on the seabed with suitable competent

underlying soil. If stability is ensured during filling, after the formation of
slopes the stability of shore protections will not be a problem. In that case,
there will be no consolidation on settlement after construction. If a thin
layer of soil is overlying competent geological formation, the layer is usually
removed. The removal is normally carried out with a trailer suction hopper-
dredger or grab-dredger, but sometimes removed with a chain bucket-
dredger. When the area is underlain by a significantly thick layer of highly
compressible soil, reclamation becomes difficult and costly. There is a
possibility of occurring mud waves causing local failure of slopes, or
instability of reclamation slopes and shore protection structures, such as a
rock bund or a retaining wall. In addition, there will be a loss of sand volume
caused by settlement occuring during filling, as well as future settlement
caused by consolidation of the compressible soil. Therefore, reclamation
becomes expensive and also introduces the future problem of settlement.
As such, a soil improvement process becomes necessary. This will add to
the cost of reclamation. Since the underlying soil at the foreshore of a city
area is usually poor, soil improvement work is unavoidable.
Details on soil improvement works for compressible soil is described
in Chapter 8, and also in Bo et al. (2003a). Compressible soil not only
contributes to primary consolidation settlement, but it will also contribute
to secondary compression. Secondary compression usually occurs under
drained conditions as long-term creep, and there is no acceptable method
of eliminating secondary compression. However, it could be minimized by
using a preloading method. This will be discussed in Chapter 12.
Site Selection 9
2.1.3 ■ Consideration of the environmental aspect
Reclamation can create significant environmental changes and cause

environmental impact if it is not carried out under controlled conditions.
Environmental changes caused during reclamation include siltation, increase
in turbidity, and change in the quality of water. This will destroy the
ecosystem of the existing environment, and endanger marine life such as
fish, fauna and flora, as well as coral reefs. In order to minimize these
changes, certain environmental control measures are necessary during the
reclamation process. This will be discussed in Chapter 7.
The chemical content of the imported filling material is also an
important factor since it can change the environment and the quality of
seawater in the surrounding area. The formation of unsuitable geometry in
reclamation could lead to changes in the direction of the waves and current
flow as well as the sediment transportation pattern. It may also result in the
formation of an unwanted sandbar. On the other hand, it can also cause
erosion of the existing beach and embankment. Therefore, hydraulic studies
using physical and mathematical models are required in order to minimize
such effects.
2.2 ■ ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY
The cost of land expansion by means of land reclamation involves three

major items: reclamation, soil improvement, and shore protection works.
Among these, reclamation cost is usually the highest.
2.2.1 ■ Reclamation cost
Reclamation cost consists of dredging unwanted material and the cost of

filling material. Dredging cost is basically charged according to per cubic
meter. After dredging, the dredged materials need to be transported out of
the site. The cost of transportation is dependent upon the location of the
allocated dumping ground. The further the distance the greater will be the
cost of transportation. In some countries dumping fees may be charged.
This will add to the cost of removal of the unwanted material. One way out
is to dump the dredged material in a deep pocket within the reclamation
area and this material could be improved together with the underlying soil
when soil improvement work is carried out. No additional cost is required
to treat the dumped clay. Only a slightly longer consolidation period will
be necessary because of the increase in thickness of the compressible layer.
Even this increase in time may be minimized if the materials were dumped
10 Chapter 2
and sandwiched between two sandy layers. Details on reclamation using

dredged material is described by Bo et al. (2001a).
Another major cost is for fill material. If the material has to be
imported, the price of fill material will be dependent upon the distance of
the source rather than the dredging cost. The further the distance the greater
is the cost of transportation. The cost per cubic meter of transportation can
be reduced when larger cutter suction trailer dredgers are used. However,
this type of dredger is only worth mobilizing for reclamation projects which
require huge volumes of fill material. If the fill material is available in the
adjacent area, the cost of reclamation will be significantly reduced, perhaps
no more than dredging cost.
Since the cost of reclamation is very dependent upon the volume of
fill required, generally reclamation on a shallow seabed is much cheaper
than that on a deep seabed. Figure 2.1 shows a comparison between the
normalized cost of reclamation per square meter for the formation of
reclaimed land to +5 mCD (meter chart datum) without consideration for
settlement, soil improvement, and shore protection works. In this case, the
cost for a –2 mCD seabed was considered as the standard. It can be seen
that the cost increases with the depth of the seabed. When the seabed is
deeper by 5 times, the cost can be double. Another factor which leads to
increase in the cost of reclamation is settlement due to consolidation.
Because of the settlement of the compressible layer more sand volume
may be required. The settlement is greater when the compressible layer is
thicker. Figure 2.2 shows the percentage of increase in volume as a result
of the settlement of the compressible soil on the seabed for a reclamation to
raise from -2 mCD to +5 mCD. It can be seen that the percentage increase
5
Normalized cost per
4
square meter
0
0 -2 -4 -6 -8 -10 -12 -14
Average seabed elevation (mCD)
Figure 2.1 Increase in cost per square meter with increase in depth
of seabed.
Site Selection 11
in volume, or in other words, the percentage of volume losses due to

settlement is as high as 42.9% when settlement increases to 3 meters. There-
fore, the thicker the compressible layer the greater is the loss due to
settlement. However, for the same magnitude of settlement, the percentage
of loss is smaller when reclamation is carried out on a deeper seabed. Figure
2.3 shows a decrease in the percentage of loss due to increasing seabed depth.
For reclamation on the same type of seabed soil, the magnitude of
settlement rises with the increase in load due to a deeper seabed. Therefore,
on the one hand, the percentage of loss increases in the case of greater
settlement, while on the other hand, the percentage of loss is reduced when
a greater fill volume is required for a deeper seabed. This is explained in
Figure 2.4. It can be seen that although settlement increases for a deep
seabed, the percentage of loss due to settlement is less for a deep seabed area.
50
Increase in volume (%)
40
30
20
Seabed -2mCD
10 Fill level +5mCD
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Settlement (m)
Figure 2.2 Increase in volume of fill due to increase in settlement.
50
Percentage of loss due to
Fill level +5mCD

40
settlement (%)
30
20
10
0
0 -2 -4 -6 -8 -10 -12 -14
Figure 2.3 Reduction in percentage loss with increase in seabed depth.

12 Chapter 2
30 3
Percentage loss due to

25 2.5
settlement (%)
Settlement (m)
20 2
15 1.5
10 1
% losses due to settlement
5 settlement 0.5
0 0
-14 -12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0
Figure 2.4 Increase in settlement due to a deeper seabed and reduction

in percentage of loss due to a deeper seabed.
2.2.2 ■ Soil improvement cost
Soil improvement is required when a thick layer of clay is encountered. A

thick layer of clay will require a longer duration for the consolidation
process. In order to reduce the consolidation time a prefabricated vertical
drain (PVD) needs to be installed. If a reasonable period of time is available,
the cost of soil improvement with PVD per square meter will be dependent
upon the depth of the clay layer to be treated. Therefore, the unit cost will
increase with the thickness of the clay layer. If the duration for soil
improvement is fixed, the drain spacing has to be adjusted in order to
complete the required degree of consolidation within the allowable time. If
soil parameters and the duration of surcharge are fixed, the required quantity
of vertical drains, or the cost of vertical drain installation will increase with
the thickness of the clay layer (Figure 2.5).
Another cost item in soil improvement is the amount of surcharge
needed to meet the required magnitude of effective stress. If the bulk density
of the surcharge fill material is 20 kPa, to gain an effective stress of 18 kPa
over and above the fill load, it would require a one-meter thick fill plus
allowance for settlement. This means that if settlement is half a meter, the
total surcharge of 1.5 meters will have to be placed. This example is
graphically explained in Figure 2.6. It can be seen that the higher the effective
stress required, the greater is the thickness of surcharge required.
Site Selection 13
30
1.5mx1.5m spacing
Length per square meter

25 1.8mx1.8m spacing
2.0mx2.0m spacing
20
15
10
0
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
Depth to install (m)
Figure 2.5 Increase in quantity of vertical drain with decrease in drain

spacing and increase in clay thickness.
10
9 settlement
thickness/settlement (m)
8 Net thickness required

7 Total thickness required
Surcharge
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
Required effective stress (kPa)
Figure 2.6 Increase in thickness of surcharge with greater effective

stress required.
2.2.3 ■ Shore protection cost
Generally, shore protection cost includes the cost of stones, geofabric,

construction of rock bund, piles, and piling cost for a deep vertical wall and
concrete structure for a cantilever wall and caisson. The cost of the rock
bund increases with the increase in wave and current forces. Thicker stone
layers would be required where wave and current forces are stronger.
Another factor is depth of the seabed: the deeper the seabed, the larger the
volume of rock required, thus, the greater the cost.
Consequently, more stability berms will also be required, hence leading
to higher cost. The topography of the seabed generally slopes away from
the coastline. If the gradient of the slope is nearly equal to the overall slope
of the rock bund, it may not be economical to provide a rock bund. If a rock
14 Chapter 2
bund is proposed for such a seabed condition, a significantly longer cross-

section of rock bund will be required. Another factor is the suitability of
the seabed soil. If the seabed soil is weak, more berms will be required for
stability. If a sandkey is necessary to ensure stability, dredging and the
formation of the sandkey will be additional costs. For the vertical wall
also, the deeper the seabed the higher is the cost. Cost will also increase for
a sheet pile wall with greater penetration.
Sourcing of Reclamation Material 15
CHAPTER 3
Sourcing of Reclamation
Material
In land reclamation, fill materials usually consist of earth. There is a wide

range of earth materials, from clay to rock. All these materials can be used
for reclamation. However, depending upon the type of material used,
transportation and filling methods vary. The quality of the land also varies
depending on the material used.
3.1 ■ TYPES OF FILL MATERIAL
All types of earth material can be used for land reclamation. The various
types of earth material available include:
i). Clay
ii). Sand
iii). Hill cut
iv). Rock
v). Boulders, cobbles and gravel
3.1.1 ■ Clay as reclamation fill
Clay is not really suitable for use in land reclamation for several reasons:
i). It is difficult to handle;
ii). Permeability is low and hence there will be drainage problems
during reclamation as well as after reclamation;
iii). Few transportation methods are feasible;
iv). It has low bearing capacity; and
v). It takes a long time to settle.
However, clayey soil can be used for reclaiming below water level
and can be treated with foundation soil. Several examples of reclamation
with clayey soil can be found in Japan. Another way is to dump clay
alternately with good permeable material to form a sandwich. With this,
better quality land can be achieved with less future problems. An example
16 Chapter 3
of such reclaimed land can be found in Singapore (Lee et al. 1990).

Clayey soils are usually excavated by scooping, crapping, grabbing,
or cutting. Land excavation is generally carried out with excavators whereas
marine excavation can be done by scooping or grabbing. Transportation by
truck over land or by hopper barges and dumping the fill offshore are possible
means.
Hydraulic filling is not really suitable. However, several reclamations
have been carried out through hydraulic filling using clayey material. In
this method, clayey soil is usually deposited as slurry and it is deemed
necessary to wait until the sedimentation process is completed. Although
the sedimentation process can be accelerated by adding chemical additives,
this will raise the reclamation cost significantly. In addition, self-weight
consolidation will occur because of the large compressibility of slurry-like
soil. In order to accelerate the self-weight consolidation and draining of
water, proper drainage is required.
3.1.2 ■ Sand as reclamation fill
Sand is the best material to be used as reclamation fill for the following
reasons:
i). It is easy to handle.
ii). Drainage is good and hence there is no drainage problem during
and after reclamation.
iii). Extraction and transportation are easier and hydraulic filling is
feasible.
iv). The reclaimed land has higher bearing capacity.
v). There is no long-term consolidation and settlement of fill.
vi). A method is available for densifying the thick profile of sand
after filling.
However, quality control of granular fill material is still necessary.
The grain size distribution of imported sand has to be controlled and
monitored. Although well graded sand is preferable as reclaimed fill, it is
more costly to pump such sand through the discharging pipe. Wearing of
the inner surface of the discharge pipe will be more significant with coarse
and well graded sand. Fine sand is easier to pump hydraulically through
the discharge pipe and less vulnerable to the pumping and discharging
process. In addition to that, the granular material should not contain more
than 10% of unsuitable material such as clay, peat, plant, or other fine
materials. Unsuitable material of more than 10% will lead to difficulty in
densification of granular soil. Fill material should not include a large quantity
of shell as this will lead to immediate settlement upon the static and dynamic
load. Therefore, the percentage of shell content should be limited to less
than 10%. The typical grain size distribution of granular fill material used
for reclamation in Singapore is shown in Figure 3.1. Figure 3.2 shows the
increase in immediate settlement owing to the increase in percentage of
shell in the granular soil. It can be seen that more than 2% strain can occur
under 200 kPa static load of sand with 20% shell.
100
Percentage passing (%)
80
60
40
Source One
20
Source Two
0
0.01 0.1 1 10
Particle size (mm)
Figure 3.1 Grain size distribution from two borrow sources for
Changi East Reclamation Project.
-1
Axial strain (%)
-2
0% shell
-3 5% shell
10% shell
-4
15% shell
-5 20% shell
-6
1 10 100 1000 10000
Pressure, P (kN/m2)
Figure 3.2 Increase in immediate settlement due to increase in

the percentage of shell in the granular soil.
18 Chapter 3
3.1.3 ■ Hill cut as reclamation fill
Hill cut is better than clay material. However, hill cut usually has poor
drainage. Hydraulic filling is not possible, and it has to be transported either
by truck or conveyer belt. Therefore, the filling operation is slow. If well
compacted, it could also provide good load bearing ground. Future
settlement from hill cut formation is very dependent upon the compressibility
of the hill cut, but it is usually not significant. Reclaimed land using hill cut
material can be found in the Marina Bay area in Singapore.
3.1.4 ■ Rock as reclamation fill
Rock is also a good reclamation material. It will provide good load bearing
foundation. However, there is a limitation to the handling of rock. Only
transportation by truck or conveyor belt is possible. In general, rocks that
are bigger than 2 – 3m in size are not suitable for reclamation and such
large stones need to be broken down to smaller pieces. The occurrence of
hollows during filling of rock will cause future settlement. Rock fills are
usually difficult to densify although dynamic compaction can be applied to
compact such fill. After the formation of land, it will be difficult for the
construction of a basement, or raft foundation, but also for driving piles
through the rock fill. An example of reclaimed land which used rock can be
found in Hong Kong (Tsing Yi site) (Spaulding and Zanier 1997). Therefore,
among the earth materials, granular sand is the best material for reclamation.
3.1.5 ■ Boulders, cobbles and granular materials
Cobbles and gravel can provide good load bearing formation after filling.
However, transportation by hydraulic filling becomes difficult and severe
wearing of the discharge pipe will occur. Dynamic compaction has limited
effect on cobbles and gravels. Vibroflotation methods need to be applied
for this type of soil. Boulder clay is not difficult to handle with land
equipment. Excavation with excavators is the best means of handling
boulders. This type of soil requires filling lift by lift and compaction with
either a vibratory roller or tamping. Hydraulic filling is not suitable, and if
the material is from an offshore source, grab dredging is the most suitable
method.
3.2 ■ METHOD OF EXPLORATION OF FILL MATERIAL
Earth materials are abundant throughout the earth. Thus, exploration is not
a difficult task unless a particular type of earth is required. Clay fill is
readily available everywhere. Hill cuts are easy to find when the topography
and geomorphology of the area is available. Rocks are also easily explorable
if the geology of the area is available and rock exposures are visible. Sand
deposits are usually found at a river mouth or sandbar along the river and
stream. It may be necessary to have a knowledge of the geology of the
area. Sometimes, site investigation boreholes or a geophysical survey needs
to be carried out if sand or rock sources are overlain by an overburden.
However, as explained earlier, the transportation method may be limited if
the borrow source is far from the land. If the intended material is granular
fill, the most economical source is an offshore sand deposit. In order to
explore the offshore source, geology and geomorphology of the area are
deemed necessary. The preliminary exploration can take the form of a
geophysical survey, such as a seismic reflection or refraction survey, and
details of the exploration could be followed by the cone penetration test, or
vibrocoring. From this detailed exploration, the quantity and quality of sand
can be assessed. Site investigation at the borrow source is described in
Chapter 4.
3.3 ■ METHOD OF EXTRACTION AND TRANSPORTATION
The method of extraction is dependent upon the type of materials and the
nature of the source. The only available means of extracting land sources
are excavation and blasting. Excavation is possible for clay or sand sources
and hill cuts, whereas blasting is necessary for a rock source. Conventional
excavators are good enough for excavating clay, sand, or hill cut. Figure
3.3 shows the excavation of a hill cut in progress.
When blasting is involved, it may be necessary to study the number
of joints and the joint patterns. Suitable grid pattern of the drill hole for
blasting can be arranged in order to obtain the required size of rock.
For land sources, two types of transportation are feasible. One is
transportation by truck. Generally, a truck can carry a volume of 6 to 8
cubic meters per trip. Another form of transport for a land source is the
conveyor belt system. A conveyor belt can transport the fill material
continuously and unload at the discharge point. Rehandling is required at
the discharge point. Therefore, the use of an excavator is still required at
the borrow and rehandling sources. Figure 3.4 shows the transporting of
20 Chapter 3
Figure 3.3 Excavating of hill cut in progress.
Figure 3.4 Transporting of fill material using trucks.
Figure 3.5 Transporting of fill material using a conveyor belt system.

Figure 3.6 Loading of fill material from a land borrow source to

the flat-bottom barge.
fill material using trucks, and Figure 3.5 shows the transporting of fill
material using a conveyor belt system.
If trucks or a conveyor belt is used, reclamation is usually carried out
by a dry method. In other words, reclamation is advanced from the coastal
side towards the sea. No marine equipment is necessary. Sometimes fill
material from land sources may be transported either by trucks or conveyor
belts, or loaded onto barges. Thus, reclamation can be carried out from the
seaward side by direct dumping. Figure 3.6 shows loading of fill material
from land borrow sources on flat-bottom barge. Details of marine
transportation vessels will be described in Chapter 5.
If the borrow source is offshore, extraction has to be carried out by
the dredging method. For clayey soil, either a bucket or a grab dredger is
used whereas cutter suction dredgers are used for extracting marine sand.
Materials are usually transported with the help of barges. The various types
of dredging and transportation vessels are widely discussed in Chapter 5.
Site Investigation 23
CHAPTER 4
Site Investigation
Site investigations are usually carried out at both the reclamation area and
the borrow areas. Investigation works should be carried out for every stage
of the projects, such as prior to reclamation, after general filling, during
soil improvement and after soil improvement. The purposes of site
investigation vary depending upon the type and time of investigation. Some
are carried out to explore and quantify the volume of borrow materials
whereas others may be done just to profile the underlying soil or to
characterize the geotechnical properties of underlying formations. Some
are done to assess how the soil may be improved whereas others are carried
out for quality control on soil improvement works. This section describes
the site investigation works carried out at various stages of reclamation
and soil improvement work. Details of site investigation practice in land
reclamation projects are also given in Bo and Choa (2000).
4.1 ■ SITE INVESTIGATION AT BORROW AREAS
The purpose of site investigation at borrow areas is to assess the quality of

and quantify the available fill material. A preliminary check on the quantity
of sand deposit can be made after running a geophysical survey. A seismic
survey can indicate the thickness and extent of the sand mine. Figure 4.1
shows a geophysical survey in progress, and Figure 4.2 shows a typical
seismic reflection survey which indicates the thickness of the sand deposit.
The quality of sand can be verified either by an in-situ test or test results
from a sample taken. Vibrocoring is one of the best methods. Alternatively,
a sample can be grabbed if the thickness of the sand layer is less than 5
meters. Figure 4.3 shows vibrocore sampling in progress. Samples obtained
are tested in a geotechnical laboratory to find out the type of sand and grain
size distribution. Figure 3.1 shows the grain size distribution of sand from
two borrow sources. Generally, sand with less than 10% of fine is considered
good for land reclamation. Sand deposits with fine content of greater than
24 Chapter 4
10% and up to 20 to 25% are still usable since a certain amount of fine can
be flushed out during the dredging, loading, and unloading processes.
Another useful method of sourcing for sand deposits is the Cone
Penetration Test (CPT). Since CPT can classify the type of soil, both
quantification and quality verification of the sand mine is possible with
this equipment.
Figure 4.1 Geophysical survey in progress.
N. West S. East
Calculated Depth
(millisecond)
(meters)
Time
Figure 4.2 Typical seismic reflection survey which indicates

the thickness of sand.
Figure 4.3 Vibrocore sampling in progress.

4.2 ■ SITE INVESTIGATION PRIOR TO RECLAMATION

AND SOIL IMPROVEMENT
4.2.1 ■ Seismic reflection survey
Site investigations are carried out prior to reclamation in order to profile

the underlying geological formation and also to characterize the geotechnical
properties of the underlying soils and rocks. The first site investigation to
be carried out prior to reclamation is the seismic reflection survey. By
interpreting the seismic reflection survey results the thickness of the soft
layer can be identified. Figure 4.4 shows the isoline of the thickness of the
soft clay layer interpreted from the seismic reflection survey in the Changi
reclamation project.
4.2.2 ■ Boring and sampling
Offshore site investigations using boreholes are carried out to profile the
formation of the soil and also to collect samples for laboratory tests for
geotechnical characterization. Boreholes are usually drilled using the rotary
mud flush drilling technique. Figure 4.5 shows rotary drilling which is
commonly used in site investigation. Site investigations at a foreshore
location are usually carried out from a jack-up pontoon (Figure 4.6). Site
investigations at deep sea locations are usually carried out from a vessel on
which a boring rig is mounted. An on-board laboratory is generally built on
the ship (Figure 4.7).
THICKNESS OF SOFT CLAY

Less than 5m
5m to 15m
15m to 40m
Phase 2
Phase 3
A Phase 1 A'
Runway 2
Phase 4
0 0.5 1.0
Kilometres
Runway II
0m Seabed
20m
40m Hydraulic Fill Sand
Marine Clay
Silty Clay SECTION A-A'
Cemented Sand
Figure 4.4 Isoline showing the thickness of the soft clay layer from
the seismic reflection survey (Choa 1991).
26 Chapter 4
Figure 4.5 Rotary drill commonly used in site investigation.
Figure 4.6 Site investigation at a foreshore location is carried out from

a jack-up pontoon.
Figure 4.7 Offshore site investigation ship with

on-board laboratory.
Figure 4.8 Piston sampler.
In most site investigations continuous undisturbed sampling with either

a piston sampler or a thin wall sampler is carried out. Samples of soft clay
are taken with either a 75mm or 100mm diameter piston sampler while
28 Chapter 4
firm clay samples are taken with a 100mm diameter Shelby tube thin wall
sampler. Samples of stiff to hard clay are taken with a thick wall drive
sampler. Figure 4.8 shows a piston sampler. The collected sample tubes are
sealed straight away with a mixture of wax and velcelin on site and sent to
the on-site laboratory with great care during transportation. If the clay is
soft or firm, field vane shear tests are carried out adjacent to the borehole to
measure the in-situ undrained shear strength of the clay.
4.2.3 ■ Field vane shear test (FVT)
Field vane tests (FVT) are carried out with a Geonor Vane with two types
of vane blades, measuring 55mm x 110mm and 65mm x 130mm, depending
upon the types of clay encountered. A certain waiting time—generally 5
minutes after insertion of blade—and a suitable rotation rate of 12
revolutions per minute are used, as advised by Chandler (1988). A field
vane test basically measures the torque required to rotate the blade until
failure. Field vane equipment needs to be calibrated from time to time.
Field vane tests are usually terminated when the field vane shear strength
reaches 90 – 100 kPa. Remolded strength tests are also carried out after
undisturbed tests. Figure 4.9 shows field vane blades and field vane
equipment. Figure 4.10 shows typical calibration results of field vane
equipment, and Figure 4.11 shows typical field vane shear strength results.
Standard penetration tests are carried out either in the sand formation or
alluvial cemented sand rock, usually by collecting disturbed samples.
Boreholes are terminated after three consecutive blows of SPT 50/300 mm
have been obtained. Figure 4.12 shows SPT testing in progress.
Figure 4.9 Field vane blades and field vane equipment.

SERIAL No. 1741 05-Sep-2002

TOTAL INSTRUMENT READING AVERAGE SHEAR STRENGTH(KN/M2)
LOAD UP DOWN UP DOWN VANE VANE

(N) (1) (2) (3) (4) (1+3)/2 55/110 65/130
0.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.00 0.00 0.00

39.24 13.0 12.5 13.0 13.0 13.00 11.26 6.82
78.48 25.0 25.0 25.0 25.0 25.00 22.52 13.64
117.72 37.0 36.8 37.0 37.0 37.00 33.79 20.46
156.96 48.5 48.0 48.8 48.8 48.65 45.05 27.28
196.20 60.3 60.7 60.8 60.8 60.55 56.31 34.09
235.44 71.7 72.0 72.0 72.2 71.85 67.57 40.91
274.68 83.0 83.0 83.0 83.0 83.00 78.83 47.73
90
80
Calibration Curve of Vane Borer
Shear stress (kN/m2)
70
60
50
y = 0.287x
40
30 y = 0.1738x
20 vane 55/110
10 vane 65/130
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Instrument reading
Figure 4.10 Typical calibration results of field vane equipment.

Elevation (mCD)
Shear strength (kN/m2)
Figure 4.11 Typical field vane shear strength results.

30 Chapter 4
Figure 4.12 SPT in progress.
4.2.4 ■ Cone penetration test (CPT)
Cone penetration tests (CPTs) are becoming more and more popular because
of their simplicity and immediate results. There are several types of cones
with different functions and capacities manufactured by various
manufacturers.
Table 4.1 shows the types of cones with various capacities available
in the market, produced by Geomail. Figure 4.13 shows the geometry and
design of the Gouda cone. The basic testing procedure involves a continuous
penetration of the cone into the sub-soils, at a standard penetration rate of
20mm per second, and recording the cone resistance (qc), the sleeve friction
(f s), and the penetration pore pressure. CPT can provide several
measurements, such as cone resistance (qc), friction (fs), pore pressure (ubt)
and inclination. CPT can classify the types of soil by applying the Robertson
Table 4.1 Types of cones with various capacities available in

the market, produced by Geomil Equipment BV.
Cone Name Cone Labels Cone Range Friction Range Inclinometer P-Range
00 6201 1008 C10CF 50 MPa 0.5MPa
C10CF 100 MPa 1 MPa
00 6201 1009 C10CFI 50 MPa 0.5 MPa 15 deg
C10CFI 100 MPa 1 MPa 15 deg
C10CFI 100 MPa 1.5 MPa 15 deg
00 6201 1015 C10CFP 50 MPa 0.5 MPa 1 MPa
C10CFP 100 MPa 1 MPa 2 MPa
C10CFP 100 MPa 1 MPa 5 MPa
00 6201 1011 C10CFIP 50 MPa 0.5 MPa 15 deg 1 MPa
C10CFIP 100 MPa 1 MPa 15 deg 2 MPa
C10CFIP 100 MPa 1 MPa 15 deg 5 MPa
C10CFIIP 100 MPa 1 MPa 15 + 15 deg 2 MPa
Source: Geomail.
SHAFT OF THE
PENETRO-
METER TIP
DIRT SEAL
1000 mm
SEAL
mm (area 15000 mm )
SEAL
FRICTION
SLEEVE
Ls =133.7
WATERTIGHT
SEAL
Ag<10mm
DIRT SEAL
REFERRED TO ONE SIDE OF eo <5 mm
HE CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA)
POROUS STONE 60º
hc <10 mm
hc
CONE
dc =35.7 mm
Figure 4.13 Geometry and design of the Gouda piezocone.

Cone bearing qc, kPa (x100)
Friction ratio FR (%)
Figure 4.14 Soil classification chart for standard electric cone

(after Robertson and Campanella 1983).
(Courtesy of The McGraw-Hill Companies)
32 Chapter 4
Cone Resistance Local Friction Pore Pressure

(MN/m2) (kN/m2) (Bar)
0 10 20 30 40 0 50 100 150 200 0 5 10 15 20
10 10 10
0 0 0
-10 -10 -10

Elevation (mCD)
-20 -20 -20
-30 -30 -30
-40 -40 -40
Cone Resistance Local Friction Pore Pressure
-50 -50 -50
A4 Area A4 Area
SOIL PROFILE (PC-200) SOIL PROFILE (DC-961)
10 10
7.90
Sandfill 7.80
Sandfill
Water table 2.5 2.5
0 0 Water table
Upper marine clay -7.03

-10 Upper marine clay-8.10
(Soft to firm greenish grey silty clay) -10
Elevation (mCD)
-12.43 (Soft to firm greenish grey silty clay)

Elevation (mCD)
Stiff silty clay -12.20

-14.73 Stiff silty clay
-14.70
-20 Lower marine clay -20 Lower marine clay

(Firm to stiff dark grey silty clay) (Firm to stiff dark grey silty clay)
-28.63 -29.90
-30 -30
Dense silty sand Dense silty sand -31.90
-34.35
-40 -40
-50 -50
Figure 4.15 Comparison of soil profiles, interpreted from CPT and

a borehole.
Figure 4.16 Rigs mounted on a trolley, on a crawler and on a truck.

(Courtesy of Geomil Equipment BV)
34 Chapter 4
Figure 4.17 CPT operation on the seabed and controlled by remote

control from a vessel or barge.
and Campanella (1983) chart (Figure 4.14). Figure 4.15 shows a comparison
of the soil profile interpreted from CPT and observed from the borehole. It
can be seen that CPT can accurately classify the types of soil. Some rigs
are mounted on trolleys whereas others are mounted on a crawler or truck,
as shown in Figure 4.16.
There are some CPTs which can carry out tests in foreshore conditions.
Such CPTs are usually done on the seabed and controlled from the vessel
or barges by remote control (Figure 4.17).
The interpretation of undrained shear strength from in-situ tests has
been comprehensively discussed in Bo et al. (2000a), and the use of CPT in
land reclamation project has been described by Bo and Choa (2001).
4.2.4.1—Undrained shear strength from CPT
The undrained shear strength (Su) can be determined from the cone resistance
using the following equation:
qc - d v
Su = ( ) (4.1)
Nk
where d v is overburden stress, Nk is the cone factor.

Nk is reported to be between 11 to 19, based on a correction of the
field shear strength (Lunne and Kleven, 1981), and 17, based on a triaxial
compression test on non-fissured over-consolidated clay. Kjekstad et al.
(1978) and Battaglio et al. (1986) have reported Nc = 14 for soft homogenous
highly structured CaCO3 Cemented Fucino Lacustrine Clay, based on a
field vane and triaxial test.
su = (qt - d v ) / N kt (4.2)
where qt is the corrected cone resistance, and it can be calculated from the
( )
cone resistance qc using the following equation:
qt = qc + (1 - a) ubt (4.3)
where a is an unequal area ratio and ubt is the pore pressure at the cone
base.
Nkt values are reported to be 10 – 15 for normally consolidated clay,
and 15 – 20 for over-consolidated clay (De Ruiter 1982). Dobie (1988) has
reported Nkt values of between 15 and 21 for on-land Singapore marine
clay. La Rochelle et al. (1988), Rad and Lunne (1988), and Powell and
Quarterman (1988) has reported Nkt values of 8 – 29, depending upon Ip
based on the triaxal compression test. Aas et al. (1986) proposed a
36 Chapter 4
relationship between Nkt and the plasticity index (Ip) of clay as follows:
( )
N kt = 13 + 5.5 50 I p ( ±2) (4.4)
Bo et al. (2000a) has reported the relationship between Nkt and

Singapore marine clay as follows:
(
N kt = 23.8 - 0.263I p ) (4.5)
By using the above correlation, the undrained shear strength of clay

can be estimated from qc values. A comparison of the estimated and
measured field vane shear strength is shown in Figure 4.18 for a Singapore
marine clay.
Several others have reported various Nkt values for different types of
clay from all over the world either based on triaxial tests or field vane test
data. Those based on triaxial tests are Nkt of 13.7 for Newcastle clay in
Australia (Jones 1995), Nkt of 13.5 to 15.5 for Sarapui soft clay in Brazil
(Rocha-Filho and Alencar 1985), and 10.3 to 15 for Recife soft clay in
Brazil (Coutinho et al. 1993). Nkt ranging from 12 to 20 have been reported
for normally consolidated clay in southern Nigeria by George and Ajayi
(1995).
Nkt values based on field vane tests are Nkt = 14.5 for Jacarepaqua
clay in Brazil (Rocha-Filho, 1987), Nkt = 15 for Porto Alegre soft clay
(Soares et al. 1986), and Quilombo soft clay (Arabe 1995), Nkt = 10 for
different deposits of clay in Denmark (Denver 1988; Kammer Mortensen
et al. 1991; Jorgensen and Denver 1992), and Nkt = 9 – 14 for Japanese
Undrained Shear Strength

0 20 40 60 80 100
0
-5 SBPT2
-10 FVT-VA6
Elevation (mCD)
-15 DMT2
-20 CPT2
-25 CKoU
-30
-35
-40
Figure 4.18 Comparison of undrained shear strength, determined from

specialist in-situ tests and field vane shear strength tests.
marine clay (Tanaka 1994). Tanaka also reported Nkt values of between 8
and 16 based on laboratory Unconfined Compression Test.
In Germany, the deduction of overburden pressure is not taken into
account and the cone factor is also not used. The direct relationship between
cone resistance ( qc ) and undrained shear strength is proposed as:
qc
Su = (4.6)
N
where N varies between 10 to 20.
N = 12 for soft clay and 20 for OC clay was reported by EAU (1990).
Sanglerat (1972) has reported N = 10 for qc < 0.5 MPa, and N = 18 for qc >
0.5 MPa. A similar direct correlation was also used in Vietnam, which
reported values of 20 for soft silty clay (Nhuan et al. 1985).
4.2.4.2—Over-consolidation ratio from CPT
In addition to estimating undrained shear strength, CPT can be used to

predict the over-consolidation ratio (OCR) of soft clay. OCR can be
estimated from qt using the following equation:
Èq - d ˘
OCR = a Í t ' vo ˙ (4.7)
Î d va ˚
where d va is effective overburden stress, and a is constant, ranging from
'
0.2 to 0.5. A value of 0.33 was reported based on the CPT pore pressure
measured on the shoulder of a cone (Kulhawy and Mayne 1990),
and a = 0.81 based on mid-face element (Chen and Mayne 1996). Sonneset
et al. (1982), and Konrad and Law (1987) reported a values of 0.49 based
on pore pressure measurement on the shoulder. For Singapore marine clay,
Bo et al. (1998a) has proposed a k value of 0.32.
Figure 4.19 shows a comparison of OCR, interpreted from various
in-situ tests with that interpreted from laboratory oedometer tests.
4.2.4.3—Coefficient of consolidation due to horizontal flow (Ch ) from CPT
Since CPT equipment has a pore pressure transducer, it is also possible to

carry out the pore pressure dissipation test in the clay. When CPT penetrates
into the clay, dynamic pore pressure occurs. However, if the cone is held at
the same position for a longer duration, the dynamic pore pressure will
dissipate with time. This pore pressure dissipation curve can be analyzed
by applying Baligh and Levadoux’s (1980) strain path method. The
coefficient of consolidation due to horizontal flow Ch values can be
calculated from a relevant time factor T using the following equation:
38 Chapter 4
R 2T
Ch = (4.7)
t
where R is the radius of the pushing cone in meters, T is a dimensionless
time factor, and t is the time lapse needed to reach a given degree of
consolidation in years.
The resultant Ch values need to be corrected to a normally consolidated
(NC) condition using recompression ratio. Figure 4.20 shows some pore
pressure dissipation curves measured by a CPTU test, and Figure 4.21 shows
a comparison of Ch values measured by various types of laboratory and
field in-situ tests.
Over-consolidation ratio, OCR

0 2 4 6 8 10
0
-5
-10
Elevation (mCD)
-15
-20 SBPT2
FVT-VA6
-25
DMT2
-30
CPT2
-35
Oedometer
-40
Figure 4.19 Comparison of overconsolidation ratio, determined from

specialist in-situ tests and laboratory measurement.
Normalized excess
pore pressure
Over-consolidation ratio, OCR
Figure 4.20 Pore pressure dissipation curves measured by a CPTU test.

-5
Elevation (mCD) -10
-15
-20
-25 Ch: CPTU
Ch: DMT (Ch*Tflex=5cm2)

-30
Ch: SBPT
-35 Ch: Hydrocon & Rowe cell
Cv: oedometer
-40
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Ch (m2/yr)
Figure 4.21 Coefficient of consolidation values.
Apart from the above types of simple in-situ tests, there are several
specialist in-situ tests which are carried out to characterize the soft marine
clay prior to reclamation.
4.2.5 ■ Flat dilatometer test (DMT)
A Marchetti flat dilatometer blade (Marchetti, 1980) with a steel membrane

on one side (Figure 4.22) is used in a flat dilatometer test. The test involves
driving the flat dilatometer into the seabed with a 20 ton static rig at a
standard penetration rate of 20 mm per second. When the driving is
temporarily stopped at selected depth intervals, two pressure readings,
corresponding to two prefixed states of expansion of the membrane, are
recorded. The first reading corresponds to the membrane lift-off pressure
and the second reading records the pressure required for the center of the
membrane to deflect by a preset distance of 1mm into the soil. These readings
are called P0 and P1, respectively, after allowing for the effects of the
membrane stiffness. The testing procedure follows the instructions of the
dilatometer operation manual prepared by Marchetti and Crapps (1981).
Figure 4.23 shows the photographic features of a flat dilatometer blade,
and a flat dilatometer test in progress.
The flat dilatometer measures two pressure values, called P0 and P1.
For these two values, three indices, such as the material index (ID), the
40 Chapter 4
PNEUMATIC
ELECTRIC
TUBING
CP
FLEXIBLE
mm
STEEL SEE
60
MEMBRANE BEL
95mm 14mm
MEMBRANE
SENSING DISC
INSULATING SEAT
PLEXIGLASS CYLINDER
INLESS STEEL CYLINDER
PNEUMATIC-ELECTRIC
CONDUIT
Figure 4.22 Marchetti flat dilatometer blade with a steel membrane on

one side (Marchetti 1980).
Figure 4.23 Photographic features of a flat dilatometer blade, and flat

dilatometer test in progress.
horizontal stress index (KD), and the dilatometer modulus (ED) can be
obtained using the following equations:
( P0 - P1 )
ID = ( P0 - u0 ) (4.8)
KD =
(P0 - u0 )
(d v 0 - u0 ) (4.9)
E D = 34.7( P1 - P0 ) (4.10)
where u0 is the pre-insertion pore water pressure.

Marchetti (1980) has proposed the classification of soil using material
index values. Figure 4.24 shows measured and calculated indices from DMT
tests for a test area. It was found that a dilatometer could classify the soil
type closely. Like CPT, su can also be estimated from KD values obtained
from a DMT test. Marchetti (1980) has proposed the undrained shear
strength su with lateral stress index (KD) as follows:
1.25
su = 0.22d ÊË D 2 ˆ¯
'K
v0 (4.11)
Bo et al. (2000a) has proposed a power function of 1.0 for upper and
intermediate Singapore marine clay, and 0.7 for lower Singapore marine
clay, instead of 1.25. Figure 4.18 shows the su values estimated from the
DMT.
From the lateral stress index KD , the OCR of clay can be estimated, as
proposed by Marchetti (1980), as follows:
OCR = 0.5K 1D.56 (4.12)
Bo et al. (1998a) proposed the power function 1.0 for lower and upper
Singapore marine clay and 0.8 for intermediate Singapore marine clay
instead of 1.56. Figure 4.20 also shows the OCR estimated from a DMT
test.
A DMTA test measures the total stress of the soil and from the
dissipation of the total lateral stress Ch values can again be calculated using
an equation proposed by Marchetti and Totani (1989) for A reading
dissipation tests.
Ch (DMTA) ¥ Tflex = 5 - 10cm 2 (4.13)
where Tflex is the dimensionless time factor. Figure 4.25a shows the
dissipation curve from DMT tests in marine clay. From the C reading,
dissipation test Ch is given by:
È T50 ˘ mm 2
Ch (DMTC) = 600 Í ˙ min (4.14)
Î t50 ˚
Figure 4.25b shows the C reading dissipation curves for upper marine
clay. Figure 4.21 also shows Ch values interpreted from the DMT dissipation
tests compared with those from other types of in-situ and laboratory tests.
Corrected A reading (bar) Corrected B reading (bar) Material Index Horizontal Stress Index
42 Chapter 4
0 5 10 0 5 10 15 0.1 1 10 0 10 20
0
2 Clay Silt Sand
4
6
8
10
12
Depth (m)
14
16
18
20
Dilatometer Modulus (bar) In-situ Earth Pressure Coefficient Constrained Modulus (bar)
0 100 200 300 0 1 2 3 0 100 200 300 400
0 0 0
2 2
4 4
5
6 6
8 8
10 10 10
12 12
Depth (m)
14 14
15
16 16
18 18
20 20 20
Figure 4.24 Measured and calculated indices from DMT test.

(a) (b)
12 14
A
A
B
B 12
10 C
C
D
D
10 E
E
8 F F
Pressure (bar)
Pressure (bar)
8
6
6
4
4
2
2
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 0 50 100 150 200
Time (min) Time (min)
A — 3.6 & 3.9 depth C — 9.3 & 9.6 depth E — 19.5 & 19.8 depth
B — 6.6 & 6.9 depth D — 14.7 & 15 depth F — 25.5 & 25.8 depth
Figure 4.25 (a) A reading dissipation curve from a DMT test;

(b) C reading dissipation curve from a DMT test.
4.2.6 ■ Self-boring pressuremeter test (SBPT)
A Cambridge-type self-boring pressuremeter (Worth 1984) with strain-

measuring arms located at the mid-level, as shown in Figure 4.26, is one of
the most useful equipment for in-situ tests to characterize soft clay. The
instrument has strain-gauge type transducers attached to the center core or
pressuremeter body, which is covered with a rubber membrane, for direct
recording of the radial displacement and the applied pressure.
A self-boring pressuremeter is equipped with a rotary bit at the base.
The SBPT involves firstly insertion of the pressuremeter to the selected
depth in the ground using a self-boring technique. Following the insertion
of the apparatus, a rubber membrane is inflated by the injection of gas
pressure and both the applied pressure and the corresponding displacement
of borehole (cavity) wall are measured. The test procedure generally follows
Mair and Wood (1987) and Hawkins et al. (1990). The test results are usually
presented in a plot of applied pressure versus (radial) cavity strain, which
can be interpreted by the cavity expansion theory. Figure 4.27 shows typical
results from a self-boring pressuremeter test. Figure 4.26 shows the geometry
and dimension of the self-boring pressuremeter, while Figure 4.28 shows a
self-boring pressuremeter test in progress.
44 Chapter 4
SAND CYLINDER
CASING ADAPTOR
215 mm
171 mm
297 mm
LINE DENOTES
CENTRE OF STRAIN
SENSING SYSTEM 317 mm
PORE PRESSURE 43 mm
CELL `B'
317 mm
83 mm
83 mm ÿ
Figure 4.26 Geometry and dimension of a self-boring pressuremeter

(Cambridge in-situ, 1993).
Oversized shoe edge + rock roller bit

Normal shoe edge + spade cutter
600
Pressure (kPa)
400
200
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Radial displacement (mm)
Figure 4.27 Typical results from a self-boring pressuremeter test.

Figure 4.28 Self-boring pressuremeter in progress.
Tests can be carried out either on stress control or strain control. From
the test, the following basic measurements can be obtained:
i). Lift-off pressure
ii). Stress vs strain curve
iii). Several unload, reload loops
iv). Limit pressure (PL)
v). Pore pressure dissipation curve from a dissipation test.
From the lift-off pressure, lateral earth pressure can be obtained. From
the stress-strain curves, various types of modules, such as initial tangent
modules, secant modules, and unload-reload modules can be obtained.
Undrained shear strength can also be estimated from limit pressure using
the following equation:
su =
(PL - d h 0 ) where N Ê Gˆ
= 1 + log e Á ˜ (4.15)
Ë Cu ¯
p
Np
Marsland and Randolf (1977) adopted an Np ranging between 5.5 and

6.8. It can also be suggested that the Np values for a specific type of clay
should be locally obtained by empirical correlation. Bo et al. (2000a) has
suggested that Np values for Singapore marine clay at Changi are 6.0, 6.4,
and 7.2 for upper, intermediate, and lower marine clay. Figure 4.18 also
shows a comparison between field vane shear strength and that interpreted
from SBPT.
Since a self-boring pressuremeter can measure the total horizontal
46 Chapter 4
stress, it is possible to determine the Ko values, and hence the OCR can be
estimated. Figure 4.19 shows the OCR obtained from a self-boring
pressuremeter compared with laboratory results.
1
ÈK ˘ h
OCR = Í 0 oc ˙ where h=0.32 – 4.0 (4.16)
Î K 0 nc ˚
From the pore pressure dissipation test, the coefficient of consolidation
due to horizontal flow (Ch) can be estimated using the following equation:
T50 r 2
Ch = (4.17)
t50
where t50 is time taken for the excess pore pressure to fall half of its maximum
value, T50 is the time factor, and r is the radius of cavity.
Figure 4.21 shows Ch values measured from various in-situ tests. kh
can be calculated from Ch values. kh interpreted from various in-situ tests
are shown in Figure 4.29. An interpretation of kh from various in-situ tests
can be found in Bo et al. (1998e).
1.00E-11 1.00E-10 1.00E-09 1.00E-08 1.00E-07

0
CPTU k h
DILATOMETER kh
5 BAT kh
SBPT kh
LAB kh
10
Depth (m)
15
20
25
30
kh (m/s)
Figure 4.29 kh interpreted from various in-situ tests.

4.3 ■ SOIL INVESTIGATION DURING RECLAMATION
Reclamation is usually carried out by filling in stages. Especially when soil

improvement works are involved, reclamation is done in two stages. In the
first stage, filling is usually done to a level slightly above the high tide and
prefabricated vertical drains are installed at that level before raising the fill
level to the required surcharge level. At such site investigation, boreholes
can be drilled where profiling and characterization of boreholes have not
yet been done. Site investigations are carried out soon after the filling to
just above the high tide level. No prefabricated vertical drain has been
installed at this stage since the change or improvement of the soil parameters
is minimal.
Another useful site investigation equipment at this stage is the CPT.
By using CPT, profiling and contouring of the soft clay layer are possible,
and the exact penetration depth required for a prefabricated vertical drain
can be determined. Figure 4.30 shows the profile and contour of a soft clay
layer determined from the CPT carried out after filling to a level above the
high tide level. In addition to the profiling of soil, CPT can indicate the
quality of sand as well as any mud traps or mud waves that occur during
the first stage of filling. Figure 4.31 shows mud traps detected by CPT
equipment, and Figure 4.32 shows mud wave detected by CPT equipment.
Generally, the payment for reclamation is made based on a pre- and
post-survey of the area. However, during the general filling stage, some
changes can occur. One is the settlement of the seabed, another is the heaving
up of the seabed due to mud-waves, and still another is a mud trap within
the sand fill. Thus, the sand volume measured by a pre- and post-survey
may not be the actual volume deposited. The actual volume can be measured
by carrying out a CPT with certain grid patterns. A deduction of the volume
of mud trapped inside the sand fill can also be made. For this exercise, it is
important to achieve the verticality of the CPT test carried out.
An alternative in-situ testing equipment which can detect changes on
the seabed, mud wave, and mud trap, is the Auto-ram sounding equipment.
Figure 4.33 shows typical Auto-ram sounding results which indicate the
mud trap.
4.4 ■ POST-IMPROVEMENT SOIL INVESTIGATION
In the post-improvement stage almost all the site investigation equipment

used prior to reclamation can be utilized. However, there are some
differences in the usage and careful interpretation is required. Borehole
and sampling are carried out from the surcharge level. Generally, only wash
48 Chapter 4
boring is carried out within the sand fill area since soil parameters for filling
sand are normally not required in the post-improvement site investigation
stage. When drilling reaches the clay layer, it is important to maintain the
drilling fluid inside the borehole. Without this, disturbance to the clay could
be encountered since formation clay has a high level of surcharge. Post-
improvement site investigations are carried out in order to assess the
improvement of the soil. This is done when geotechnical instruments
Elevation (mCD)
(a) Note: Distance in meters.
Y 2003.20
Y 1902.40
Y 1801.60
Y 1700.80
Y 1600.00
Y 1515.40
X 3734.80
X 3781.60
X 3828.40
X 3875.20
X 3922.00
X 3968.80
X 4015.60
X 4062.40
X 4109.20
X 4156.00
X 4202.80
X 4249.60
X 4296.40
X 4343.20
X 4390.00
X 4436.80
X 4483.60
X 4530.40
X 4577.20
X 4624.00
(b) Note: Measurements are in meters.
Figure 4.30 (a) Cross-sectional profile of the soil determined from a CPT;
(b) Isoline of the thickness of the soft clay layer determined
from the CPT.
C2-181-T2
C2-182-T2
C2-181-T1
C2-182-T1
C2-181-T3
C2-182-T3
C2-180-T2
C2-183-T2
C2-184-T2
C2-180-T1
C2-183-T1
C2-184-T1
9.0
C2-180-T3
C2-183-T3
C2-184-T3
8.0
6.0
SAND
DEPTH (mCD) 4.0
2.0 1.9 2.0

1.6 1.1
0.6 0.9 0.9 0.8 1.0 0.8
Clay Trap 0.5
0.0 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.1 -0.3
-0.3 -0.3 -1.3 -0.9
-1.4 -1.1
-2.0 -2.3 -2.6 -1.8
-3.2 -3.1
-4.0 -4.2 -4.2 -4.2 -4.0 -4.2 -4.3 -4.1 -4.3 -4.3 -4.2
-4.5 -4.7
-5.5 -5.6 -5.6 -5.7 -5.6 -5.6
-6.0
X 3050.00
X 3060.90
X 3075.90
X 3087.40
X 3099.40
X 3111.40
X 3126.40
X 3138.40
X 3150.40
X 3163.90
X 3175.90
X 3189.40
X 3202.90
X 3214.90
X 3228.40
X 3240.40
SCALE HOR. 1:800
VER. 1:80
NOTE : C2-180-T1 is CPT No.
Figure 4.31 Mud trap detected by CPT.

Seabed level (mCD)
Figure 4.32 Mud wave detected by CPT.
No. of blows/20cm No. of blows/20cm

0 10 20 30 0 10 20 30 40
0
3
Mud trap
Depth (m)
RAM SOUNDING : RS 185

12 LOCATION : X = 4516.445, RAM SOUNDING : RS 184
Y = 307.098 LOCATION : X = 4613.64,
Y = 307.100
15
Figure 4.33 Mud trap detected by auto-ram sounding.

PRIOR TO RECLAMATION AFTER SOIL IMPROVEMENT WATER NATURAL VOID PRECONSOLIDATION UU SHEAR STRENGTH FIELD VANE
2 2 2
WITH VERTICAL DRAIN CONTENT (%) RATIO PRESSURE( kN/m ) ( kN/m ) ( kN/m )
50 Chapter 4
0 PB-12 (Seabed -4.02 5m CD) 0 5 0 25 50 75 100 0 1 2 3 0 100 200 300 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 0 20 40 60 80 100
-5 -5
PB-78( -7.22 m CD)

VERY SOFT MARINE
CLAY WITH
FRAGMENTED
SOFT MARINE CLAY
-10 SEASHELLS AND -10
WITH FRAGMENTED
TRACES OF SAND
SEASHELLS AND
TRACES OF ORGINAL
MATERIALS
-15 -15
SOFT MARINE CLAY

MIXED WITH SILTY
Elevation (m
CLAY,FINE SAND AND
TRACES OF ORGANIC
-20 MATTERS -20
FIRM,MARINE SILTY CLAY
WITH ORGANIC MATTERS
SANDY CLAY
Predicted
SAND WITH GRAVELS DENSE, FINE TO Preconsolidation
-25 -25 Date of Surcharge :
COARSE SAND WITH Pressure
30 Dec. 1994
TRACES OF SILT AND
VERY DENSE CLAYEY Date of Surcharge:30th Dec 1994 Date of Assessment Test:
ORGANIC MATERIALS
SAND 4 June 1996
Date of Assessment Test:2nd Apr 1996
-30 Prior to Reclamation (PB-12) Predicted Improvement After Soil Improvement (PB-78)
-30
Figure 4.34 Comparison of a pre- and post-improvement soil profile of a borehole and field vane test, together with geotechnical
parameters.
monitoring results indicate that the improvements are close to the required
degree. All the different types of in-situ tests done prior to reclamation and
to prefabricated vertical drain installation are repeated. However, special
attention needs to be given to some of the special tests and this will be
discussed later. The types of site investigations carried out in the post-
improvement stage include boring, sampling, field vane shear test, CPT
and CPTU test, DMT, SBPT, BAT, CPMT, and seismic cone tests.
Site investigation borehole, sampling, and field vane tests are usually
carried out at the same locations as the tests prior to reclamation in order to
be able to compare the pre- and post-improvement geotechnical parameters.
However, this may not be strictly necessary just to assess whether the
required degree of consolidation has been achieved. The tests can be done
at any location and then compared with the required degree of consolidation,
specified strength and effective stress stated in the technical specifications.
Figure 4.34 shows a comparison of pre- and post-improvement borehole
and field vane tests together with geotechnical parameters obtained from
laboratory results.
4.4.1 ■ Cone penetration tests (CPT and CPTU)
Cone penetration tests are carried out in the same manner as those prior to
reclamation. As shown in Figure 4.35(a), a significant increase in cone
resistance can be seen. As explained in Section 2, the undrained shear
strength can be estimated from the CPT test. Figure 4.35(b) shows a
comparison of undrained shear strength measured by CPT prior to and after
improvement. However, OCR cannot be estimated from the soil when
consolidation is in progress unless the effective stress is known. If the
effective stress is known, there is no reason to estimate OCR from the CPT
because it can be calculated directly. Therefore, the pore pressure method
is usually applied to estimate the OCR from CPT tests.
Dissipation tests can also be carried out in the same way as those
prior to reclamation. However, pore pressure should be normalized with
equilibrium pore pressure obtained from CPTU measurement, rather than
using static pore pressure.
ui - ut
Normalized pore pressure = (4.18)
ui - ue
where ui is the initial pore pressure, ut is the pore pressure at time t, and ue
is the equilibrium pore pressure measured from CPTU test. Figure 4.36
shows a comparison of Ch values measured before and after improvement.
52 Chapter 4
An additional test can be carried out to check the improvement of

soil, and that is a long-term holding test. If the CPT cone is held at a certain
elevation for a long time, the pore pressure will dissipate to equilibrium.
This equilibrium pore pressure will be the same as the pore pressure in the
Cone Resistance (Mpa) Cone Resistance (Mpa)

0 5 10 15 20 0 25 50 75 100
10 0
5
-5
0
-10
Elevation (mCD)
-5
Elevation (mCD)
-15
-10
-15 -20
-20
-25
-25
Pre-Improvement
-30
-30 Post-Improvement
-35 Prior to Reclamation

-35
After Soil Improvement
-40 -40
Figure 4.35 (a) Comparison of cone resistance before and after

improvement; (b) Comparison of undrained shear strength,
before and after improvement determined by CPT.
CPTU DMT SBPT

0 10 20 30 0 10 20 30 0 10 20 30
0 0 0
-5 -5 -5
Elevation (mCD)
-10 -10 -10

Elevation (mCD)
Elevation (mCD)
-15 -15 -15
-20 -20 -20
-25 A -25 -25

A
B A
B
-30 C -30 -30 B
C
C
D D
-35 D
-35 -35
2
Ch (m /yr) Ch (m2/yr) Ch (m2/yr)
A — Prior to reclamation in-situ results B — After soil improvement results
C — Prior to reclamation laboratory results D — Back analysis from field results
Figure 4.36 Comparison of Ch value measured before and after

improvement.
A2S-6 (SEABED -6.71 mCD)

Piezometric Heads (kPa)
0 100 200 300 400 500
-5
-10
Elevation (mCD)
-15
-20
CPT Holding
Piezometer
-25
Static PWP
Excess PWP
-30
Date of Surcharge :30th Dec 1994

-35
Date of Piezometer Reading:21st Sept. 1996
Date of CPT Holding :30th Nov 1996
-40
Figure 4.37 Equilibrium pore pressure from CPTU dissipation tests.
soil at the time of measurement, and will also be the same as the pore
pressure measured with the piezometer. In this case, the degree of
consolidation and effective stress can be estimated from a CPT long-term
holding test. Figure 4.37 shows a comparison of the equilibrium pore
pressure measured by a CPT long-term holding test with that measured by
a piezometer. It can be seen that the CPT long-term holding test measures
the equilibrium pore pressure quite accurately.
4.4.2 ■ Dilatometer test (DMT)
The dilatometer test can be repeated for a post-improvement in-situ testing.

However, the interpretation of most parameters from a dilatometer test
requires knowledge of the effective stress. As such, assessing improvement
independently without knowing the effective stress is not possible with a
dilatometer test. Only an increase in modulus can be detected with a
dilatometer since ED does not include pore pressure and effective stress
parameters. A dilatometer dissipation test can also be used to estimate the
Ch values and kh values after improvement. Figure 4.36 also shows a
comparison of Ch values prior to and post-improvement determined from
DMT tests.
54 Chapter 4
4.4.3 ■ Self-boring pressuremeter test (SBPT)
A self-boring pressuremeter test can be carried out in the same way as that
prior to reclamation, and undrained shear strength and OCR can be estimated
using Equation 4.16. A pore pressure dissipation test can also be carried
out in the same way as described earlier. However, the equilibrium pore
pressure should be used to normalize to obtain the degree of dissipation as
in the post-improvement CPTU test.
Figure 4.38 shows a comparison of the parameters measured by the
SBPT prior to reclamation and after improvement. A dissipation test can
also be carried out after improvement to interpret the Ch and kh values. Bo
et al. (1997b) have compared Ch and kh values from pre- and post-
improvement tests using the in-situ dissipation test data.
4.4.4 ■ Cone pressuremeter test (CPMT)
A cone pressuremeter is a combination of a cone penetrometer and a

pressuremeter. Therefore, it can measure the same parameters as the CPT
and pressuremeter. However, the CPT cone is usually bigger than the
conventional cone, with a cone base area of 15 cm2. The CPT test is carried
out in the same manner as the standard CPT and measured by the same
parameters, and hence can obtain the same soil parameters as the standard
Shear modulus (MPa) Undrain shear strength (kPa)

0 10 20 30 0 20 40 60 80 100
0 0
SBPT Before Improvement SBPT Before Improvement
SBPT After Improvement
-5 -5 SBPT After Improvement
-10 -10
Elevation (mCD)
Elevation (mCD)
-15 -15
-20 -20
-25 -25
-30 -30
-35 -35
Figure 4.38 Comparison of parameters measured by SBPT prior to and

post-improvement.
Figure 4.39 Geometry and dimension of a cone pressuremeter.
CPT tests. The pressuremeter is attached above the cone and its diameter is
43.7 mm and 2 meters in length.
The test can be carried out in the same manner as the SBPT test and
hence the same sets of geotechnical parameters can be obtained. Figure
4.39 shows the geometry and dimension of a cone pressuremeter. The
advantage of the CPMT test is that pre-boring or self-boring is not required.
However, soil disturbance in the clay or contraction in the granular soil
can occur due to the penetration. This type of CPMT test is suitable for
granular soil where maintaining a regular size borehole is difficult. Figure
4.40 shows some geotechnical parameters measured by a CPMT test and
pre- and post-modulus cone resistance from compaction quality control.
56 Chapter 4
Shear modulus (MPa) Po (kPa) Limit pressure (kPa)

0 50 100 150 200 0 1000 2000 3000
0 20 40 60 80
6 6
6
4 4
4
Elevation (mCD)
2 2
2
0 0
0
-2 -2
-2
-4 -4
-4
-6 -6 -6
A
A A
-8 -8 -8 B
B B
-10 -10 -10
Friction angle (kPa) Cone resistance (Mpa)

0 10 20 30 40 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
6 10
4 8
6
Elevation (mCD)
2
4
0
2
-2 0
-2
-4
-4
-6
-6 A
A
-8 -8
B B
-10 -10
A — CMPT before improvement B — CMPT after improvement
Figure 4.40 Geotechnical parameters measured by CPMT and modulus

and cone resistance measured with CPMT before and after
improvement.
Figure 4.41 Geometry and dimension of a cone pressuremeter.

4.4.5 ■ Seismic cone test
A seismic cone is a combination of a CPT and seismic geophone receiver.

It can be used to carry out a conventional CPT test and to collect and interpret
similar sets of geotechnical parameters. Figure 4.41 shows the geometry
and dimension of a seismic cone. At a certain interval, the penetration of
the cone can be stopped to take a seismic measurement. Normally, seismic
force is provided by applying a hammer to the wooden plate or a certain
static load, and the seismic wave is detected by a receiver near the cone tip.
Figure 4.42 shows seismic cone testing in progress. From the data,
compression wave (r) and shear wave (S) can be calculated. In turn,
compression and shear wave velocity (vp) & (vs) can be obtained. Figure
4.43 shows shear velocity, shear modulus, and cone resistance measured
by a seismic cone test. Small strain shear modulus (u0) and constrained
Figure 4.42 Seismic cone testing in progress.

58 Chapter 4
Shear velocity (m/s) Shear modulus/cone resistance (MPa)

0 100 200 300 400 0 50 100 150 200
0 0
2 2
4 4
6 6
Depth (m)
Depth (m)
8 8
10 10
12 12
14 14
16 16
Shear Modulus
18 18
Cone Resistance
20 20
Figure 4.43 Shear and constraint modulus measured by a seismic cone

test.
Cone resistance (MPa)

0 10 20 30
0
4
Depth (m)
10
PRE-CPT
POST-CPT
12
Figure 4.44 Comparison of pre- and post-CPT

after deep compaction.
modulus (M) can be estimated from vs and vp by using the following

formulae:
u o = r(n s )
2
(4.19)
( )
2
M0 = r n p (4.20)
4.4.6 ■ Use of CPT for compaction quality control
Densification requirement is usually specified with a certain cone resistance

value which relates to relative density. Pre- and post-CPT tests are carried
out to assess the achievement of densification. Figure 4.44 shows a
comparison of pre- and post-CPT at a deep compaction area.
4.4.7 ■ Auto-ram sounding
Swedish ram sounding is dynamic probing with a solid cone. There are
several types of ram sounding such as light, medium and heavy duty. The
hammers used for various categories are shown in Table 4.2. The drop
height is usually 50 cm, and the number of blows is counted for every 20
cm penetration. Ram sounding can detect the density of granular fill, trapped
mud, and an interface between granular soil and clay. Figure 4.45 shows
the geometry and dimension of auto-ram sounding equipment, while Figure
4.46 shows auto-ram sounding in progress. A comparison of pre- and post-
compaction ram sounding results is displayed in Figure 4.47.
Table 4.2 Various types of auto-ram sounding equipment.
Type Abbreviation Mass (kg) Drop Height (cm)

Light DPL £ 10 50
Medium DPM > 10 < 40 20 – 50
Heavy DPH ≥ 40 £ 60 50
Super Heavy DPSH > 60 50
Figure 4.45 Geometry and dimension of

auto-ram sounding equipment.
60 Chapter 4
Figure 4.46 Auto-ram sounding in progress.
Blows/20cm
0 10 20 30 40
7.00
5.00
3.00
Elevation (mCD)
1.00
-1.00
-3.00
-5.00
-7.00 Pre-compaction
Post-compaction
-9.00
Figure 4.47 Comparison of pre- and post-auto-

ram sounding at compaction area.
Reclamation Methods 79
CHAPTER 6
Reclamation Methods
There are several methods of land reclamation, depending upon the type of
fill material, foundation soil, topography of the seabed, the availability of
equipment, and allowable fine material for reclamation.
6.1 ■ DRY METHOD
The dry method is suitable for filling material from land sources, especially
rock, hillcut and clay fill. Filling or transporting clay fill material into the
sea would create viscous slurry which would take much longer to become
usable land.
As explained earlier, the dry method usually uses a truck or conveyor
belt to transport fill material to extend the land towards the sea (Figure 3.4
and 3.5).
Generally, the dry method works well for foreshore locations with
underlying competent seabed soil. If the seabed soil is weak, a mud wave
will be created in front of the fill because of displacement. In that case, a
greater quantity of fill material would be required.
In addition, the dry method usually results in a loose profile of fill
especially when granular soil is used as fill material. A comparison of the
density profile of granular fill carried out by hydraulic filling and land
filling is shown in Figure 6.1. It can be seen that the density profile of
landfill is much lower than hydraulic fill. Therefore, landfill generally
requires densification of granular soil.
6.2 ■ HYDRAULIC RECLAMATION METHOD
A wet method of reclamation is implemented when fill material is obtained

from an offshore borrow source. However, this method is only suitable for
granular fill, which has good drainage characteristics. As explained earlier,
the method of filling is selected based on the availability of equipment,
type of seabed soil, topography of seabed, and the production rate required.
80 Chapter 6
Cone resistance, qc (MPa) Cone resistance, qc (MPa)

0 10 20 30 0 10 20 30
5 15
0 10 Truck-
Hydraulic dumped
Elevation (mCD)
Elevation (mCD)
transport filling
-5 5
Bottom
-10 dumping 0 Hydraulic
transport
-15 -5
Marine
Clay
-20 -10
Figure 6.1 A comparison of the density profile of granular fill carried out
by hydraulic filling and land filling.
6.2.1 ■ Direct dumping
A direct dumping method is used when the seabed is deep or the underlying
seabed soil is soft. A bottom-opening barge usually carries fill material
from the borrow source and either sails with a self-propeller or pushed by
the powerful tugboat to the designated location. At the location, fill material
is dumped by opening the bottom of the barge. Sufficient draft and clearance
is required for this method. Generally, a seabed of 6 – 8 meters depth is
suitable for bottom dumping. This method is used not only for granular
material but also for stiff clay and soft clay. However, dumping of soft clay
is not appropriate for deeper seabed conditions since soft clay can be
dispersed, and the environment can be affected. Bottom-opening barges
usually have a capacity of a few thousand cubic meters and the production
rate of reclamation using bottom-opening barges is largely dependent upon
the number of barges used and the distance between the borrow sources
and the reclaimed area. The dumping location is generally controlled by a
global positioning system. However, bottom dumping alone cannot complete
the reclamation because it can only operate up to 2 – 3 meters depth below
sea level. The next level of fill has to be raised by hydraulic filling or other
means. Figure 6.2 shows dumping of fill material by a bottom-opening
barge.
6.3 ■ REHANDLING FROM A REHANDLING PIT
Sometimes, if cutter suction hopper trailers are not available or direct

dumping is not feasible, a rehandling method is used. The rehandling method
involves transporting sand by barges and dumping the fill material
temporarily in the pit for storage. The pit should have a storage capacity of
a few million cubic meters. Rehandling pit locations are generally selected
at natural depressions on a firm seabed or created by dredging. To create a
rehandling pit, one needs to consider the stability of the pit slope. Such an
operation would require two stationary cutter suction dredgers, one at the
borrow source and another at the rehandling pit. In that case, sand barges
are required to transport sand to the rehandling pit. Alternatively, one cutter
suction hopper dredger dredges the sand at the borrow source and transports
it to the rehandling pit, while another stationary cutter suction dredger will
operate at the rehandling pit to fill the reclamation area. Figure 6.3 shows
dredging and loading of fill material at the borrow source, and Figure 6.4
shows transportation of fill materials by a deep draft cutter suction hopper
dredger and dumped at the rehandling pit for storage. Figure 6.5 shows
reclamation by hydraulic filling from the rehandling pit using a stationary
cutter suction dredger. The production rate of such reclamation is dependent
upon the stationary cutter suction dredgers and the number of barges used
for transportation. Filling up to 2 million m3 per month is possible with this
method of reclamation.
Figure 6.2 Dumping of fill material by a bottom-opening barge.

82 Chapter 6
Figure 6.3 Dredging and loading of fill material at a borrow source.
Figure 6.4 Transportation of fill materials by self-propeller barges.
CUTTER SUCTION DREDGER

Discharge pipe
Ladder gantry
Swivel elbow
connection Land Pipe +5 mCD ~ +5.5 mCD
HD-5 Floating Pipe Hydraulic Fill

Ladder hoist Dredging pump -4 mCD
Suction sleeve
Submerged Pipe
Suction tube Reclaimed Sand by using Dump Barge/Shallow draft Trailer
Cutter motor
Cutter SPUD -10 mCD
Ladder
Side wires Reclaimed Sand by using Deep draft Trailer
REHANDLING PIT
Figure 6.5 Hydraulic filling from a rehandling pit using a stationary

cutter suction dredger.
6.4 ■ HYDRAULIC FILLING
The hydraulic filling method is suitable for granular fill. Generally, this
method is used when filling is carried out from an offshore source, either
from a rehandling pit, as explained earlier, or from a trailer suction hopper
dredger. In the case of pumping from a cutter suction hopper dredger, the
fill material is dredged from the borrow source with its own trailer suction
dredger which is moved adjacent to the reclamation area and then pumped
through the discharge pipe. Bulldozers are used to grade and spread the fill
material around the discharge pipe. The discharge pipe is usually set slightly
above the required finished level. Pumping is usually done with a mixture
of fill material and water. The ratio of fill material to water is adjusted
according to the grain size of the fill material. A large ratio of material to
water would lead to wearing of the inner walls of the sand transportation
pipe. On the other hand, a smaller ratio of material to water will reduce the
production rate. After a certain amount of land has formed, the pipes are
extended accordingly. Usually, the diameter of the sand transportation pipes
is about 800 – 1000 m and 10 meters in length. Normally, wearing occurs
at the bottom of the pipe, therefore, frequent rotation of the pipe after usage
is necessary. Pipes that have to run above water can be floated with floaters
attached to the pipes.
To carry out direct hydraulic filling from a trailer suction hopper
dredger, sufficient draft of the seabed is needed near the reclamation area.
Now as big as 33,000 m3 trailer suction hopper dredgers are available, and
either dredging or unloading can be carried out within two hours. The sailing
time is dependent upon the distance between the borrow source and the
reclamation area. If the source is close to the reclamation area, many trips
per day are possible. In such a situation, as much as 4.0 million m3 per
month of production is possible with the trailer suction hopper dredger.
Figure 6.6 shows a dredging operation with a cutter suction hopper dredger
at the borrow source, and Figure 6.7 shows a hopper dredger sailing with a
full load of fill material. Figure 6.8 shows a dredger pumping sand through
a discharge pipe. Figure 6.9 shows the leveling of dumped sand fill with
the help of a bulldozer. If the sand source is less than 5 km from the
reclamation area neither a rehandling pit nor a cutter suction dredger is
feasible. Direct pumping from the sand source to the reclamation area is
possible. Pumping through a discharge pipe is possible up to 10 km. Some
intermediate booster pumps may be added to pump over such a long distance.
Long distance reclamation using intermediate booster pumps is shown in
Figure 6.10. If the seabed is deeper or the location of the reclamation is far
84 Chapter 6
away from the dredger location, rainbow pumping is implemented, as shown

in Figure 6.11. Rainbow pumping is normally suitable for underwater filling.
Hydraulic filling is not suitable when the seabed is too shallow or the seabed
soil is too soft. In that case, a sand spreading method is applied.
Figure 6.6 Dredging operation with a cutter suction hopper dredger, with
a trailer suction hopper dredger used for sand transportation.
Figure 6.7 A trailer suction hopper dredger loaded with fill materials.
Figure 6.8 Pumping sand through a discharge pipe from a dredger.
Figure 6.9 (a) Leveling of dumped sand fill with a bulldozer;

(b) leveling in progress.
86 Chapter 6
Figure 6.10 Booster pumps.
Figure 6.11 Rainbow pumping.

(Courtesy of Hyundai Engineering and Construction Co.)
6.5 ■ SAND SPREADING
Sand spreading is implemented when a shallow seabed is encountered or

when the seabed soil is too soft. When sand spreading is carried out, a
rehandling pit is generally necessary. The spreader is mounted on a small
floating barge. The end of the discharge pipe is usually closed and several
perforations are provided along the last two to three sections of the discharge
pipes. Sand is discharged through the perforations with water. A sand
spreader was used in the Changi East reclamation project, shown in Figure
6.12. Figure 6.13 shows sand spreading in progress. The details on land
reclamation on slurry-like soil using sand spreading method can be found
in Bo et al. (1998d). In the Pulau Tekong project in Singapore, TOA-Jan de
Nul JV has fabricated a fully automatic purpose-built spraying pontoon
which can discharge the sand at 11,000m3 per hour, in layers of 50 cm
thickness (Figure 6.14). Since sand spreading is not stationary and moving
from one end to another is required, moving the spreader is made it possible
with a winch system and a heavy duty bulldozer. Sand deposits using a
sand spreading method usually results in a loose profile (Figure 6.15).
Figure 6.12 Sand spreader used in the Changi East reclamation project.
Figure 6.13 A sand spreader used in the Changi East reclamation project.
(Courtesy of Hyundai Engineering and Construction Co.)
88 Chapter 6
Figure 6.14 A fully automatic purpose-built spraying pontoon.

(a) (Courtesy of TOA-Jan de Nul, JV)
Figure 6.14 A fully automatic purpose-built spraying pontoon.

(b) (Courtesy of TOA-Jan de Nul, JV)
Cone Resistance (MPa)/Friction Ratio (%)

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0
2
4 hydraulic filling
sand
6
8
Depth (m)
10
12
14
spreaded sand
16
Cone Resistance
18
Friction Ratio
20
22
Figure 6.15 Low cone resistance showing a loose hydraulic sand profile.
6.6 ■ PUMPING INSIDE THE BUNDS
Reclamation can start from the coastal line and advance towards the sea.
However, this type of reclamation may lead to great loss of fill material
because of wave and current action. Therefore, sometimes reclamation is
carried out within a protected area after a bund has been formed around the
proposed reclamation area. In this way, losses caused by wave and current
action can be minimized. However, this type of reclamation requires an
outlet for the overflow of water and fine material, otherwise mud can be
trapped at or near the corner of the bund. Figure 6.16 shows reclamation
carried out in Singapore after the formation of a bund. Figure 6.17 shows
the discharge outlet provided for reclamation with a containment bund.
Figure 6.16 Reclamation carried out in Singapore after the formation

of a bund.
Figure 6.17 Discharge outlet provided for reclamation

with a containment bund.
Stability of Slopes and Retaining Structures 121
CHAPTER 9
Stability of Slopes
and Retaining Structures
In reclamation projects, most edges of the boundaries are completed with

either natural fill slopes or retaining structures. Natural fill slope is only
feasible when the reclaimed front is sheltered by a breakwater or headland.
Other boundaries which are exposed to wave and current actions are
generally protected by a rock bund or seawall. The selection of rock bund
or seawall is dependent upon the seabed condition, soil condition, the
available foreshore area, future land use, and cost considerations. In any
case, stability analyses are deemed necessary.
Most stability analyses involve total stress analysis, assuming
undrained conditions soon after construction. Effective stress analyses are
only carried out when stage construction technique is applied or the structure
is constructed with a marginal safety factor which will be increased during
the construction stage or to check long term stability.
9.1 ■ STABILITY OF NATURAL SLOPES, ROCK BUND

AND RIP-RAP
9.1.1 ■ Natural slope of sand
The stability of natural sand slopes is conveniently estimated based on the

friction angle (f) of sand. If the angle of the slope (i ) is greater than f, the
natural slope will become unstable. The factor of safety of a natural
submerged sand slope (Figure 9.1) of granular fill is given by:
tan f
FS = (9.1)
tan i
122 Chapter 9
i sand
Figure 9.1 Example of natural slope.
If seepage flow is involved, the factor of safety is reduced to:

rb tan f
Fs = (9.2)
rt tan i
where rb is submerged unit weight and rt is saturated unit weight.

In this case seepage flow is assumed to be parallel to the slope, as
shown in Figure 9.2.
sand
i
Figure 9.2 Slope with seepage in sand.
9.1.2 ■ Stability of rock bund, rip-rap, headland and breakwater
The stability of a rock bund or rip-rap can be calculated by applying the

limit equilibrium approach. Equilibrium can be either force equilibrium or
moment equilibrium.
Slope stability analysis can also be carried out by applying overall
moment equilibrium for which the factor of safety is given by:
MR
Fs = (9.3)
MD
where MR is the resisting moment and given as MR = cuLr, and MD is the
driving moment and given as MD = w.d. The dimensions of L, r and w are
For the c - f soil resisting moment is given by MR = [cL + N tanf]r
where N = w cos a. The determination of a is shown in Figure 9.4.
Figure 9.3 Dimensions of L, r, d and w.
di
Ti
Ni
ai
Figure 9.4 Failure slip as slices.
9.1.3 ■ Method of slices
Slope stability can be calculated by making a soil mass within the failure
slip as slices (Figure 9.4). The driving force can be taken as the summation
of the weight of the slices where the resisting force can be calculated using
the following equation:
Resisting force, Ti = c ' li + N i tan f ' (9.4)
where N = w cos a, as shown in Figure 9.4. This method can only be used
for circular slip, but also suitable for f = 0 soil.
9.1.3.1—Ordinary method of slices
The moment equilibrium method satisfies overall equilibrium:

For f = 0 soils, the factor of safety is given by:
124 Chapter 9
n n
Âc ui Li r Âc ui Li
FS = i =1
n = n
i =1
(9.5)
Â wi di
i =1
Â w sina
i =1
i i
For f > 0 soils, the factor of safety is given by:

n
c ' L + tan f Â ( w i cosa i - ui Li )
FS = n
i =1
(9.6)
Â w sina
i =1
i i
9.1.3.2—Bishop’s modified method
For f > 0 soils, the factor of safety is given by:
FS =
Â (c ' Dx sec a + N t tanf ')
i i i
Â w sina
(9.7)
i i
1
w i - ui cosa i - c ' Dx tan a i
where, Ni = F i i (9.8)
1
cosa i + tan f i¢Sina i
F
This equation needs to be solved by iteration. The Bishop’s method is
excellent for circular slip plane analysis, and good for both f = 0
and f > o soils.
9.1.4 ■ Force equilibrium methods
The force equilibrium method satisfies both horizontal and vertical force
equilibriums. This method is good for non-circular slip planes. The factor
of safety is given by:
S Resisting force
Factor of Safety, Fs = –––––––––––––––– (9.9)
S Driving force
This method is called the wedge method. The driving forces can be
calculated from the total weight of the sliding mass.
Total weight of sliding mass
Fs = –––––––––––––––––––––––––– (9.10)
Total resisting force
where the resisting force is given by
For c > 0, f = 0, T = cDL F (9.11)
c > 0, f > 0, T = 1 F (cDL + N tan f ) (9.12)
c’ > 0, f’ > 0, T = 1 F c ' DL + 1 F ( N - u) tan f ¢ (9.13)
where, u = dgwDL (9.14)
The characteristics of various limit equilibrium methods for slope stability

analysis are shown in Table 9.1. The various methods available for slope
stability analysis and equilibrium conditions are also shown in Table 9.2.
The accuracy of various methods for analyzing slope stability was
assessed by Wright (1973) for two different types of slopes, as shown in
Figure 9.5. Tables 9.3 and 9.4 show comparisons of minimum values of
factor of safety for gu = 0 conditions and Tables 9.5 and 9.6 show
comparisons for gu = 0.6 conditions. It can be seen in the tables that the
ordinary method of slices gives slightly lower values for both 1.5:1 and
3.5:1 slopes where gu = 0, and even lower where gu = 0.6 for 3.5:1 slope.
The force equilibrium method, using Lowe and Karafiath’s assumptions,
provides slightly higher factor of safety for most of the cases.
1. 3.5:
30m 5: 1
1
= 16kN/m≥
15m
Figure 9.5 Comparison of two different types of natural slopes used in

stability analysis (after Wright 1973).
126 Chapter 9
Table 9.1 Characteristics of various limit equilibrium methods for slope

stability analysis.
Method Assumptions Conditions of

Equilibrium Satisfied
Ordinary method of slices Assumes resultant of side forces is Moment equilibrium,
(also called Fellenius parallel to the base of each slice, or but not horizontal or
Method and Swedish alternatively, that there are no side vertical force
Circle Method) forces. Assumes circular slip surface. equilibrium
Bishop’s Modified Method Assumes resultant of side forces on Moment equilibrium,

(also called Simplified each slice is horizontal. Assumes and vertical force
Bishop Method) circular shear surface. equilibrium
Force Equilibrium Method In all methods which use force polygons Horizontal and vertical
(also called the Wedge or their numerical equivalents, the side force equilibrium, but
Method when only 2 or 3 force inclinations must be assumed. Can not moment
slices are used) use any shape of shear surface.
Morgenstern and Price’s Assume pattern of variation of side All

Method force inclinations along slip surface,
called f(x). Can use any shape of shear
surface.
Spencer’s Method Assumes side forces are parallel for all All
slices; corresponds to f(x) = constant in
Morgenstern and Price’s Method. Can
use any shape of shear surface.
Janbu’s Generalized Assumes position of line of thrust. Can All

Procedure of Slices use any shape of shear surface.
Table 9.2 Available slope stability analysis methods.

Equilibrium Conditions Satisfied Practical for
Equations Shape of
Procedure Overall Ind. Slice Vert. Hor. and Shear Hand Computer
Moment Moment Unknowns Surface Calc. Calc.
Ordinary Method of Yes No No No 1 Circular Yes Yes

Slices
Bishop’s Modified Yes No Yes No N+1 Circular Yes Yes

Method
Janbu’s Generalized Yes Yes Yes Yes 3N Any Yes Yes

Procedure of Slices
Morgenstern & Price’s Yes Yes Yes Yes 3N Any No Yes

and Spencer’s Method
Force Equilibrium No No Yes Yes 2N Any Yes Yes

Table 9.3 Comparison of minimum values of factor of safety for gu = 0

(slope 1.5:1) (after Wright 1973).
Slope 1.5:1 Comparison of Minimum Values of F
Pore Pressure (ru = 0)
lCf
Analysis Procedure 0 2 5 8 20 50
Log Spiral 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
Ordinary Method of Slices 1.00 0.96 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.96
Bishop’s Modified Method 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
Force Equilibrium (Lowe & Karafiath’s assumption) 1.06 1.03 1.02 1.01 1.00 1.00
Janbu’s Generalized Procedure of Slices 1.00 — — — 1.00 1.00
Spencer’s Procedure
Morgenstern & Price’s Procedure with 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
f(x) = constant
dH tan f
Note: l cf =
C
Table 9.4 Comparison of minimum values of factor of safety for gu = 0

Pore Pressure (ru = 0)
lCf
Log Spiral 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
Janbu’s Generalized Procedure of Slices 1.00 — 1.00 — 1.00 1.00
f(x) = constant
Table 9.5 Comparison of minimum values of factor of safety for gu = 0.6

Pore Pressure (ru = 0.6)
lCf
Log Spiral 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
Janbu’s Generalized Procedure of Slices 1.00 — — — 1.00 —
f(x) = constant
128 Chapter 9
Table 9.6 Comparison of minimum values of factor of safety for gu = 0.6

Pore Pressure (ru = 0.6)
lCf
Log Spiral 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
Janbu’s Generalized Procedure of Slices 1.00 — — — — —
f(x) = constant
9.2 ■ STABILITY OF RETAINING STRUCTURE
For reclamation projects, four major types of retaining walls are used. They
are:
i) Gravity and reinforced concrete cantilever wall
ii) Counterfort wall
iii) Flexible sheet pile wall
iv) Caisson
To ensure the stability of the walls, the following factors need to be
checked:
— the moment equilibrium must be satisfied so that there is no overturning
of the structure.
— the horizontal force equilibrium must be satisfied so that no sliding of
the structure will occur.
— the vertical force equilibrium must be satisfied so that no bearing
failure will occur.
— the earth pressure will not overstress the wall so that no shear or
bending failure will occur.
A schematic diagram of the types of retaining structure failure is shown
in Figure 9.6.
In order to calculate the earth pressure, it is necessary to understand
earth pressure theory. Two well-known earth pressure theories—Rankine
and Coulomb earth pressure theories—will be explained here briefly.
9.2.1 ■ Rankine earth pressure theory
Rankine earth pressure theory assumes that soil is isotropic and possesses
only internal friction and no cohesion. The theory considers the state of the
overturning
sliding
Bearing
capacity failure global failure
Figure 9.6 Schematic diagrams of types of retaining structure failure.
plastic equilibrium of soil under active and passive earth pressures. The
backfill surface is horizontal, and the back of the wall is considered vertical
and smooth.
For cohesionless soil, active pressure (Pa ) is given by:
gH 2
Ra = K (9.15)
2 a
where g is the unit weight of soil, H is the height of fill, Ka is active earth
pressure coefficient, given by:
Ka =
(1 - Sinf )
(1 + Sinf ) (9.16)
Passive earth pressure (PP) is given by:
gH 2
RR = K (9.17)
2 R
KR =
(1 + Sinf )
where,
(1 - Sinf ) (9.18)
For backfill with cohesive soil, the lateral pressure on the wall is given by:
Ra = g zK a - 2c K a (9.19)
130 Chapter 9
9.2.2 ■ Coulomb earth pressure theory
In Coulomb earth pressure theory, the soil is isotropic and homogeneous

and posseses both internal friction and cohesion. The static equilibrium of
an assumed wedge failure is used to determine active and passive earth
pressures. The backfill and back of the wall can be inclined. Wall friction is
also taken into consideration in this theory.
For cohesionless soil, the lateral active earth pressure is again given
by:
gH 2
Ra = K (9.20)
2 a
2
È ˘
Í ˙
Í Sin (a + f ) ˙
Ka = Í ˙
Í ÏÔ Sin (f + d ) Sin (f - b ) ¸Ô ˙ (9.21)
Í Sina ÌÔ Sin (a - d ) + Sin (a + b )
˝˙
Ô˛ ˚
Î Ó
where a, d and b are shown in Figure 9.7 and d is the wall friction angle.
Figure 9.7 Coulomb earth pressure theory.
The passive earth pressure is given as:

gH 2
RR = K (9.22)
2 R
2
È ˘
Í ˙
Í Sin (a - f ) ˙
where KR = Í ˙ (9.23)
Í ÏÔ Sin (f + d ) Sin (f + b ) ¸Ô ˙
Í Sina ÌÔ Sin (a + d ) - Sin (a + b )
˝˙
Ô˛ ˚
Î Ó
Example 9.1
A gravity wall of 5m height was backfilled with sand. The unit weight
of sand is 17kN/m3 and the internal angle of friction is 30∞. (i) Calculate
the active pressure on the wall if the back of the wall is vertical and
the backfill is horizontal. (ii) Calculate the active and passive pressure
on the wall if the back of the wall is 15∞ from the vertical and the
backfill is 25∞ from the horizontal.
Figure 9.8 Example of gravity wall.
1. Since the back of the wall is vertical and backfill is horizontal,

Rankine’s solution is applied, using Equations 9.15 and 9.16:
gH 2
Ra = K
2 a
17 ¥ 5 2 (1 - Sin 30 )
o
=
2 (1 + Sin 30 o )
= 70.8kN/m
Figure 9.9 A gravity wall with sand backfill.

132 Chapter 9
2. Since the back of the wall and backfill are inclined, Coulomb’s solution
is applied using Equations 9.20 and 9.22 for active pressure, and 9.22
and 9.23 for passive pressure.
a = 90 - 15 = 75 o
d = 2 3 f = 20 o
gH 2
Ra = K
2 a
2
È ˘
Í ˙
17 ¥ 5 2 Í Sin ( 75 + 30 )o ˙
= ¥Í ˙
2 Í ÏÔ
Í Sin 75 o Ì Sin ( 75 - 20) +
Sin ( 30 + 20 o
) Sin ( 30 - 25) ¸Ô ˙
˝˙
Í Ô Sin ( 75 + 25) Ô˛ ˙˚
Î Ó
= 156.45 kN/m
gH 2
RR = K
2 R
2
È ˘
Í ˙
17 ¥ 5 2 Í Sin ( 75 - 30 o ) ˙
= ¥Í ˙
2 Í ÏÔ Sin ( 30 + 20) Sin ( 30 + 25) ¸Ô ˙
Í Sin 75Ì Sin ( 75 + 20) - ˝˙
ÍÎ Sin ( 75 + 25)
ÓÔ ˛Ô ˙˚
= 2,851 kN/m
After learning about earth pressure theories and limit equilibrium, the
stability of a retaining structure can be designed. In the following section,
an example of a calculation for the stability of a cantilever retaining wall
and sheet pile will be explained. Details of the design of the retaining
structures are referred to in Bowles (1988), Kaniraj (1988), and Conduto (1994).
9.2.3 ■ Bearing capacity of retaining structure
1. The bearing capacity of the foundation can be calculated by applying

the shallow foundation method. The bearing capacity of a shallow
foundation is given by Terzerghi as follows:
(
qu¢ = CN c + d D¢ N q - 1 + 0.5gBN g ) (9.24)
where, qu¢ is net ultimate bearing capacity

C is soil cohesion
d D¢ is effective stress at depth D below ground surface
g is unit weight of soil
D is depth of footing below the ground surface
B is width of footing
Nc , Nq and Ng are bearing capacity factors. These bearing capacity
factors may vary depending upon the friction angle, as shown in Table 9.7.
The resultant force below the wall generally falls within the middle
third of the base and is usually compressing. Therefore, eccentricity is limited
to:
B
e< (9.25)
6
In such a case, the maximum and minimum soil reaction is given by:
V Ê 6e ˆ
qs = Á1 ± ˜ (9.26)
BË B¯
where V is the total vertical reaction, and + sign is used for maximum and
– sign is used for minimum reaction. The total vertical reaction can be
obtained by summing up all vertical forces (Figure 9.10). If the maximum
is less than the allowable bearing pressure, the bearing capacity is acceptable.
to
W1
W2 H
Hcr L
W3
Lt ts W4 tb
A
x e
B
Figure 9.10 An example of stability analysis for a cantilever wall
structure.
134 Chapter 9
Table 9.7 Bearing capacity factors.

f Terzaghi
(degree) Nc Nq Ng
0 5.7 1.0 0.0

1 6 1.1 0.1
2 6.3 1.2 0.1
3 6.6 1.3 0.2
4 7 1.5 0.3
5 7.3 1.6 0.4
6 7.7 1.8 0.5
7 8.2 2.0 0.6
8 8.6 2.2 0.7
9 8.1 2.4 0.9
10 9.6 2.7 1.0
11 10.2 3.0 1.2
12 10.8 3.3 1.4
13 11.4 3.6 1.6
14 12.1 4.0 1.9
15 12.9 4.4 2.2
16 13.7 4.9 2.5
17 14.6 5.5 2.9
18 15.5 6.0 3.3
19 16.6 6.7 3.8
20 17.7 7.4 4.4
21 18.9 8.3 5.1
22 20.3 9.2 5.9
23 21.7 10.2 6.8
24 23.4 11.4 7.9
25 25.1 12.7 9.2
26 27.1 14.2 10.7
27 29.2 15.9 12.5
28 31.6 17.8 14.6
29 34.2 20.0 17.1
30 37.2 22.5 20.1
31 40.4 25.3 23.7
32 44.0 28.5 28.0
33 48.1 32.2 33.3
34 52.6 36.5 39.6
35 57.8 41.4 47.3
36 63.5 47.2 56.7
37 70.1 53.8 68.1
38 77.5 61.5 82.3
39 86.0 70.6 99.8
40 95.7 81.3 121.5
9.2.4 ■ Stability against overturning
The stability of the wall is important to prevent overturning and is given

as:
Sum of resisting moment about toe
FS = –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– (9.27)
Sum of overturning moment about toe
Generally, a factor of safety of about 1.5 – 2 is adequate for stability against
overturning.
The resisting moment at the toe at point A can be calculated if all the
moment arms are known. Therefore, the sum of the resisting moment is
given by:
(A) (B) (C)

Weight of element Length of moment arm Moment about A
T/m about A, m kN/m
W1 Lt + ts + 1/2 HcrL AxB
W2 Lt + (ts-t0) + 1/2 t0 AxB
W3 Lt + (2/3)(ts-t0) AxB
W4 1/2 B AxB
The sum of the resisting moment at the toe = SMR
The overturning moment about A is given as:
Pa ¥ Moment Arm about A (9.28)
where moment arm about A is given as:

H + tb
Moment Arm about A for Pa = (9.29)
3
9.2.5 ■ Stability against sliding
To calculate stability against sliding all the horizontal forces need to be

calculated.
Sum of resisting horizontal forces
Fs = ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– (9.30)
Sum of driving horizontal forces
A safety factor above 1.5 – 2 is considered safe. Generally, passive resistance
is ignored in the calculation.
The resisting horizontal forces against sliding is given by:
Fr = V tan f * + c * B (9.31)
where, tan f* = tan f to 0.67 tan f, c* = 0.5c to 0.75c.

The sum of the driving horizontal forces is equivalent to horizontal
forces Pa which can be obtained from Equation 9.20.
Therefore, the factor of safety is given as:
V tan f * + c * B
FS = (9.32)
0.5g H 2K a
136 Chapter 9
This type of calculation for stability can also be used for gravity wall and
counterfort wall. An appropriate weight calculation needs to be made
according to the geometry of the wall. If the backfill is partially submerged
under water, appropriate density values and water pressure need to be taken
into consideration. Details on the stability of the wall, taking into
consideration the groundwater level, the wall geometry and the backfill
geometry are found in Kaniraj (1988).
Example 9.2
The retaining structure, as shown in Figure 9.11, is constructed on
soft cohesive soil with c’ of 5 kN/m2, and f’ is 27º. Calculate the
allowable bearing capacity.
Figure 9.11 A cantilever wall in soft cohesive wall.
From the table, Nc = 29.2

Nq = 15.9
Ng = 12.5
Groundwater table is greater than D.
Therefore, s D' = g D = 15 ¥ 1 = 15 kN / m 2
Using Equation 9.24,
qu¢ = 5 ¥ 29.2 + 15 ¥ (15.9 - 1) + 0.5 ¥ 15 ¥ 5 ¥ 12.5
= 838.25 kN/m2
Example 9.3
A cantilever retaining wall with dimensions as shown in Figure 9.12,
is constructed on soft clay and backfilled with sand with density of 18

kN/m3 and f is 35º. (i) Calculate the maximum and minimum soil
reaction. (ii) Calculate the stability against overturning, and (iii) the
stability against sliding.
Figure 9.12 A cantilever wall in soft clay.
In order to calculate the stability of the wall, all the forces on the wall must
first be determined. The weight of the wall itself and the weight of the soil
on the heel are the major resisting forces.
Therefore, W1 = 9 x 5 x 18 = 810 kN/m
W2 = 1 x 9 x 24 = 216 kN/m
W3 = 1/2 x 1 x 9 x 24 = 108 kN/m
W4 = 1 x 8 x 24 = 192 kN/m
The major driving force is the earth pressure on the wall.
f = 35º
1 - Sinf
therefore, Ka = = 0.271
1 + Sinf
Pa = 1/2 x 0.271 x 18 x 102 = 243.9 kN/m
If the soil above the toe is also sand,
1 + Sinf
Kp = = 3.690
1 - Sinf
138 Chapter 9
Pp = 1/2 x 3.690 x 18 x 12 = 33.21 kN/m

(i) By summing up the weight of the retaining structure, the total vertical
reaction V is:
V = W1+W2+W3+W4
= 810 + 216 + 108 + 192 = 1326 kN/m
The total moment is on the active side:
SMA = 810 x 5.5 +216 x 2.5 + 108 x 1.67 +192 x 4 - 243.9 x 3.33
5139.173
x= = 3.876
1326
e = 4 - 3.876 = 0.124m
Therefore, the maximum and minimum soil reactions are:
1326 Ê 6 x 0.124 ˆ
qS max = Á1 + ˜ = 181.20 kN / m
2
8 Ë 8 ¯
1326 Ê 6 x 0.13ˆ
qS min = Á1 - ˜ = 150.34 kN / m
2
8 Ë 8 ¯
(ii) Stability against overturning is calculated using Equation 9.27:
810 x 5.5 + 216 x 2.5 + 128 x1.67 + 192 x 4
FS =
243.9 x 3.33
= 7.36 > 1.5, O.K.
(iii) Stability against sliding is calculated using Equation 9.31:
Fr = V tan f*
= 1326x0.67 tan 35º
= 622.08 kN/m
622.08
Fs = –––––––
243.9
= 2.55 > 2, O.K.

9.3 ■ FLEXIBLE RETAINING STRUCTURE
An alternative type of retaining structure is the flexible retaining structure,

which is usually used as a temporary structure but sometimes as a permanent
one. In addition to the structural stiffness, the embedded depth is an
important factor to be considered for the stability analysis of a sheet pile
wall. A sheet pile wall in cohesionless soil is shown in Figure 9.13. Assuming
that the rotation of the sheet pile is close to the bottom, the embedded depth
is given as:
Ka
H3 Kp
D=
Ka (9.33)
1- 3 Kp
where H is height of wall above dredged line

D is embedded depth
Figure 9.13 Sheet pile wall in cohesionless soil.
The point of rotation below the dredged line is given as:
Ka
Kp H
d=
Ka (9.34)
1- Kp
where d is the depth of rotation below the dredged line.

140 Chapter 9
Therefore, the maximum moment is given as:

H +d 1 d
Max, M = 1 2 K a ¥ g ¥ ( H + d ) ¥ - 2 K p ¥ g ¥ d2 ¥
2
(9.35)
3 3
Figure 9.14 Sheet pile wall with groundwater level.
When water level is involved, the embedded depth is given as:
D3 - aD2 - bD - c = 0 (9.36)
where, a = 3cK a 2 (g 1h1 + g 2 h2 ) (9.37)
b = 3c (K a1g 1h12 + 2K a 2g 1h1h2 + K a 2g 2 h22 ) (9.38)
c = c (K a1g 1h13 + 3K a1g 1h2 h12 + 3K a 2g 1h1h22 + K a 2g b h23 ) (9.39)
1
c=
(
g 2 K p 2 - Ka 2 ) (9.41)
where, gb is submerged density, h1 and h2 are the heights of fill above the
water level and dredged line respectively. Ka1 and Ka2 are coefficients of
active earth pressure for soil above water and below water respectively.
However, since the water level does not affect f value.
K a1 = K a 2 (9.41)
A simple calculation for sheet pile with the same water level on both
sides of the wall is given below.
Example 9.4
A sheet pile wall of 8 meters height is backfilled with granular material
of density 18 kN/m3, and friction angle of 35∞. The water level is 3
meters below the top of the backfill and the density of the water is 10
kN/m3. Calculate the depth of embedment required.
Figure 9.15 Sheet pile wall.
1 - Sinf
Ka = = 0.271
1 + Sinf
1 + Sinf
Kp = = 3.690
1 - Sinf
Using Equations 9.36 to 9.40
Ê (0.271x18 x ( 3) 3 ) + ( 3 x 0.271x 5 x ( 3) 2 ) + ˆ
c = 0.0162Á ˜
Ë ( 3 x 0.271x18 x 3 x (5) 2 ) + (0.271x 8 x (5) 2 )¯
c = 23.141
a = 3 x 0.0162 x 0.271((18 x 3) + (18 x 5)) = 1.897
b = 3 x 0.0162 x ((0.271x18 x ( 3) 2 ) + (2 x 0.271x18 x 3 x 5) + (0.271x18 x (5) 2 )
b = 15.173
D3 - aD2 - bD - C = 0
Therefore, D = 5.45m
142 Chapter 9
Example 9.5
Calculate the embedded depth if there is no groundwater level behind
the wall.
Figure 9.16 Sheet pile wall (without groundwater level).
Ka
H3 Kp
D=
Ka
1- 3 Kp
8 3 0.271 3.069
=
1 - 3 0.271 3.069
= 5.763 m
9.3.1 ■ Sheet pile wall in purely cohesive soil
For a sheet pile wall in cohesive soil, the embedded depth is given as:
D=
[ ]
Ra ± Ra2 + Ra ( 4 c - q )(12cy + Ra ) / (2c + q )
(9.42)
4c - q
Ra = 1 2 (q - 2c ) H (9.43)
where, q is the effective surcharge at the level of the dredged line, c is the
cohesion of soil.
Example 9.6
A sheet pile wall is driven in cohesive soil, with cohesion at 10 kN/m2.
The height of the sheet pile wall above the dredged line is 8 meters and the
wall friction d is 18. The backfill material is sand and its bulk density
is 18 kN/m3 and f is 35º. The groundwater level is at 3 meters below the
backfill level. Calculate the depth of embedment required if the factor of
safety required is 1.5.
3m
sand
γ=18kN/m3
8m φ=35º
σ=18º
D c=50kN/m2
Figure 9.17 A sheet pile wall on cohesive soil.
q = 18 ¥ 3 + 8 ¥ 5 = 94 kN/m2
Ra = 1 2 ¥ 18 ¥ 32 ¥ K a + 18 ¥ 3 ¥ K a ¥ 5 + 1 2 ¥ 8 ¥ 5 2 ¥ K a
Ra = Ka(451) = 0.271 x 451 = 122.221 kN/m
[( ) ] [ ] [(
y = 1 2 ¥ 18 ¥ 32 ¥ K a ¥ 6 + (18 ¥ 3 ¥ K a ¥ 5) ¥ 2.5 + 1 2 ¥ 8 ¥ 5 2 ¥ K a ¥ 1.67 ) ]
y = 359.888
D=
[
Ra ± Ra2 + Ra ( 4 c - q )(12cy + Ra ) / (2c + q ) ]
4c - q
122.2 ± (122.2) 2 + [122.2(4 x 50 - 94)(12 x 50 x 359.9 + 122.2) / (2 x 50 + 94)]

D=
4 x 50 - 94
D = 37.006
The depth of embedment required = 1.5 x 37 = 55.5m
It seems therefore that great embedded depth is required for the

construction of a flexible retaining wall in purely cohesive soil. As such,
either a tie-back or anchor is introduced in the flexible wall in order to
reduce the embedded depth (Figure 9.18). The anchor can also be inclined,
144 Chapter 9
as shown in Figure 9.19. Two common methods of analysis are available:

(i) free earth support method, and (ii) fixed earth support method. The first
method is generally applied for short penetration, and the second is applied
for deep penetration. Details of these methods will not be discussed again
here and can be found in Kaniraj (1988).
(9.18) (9.19)
anchorage
anchorage
Figure 9.18 Horizontal anchor.
Figure 9.19 Inclined anchor.
9.4 ■ COMPUTER-AIDED STABILITY ANALYSES
Nowadays with the help of the computer, more complicated stability cases
can be analyzed within a short time. There are several powerful finite
different and finite element programs available in the market. The approach
of the finite different programs is usually based on limit equilibrium and
that of the finite element programs is either based on limit equilibrium or
stress and deformation analysis. Some examples of finite different programs
are (i) Stabr, developed by Duncan and Wong (ii) Stabl, developed by GEO-
SLOPE International Ltd., Canada, and (iii) Geosolve (slope and wall),
developed by Geosolve, UK.
Some examples of finite element programs are (i) SAGE CRISP,
developed by the CRISP Consortium, Ltd., UK (ii) Plaxis, developed by
Plaxis BV, the Netherlands, and (iii) FREW, developed by Oasys Geosolve,
etc. Most finite element programs require sophisticated and advanced
geotechnical parameters.
The conventional methods are always confined to limit equilibrium
analysis, based on active and passive states, and no information about
displacement is suggested.
Numerical methods can handle complex boundary conditions. In
addition, information about displacements, stress and failure zones are
available. They can also handle the initial non-zero stress. Undrained,
drained, seepage as well as consolidation cases also can be handled. In
addition, non-linear stress-strain soil behaviors can be modeled, and
construction stages can be introduced in the analysis. Details of finite
element analyses using commercial softwares can be found in the relevant
manuals for softwares.
Table 9.8 shows a comparison of a slope stability analysis using various
software for geometry of slopes and soil parameters, as shown in Figure
9.20. It can be seen that the various methods provide slightly different values
of safety factors. Some examples of program output are shown in Figures
9.21 to 9.28. Finite element programs can provide various types of
deformation and stress values, as well as the safety factor using f-c reduction
method. The Plaxis programme provides values for mesh deformation,
horizontal, vertical and total displacement, stresses, and bending moment.
It also calculates the axial force on the anchors for retaining structures.
Safety factors can also be obtained for both undrained and drained conditions
by applying phi-c reduction methods.
Table 9.8 A comparison of slope stability analysis using various softwares.

No. Software Method Type of Failure F.O.S. F.O.S. Remarks
(Corrected)
1 Geosolve (Slope Bishop Simplified Circular 1.314 N.A. —

Version 8.2) (Horizontal in F)
2 Geosolve (Slope Janbu Circular 1.067 1.201 Sand

Version 8.2) (Horizontal in F) strength at
slice 1 is
modified to
be Cu to
eliminate
numerical
problem
3 Geosolve (Slope Bishop Simplified Circular 1.318 N.A. —

Version 8.2) (Parallel Inclined F)
4 Geosolve (Slope Janbu Circular 1.323 N.A. —

Version 8.2) (Parallel Inclined F)
5 Geosolve (Slope Janbu Non-circular 1.103 1.242 —

Version 8.2) (Horizontal in F)
6 STABR92 Bishop Simplified Circular 1.223 N.A. —

(Horizontal in F)
7 STABL Bishop Simplified Circular 1.239 N.A. —

(Horizontal in F)
8 STABL Janbu Circular 1.107 1.246 —

(Horizontal in F)
9 Plaxis c - f reduction — 1.02 — —

146 Chapter 9
120
Factor of Safety = 1.314
Centre of circle: x = 94.00, y = 123.00 Radius = 43.00
110
100
sand
sand γ = 19kN/m3
φ = 30º
90
γ = 15kN/m3
marine clay
C = 20kN/m2
80
stiff clay γ = 17kN/m3 C = 90kN/m2
0 50 100 150
Figure 9.20 Configuration of slope.
120
Factor of Safety = 1.314
Centre of circle: x = 94.00, y = 123.00 Radius = 43.00
110
100
sand
sand γ = 19kN/m3
φ = 30º
90
γ = 15kN/m3
marine clay
C = 20kN/m2
80
0 50 100 150
Figure 9.21 Slope stability analysis by Geosolve (slope version 8.2),

Bishop Simplified (Horizontal in F).
120 Factor of safety = 1.103

Wedge node: x = 102.00, y = 80.00
Toe: x = 63.00, Wedge angle = 35.00
110 Base angle = 0.00 Exit angle = 52.00
100
sand
sand γ = 19kN/m3
φ = 30º
90
γ = 15kN/m3
marine clay
C = 20kN/m2
80
0 50 100 150
Figure 9.22 Slope stability analysis by Geosolve (slope version 8.2),

Janbu (Horizontal in F).
Figure 9.23 Slope stability analysis by PLAXIS (total displacement).

(length of arrows shows magnitude)
Figure 9.24 Slope stability analysis by PLAXIS (total displacement).

(different colors show different magnitude)
Figure 9.25 Flexible retaining wall analysis by PLAXIS

(horizontal displacement).
148 Chapter 9
Figure 9.26 Flexible retaining wall analysis by PLAXIS (bending moment).
Figure 9.27 Flexible retaining wall analysis by PLAXIS

(horizontal displacement).
Figure 9.28 Flexible retaining wall analysis by PLAXIS (axial forces).

Improvement of Compressible Soil 151
CHAPTER 10
Improvement of
Compressible Soil
When reclamation is carried out on soft clay, a long-term problem is

encountered. This long-term problem is called primary consolidation.
Primary consolidation settlement usually takes as long as a few decades to
a century when the permeability of soft clay is low and the drainage path is
long. This consolidation process will lead to the reclaimed land being at an
unsuitable level after settlement. If the underlying soil is not uniform or the
future load is not evenly spread differential settlement will occur. This
differential settlement will damage the structure that is built on the newly
reclaimed land. Therefore, this underlying soil has to be modified.
In olden days, the problem of consolidation settlement was usually
overcome by preloading the ground. Preloading the ground beyond the
future load will enable the underlying soil to increase its effective stress.
Preloading can solve the problem of a shallow foundation as the effective
stress gain is greater than the future load. This is explained in Figure 10.1.
However, for reclaimed land with a large fill area, the stress can reach
to the bottom of the compressible layer. In this case, the final load can still
be much greater than the effective stress gain from preloading. Therefore,
preloading alone may not solve the problem for reclamation on soft clay. It
will still experience future settlement. This is explained by Mitchell (1981)
in Figure 10.2.
Therefore, for reclamation projects, soil improvement is required to
increase the effective stress throughout the profile of the compressible layer.
As such, dissipation of pore water pressure or draining out of pore water is
required from the compressible layer.
Therefore, the only way to improve the soil is to provide proper
drainage throughout the entire thickness of the compressible layer. The
most popular method of improving drainage is to install vertical drainage
columns at certain intervals in the compressible soil mass. In the 1920s,
vertical drainage columns were filled with highly permeable sand to improve
152 Chapter 10
Additional
load=2a 2a
D D
Soft Clay
Load
Before preloading After preloading
Future load of shallow a

foundation = a
a 2a
D
Soft Clay
Load
Figure 10.1 Effectiveness of preloading for a shallow foundation.
the drainage (Figure 10.3). Moram (1925) utilized vertical sand drains to
stabilize the mud foundation beneath the easterly approach to the San
Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge.
Since the efficiency of vertical sand drain installations is not high,
other drain material and installation methods have been developed and
tested. Kjellman used tubes made of wood and cardboard material (Kjellman
1948). After developing a machine that could install the cardboard drains
into the ground, these cardboard drains began to be used for soil stabilization.
Though sand drains and cardboard drains were both introduced in the 1930s,
sand drains were more widely used until new improved prefabricated drains
were introduced in the 1970s. Sand wick drains (also known as pack drains)
were also used in the past. They consisted of fabric stockings filled with
sand and were subsequently placed in predrilled holes in the ground
(Dastidar et al. 1969). They were usually smaller in diameter than the typical
sand drains. The advantages of sand wicks over conventional sand drains
included their relatively low cost, ease of installation, and their flexibility
which ensures the reliability of the drains during installation.
Figure 10.2 Shortfall of effective stress gain at the center of a soft clay
layer can be improved by preloading, although settlement
may have reached the required level.
154 Chapter 10
Clay Clay Clay
Sand
Sand
Sand
Sand
Figure 10.3 Sand drains improve the drainage.
Table 10.1 Types of prefabricated vertical drains available in the market.
Type Core Material Filter Material Dimension (mm)

Kjellman Paper Paper 100 x 3
PVC PVC None 100 x 2
Geodrain PE Cellulose 95 x 4
Mebradrain PP PP 93 x 4
Alidrain PE PES 100 x 6
Colbond PES PES 100 x 6
Hitek PE PP 100 x 6
Castle Board PL PES 100 x 4
Amerdrain PP PP 100 x 3
Flexidrain PP PP 100 x 4
Flodrain PE PE 100 x 4
Tafnel NIL PP 100 x 7.5
Hongplast PP PP 100 x 3.8
Technodrain PV PP 100 x 3.5
Ali wick PE PP 100 x 3
Bidim NIL PES 100 x 4
Desol PL NIL 98 x 2–3
Fibredrain 4 Coir Strands 2 jute burlog 80–100 x 5–100
Bando Paper PVC 96 x 2.9
OV Drain PES PES 103
Solpac PES PES 105
Charbonneau PVC PP 100
CN drain PVC PP 100
Nowadays, most of the vertical drains are prefabricated plastic drains.

The reason for the popularity of the prefabricated vertical drain (PVD) is
its low material cost and efficient installation methods. At present, there
are nearly 100 types of prefabricated vertical drains. The types of pre-
fabricated vertical drains available in the market are shown in Table 10.1.
Time
Settlement
Without Vertical Drain
With Vertical Drain

Figure 10.4 Acceleration of settlement by using a vertical drain.
With a vertical drainage system, the consolidation process can be

completed much faster because of the shorter drainage path. The basic
principle of eliminating future settlement within a short period is shown in
Figure 10.4. Huge amounts of PVD were used in the Changi East
Reclamation project, and details on the implementation of soil improvement
works can be found in Bo et al. (2000b).
10.1 ■ PRELOADING WITH A VERTICAL DRAIN
The installation of a vertical drain will only improve the drainage system.
However, for the reclamation project, land will sink with settlement and
eventually the land may be found to be below an acceptable level. As such,
topping up sand fill during the period of consolidation is necessary in order
to maintain the land level required. However, this method may make analysis
and assessment difficult. Because several stages of loading are involved,
several segments of hyperbolic curves will be obtained. The point of pore
pressure measurement will also experience a rise and fall of excess pore
pressure. Therefore, an alternative way is preloading a certain thickness of
surcharge equivalent to the expected magnitude of settlement. An example
is shown in Figure 10.5. In that case, assessment based on settlement or
pore pressure becomes much easier.
A more acceptable way of preloading is to place a thickness equivalent
to 1.1 times of settlement to compensate for the shortfall resulting from the
10% settlement. This is because the degree of consolidation is usually aimed
at 90%. It is rarely aimed at 100% because this requires a longer time.
It is known that improvement with PVD can prevent the primary
consolidation settlement. However, the secondary compression problem
will remain but it has been found that the coefficient of secondary
156 Chapter 10
Fill Elevation (mCD)

Final required load
PVD Installation +7.5 mCD
+5.5 mCD
+4
-4
Preload level=Required level+Settlement
0
Excess Pore Pressure (kPa) Settlement (m)
100
0
Time
Figure 10.5 Typical behavior of settlement and pore pressure with PVD
and preloading.
(α)
Secondary Compression
Effective Stress
Figure 10.6 Effectiveness of preloading for a shallow foundation.
compression reduces with the stress level (Figure 10.6). As such, secondary
compression will be minimized if soil is preloaded beyond its expected
future stress.
To stress the soil beyond the required effective stress level, preloading
is usually implemented with an overheight surcharge. This overheight

surcharge needs to be removed after the specified degree of consolidation
has been completed. The removal of this surcharge will lead to a rebound
of the land level because of the unloading. This rebound will also partially
offset the secondary compression (Figure 10.7).
Although PVD helps to accelerate the consolidation process it has its
limitations. Installing closely spaced PVD would lead to the creation of
many smear columns. This will cause a reduction of the average permeability
of the soil mass. If PVDs are installed too closely the whole soil mass will
be completely covered with smear columns. In addition, PVD installation
will take a longer time because more PVD points need to be installed.
Sometimes it may not be feasible to reduce the drain spacing to accelerate
the consolidation time. So far the minimum acceptable drain spacing that
will not affect the consolidation process is reported to be between 1 and 1.1
meters.
If drain spacing of 1 to 1.1 meters is not sufficient to cut down the
consolidation time, an alternative way is to increase the preloading
magnitude to 20 – 30 % higher than the fill and future load and aim for a
Surcharge level
Settlement
Time
Figure 10.7 Rebound of land level after removal of preload.
158 Chapter 10
lower degree of consolidation. This is explained in Figure 10.8. However,

this method is only feasible with PVD since this makes the pore pressure
dissipate more or less uniformly along the whole column of the soil mass.
In addition, it is preferable to aim for a higher degree of consolidation
since the distribution of pore pressure at a lower degree of consolidation is
still very varied. Details of the design aspects of PVD is described in Chapter
12, and quality control of PVD will be explained in Chapter 14. The usage
of PVD in land reclamation projects is widely discussed in Bo (2001) and
Bo et al. (2003a).
10.2 ■ VACUUM PRELOADING
To drain out the water from the soil requires a hydraulic gradient. A hydraulic
gradient can be created either by increasing pore water pressure in the soil
over the water pressure in the possible drainage channel or alternatively by
reducing the water pressure in the drainage channel compared with that in
the soil. Both ways can lead to the process of consolidation and gain effective
stress.
The first way of increasing pore pressure is the preloading method
and the second way is to lower the water pressure in the surrounding area
by vacuum preloading. Both ways are explained mathematically as follows:
Initial condition, d ¢ = d - u
where d ¢ is initial effective stress, d is initial total stress and u is initial
pore pressure.
t1 t2
Settlement
90% degree of consolidation

with 100kPa load
70%
degree of consolidation
with 130kPa load
Time
Figure 10.8 Achieving the same effective stress with a lower degree
of consolidation under a higher preload.
After preloading, when additional preload Dd ¢ is added, pore pressure

increases to u + Du .
d ¢ = (d + Dd ¢ ) - ( u + Du)
where Dd ¢ is the additional load and Du is the initial excess pore pressure
which is equivalent to the additional load.
When pore pressure dissipates effective stress increases:
d ¢ + Dd ¢ = (d + Dd ¢ ) - u
After vacuum loading, when pore water pressure is dropped by - Du , the
effective stress increases to d ¢ + Dd ¢ , where Dd ¢ is equal to - Du .
d ¢ + Dd ¢ = d - u - Du
The principle of vacuum preloading and its set-up is shown in Figure 10.9.
A case study on vacuum preloading is explained by Choa (1990) and Bo et
al. (2003a). Figure 10.10 shows the settlement measurement at one of the
vacuum preloading projects in China, and Figure 10.11 shows pore pressure
measurement from the same site.
Vacuum Airtight Impermeable

Membranes Backfill
Pump
Hillcut Surcharge
Sand Fill
Silty Clay
and
Clayey Loam
Vertical Drain
10
FINE SAND
Figure 10.9 Typical arrangement of vacuum preloading.

160 Chapter 10
surcharge, kPa
95 kPa vacuum 112 kPa
Vaccum and 120
80 17 kPa surcharge
40
0
11.87 12.87 01.88 02.88 03.88 04.88 05.88
25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200
0
date/days
Average settlement
0.5
PLAN
Edge
1.0 Interior
86 m
1.5
Settlement Point
61 m location ,
2.0
Figure 10.10 Settlement measurement at a vacuum preloading project.
Pore pressure kPa

-100 -50 0 50 100 150 200
5.8M CD (Ground level before vacuum)

+5 =
=
x
=
=
=
x
=
=
x
=
=
Silty Clay
=
=
=
(hydraulic fill)
=
=
x
= = x
=
= Hydrostatic
= =
0 Pressure
Elevation (mCD)
= = =
=
x x
=
=
=
Silty Clay =
=
=
=
=
x
=
x
= 110 days Before
=
Vacuum Vacuum
-5 Clayey Loam x x x
=
=
=
x = x
(15.04.88) (01.11.87)
= =
=
x x
=
= =
=
=
-10 Silty Clay

=
= =
= 91 kPa
=
=
x
=
=
x
=
Vacuum
=
= =
=
=
-15 =
x x
=
x
=
=
Design
=
x
=
x = = Pressure
Clayey Loam
=
= x
x
( 83 kPa )
=
x x =
= x
= = = =
-20
Figure 10.11 Pore pressure measurement at a vacuum preloading

project.
10.3 ■ PRELOADING BY LOWERING

THE GROUNDWATER TABLE
It is basic physics that the density of material is reduced when it is submerged

in water because of its buoyancy weight. Therefore, the density of material
below water is generally 10kN/m3 lower than that above water. For a
reclamation project carried out at a foreshore area the profile of fill should
be below the normal groundwater level. If the groundwater level can be
lowered by one meter, it would be equivalent to the loading of 10 kN/m2.

Therefore, if preloading is only required for 20 – 30 kN/m2, this could be
achieved by lowering the groundwater level by 2 – 3 meters. Loading can
be removed by allowing the recovery of groundwater. It is diagrammatically
explained in Figure 10.12.
10.4 ■ GROUND IMPROVEMENT BY

THE ELECTRO-OSMOSIS METHOD
Hydraulic modification is one of the most popular methods among practicing
engineers. However, hydraulic modification requires introducing a hydraulic
gradient either in the form of increased pore pressure in the soil by placing
additional loads or by reducing pore pressure in the soil by means of vacuum
pressure.
Both methods require additional materials such as fill material or
sealing geo-membrane. Another way of consolidating soil to improve the
drainage is by electro-osmosis consolidation, which was first initiated by
Casagrande in (1937), followed by Bjerrum et al. (1967), Fetzer (1967),
and Wade (1976). Electro-osmosis properties of other clays, such as Ontario
clay, Gloucestor clay, and Wallacebury clay (Shang and Ho 1998), Leda
clay (Lo et al. 1991), Bangkok clay (Nayar 1997 and Dinoy 1999), Singapore
marine clay (Bo et al. 2000e and 2001b) are described elsewhere.
+6 mCD
+2 mCD Before Preloading
0 mCD Preloading
-4 mCD
+6 mCD
+2 mCD
Before Preloading
0 mCD
Preloading
-4 mCD
LOAD
Figure 10.12 Gaining of effective stress by lowering the groundwater

level.
162 Chapter 10
10.4.1 ■ Principle of electro-osmosis
Electro-osmosis is the process in which positively charged hydrogen ion in

the form of water moves from the anode to the cathode upon application of
direct current. In a compressible saturated clayey soil with two phases—a
solid phase and a liquid phase—the liquid phase is formed with two layers
of water hall. One is a fixed part and the other is a diffused part. When
direct current is applied to the soil-water system, cations in the diffuse
layer move toward the cathode. This cation carries the water flow toward
the cathode. Due to this process consolidation occurs. This process is
graphically explained in Figure 10.13.
Consolidation caused by electro-osmosis was proposed by Schaad
and Haefeli (1947) by combining hydraulic and electrical potential gradient.
K h du dE
u= + Ke
g w dx dx
where u = flow velocity, m/s
Kh = coefficient of hydraulic permeability, m/s
gw= unit weight of water, kN/m3
E = electrical potential, V
Ke = coefficient of electro-osmosis permeability, (m/s)/v/m)=m2/(s.v)
Therefore, the coefficient of electro-osmosis permeability (Ke) plays
a major role. Mitchell (1976) and others reported that Ke is relatively constant
regardless of soil types. The values are found to range between 10-4
and 10-3 mm2/(s-v).
Laboratory measurements of the electro-osmosis process have been
interpreted by Esrig (1968), Johnston and Butterfield (1977), and Wan and
Mitchell (1976). Time factor curves to predict the degree of consolidation
have been proposed by Esrig (1968) and Johnston and Butterfield (1977),
as shown in Figures 10.14a and 10.14b. Shang and Ho (1998), Bergado et al.
Figure 10.13 Principle of electro-osmosis.

(1999), and Bo et al. (2000e and 2001b) have carried out laboratory tests to
determine the electro-osmosis properties of soil. Figure 10.15 shows some
results from electro-osmosis tests carried out on Singapore marine clay at
Changi (Bo et al. 2001b). It was found that void ratio change due to the
electro-osmosis process was significant. The higher the voltage the lower
is the final void ratio. Preconsolidation pressures of soil were increased
and compressibility was reduced. In the electro-osmosis consolidation
process, not only vertical strain but also lateral strain will be experienced.
Volumetric strain contributed from lateral deformation is even greater than
that caused by vertical deformation.
0
(a)
0.2
Average degree of
consolidation Û
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
0.01 0.1 1 10
Time factor, T
0
(b)
0.2
Average degree of
consolidation Û
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1
Time factor, T
Figure 10.14 Time factor curve for electro-osmosis consolidation: (a)

Esrig 1968; (b) Johnston and Butterfield 1977.
164 Chapter 10
1.6 Istotropic stage Anisotropic

stage
1.4
Electro-osmosis stage
Void ratio (e)
1.2
Test - 1, E = 6 Volts
Test - 2, E = 12 Volts
1
Depth = 20 - 20.85 m
Effective Isotropic Consolidation Pressure = 150 kPa
0.8 Deviator Stress at Anisotropic Stage = 30 kPa
0.6
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
Elapsed time (min)
1.7 * - Test 1 Final void ratio after

electro-osmosis
1.5
Void ratio (e)
1.3
+ - Test 2 Final void ratio after
1.1
electro-osmosis
0.9
0.7
0.5
1 10 100 1000 10000
Pressure pl (kN/m2)
0.05
0
Volumetric strain (%)
Depth = 20 - 20.85m
-0.05 Test -1, E = 6Volts
-0.1
-0.15
-0.2
Total strain
-0.25 Volumetric strain contributed from vertical deformation
Volumtric strain contributed from lateral deformation
-0.3
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
Elapsed time (min)
Figure 10.15 (a) Void ratio versus time throughout the consolidation
process (after Bo et al. 2001b);
(b) Void ratio versus pressure from oedometer tests
carried out before and after electro-osmosis (after
Bo et al. 2001b);
(c) Comparison of volumetric strain contributed from
lateral and vertical deformation (after Bo et al. 2001b).
10.4.2 ■ Application of electro-osmosis in the field
Improvement of soil such as silt, silty clay, and soft sensitive clay by electro-
osmosis has been successfully applied in the field (Casagrande 1948,
Soderman and Milligan 1961, Bjerrum et al. 1967, Fetzer 1967, Wade 1976).
In most cases, electro-osmosis was only used for temporary stabilization,
such as dewatering and excavation. Bergado et al. (1999) have tested the
performance of electro-osmosis on vertical drain in the laboratory.
Improvement of dam foundations has also been carried out with the electro-
osmosis method (Fetzer 1967). Electro-osmosis has also been applied in
friction pile stabilization. The penetration resistance is increased when the
pile acts as an anode, and is decreased when the pile acts as a cathode
(Husman 1990). Soderman and Milligan (1961) have reported that the
bearing capacity of steel pile can be doubled when treated by electro-
osmosis.
10.4.3 ■ Design and layout of electro-osmosis
In electro-osmosis, both the cathode and anode are usually in the form of a
metal bar, pipe, or beam. The length of these electrodes range between 2m
and 15m and the spacing between the same type of electrodes (that is, either
cathode to cathode or anode to anode) can be as close as 1m. The spacing
between opposite electrodes is generally between 2m and 5m (Husman
1990). Mitchell (1981) has reported that a hexagonal arrangement of anodes
around a central cathode is more efficient than linear rows or square patterns.
Some possible arrangements of cathodes and anodes in the electro-osmosis
consolidation process is shown in Figure 10.16.
Some designs of cathodes consist of an iron pipe and an eductor pipe
(a) (b)
Figure 10.16 Arrangements of electrodes and anodes in the electro-

osmosis consolidation process.
166 Chapter 10
installed in a predrilled hole of substantial size (about 400 mmf) and filled
with clean sand. An anode is usually made of iron pipe, bar or rail (Lo et al.
1991).
10.5 ■ VIBROCORE REPLACEMENT (STONE COLUMNS)
Soil compaction, as achieved in the vibro compaction process through the

rearrangement of soil particles, is not possible for very fine-grained cohesive
soils because of their inability to respond to vibration. The cohesion between
the particles prevents rearrangement and compaction to occur. These
particles merely slide against each other and cannot be rearranged into a
denser configuration, and thus another technique is required.
The stabilization of such cohesive and very fine-grained soils is
achieved by displacing the soil radially with the vibrator, refilling the created
space with granular material and compacting in the same manner with the
vibrator. This procedure is commonly referred to as vibro replacement
(popularly known as stone columns) developed by Keller in the 1950s. In
this way, a column of well-compacted coarse granular material is constructed
in the soft cohesive formation which forms the load-bearing element
consisting of gravel or crushed stone aggregates. By introducing these
permeable columns, the consolidation process in the soft cohesive soil will
be accelerated since the columns create a drainage path.
There are two methods of installation in the vibro replacement
technique, namely, the wet method and the dry method. In the past several
decades, both methods were used to install the stone columns successfully
in numerous job sites all over the world. A schematic of a vibro replacement
technique is shown in Figure 10.17.
stones
Figure 10.17 Schematic of a vibro replacement technique.

(Courtesy of Keller)
10.5.1 ■ Installation procedure
In general, the installation procedure consists of four stages:

a. Penetrating the vibrator to the required depth and creating a hole;
b. Filling the space created with coarse grained backfill material during
the retraction of the vibrator in small steps;
c. Compacting the filled coarse grained backfill material with the
assistance of horizontal vibrations; and
d. Repeating steps b and c till ground level, thereby creating well
compacted, tightly interlocked stone columns
10.5.1.1—Wet method
In the wet method, a crawler crane of sufficient capacity is used to support

the vibrator assembly, and penetration to the required depth is assisted by
the combined action of vibrations and high pressure water jets placed at the
tip of the vibrator. A schematic of the installation procedure is shown in
Figure 10.18. An annular space is created between the vibrator and the hole
by a flushing operation. After the vibrator reaches the required depth, stones
(typically 40mm to 75mm) are fed to the vibrator point from the ground
surface with the help of a loader. The aggregates sink down through the
annular space created between the vibrator and a hole. This method is known
as the top feeding system. The up and down motion of the vibrator is used
to displace the stones laterally into the ground and at the same time compact
the filled stones, thereby creating a column of well compacted and tightly
interlocked stones. The vibrator is slowly withdrawn in steps of 0.7 to
1.0 m and the stone falls to the tip of the vibrator from the ground surface.
The vibrator is then lowered back into the hole to 0.3 to 0.5 m depth, thereby
Figure 10.18 Schematic diagram showing the wet method of installation.

168 Chapter 10
creating up to 0.5 m length of stone column. With stones being added as

required this process is repeated up to the ground level.
The wet method is a partial replacement process where some of the
soil is partially washed out and the rest is laterally displaced and compressed.
The wet method requires a continuous supply of water and the discharge of
water from the hole contains soil particles which have to be removed before
the water can be disposed off, which in turn necessitates open areas for
settling ponds. This method has been successfully used to treat depths up
to 32 meters.
10.5.1.2—Dry method
In the dry method, custom built equipment is used to support the vibrator
assembly, and penetration to the required depth is assisted by the combined
action of vibrations and compressed air. Normally, no water jetting is used.
Stones (typically 15mm – 35mm) are fed, using a skip, to the top of the
vibrator and transferred through a special stone tube attached directly to
the vibrator tip—this method is known as bottom feed system. A schematic
of the installation procedure is shown in Figure 10.19. With a charge of
aggregates filled into the stone tube and with the help of an air compressor,
the vibrator is pushed into the ground. Upon reaching the required depth,
the vibrator is retracted up to 1m (depending on the surrounding soil), and
the pressurized stone tube forces the aggregates to exit and fill the void
created. The vibrator is then repenetrated into the infilled space, compacting
and compressing the aggregates into the surrounding soil.
The building process then comprises the up and down movement of
Figure 10.19 Schematic diagram showing the dry method of installation.

the vibrator until the aggregates in the stone tube are exhausted, after which
another charge of aggregates is loaded into the stone tube and the building
process continues up to the ground surface.
The dry method is a pure displacement process where no soil is
removed. Moreover, no water jetting is required which implies that water
supply and disposal does not arise. It is particularly well suited for congested
working areas such as inner city areas, areas adjacent to existing railways
and roadways, etc. This method has been successfully used to treat depths
of up to 30 meters.
10.5.1.3—Offshore method
In the offshore method, a bottom feed system is required to install the stone
columns in a controlled manner starting from the sea bed level under marine
conditions. A barge or pontoon serves as a working platform on which a
crawler crane of sufficient capacity is mounted to support the custom-built
vibro string assembly. Penetration to the required depth below seabed level
is assisted by the combined action of vibrations and compressed air. The
whole procedure follows the bottom feed method of installation.
A schematic diagram of a typical setup for offshore stone column
installation is shown in Figure 10.20. After shifting the barge to the treatment
zone, the exact positioning of the vibrator to each probe point is done by a
crane using the data constantly provided by a GPS (Global Positioning
System) receiver mounted at the tip of the crane boom to monitor the location
of the vibrator.
10.5.2 ■ Equipment
The equipment developed for the vibro replacement technique comprises

four basic elements:
a. The vibrator, which is suspended from extension tubes, the total length
of the vibrator and extension tube assembly being equal to or greater
than the treatment depth. Air/water jetting systems are attached to the
sides of the vibrator to assist the penetration.
b. The crane or custom-built base machine, which supports the vibrator
and extension tube assembly.
c. The stone delivery tube attached to the vibrator for the bottom feed
system.
d. The quality control recording unit which produces a computer record
of the installation process in a continuous graphical mode, plotting
depth versus time and power consumption versus time.
170 Chapter 10
Figure 10.20 Offshore method of stone column installation.

10.5.2.1—Vibrators
The principal piece of equipment for the vibro replacement process is the
vibrator. There is a wide range of depth vibrators available in the market.
Keller has developed Mono, Alpha-S and Beta vibrators for the vibro
replacement process. The Alpha-S is the development of the S-vibrator
and Beta is development of the Mono or L-vibrator with a specially designed
stone tube and stone feeder hopper attachment. A schematic of the Mono
and Beta vibrators are shown in Figure 10.21.
10.5.2.2—Custom-built equipment
Custom-built equipment is necessary for the bottom feed method of stone

column installation. Keller has developed two types of custom- built
equipment for the bottom feed system (dry method). The first type is the
Alpha-S vibro string consisting of the vibrator, suspended from combined
stone tube/extension tubes with compression chamber and a stone feeder
hopper, hanging from a high capacity crane, called a crane-hung system

(Figure 10.22a). The second type is the Vibrocat, comprising a specially
constructed track-mounted supporting unit, the Beta vibrator string, which
incorporates a stone tube with a compression chamber and a stone feed
hopper (Figure 10.22b) which facilitates a pull down thrust of up to 20
tons. Both these set-ups can be modified to suit the requirements of the wet
method as well.
(a) Mono vibrator (b) Beta vibrator

(top feed method) (bottom feed method)
Figure 10.21 Keller’s depth vibrators for vibro replacement process.

172 Chapter 10
(a) Crane-hung system (b) Vibrocat system
Figure 10.22 Custom-built equipment for the bottom feed system.

10.5.3 ■ Quality control
The monitoring of each stone column is performed by an automatic

recording device. This instrument produces a computer record of the
installation process in a continuous graphical mode, plotting depth versus
time and power consumption versus time.
The information provided by the recording device also includes the
stone column reference number, date and period of installation, maximum
depth, and maximum power consumption. These records are the main quality
control tools during the installation process. Typical records are shown in
Figure 10.23 (a) and (b) for the wet and dry methods respectively.
10.5.4 ■ Design of stone columns

The vibro replacement technique not only introduces the stone columns
but also densifies the surrounding existing soil. Therefore, in estimating
the total improvement, the effects of the stone columns and the densification
have to be considered in terms of the equivalent composite system. This
equivalent composite system exhibits the improved stiffness, shear strength,
bearing capacity, and drainage characteristics. The schematically equivalent
composite system of natural soil and stone columns is shown in Figure
10.24.
(a)
Wet method
(b)
Dry method
Figure 10.23 Typical quality control records. (Courtesy of Keller)

174 Chapter 10
(a) (b) (c)

Natural soft soil Stone columns Equivalent composite
system
Figure 10.24 Equivalent composite system.
The design parameters of the stone column design include diameter,

spacing, layout, and depth of the columns. These parameters are determined
based on subsoil conditions, engineering parameters (shear strength and
compressibility) of subsoil and stones, type of structure, loading conditions,
and specifications regarding settlement and stability criteria. The various
steps involved in the design of the stone columns are shown in Figure 10.25.
Priebe (1995) has derived design charts which give an improvement factor(n)
based on the friction angle of stones (Dc) and the ratio of the stone column
area to the area being treated by the column(Ac/A), as shown in Figure
10.26, to arrive at the improved composite soil parameters.
Furthermore, he considered in his analyses the compressibility of the
column, the overburden pressure, and compatibility conditions to provide
a conservative and practical approach to the design of stone columns in
soft weak soils. For more details, refer to H.J. Priebe (1995), “The design
of vibro replacement”.
The degree of improvement is largely dependent upon the layout,
diameter and spacing of the columns, and subsoil conditions. Stone columns
have been proven to be an effective method for treating soft cohesive soils
with undrained shear strengths of less than 10 kPa. The application of stone
columns in very soft cohesive soils typically results in improved shear
parameters ranging from an undrained cohesion of 5 to 20 kPa, and friction
angle of 20º to 30º.
10.5.5 ■ Performance of stone columns
To assess the performance of stone columns, load tests are carried out with
designed loads on a single column or a group of four-columns, as shown in
Figure 10.27. A graphical plot between the loads and settlements shows
whether stone column treatment satisfies the settlement criteria or not. In
addition, during the construction of the intended structure, the performance
of the stone columns will be assessed with the help of instrumentation such
as rod settlement gauges and inclinometers.
Figure 10.25 Flow chart for the design of stone columns according to
Priebe (1995).
Improvement factor n
Area ratio A/Ac
Figure 10.26 Design chart for vibro replacement (after Priebe 1995).
176 Chapter 10
(a) (b)
Figure 10.27 Load tests on stone columns. (Courtesy of Keller)
10.5.6 ■ Applications of stone columns
Typical applications of stone columns include individual footings, earth

embankments, highway embankments, reinforced earth walls, railway
embankments, and industrial structures (storage tanks). A typical cross-
section of each of these applications is schematically shown in Figure 10.28.
10.6 ■ CEMENT AND LIME COLUMNS
Cement and lime columns are generally used to improve the foundation of
shore protection slopes instead of a sandkey. By introducing cement or
lime columns, the stability of the slope will increase. Settlement will be
reduced if cement or lime columns are used for improvement of embankment
foundations.
Soft to very soft inorganic clay or silty clay with a water content of
less than 100% to 120% can usually be stabilized with lime, and a relative
increase of 10 to 20 times the initial shear strength can be expected. For
this case, the maximum lime content is 10 – 12 % of soil by dry weight
(Broms 1999).
Lime and cement columns can be applied to the foundations of shore
protections instead of using a sandkey. It will improve the stability of the
shore protection structure. Lime and cement columns have also been used
in retaining walls, quay walls and revetments. Details on lime and cement
columns can be found in Broms (1999).
The installation of cement or lime columns can be achieved with
similar equipment, explained in Section 10.5. However, the dry method
together with compressed air is usually used. Dehydration of the cement or
lime is achieved when water from the soil is absorbed by the cement or
lime. The treatment for cement or lime can be carried out in a similar way
to stone columns. In addition, a sample of the cement or lime column created
can be collected and the strength determined in the laboratory. The
application of cement or lime columns is the same as for stone columns.
(a) (b)
(d)
(c)
(e) (f)
(a) Individual footings; (b) Tank foundations;

(c) Earth embankments; (d) Highway embankments;
(e) Reinforced earth walls; and (f) Railway embankments.
Figure 10.28 Applications of stone columns. (Courtesy of Keller)

Characterization of Soft Clay 179
CHAPTER 11
Characterization
of Soft Clay
The geotechnical problems usually encountered in land reclamation and

soil improvement projects include settlement, consolidation, and stability.
Therefore, the characterization of soft clay in terms of compressibility,
consolidation and strength is essential. However, the physical characteristics
of clay is also important since physical parameters can be readily correlated
with compressibility, consolidation, and strength parameters.
11.1 ■ PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
In order to roughly assess the consistency of soil, physical tests are usually
carried out on either undisturbed or disturbed samples. From physical tests,
some parameters of compression and strength can be estimated. These
physical parameters will be briefly discussed in the following section, and
details can be found in BS 1337 (1990) and soil laboratory testing manual
by Head (1986).
11.1.1 ■ Bulk unit weight of soil (gb )
Bulk unit weight is the first and easiest parameter to measure after obtaining
the sample. From the known weight and volume of soil, the bulk density is
obtained. Generally known volumes are achieved when the soil weight is
measured in a certain mould. This method is called linear measurement. In
most cases, an oedometer ring is used. Therefore, this measurement only
requires a mould and balance, as shown in Figure 11.1.
Mass of soil M
BulkDensity (g b ) = = s (11.1)
Volume of soil Vs
180 Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Bulk density test apparatus.
11.1.2 ■ Water content of soil (w)
The water content of soil can be determined from the ratio of the mass of
water in its natural state to the mass of soil after drying out the water.
Mass of water
Water Content ( w )(%) = (11.2)
Mass of dry soil
In order to determine the content of water, the soil sample has to be
dried out. The drying method is important for some soils such as organic
soil. Loss of weight may occur during the drying process. Such soil may
require a long drying process at low temperatures, or by air drying. Although
the test is simple, it could lead to erroneous results if the test is not carried
out properly. Insufficient drying time could lead to an underestimation of
the water content, as shown in Figure 11.2. The sample should also be
crushed into small pieces in order to dry easily. Big lumps in the sample
could lead to an underestimation of the moisture content (Figure 11.2 and
11.3).
11.1.3 ■ Specific gravity of soil (Gs )
In order to find out other remaining parameters such as dry density, the
specific gravity of the soil (Gs) is a key factor.
Generally, specific gravity is measured by using the density bottle
method. Distilled water is normally used as the density bottle fluid. However,
other types of fluids such as kerosene, or white spirit can be used when the
60
Water content (%)
50
40
10g 50g(lump) 50g(slice)

150g(lump) 150g(slice)
30
0 10 20 30 40 50
Drying time (hours)
Figure 11.2 Comparison of different water content results under

different drying duration (temperature 25ºC) and different
size of samples.
70
Water content (%)
60
50
40
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Weight of sample (g)
Figure 11.3 Sample size effect on water content test.
soil contains soluble salts. Although this method is simple, it requires several
types of apparatus. The list of apparatus required is summarized by Head
(1986) as follows:
(1) Density bottles (50ml) with stoppers, numbered and calibrated (three
for each sample)
(2) Constant-temperature water-bath, with a shelf for holding density
bottles, maintained at 25ºC.
(3) Vacuum desiccator.
(4) Oven and moisture-content apparatus.
182 Chapter 11
(5) Analytical balance reading to 0.001g.

(6) Small rifle-box.
(7) Source of vacuum, and vacuum tubing.
(8) Chattaway spatula 150x3 mm.
(9) Wash bottle.
(10) Rubber-coated tongs, or rubber gloves.
Figure 11.4 is a photograph showing the apparatus used. It can be
seen that more than half of the apparatus required are the same as those
used for water content measurement. After measuring the various masses
with an empty density bottle, with dry soil, with liquid, and with liquid and
dry soil, the specific gravity Gs can be calculated using the following
equation:
Gl ( m2 - m1 )
Gs =
(m4 - m1) - (m3 - m2 ) (11.3)
where Gl = specific gravity of the liquid used, m1 = mass of density bottle,

m2 = mass of bottle + dry soil, m3 = mass of bottle + soil + liquid, m4 = mass
of bottle + liquid.
Details of the test can be found in BS 1377 (1990) and Manual of Soil
Laboratory Testing, volume 1 (Head 1986, vol. 1). Typical results are shown
in Table 11.1.
11.1.4 ■ Natural void ratio (eo )
After the natural water content has been determined, the natural void ratio
can be readily calculated using the following equation for the case of fully
saturated soil:
e = wGs (11.4)
11.1.5 ■ Dry unit weight of soil (gd )
The dry density of soil can be determined using the following equation if
the specific gravity and natural void ratio is known.
Gs
gd = g (11.5)
1+ e w
where gw is the unit weight of water.
Figure 11.4 Specific gravity test apparatus.
Table 11.1 Results of specific gravity test.
Test-1 Test-2
Mass of Density Bottle, g, m1 40.616 40.479
Mass of Bottle + Dry Soil, g, m2 60.631 60.499
Mass of Bottle + Soil + Water, g, m3 153.134 152.791
Mass of Bottle + Full of Water, g, m4 140.523 140.260
Specific Gravity of Soil Particle 2.703 2.673
Average Specific Gravity 2.688
11.1.6 ■ Atterberg’s limits (Wl )
There are several limits of soil which indicate the liquid state, plastic state,
and solid state. The liquid limit indicates the state when soil starts to behave
like liquid. The liquid limit can be measured with two types of equipment:
(i) Casagrande cup (ii) cone penetrometer.
11.1.6.1—Liquid limit by the Casagrande method
The Casagrande method is the original method of measuring liquid limit

using a mechanical device called the Casagrande apparatus. The soil is
placed in the cup and the surface scraped level with spatulas or palette
knives. A groove is made at the center using a special grooving tool. The
handle is turned at two revolutions per second which lifts the cup exactly
100 mm above the base and then dropped onto the base. This causes the
groove in the soil to gradually close up. The number of blows required to
bring two sides of the soil at the bottom of the groove into contact over a
length of 13 mm is recorded. The tests are reported for various moisture
184 Chapter 11
contents—at least four moisture contents. The linear relationship of the

number of blows against the moisture content will be obtained, as shown
in Figure 11.5. From these, the moisture content at 25 blows is considered
the liquid limit.
Details of the test procedure can be found in BS 1377 (1990) and the
Manual of Soil Laboratory Testing by Head (1986). Details of the apparatus
required is summarized by Head (1986) as follows, and also shown in Figure
11.6.
Apparatus required:
(1) Casagrande device
(2) Grooving tool
(3) Flat glass plate
(4) Wash bottle containing distilled water
(5) Two palette knives, with blades of 200 mm long and 30 mm wide
(6) Spatula with blade of about 150 mm long and 25 mm wide
(7) Standard moisture content apparatus.
100
Moisture content (%)
95
90
85
80
10 100
25
Number of bumps
Figure 11.5 Linear relationship of the number of blows to the moisture

content from a liquid limit test.
Figure 11.6 Apparatus for liquid limit test with a Casagrande cup.
11.1.6.2—Liquid limit obtained by a cone penetrometer
An alternative method to determine the liquid limit is by using a cone

penetrometer. In this method, the soil is placed in the cup and put onto the
cone penetrometer apparatus. A cone clamp is made to touch the soil surface
with its tip. It is then released for a second and clamped again. The depth of
penetration is measured with the help of a dial gauge. A minimum of four
tests are made for different moisture contents. A linear plot is obtained
when the penetration depth is plotted against the moisture content. Moisture
content at 20 mm penetration is taken as the liquid limit.
Apparatus required, summarized by Head (1986), as follows:
(1) Cone penetrometer with cone
(2) Sharpness gauge for cone
(3) Flat glass plate
(4) Metal cup
(5) Wash bottle with distilled water
(6) Metal straight edge
(7) Palette knives
(8) Standard moisture content apparatus
Details of the testing procedure can be found in BS 1377 (1990) and
Manual of Soil Laboratory Testing by Head (1986).
Figure 11.7 shows the equipment required for a liquid limit test with
a cone penetrometer, and Table 11.2 and Figure 11.8 show the calculation
and determination of liquid limit.
Figure 11.7 Cone penetrometer apparatus.

186 Chapter 11
Table 11.2 Example of liquid limit test results.
Liquid Limit (%)

Wet Weight + Tare (g) 28.2 28.9 28.7 29.4
Dry Weight + Tare (g) 21.4 21.5 20.9 21.0
Tare Weight (g) 10.3 10.4 10.0 10.3
Water Content (%) 61.2 66.2 71.9 78.1
Penetration (mm) 10.7 14.4 17.9 22.1
25
23
21
Penetration (mm)
19 Liquid
17 limit
15
13
11
9
7
5
55 58 61 64 67 70 73 76 79 82 85
Water content (%)
Figure 11.8 Penetration depth and water content relationship curve.
It has been reported that the cone penetrometer method is less liable
to experimental and human errors than those obtained by the Casagrande
method (Sherwood and Ryley 1968). Although the same or similar values
can be obtained from both methods, for a liquid limit of less than 100%,
the cone penetrometer method gives slightly lower values than the
Casagrande method for a liquid limit of greater than 100%, as shown in
Figure 11.9.
The liquid limit of some types of soil are affected by the drying method
and the type of water added to the soil. Especially when the soil has an
organic content or minerals with volcanic origin, the liquid limit will be
changed after oven drying. Under marine conditions, the soil deposited
contains water with a significant salt content. Such soils are also affected
by the drying method as well as the type of water added to the soil during
testing, as shown in Figure 11.10.
300
Liquid limit (B.S. cone test) 200

LLB
Tentative correlation
curve
100
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Liquid limit (Casagrande test) LLC
Figure 11.9 Relationship of liquid limits using the two different methods
(Casagrande method & Cone penetrometer method) (after
Head 1986).
100
Fresh sample
90 Air-dried sample
Oven-dried sample
Liquid limit (%)
80
70
60
50
40
10 15 20 25 30 35
Depth (m)
Figure 11.10 Variation of liquid limit due to method of testing.
11.1.7 ■ Grain size distribution of soil
Grain size distribution of soil can be carried out by two methods depending
upon the types of soil. Grain size distribution of medium to coarse grain
soil, such as sand and gravel, can be determined using a set of sieves, and
silt and clay by the hydrometer method.
11.1.7.1—Sieve analysis
The sieve analysis method is often used for classification of granular

material. Table 11.3 shows the various sizes of sieve and the different
numbers of sieves used in sieve analysis. Besides the sieves, another
equipment required in this process is a balance. Soil can be passed through
different sizes of sieves and based on the percentage of retained weight of
188 Chapter 11
soil to the total weight of soil, the grain size distribution is obtained.
Generally, the dry method is applied in sieve analysis although the wet
method is used for finer content in the sample.
Figure 11.11 shows sieve analysis in progress in which the sieves are
shaken on a mechanical shaker. The apparatus required for sieve analysis
is also summarized by Head (1986) as follows:
(1) Set of sieves
(2) Mechanical shaker
(3) Balance
(4) Rifle box
(5) Drying oven
(6) Sieve brush
(7) Metal trays
(8) Rubber pestle and mortar
(9) Scoop
Table 11.3 Various aperture sizes and number of sieves.
Aperture Size (BS) Aperture size/sieve no. (ASTM)

75 mm 3.35 mm 3” (76 mm) No. 60 (200 mm)
63 mm 2 mm 2” (51 mm) No. 140 (106 mm)
50 mm 1.18 mm 1 1/2” (38 mm) Mp/ 200 (75 mm)
37.5 mm 600 mm 1” (25 mm)
28 mm 425 mm 3/4” (9.5 mm)
20 mm 300 mm 3/8” (9.5 mm)
14 mm 212 mm No. 4 (4.75 mm)
10 mm 150 mm No. 10 (2.0 mm)
6.3 mm 63 mm No. 20 (850 mm)
5 mm No. 40 (425 mm)
Figure 11.11 Apparatus for sieve analysis test.

Details of test procedures are found in BS 1377 (1990) and Manual

for Soil Laboratory Test by Head (1986).
Sometimes dispersing agents are used to ensure separation, or
dispersion of discrete soil. Generally, the dispersing agent is a compound
of sodium carbonate and sodium hexametaphosphate, which is reported to
be the most suitable.
Table 11.4 and Figure 11.12 show the calculation of sieve analysis
data and the grain size distribution curve. After obtaining the grain size
distribution curve, several other parameters such as effective grain size
(D10), mean grain size (D50) and uniformity coefficient (D60/D10) can be
calculated from the results.
Table 11.4 Example of sieve analysis results.
Cumulative % Retained (%) Classification

Sieve Size (mm) (1) (1) Soil %
3.35 100
2 80.20 19.80 Gravel 19.80
1.18 65.67 14.54
0.6 39.11 26.56
0.425 25.97 13.14
0.3 14.61 11.36 Sand 80.18
0.212 5.78 8.84
0.15 1.27 4.51
0.063 0.02 1.25
Passing 0.02 Silt 0.02
D10 (mm) 0.25 and
D50 (mm) 0.79 Clay
D60 (mm) 0.99
Uniformity Coefficient (U) 3.96
100
90
80
Percentage passing
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Particle size (mm)
Figure 11.12 Grain size distribution curve from sieve analysis.
190 Chapter 11
11.1.7.2—Hydrometer tests
A hydrometer test is used to determine the grain size distribution of fine

grain soil of smaller than 63 mm. The method generally applied is Stoke’s
law of sedimentation. In order to carry out the tests, soil is prepared in a
suspension of 1000 ml. The sedimentation cylinder is usually placed in a
constant-temperature bath at 25ºC. A hydrometer is lowered into the
suspension, and the density determined at predetermined time steps. From
the time and the effective depth of the hydrometer, the equivalent diameter
of the particle size can be determined using Stoke’s law. The amount of
material in the suspension smaller than the particle size can be determined
from the hydrometer reading.
Generally, pretreatment of soil is required before preparation of the
suspension. Pretreatment is done in order to remove the organic matter and
calcareous matter. A dispersing agent such as a compound of sodium
carbonate and sodium hexametaphosphate is used to ensure the separation
of discrete particles.
Several adjustments are required to obtain a correct reading. The full
correct equation is:
R = Rh' + Cm + M t - x (11.6)
where R is the fully correct reading.

Rh is the hydrometer reading.
Cm is the meniscus correction.
Mt is the temperature correction, and
x is the dispersing agent correction.
The apparatus required is summarized from the Manual of Soil
Laboratory Testing by Head (1986) as follows:
(1) Soil hydrometer
(2) Two 1000 ml glasses
(3) Constant temperature bath
(4) Stop-clock
(5) Glass rod about 12 mm f and 400 mm length
The apparatus required is shown in Figure 11.13. The details of the
procedure for testing is found in BS 1377 (1990) and Manual of Soil
Laboratory Testing by Head (1986). Table 11.5 and Figure 11.14 show the
test result and grain size distribution curve. Figure 11.15 shows a comparison
of different grain size distribution curves, with and without corrections.
Figure 11.13 Apparatus for a hydrometer test.
Table 11.5 Hydrometer test results.

Elapsed Hydrometer True Effective Fully Particle Percentage
time reading reading depth corrected diameter finer than D
t(minu.) Rhl Rh Hr (mm) reading R D(um) K(%)
0
0.5 30.7 31.2 89.30 30.63 53.23 97.30
1 30.2 30.7 91.22 30.13 38.04 95.71
2 29.7 30.2 93.15 29.63 27.18 94.12
4 29.0 29.5 95.84 28.93 19.50 91.90
8 28.2 28.7 98.92 28.13 14.01 89.35
15 26.8 27.3 104.31 26.73 10.50 84.91
30 25.0 25.5 111.24 24.93 7.67 79.19
60 22.6 23.1 120.48 22.53 5.64 71.57
120 21.0 21.5 126.64 20.93 4.09 66.48
240 19.0 19.5 134.34 18.93 2.98 60.13
480 17.4 17.9 140.50 17.33 2.15 55.05
1440 15.0 15.5 149.74 14.93 1.28 47.42
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Particle size (mm)
Figure 11.14 Grain size distribution surve (silt & clay).

192 Chapter 11
100
90

80
70
60
50
40
30 R=R'h+Cm
20 R=R'h+Cm+Mt-x
10 R=R'h+Cm+Mt-x+1.8
0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1
Particle size (mm)
Figure 11.15 Effect of corrections on the hydrometer results.
11.1.8 ■ Chemical tests
Two common chemical tests required for reclamation and soil improvement
projects are (i) organic content test for soft clay and (ii) shell content test
for granular fill material.
(i) Organic Content Test: The standard method used for testing organic
content is chemical oxidation. The basis of this method is to oxidize the
carbon content of the soil using a solution of potassium dichromate and
concentrated sulphuric acid. After oxidation, the remaining reagents are
titrated against a standardized ferrous sulphate solution. This allows the
quantity of reagents remaining after oxidation—hence the amount of
reagents used—to be determined.
The apparatus used are all chemical laboratory apparatus, as shown
in Figure 11.16. The details of the testing procedure are described in BS
1377 (1990) and Manual of Soil Laboratory Testing by Head (1986).
(ii) Shell Content Test: Shell is usually made up of calcium carbonate.
Therefore, the content of calcium carbonate can again be determined by
the titration method, using hydrochloric acid. The apparatus used are all
available in a chemical laboratory.
11.2 ■ CONSOLIDATION TESTS
Consolidation tests are carried out to determine the compressibility and

consolidation characteristics of soil. There are several types of consolidation
tests and these will be described briefly in the following section.
Figure 11.16 Organic content test apparatus.
11.2.1 ■ Oedometer test
An oedometer test is the conventional consolidation test which can determine

the compressibility and consolidation parameters. Traditionally, tests are
carried out under several load steps starting from a smaller load step—as
small as 6 kPa—and completed at a load step of as high as 1600 kPa. The
duration of the loading is usually 24 hours in order to ensure completion of
primary consolidation. The load increment ratio (s2 /s1) is usually unity.
The types of apparatus required are summarized as follows:
(1) Standard oedometer equipment with dial gauge and a linear
displacement transducer.
(2) Various sizes of weights.
(3) Stop clock.
Figure 11.17 shows standard oedometer equipment and weight set.
Table 11.6 shows the standard test results with load increment ratio unity
for a duration of 24 hours. The details of the testing procedure is found in
BS 1377 (1990) and Manual of Soil Laboratory Testing by Head (1986).
194 Chapter 11
Figure 11.17 Apparatus for oedometer test.

(Courtesy of Wykcham Farrance, UK)
Table 11.6 Example of oedometer test results.

Inc. Load Change in Voids t90 Cv Mv Kv
No (kN/m2) Ht. (mm) Ratio (min) (m2/yr) (m2/MN) (x 10-9m/s)
1 12 0.016 1.599 0.070

2 25 0.124 1.584 7.90 5.080 0.440 0.693
3 50 0.426 1.542 14.92 2.632 0.650 0.531
4 100 1.116 1.448 28.00 1.329 0.772 0.318
5 200 2.424 1.269 41.55 0.800 0.789 0.196
6 400 4.078 1.043 39.22 0.708 0.554 0.122
7 800 5.570 0.838 28.36 0.794 0.278 0.068
8 1600 6.888 0.658 25.98 0.703 0.136 0.030
9 800 6.714 0.682
10 400 6.398 0.725
11 200 6.054 0.772
12 50 5.044 0.910
From the oedometer tests, several compression and consolidation parameters

can be determined.
(i) Compression Indices (Cc & Cr): Both the compression index within
a recompression range and virgin compression range can be determined as
(ii) Yield Stress (s¢y): By using the Casagrande method, yield stress
¢
(s y) can be determined, as shown in Figure 11.19. There are several other
methods, such as those proposed by Janbu (1969), Butterfield (1979) and
Sridharan et al. (1991) to determine the yield stress.
However, different methods give slightly different values of yield
stress, as shown in Figure 11.20 and Table 11.7. Even the Casagrande method
is affected by scale, as discussed by Mikasa (1995) (Figure 11.21). There
are some non-standard tests which are carried out with different load
increment ratios. It has also been reported that different load increment
ratios give different values of s¢y (Figure 11.22).
1.9
1.7 Cr
1.5
one log cycle
Void ratio, e
1.3
Cc
1.1
0.9
0.7 one log cycle
0.5
0.3
1 10 100 1000 10000
log P (kPa)
Figure 11.18 Compression and recompression index measurement.
1.7
sc¢
P
y
1.5
1.3
Void ratio, e
1.1
0.9
0.7
0.5
1 10 100 1000 10000
log P (kPa)
Figure 11.19 Measurement of yield stress by the Casagrande method.
Table 11.7 Yield stress values (kPa) determined from different methods
of analysis on the same sample.
Sample No. Depth Casagrande Butterfield Sridharan Janbu
UD–1 16.30–17.20 90 95 100 107

UD–2 20.20–21.10 107 113 120 135
UD–3 24.10–25.00 189 200 236 253
UD–4 24.10–25.00 189 200 236 253
UD–5 27.45–28.45 278 282 295 310
196 Chapter 11
1.6 1
CASAGRANDE METHOD BUTTERFIELD METHOD
1.4 0.9
Pc = 278 kPa Pc = 282 kPa
1.2 0.8
Ln(1+e)
1.0
e
0.7
0.8 0.6
0.6 0.5
Sample Depth = 28.45 m Sample Depth = 28.45 m
0.4 0.4
1 10 100 1000 10000 1 10 100 1000 10000
log P (kPa) log P (kPa)
10
1200
SRIDHARAN METHOD
JANBU METHOD
1000
Modulus 1/mv
Constrained
800
1+e
600
400
200 Sample Depth = 28.45
Sample Depth = 28.45 m
1 0 m
1 10 100 1000 10000 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
log P (kPa) log P (kPa)
Figure 11.20 Comparison of preconsolidation pressure determined

through various methods.
1.6 1.8 2.0

1.6 1.8
1.4 1.6
Void ratio, e
Void ratio, e
Void ratio, e
1.4
1.4
1.2
1.2 1.2
1.0 1.0 1.0
0.8
0.8
0.8 0.6
0.6 0.4 Pc = 90 kPa
0.6 0.4 0.2
1 100 10000 1 100 10000 1 100 10000
log P (kPa) log P (kPa) log P (kPa)
Figure 11.21 Scale effect on the measurement of yield stress.
1.7
1.5
Void ratio, e
1.3
s2/s1 <1
s2/s1 =1
1.1
s2/s1 >1
0.9
0.7
0.5
1 10 100 1000 10000
log P (kPa)
Figure 11.22 Effect of load increment ratio.

(iii) Coefficient of Consolidation (Cv): Coefficient of consolidation

can be determined for each loading step when the settlement rate at various
time steps are available. One method was proposed by Casagrade and Fadum
(1944) by plotting the settlement versus log time. From the graph, t50 is
determined (Figure 11.23) and coefficient of consolidation is calculated by
applying the following equation:
Tv d 2
Cv = (11.7)
t50
where Tv is 0.197
d is the thickness of the layer for a single drainage condition, and
half the thickness of the layer for double drainage condition.
t50 is the time required for a 50 % degree consolidation.
Taylor (1942) has proposed an alternative method to determine
settlement versus square root plot (Figure 11.24). From such a plot t90 is
determined, as shown in the drawing. Cv is calculated from the following
equation:
Tv d 2
Cv = (11.8)
t90
where Tv is 0.848
d is the thickness of the layer for a single drainage condition, and
half the thickness of a layer for double drainage condition.
t90 is the time required for a 90 % degree consolidation.
These two methods give slightly different values for Cv, as shown in
Figure 11.25. Taylor’s method gives higher Cv values.
Log time (min)

0.01 0.1 1 10 t50
100 1000 10000
0.00
s1' = 640 kPa
Compression, mm
0.50
1.00
1.50 SAMPLE DEPTH = 18.50 m
2.00
Figure 11.23 Typical settlement log time graph.

198 Chapter 11
Square root time, minute

0 10 20 30 40 50 60
0.00
σ1 = 640 kPa
Settlement, mm
0.40
0.80
t90
SAMPLE DEPTH = 18.50 m
1.20 a
1.1a
1.60
Figure 11.24 Typical settlement versus root time graph.
10.00
Cv, m2/year (Taylor method)
8.00
6.00
4.00
2.00
0.00
0.00 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00
Cv, m2/year (Casagrande method)
Figure 11.25 Comparison of Cv values using two measurement methods.
(iv) Secondary Compression Index: From the settlement versus log

time plot, another parameter which can be determined is the secondary
compression index, as shown in Figure 11.26.
11.2.2 ■ End of primary consolidation test
It is well known that 24 hours duration of loading on a thin layer of about

19 mm thickness sample will result in a significant magnitude of secondary
consolidation settlement. At each step of loading, additional void ratio
change occurs which causes the e-log s¢v curve to move towards the left
side, as shown in the Figure 11.27. This moving of the e-log s¢v curve to the
left side causes the reduction of the estimated yield stress, as shown in the
figure. Therefore, to obtain the correct e-log s¢v curve at the end of primary
consolidation, the consolidation test should be carried out up to the end of
primary consolidation. Primary consolidation can be detected if the
consolidation test is carried out in concealed conditions with a pore pressure
measurement facility. Otherwise, the end of primary consolidation can be
estimated from the evs t curve using the Taylor (1942) method. Figure 11.27
shows a comparison of e and log s¢v curves from a conventional 24-
hour oedometer test and the end of a primary consolidation test. The test
procedure and sample preparation are the same except for increasing the
next load at the end of primary consolidation.
Log time, minute

0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
0.00
σ1' = 640 kPa
Compression, mm
0.50
1.00
Cα
1.50
one log cycle
2.00
Figure 11.26 Secondary consolidation measurement by an oedometer

test.
2.0
24 hr (V) EOP
1.8
Pc (24 hour loading)
1.6 Pc (EOP)
Void ratio, e
1.4
1.2
1.0 SAMPLE DEPTH - 16.35 m
SAMPLE NO. - PS-1
0.8
0.6
1 10 100 1000 10000
log P, kPa
Figure 11.27 Comparison of e-log s’v curves of EOP, and 24-hour

loading test.
200 Chapter 11
11.2.3 ■ Consolidation test with the Rowe Cell
The apparatus developed by Rowe (1966) is specially useful when a

consolidation test is required to be carried out with pore pressure
measurement. The apparatus is concealed and the pressure is usually applied
with a hydraulic pressure. Since the pore pressure can be measured, the
end of primary consolidation can be easily determined. Rowe Cell also
allows various combinations of drainage to be carried out, as shown in
Figure 11.31. Therefore, the coefficient of consolidation due to horizontal
flow can be determined from a test with radial flow.
Figures 11.28 and 11.29 show a typical design of the Rowe Cell and
its photograph respectively. Figure 11.30 shows pore pressure measurement
and e-log s¢v curve obtained from a Rowe Cell test with radial drainage.
Tests with several combinations of drainage can be carried out, as shown in
the Figure 11.31. Based on the type of drainage, the coefficient of
consolidation can be calculated (Table 11.8).
settlement dial gauge
dial gauge
support frame
diaphragm
pressure settlement
system drainage
rod flexible lead
air bleed
gland
sealing back pressure
C washer E system
cell top
F D
water
diaphragm sintered porous
bronze disc
cell body transducer housing
sample
de-airing system
A B
O-ring seal ceramic insert 1
(pwp measuring point) power supply/
pore pressure readout unit
transducer
Figure 11.28 Schematic diagram of the Rowe Cell.

Figure 11.29 Rowe Cell equipment.
(a) (b)
250 1.40
SAMPLE NO. - PS-7
12 kPa 1.35 SAMPLE DEPTH = 27.45m
200 25 kPa
Pore pressure, k
Void ratio, e
50 kPa 1.30
150 100 kPa 1.25
200 kPa
100 400 kPa 1.20
1.15
50
1.10
0 1.05
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000 10 100 1000
Time, minute log P, kPa
Figure 11.30 Rowe Cell test result: (a) pore pressure measurement;
(b) e-log s¢v .
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 11.31 Diagram of various drainage paths in the Rowe Cell test
(after Head 1986).
202 Chapter 11
Table 11.8 Coefficient of consolidation calculation formula for Rowe Cell

test with different drainage paths (after Head 1986).
Test Drainage Boundary Consolidation Theoretical Time Power Measurements Coefficient
Ref. direction strain location time factor function curve used of
T50 T90 slope consolidation
factor year
(a) vertical, free average 0.197 0.848 DV or DH*

TvH2
and and (Tv) t0.5 1.15 Cv=0.526
t
(b) one way equal center of base 0.379 1.031 p.w.p
(c) vertical, free

TvH2
and and average 0.197 (Tv) 0.848 t0.5 1.15 DV or DH* Cv=0.131
t
(d) two way equal
radial average 0.06320.335 DV

ThoD2
(e) outward free (Tho) t0.465 1.22 Ch=0.131
t
central 0.200 0.479 p.w.p
average 0.0866 0.288 DV or DH

ThoD2
(f) equal (Tho) t0.5 1.17 Cho=0.131
t
central 0.173 0.374 p.w.p
radial, average 0.771 2.631 DV

ThiD2
(g) inward+ free (Thi) t0.5 1.17 Chi=0.131
t
r=0.55R 0.765 2.625 p.w.p
average 0.781 2.595 DV or DH

ThiD2
(h) equal (Thi) t0.5 1.17 Chi=0.131
t
r=0.55R 0.778 2.592 p.w.p
+ Drain ratio 1/20 •DH with equal strain only Tv, Tho, Thi = theoretical time factor
t = time (minutes) H = sample height (mm) D = sample diameter (mm)
11.2.4 ■ Constant Rate of Loading (CRL) test
An alternative way of carrying out a consolidation test is the Constant Rate

of Loading test. Different test methods for applying and controlling the
axial load have been described by Aboshi et al. (1970), Irwin (1975), and
Burghignoli (1979). The Rowe Cell, together with the geodetic hydraulic
system, is a suitable equipment for constant rate of loading test. The
advantage of the constant rate of loading test is the short duration required
to obtain a full set of results. However, e-log s¢v curves obtained from
different rates of loading are different, as shown in Figure 11.32. Therefore,
a suitable constant rate of loading is necessary to determine a reasonable
rate of loading.
The rate of loading can be determined with the help of pore pressure
measurement. The rate of loading with a pore pressure ratio (ub /sv) of less
than 60% is reasonable, when ub is the base pore pressure and sv is the
applied load. An average effective stress gain can be determined using the
following equation proposed by Smith and Wahls (1969):
s 1' = s 1 - aub (11.9)
where s¢v is the average effective stress gain and sv is the applied stress,
and a is the ratio of the average pore pressure to pore pressure at the base.
It is usually taken as 0.667 or 2/3.
Compression indices can be easily determined from a constant rate of
loading. Figure 11.33 shows a comparison of a constant rate of loading test
carried out under various rates of loading with 24-hour conventional test
results.
Yield stress can be determined in the same way as discussed in the
24-hour loading tests. It should be noted that the magnitude of yield stress
increases with the rate of loading. Therefore, it is deemed necessary to
select the correct rate of loading. The coefficient of consolidation can be
determined by applying the following equation:
1.9
6kPa/hour
1.7
3kPa/hour
1.5
Void ratio, e
9kPa/hour
1.3
1.1 3kPa/hour
6kPa/hour Sample Depth = 16.75 m
0.9 Sample No. UD-1
9kPa/hour
0.7
1 10 100 1000 10000
log P, kPa
Figure 11.32 CRL test results with a different rate of loading.
1.9 Sample Depth = 16.75 m

Sample No. UD-1
1.7
6kPa/hour
1.5
Void ratio, e
9kPa/hour
1.3
3kPa/hour
1.1
3kPa/hour
24 hour test
6kPa/hour
0.9
9kPa/hour
24 hour test
0.7
1 10 100 1000 10000
log P, kPa
Figure 11.33 A comparison of CRL test results with a 24-hour

oedometer test results.
204 Chapter 11
Cv = 0.263 dP’ x H2 m2/year

(11.10)
dt du
where dP¢/dt is the loading rate, H is the mean height of the sample in
meters, and d u is the excess pore pressure.
Details of test procedures are found in the Manual of Soil Laboratory
Testing, vol. 3 by Head (1986).
11.2.5 ■ Constant Rate of Strain (CRS) test
The constant rate of strain test on natural soil has been described by a number
of researchers, such as Smith and Wahls (1969), Anwar, Wissa, Christian,
Davis and Heiberg (1971), and Gorman, Hopkins, Deen and Drnevich
(1978), and Sheahan and Watters (1996). Its application to very soft clayey
soils, such as dredged material and slurry, was reported by Umehara and
Zen (1980), Carrier III and Beckman (1984). Tests on gaseous soils were
reported by Wichman (1999).
The apparatus was developed by Wissa in 1971. An alternative
apparatus is the Rowe Cell. With the Rowe Cell, a constant rate of strain
can be achieved by pumping water into the diaphragm cell at a specified
rate.
Various strain rates based on liquid limit, coefficients of consolidation
and excess pore pressure ratio have been proposed by several researchers.
Wissa et al. (1971) used a strain rate which generated a base excess pore
pressure (Dub) of less than 30% of applied total vertical stress (sv). The
strain rate has been standardized in ASTM D4186-82 where values ranging
between 0.0001 and 0.04% per minute have been recommended.
Smith and Wahls (1969) proposed the strain rate for natural soil given
in the following equation based on Cv and Cc:
È ub ˘
Cv Cc Í s1 ˙
R= 2 Í ˙
m H 0 (1 + ei ) Í1 - 0.7Ê ub ˆ ˙ (11.11)
Î Ë s 1¯ ˚
Sheahan and Watters (1996) proposed the following equation for
computing the coefficient of consolidation and permeability from the CRS
tests for natural soil in non-transient conditions where the dimensionless
time factor T is greater than 5.
s v2
- H 2 log
s v1
cv =
Ê Du ˆ (11.12)
2 Dt log Á1 - b ˜
Ë sv ¯
-0.434gH 2g w
cv =
Ê s - Dub ˆ
2d v' log Á v ˜ (11.13)
Ë sv ¯
where H is the current specimen height, g is the strain rate and gw is the unit
weight of water. sv1 and sv2 are the total stresses at two difference times, Dt
and s¢v are the average effective stress obtained from:
s v' = (s v3 - 2s v2 ub + s v ub2 )
1
3 (11.14)
where ub is the pore pressure at the base.

Smith and Wahls (1969) proposed the following equation to obtain cv
from the CRS test:
gH 2 È1 b Ê 1 ˆ ˘
cv = Í 2 - r ÁË 12 ˜¯ ˙ (11.15)
av ub Î ˚
where av is the coefficient of compressibility and b/r is the dimensionless
ratio in which b is a constant that depends on the variation in the void
ratio with the depth. The practical range of b/r is between zero and two.
Anwar et al. (1971) proposed the following equation for cv based on a
non-linear theory assuming s v = s v for small ub.
-0.434g H 2
cv =
Ê u ˆ
2s v' mv log Á1 - b ˜ (11.16)
Ë s ¯
Figure 11.34 shows a comparison of CRS tests with various rates of
strain and 24 hours consolidation test. Figure 11.35 shows a constant rate
of strain testing device developed by the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology (MIT) and manufactured at Wykeham Farrance. Details of the
testing procedure with the Wykeham Farrance equipment can also be found
in the Manual of Soil Laboratory Testing by Head (1986).
Details of various types of consolidation tests carried out on Singapore
Marine Clay and ultra-soft soil can be found in Bo et al. (1986) and Bo et al.
(2003b) respectively.
206 Chapter 11
1.6
Void ratio, e 1.4
1.2
1.0
LL = 84 %
PL = 30 %
0.8
0.6
1 10 100 1000 10000
Effective pressure (kN/m2)
Strain Rate = 0.25mm/hour Strain Rate = 0.50mm/hour
Strain Rate = 1.00mm/hour Oedometer Test
Figure 11.34 Comparison of a CRS test with 24-hour oedometer test

results.
Figure 11.35 CRS test apparatus. (Courtesy of

Wykcham Farrance, UK)
11.3 ■ SHEAR STRENGTH TEST
The shear strength of clay can be determined in the laboratory in several

ways. Depending on the type of strength required, undrained or drained,
and mode of failure, test methods and equipment can be selected.
11.3.1 ■ Laboratory vane
This is a quick method and shearing is done by rotating the soil cylinder.
The method of testing and mode of failure are similar to field vane testing.
The apparatus is shown in Figure 11.36. Depending on the expected
magnitude of shear strength, various types of spring are used. Among the
four available springs, no. 1 is the stiffest and can measure shear stress up
to 90 kN/m2, no. 4 is the weakest and can measure only up to 20 kN/m2.
The available types of spring are shown in Table 11.9. The resulting tongue
values are converted to vane strength using the following formula.
c = Kq f 4.29 (11.17)
where qf is the relative angular deflection (angle) at failure and K is the

torsion constant which can be obtained from the supplier of the equipment.
Details of the testing procedure can be found in the Manual of Soil
Laboratory Testing by Head (1986).
Figure 11.36 Laboratory vane apparatus.
Table 11.9 Types of spring for laboratory vane test.

General descriptive term Suggested spring no. Maximum shear stress
for strength (kN/m2)
Very soft 4 20
Soft 3 40
Soft to firm 2 60
Firm 1 90
208 Chapter 11
11.3.2 ■ Direct simple shear test
Direct simple shear equipment is developed by the Norwegian Geotechnical

Institute. With this equipment both drained and undrained shear tests on
clay can be carried out.
In the direct simple shear apparatus, a cylindrical sample, either 50 or
70 mm in diameter by 10 mm thick, is confined in a rubber membrane.
This rubber membrane is reinforced with thin metal washers that allow
vertical and horizontal displacement with little change in diameter. This
equipment also allows a consolidation test to be carried out on the sample.
A drainage valve is provided to allow water to flow out for consolidation.
The rate and magnitude of consolidation can be measured either by vertical
displacement or measuring the volume of water drained out. When a
consolidation test is being carried out lateral strain is completely prevented
by a consolidation clamp which is fitted to the outside of the metal washers.
Before shearing is carried out, the clamp has to be removed. In the system,
vertical loading is provided by an air piston and the vertical load can be
measured either by a load cell or pressure gauge.
The horizontal shear force is applied by a motor drive with 25 different
speeds ranging from 0.0005 mm/min to 1.2 mm/min, as shown in Table
11.10. While the load is measured on the load cell, displacement is measured
either by a dial gauge or a transducer. Shearing is generally achieved by
displacing the sample horizontally at a certain displacement rate. Details
of the test procedure can be found in the Handbook for Direct Simple Shear
by Wykeham Ferrance. The test can be carried out in quick undrained, or
consolidated undrained, or drained conditions. Figure 11.37 shows the direct
simple shear equipment, and Figure 11.38 shows an example of test results
obtained from direct simple shear tests for various types of clay.
Table 11.10 Different gear cogs and lever positions for speed selection.
Gear Lever
Position 60–30* 54–36* 45–45* 36–45* 30–60*
A 1.2 0.9 0.6 0.4 0.3

B 0.24 0.18 0.12 0.08 0.06
C 0.048 0.036 0.024 0.016 0.012
D 0.0096 0.0072 0.0048 0.0032 0.0024
E 0.00192 0.00144 0.00096 0.00064 0.00048
Speed = mm/minute
* number of gear cogs
Figure 11.37 Direct simple shear apparatus.

Horizontal Displacement, mm
0 1 2 3 4 5
0.0
Change in sample
0.2
height, mm
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
80
Shear stress, kPa
Sample Depth = 16.50 m
60
40
20
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
150
c = 54 kPa
Shear stress, kPa
φ = 0º
100
50
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Normal stress, kPa
Figure 11.38 Direct simple shear test results.

210 Chapter 11
11.3.3 ■ Triaxial test
Triaxial tests are usually carried out on undisturbed soil or rock and
reconstituted sand. There are several methods of testing; the choice of testing
procedure is dependent upon the loading and drainage conditions of the
problem being investigated and the method of analysis to be used.
The test apparatus consists of a loading frame with a loading machine
at the base. The loading machine is generally motorized, with various speeds.
The base of the cell, which includes the cell pressure, pore pressure, and
back pressure gauges and the drainage part (Figure 11.39), is placed on the
piston of the loading machine. Both pore pressure and back pressure can
be measured with a pressure transducer. The cell, which is designed for
water pressure, sits on the base plate during the test. Various sizes of base
plates and cells can be found in the market (Figure 11.40). The sample,
normally with a length to diameter ratio of 2, is made in a cylindrical shape
Figure 11.39 Base pedestal of triaxial cell.

Figure 11.40 Triaxial cell (38 mm, 75 mm, 100 mm sample diameter.
and placed on the base pedestal which is connected to the piston of the
loading machine, and the load is generally measured either by a load cell or
a probing ring with a dial gauge. Vertical displacement is also measured by
a dial gauge or a displacement transducer. Figure 11.41 shows the general
arrangement of a triaxial cell and load frame. Details on setting up testing
and sample preparation are found in the Manual of Soil Laboratory Testing
by Head (1986).
11.3.3.1—Unconsolidated undrained test (UU)
When quick measurements of undrained shear strength of soil are required,

unconsolidated undrained tests are carried out. Normally, the tests are carried
with three identical samples under various cell pressures. The selection of
cell pressure depends upon the undisturbed condition of the soil. In the
second and third steps of the tests, the cell pressures are increased to double
that of the earlier step.
Vertical pressure is provided by a loading machine with a suitable
strain rate and the vertical load is measured with a load cell or probing ring.
Graphical plots of stress-strain curves can be obtained from the test (Figure
11.42). The tests are carried out usually until failure or up to 20% of strain.
From the applied pressure and measured vertical pressure, Mohr circles
can be produced (Figure 11.43). Usually in UU tests the Mohr circles are
almost identical. Unconsolidated undrained shear strength is obtained from
Figure 11.41 Triaxial cell and triaxial compression machine.

212 Chapter 11
150
Deviator stress, kPa

100
50
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Strain, %
Figure 11.42 Stress strain curve of unconsolidated undrained shear test.
200 SAM PLE DEPTH = 18.5 m

Shear stress, kPa
c = 36 kPa
φ = 0º
100
0 100 200 300 400 500 600

Total stress, kPa
Figure 11.43 Undrained shear strength from unconsolidated undrained

shear test.
maximum deviator stress, as shown in Figure 11.43. Details of testing

procedures are found in BS 1377 (1990), Manual of Soil Laboratory Testing
by Head (1986), and Bishop and Hankel (1962).
11.3.3.2—Consolidated undrained triaxial compression test with measurement

of pore pressure
Consolidated undrained tests are carried out when effective stress parameters
are required for long-term stability analysis of shore protection works,
retaining structures, and dredging and excavation works. Consolidated
undrained triaxial test with pore pressure measurement will provide both
total and effective stress parameters. By consolidating soil to in-situ stress,
a certain degree of sample disturbance can be eliminated. However,
consolidation is normally carried out by cell pressure, called isotropic
consolidation.
300
200
Effective Stress Path
q, ql (kPa)
Total Stress Path
100
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
p, pl (kPa)
Figure 11.44 Stress paths of consolidated undrained test.
Usually tests are carried out on three identical samples with the first
sample consolidated to in-situ effective stress, and the second and third
samples consolidated to the effective stress double that of the earlier sample.
Undrained tests are carried out in the same manner as UU tests and pressure
and displacement are measured. Pore pressure is also measured during the
tests. Details of the test procedure are found in the Manual of Soil Laboratory
Testing by Head (1986) and Bishop and Hankel (1962). From the obtained
displacement, stress and pore pressure measurements, the total and effective
stress parameters of soil are determined, as shown in Figure 11.44.
11.3.3.3—Consolidated drained triaxial compression test
When drained parameters are required for long-term stability analysis,

consolidated drained triaxial tests are carried out. The apparatus used is the
same as the triaxial apparatus; however, the drainage system is open during
the test. The consolidation procedure is same as the consolidated undrained
test. Consolidation stresses are also selected based on the same criteria as
the CIU test. However, in the shearing stage the drainage valve is open and
therefore there is no pore pressure. Details of the test procedures are found
in the Manual of Soil Laboratory Testing by Head (1986), Bishop and Hankel
(1962).
From the data obtained from displacement and stresses, stress-strain
curves and Mohr circles can be produced. In turn, drained parameters can
be determined, as shown in Figure 11.45.
214 Chapter 11
400
Effective shear stress, kPa

SAM PLE DEPTH = 19.50 m
cd = 0
φd = 20º
300
200
100
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800

Effective stress, kPa
Figure 11.45 Consolidated drained test result.
11.3.3.4—Triaxial extension test
Extension shear stress is required when excess pressure needs to be removed

or unloaded, or the excavation process needs to be analyzed. Extension can
be achieved in two ways: (i) while maintaining vertical stress, horizontal
stress is increased; and (ii) while horizontal stress is being maintained, and
the vertical stress is reduced. Tests can be carried out for both consolidated
drained and undrained conditions. Consolidation procedures are same as
that explained earlier.
Generally, in the laboratory, extension is achieved by reducing the
vertical stress by slowly moving the cell downward at a controlled rate.
The base of the cell is clamped to the machine platen using a G-clamp. The
arrangement of an extension triaxial test is shown in Figure 11.46. Details
of the test procedures are found in the Manual of Soil Laboratory Testing
by Head (1986), and Bishop and Henkel (1962).
From the measurement of stresses and displacement stress-strain
curves, extension shear strength parameters can be obtained, as shown in
Figure 11.47.
11.3.3.5—Stress path test
Shear strength of soil is stress and strain dependent. If the path of the stress
is different, the shear strength varies. Moreover, in some geotechnical
construction procedures, the paths of stress vary. Therefore, depending upon
the path of stress, the relevant shear stress needs to be found. Even to find
the realistic in-situ shear strength of soil, consolidation of soil needs to
follow the k0 path, not the isotropic path. To carry out the shear strength
test with various stress paths, a computer controlled triaxial testing system
Figure 11.46 Triaxial extension test apparatus.
pl, kPa
0 100 200 300 400 500
0
Me = 0.780
-100
ql, kPa
-200
-300
Figure 11.47 Triaxial extension test result.
is required. The GDS triaxial system with a digital hydraulic controller

developed by GDS UK is one suitable equipment for testing stress path
(Figure 11.48). Most of the time, this system consists of a Bishop & Wesley-
type hydraulic cell. A digital hydraulic controller can provide controlled
applied pressure and can also measure pore pressure, back pressure, and
volume change. With the help of the software provided, tests can be carried
out for various stress paths, both at the consolidation stage and shearing
stage.
Details of the Bishop & Wesley cell (Figure 11.49) can be found in
the Manual of Soil Laboratory Testing by Head (1986). The design and
216 Chapter 11
features of the digital hydraulic controller (Figure 11.50) can be found in

the handbook of GDS instruments. Figure 11.51 shows the layout of stress
path testing. Details of the testing procedure are found in the Manual of
Soil Laboratory Testing by Head (1986). Figure 11.52 shows typical CK0U
results, and Figure 11.53 shows several stress paths.
Figure 11.48 Computer-controlled triaxial testing system.

(Courtesy of GDS Instruments Ltd, UK)
Figure 11.49 Schematic diagram of a Bishop & Wesley cell.

Figure 11.50 GDS controller.

Figure 11.51 Stress path test apparatus.
500
Kf
400 K0
300
ql, kPa
200
100
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
pl, kPa
Figure 11.52 Typical CKoU test results.

218 Chapter 11
M value for marine clay

200
150
1
7
100
6' 2
15
4 6
q=(s1l - s3l) (kPa)
50 5
0 5'
12 3'
13
2'
-50 4'
14
-100
Mc=1.12,
-150 Me=0.91
At critical
-200
0 50 100 150 200
p=(s1l+2xs3l)/3 (kPa)
Figure 11.53 Various stress paths.

Design Process for Land Reclamation and Soil Improvement 219
CHAPTER 12
Design Process for

Land Reclamation and
Soil Improvement
The design process for land reclamation projects require both settlement
and bearing capacity analysis. If the fill material is granular soil, the bearing
capacity is not an issue but settlement of reclaimed land caused by
underlying compressible soil layers would be a major issue. However, the
allowable critical height of the embankment should be included as part of
the bearing capacity calculation. This chapter will emphasize on the
settlement aspect, and the bearing capacity aspect will only be discussed
briefly.
12.1 ■ BEARING CAPACITY OF SEABED SOIL
If the underlying seabed soil is firm with cohesive or dense granular soil,
the bearing capacity of the foundation will not pose a problem. However, if
it is soft clay, prevention against shear failure should be considered. Since
consolidation may take place after an additional load is placed, the shear
strength of the clay may increase from time to time. The critical time may
be soon after filling. A simple estimation of the critical height of fill is
given by:
5c u
Hc = (12.1)
g fill
where Hc is the critical height

cu is the undrained shear strength
gfill is the unit weight of fill
The critical height related to the formation of the reclamation profile
would be largely dependent upon the geometry of the slope, which will be
discussed in the section under slope stability. The bearing capacity of the
foundation to be built on the reclaimed fill should be calculated separately
depending upon the type of foundation. This will not be discussed here.
220 Chapter 12
12.2 ■ SETTLEMENT OF RECLAIMED FILL
Concerning the settlement of recently reclaimed land, there are two types
of settlement. The first is instantaneous settlement caused by elastic and
plastic deformation of soil particles themselves. This settlement is rapid
and relatively small in magnitude. Therefore, its effects are usually ignored
in land reclamation project design. The second type is significant settlement,
which must be considered in the calculations as consolidation settlement.
This type of settlement is huge in magnitude and also takes place over a
longer time. Therefore, it may cause problems to infrastructure built on the
reclaimed land or the earth structure itself. This aspect will be discussed in
detail in this chapter.
12.3 ■ PRIMARY CONSOLIDATION OF

COMPRESSIBLE SOIL
Primary consolidation of compressible soil usually occurs because of the
additional load placed on it. This settlement will be discussed under two
aspects: (a) magnitude of settlement (b) time rate of settlement.
12.3.1 ■ Magnitude of settlement
The magnitude of settlement of the compressible layer is very dependent

upon the (i) magnitude of the additional load ( Ds ' ), (ii) compressibility of
the layer (Cc or Cr), (iii) thickness of the layer (H), (iv) initial condition of
soil such as the initial void ratio (eo), (v) and stress history of the soil, such
( )
as preconsolidation pressure s y' . The greater the magnitude of additional
load, compressibility, thickness and initial void ratio, the higher is the
magnitude of settlement. The greater the preconsolidation pressure, the lower
is the magnitude of settlement.
12.3.1.1—Normally consolidated soil
For clay under normal consolidation conditions (that is, current effective
stress s 1 is equivalent to the overburden pressure s v , s 1 = s v ), the
' ' ' '
magnitude of settlement caused by the additional load is given by:
Cc s ¢ + Ds '
S= H log v (12.2)
1 + eo s v¢
where S is settlement
Cc is compression index
eo is natural void ratio
s v' is initial effective stress and

Ds ' is additional stress
The compression parameters, initial void ratio, and current effective
stress can be determined by carrying out the laboratory tests described in
Chapter 11.
Example 12.1
Reclamation is carried out on the foreshore area where an underlying
compressible soft clay of 10 meters thickness exists. The seabed is at
–4mCD and the stabilized ground water level is at +2mCD after
reclamation. The reclamation is carried out up to +5mCD and this
can be considered as instantaneous loading. The geotechnical
parameters of soft clay and fill material are given in Figure Example
12.1. Calculate the magnitude of primary consolidation settlement.
Additional stress below ground water level

= (+ 2 + 4) x (18 – 10) = 48 kN/m2
Additional stress above ground water level
= (5 – 2) x (18) = 54 kN/m2
Total additional stress = 102 kN/m2
Current effective stress at the center of the compressible layer, s v

'
= [(– 4 – (–14))/2] x (15 – 10) = 25 kN/m2
By applying Equation 12.2,

1 25 + 102
S= 10 log
1+ 2 25
the ultimate primary consolidation settlement = 2.35 meters
+5mCD
+2mCD
sandfill gsandfill = 18kN/m3
gw = 10kN/m3
-4mCD
gbulk = 15kN/m3
e0 = 2.0
Cc = 1.0
OCR = 1.0
-14mCD
Figure Example 12.1 Soil and reclamation profiles.

222 Chapter 12
12.3.1.2—Overconsolidated soil
Overconsolidated soils settle much less than normally consolidated soil

because of its higher yield stress in in-situ conditions. Generally, the yield
stress of overconsolidated soil is greater than the existing overburden stress.
The magnitude of settlement is much lower when overburden stress plus
additional stress is lower than its yield stress. The settlement of
overconsolidated soil, when total applied load s v + Ds ' is lower than its
'
yield stress ( s y ), is given by:

'
Cr s ' + Ds '
S= H log v ' (12.3)
1 + eo sv
where Cr is the recompression index
Example 12.2
A similar type of reclamation was carried out using the same type of
fill material on a similar type of seabed and thickness of compressible
soil as in example 12.1. However, the compressible soil was found to
be in an overconsolidated condition and its OCR (over consolidation
ratio) was about 3. The filling was carried out to only +2mCD.
Calculate the magnitude of primary consolidation settlement.
Therefore, the current status of effective stress or yield stress

s y' = 3 ¥ 25 = 75 kN / m 2
0.1 25 + 48
S= 10 log
1+ 2 25
the ultimate primary consolidation settlement = 0.155m
It can be seen that the magnitude of settlement is much smaller
compared with Example 12.1.
For overconsolidated soil, when additional stress is applied beyond
the yield stress, the settlement becomes greater. However, this magnitude
of settlement is still smaller than the additional stress applied to NC condition
soil. The magnitude of settlement is given by:
Cr s y' C s ' + Ds '
S= H log + c H log v ' (12.4)
1 + eo s v¢ 1 + eo sy
+2mCD
gw = 10kN/m3
-4mCD
gbulk = 15kN/m3
e0 = 2.0
Cc = 1.0
Cr = 0.10
H = 10.0
OCR = 1.0
-14mCD
+5mCD
+2mCD
gw = 10kN/m3
-4mCD
gbulk = 15kN/m3
e0 = 2.0
Cc = 1.0
Cr = 0.10
H = 10.0
OCR = 3.0
-14mCD
Example 12.3
Reclamation was carried out on the same type of soil and seabed
conditions as in Example 12.2. However, the sand was filled up to
+5mCD. Calculate the magnitude of settlement.
Applying Equation 12.4,

Additional stress above ground water level
= (5 – 2) x (18) = 54 kN/m2
Additional stress below ground water level
= (2 + 4) x (18 – 10) = 48 kN/m2
Total additional stress = 102 kN/m2
0.1 75 1 127
S= 10 log + 10 log
1+ 2 25 1 + 2 75
the ultimate primary consolidation settlement = 0.921 m
It can be seen that the magnitude of settlement occurring in OC clay
is smaller than the NC clay even with the same magnitude of additional
stress.
224 Chapter 12
12.3.1.3—Underconsolidated soil
Sometimes underconsolidated clay can be found naturally. In that case, the

current effective stress of clay is lower than its overburden stress. In such
conditions, the magnitude of settlement will be much greater. The settlement
of underconsolidated clay is given by:
Cc s ' + Ds '
S= H log v ' (12.5)
1 + eo s1
where s 1 is the current status of effective stress, which is lower than the
'
existing overburden stress s v . Discussion on underconsolidated soil such

'
as slurry is found in Bo et al. (1997c).
Example 12.4
The reclamation level, condition of seabed and soil conditions are the
same as Example 12.1, except that the current status of effective stress
( d1 ) is less than the existing overburden stress and only 15 kN/m3.
'
Calculate the magnitude of settlement.

1 25 + 102
S= 10 log
1+ 2 15
the ultimate primary consolidation settlement = 3.09 m
It can be seen that underconsolidated clay settlement is much greater

than overconsolidated and normally consolidated clay.
When the compressible layer is not homogenous and has several sub-
layers with different geotechnical properties, the ultimate settlement is
calculated for each sub-layer by applying the relevant equations. The total
settlement is the summation of all sub-layer settlement.
Total ultimate settlement ÂS = S layer 1

+ Slayer 2 + Slayer 3 ------
Example 12.5
This time the compressible layer has about (5) sub-layers, which have
five different soil properties, as shown in the figure. Calculate the
ultimate primary consolidation settlement.
Additional load is calculated in the same way as Example 12.1.
The ultimate settlement is calculated for each sub-layer by applying

Equation 12.4.
+5mCD
+2mCD
gw = 10kN/m3
-4mCD
s’1 = 15kN/m3
Condition — Underconsolidated
-14mCD
+10mCD
+2mCD
gw = 10kN/m3
-4mCD
e0 = 2.0 Cc = 1.0 Cr = 0.1
g = 15.0kN/m3 OCR = 2.0 Cv = 0.6m2/yr
-6mCD
e0 = 1.8 Cc = 0.8 Cr = 0.08
g = 15.5kN/m3 OCR = 2.0 Cv = 0.5m2/yr
-9mCD
e0 = 1.5 Cc = 0.4 Cr = 0.04
g = 16kN/m3 OCR = 4.0 Cv = 1m2/yr
-11mCD
e0 = 1.6 Cc = 0.6 Cr = 0.06
g = 15.5kN/m3 OCR = 3.0 Cv = 0.7m2/yr
-13mCD
e0 = 1.7 Cc = 0.7 Cr = 0.07
g = 16kN/m3 OCR = 4.0 Cv = 2.0m2/yr
-14mCD
Total ultimate settlement is
ÂS ult = Sult1 + Sult 2 + Sult 3 + Sult 4 + Sult 5
Details of the calculation can be found in Table Example 12.5.
Examples 12.1 to 12.5 use a simple method of calculating the

magnitude of settlement. However, the magnitude of settlement is
traditionally calculated for several sub-divided layers, and the total
magnitude of settlement is the summation of all sub-layer settlement.
Estimating the magnitude of settlement without subdividing usually
gives an overestimated magnitude of settlement. The accurate magnitude
of settlement can be obtained only if sufficient sub-division is made. This
226
Table Example 12.5 Calculations for multi-layer settlement.
Seabed (mad) -4
Chapter 12
Fill level (mCD) 10
GW level (mCD) 2
Density of fill (KN/m3) 18
Density of water (KN/m3) 10
Additional load (KN/m2) 192
El of mid of sub-layer Boundary El Density e s’vo OCR s’y Cc Cr H Pr Settlement

(mCD) (mCD) Clay (m) (m)
-5 -6 15 2 5 2 10 1 0.1 2 197 0.883
-7.5 -9 15.5 1.8 18.25 2 36.5 0.8 0.08 3 210.25 0.678
-10 -11 16 1.5 32.5 4 130 0.4 0.04 2 224.5 0.095
-12 -13 15.5 1.6 44 3 132 0.6 0.06 2 236 0.138
-13.5 -14 16 1.7 52.5 3 157.5 0.7 0.07 1 244.5 0.062
Total settlement 1.856
Note: The settlement formula is given as S = Cr / (1+e)*H*log(Pc / Po)+Cc / (1+e)*H*log(Pf / Pc)

Number of sub-divided layers

0 2 4 6 8 10
2.3 0
Percentage difference (%)

2
Ultimate settlement (m)
2.4
4
Settlement 6
2.5
Percentage Difference 8
2.6 10
12
2.7
14
2.8 16
(a)
Number of sub-divided layers

0 2 4 6 8 10
0.8 0
Percentage difference (%)

5
Ultimate settlement (m)
0.9
10
1 Settlement
15
1.1 Percentage Difference
20
1.2
25
1.3 30
1.4 35
(b)
Figure 12.1 Variation of magnitude of settlement with different numbers

of sub-divided layers: (a) NC Clay, (b) OC Clay.
is demonstrated in Figure 12.1 in which the reference settlement is 2.75

meters for NC clay, and 1.31meters for OC clay.
This figure shows the variation of settlement with different numbers
of sub-divisions for normally consolidated clay and overconsolidated clay,
as explained in Examples 12.1 and 12.3. It was found that the magnitude of
settlement stabilized only after certain numbers of sub-layers are made.
The variation is much greater for OC clay than NC clay.
12.4 ■ TIME RATE OF CONSOLIDATION
The time rate of consolidation largely depends on the permeability of the

clay and the thickness. For the consolidation process, the time rate of
consolidation is rather related to the coefficient of consolidation (cv). This
228 Chapter 12
parameter varies depending upon the stress level, and it is more or less
constant in the normally consolidated range. The coefficient of consolidation
can be obtained from oedometer tests, as described in Chapter 11.
Casagrande (1938) and Taylor (1948) provide the relationship between
the degree of settlement or the degree of consolidation as follows:
For Uv < 60%
p 2
Tv = U (12.6)
4 v
For Uv > 60%
Tv = 1.781 - 0.933 log(100 - U %) (12.7)
where Uv is the degree of consolidation, Tv is the time factor.

Sivaram and Swames (1977) has suggested that there is a closely
matching relationship between the degree of consolidation and the time
factor for the whole range, as follows:
=
[4T / p ]
v
0.5
[1 + (4T / p ) ]
Uv 2.8 1.79 (12.8)
v
Figure 12.2 shows a comparison of time factor curves resulting from

Equations 12.6, 12.7 and 12.8. It was found that the curves nearly match.
The time factor can then be obtained if the coefficient of consolidation
and drainage length are known, by using the following equation:
t
Tv = Cv (12.9)
H dr2
where t is time. Hdr is the drainage path and for single drainage it is equivalent
to the thickness of the layer and for double drainage, it is half of the thickness
of the layer.
Therefore, using Equations 12.8 and 12.9, the degree of consolidation
and time rate of consolidation can be calculated.
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10

0
0.2
Degree of consolidation
0.4
0.6
0.8 Equation (12.6 & 12.7)
Equation (12.8)
1
Time factor (Tv)
Figure 12.2 Comparison of time factor curves obtained from Equations

12.6, 12.7 and 12.8.
Example 12.6
Reclamation was carried out as shown in Example 12.1 and the
geotechnical parameters of soft clay is also the same as Example 12.1,
and CV is 1m2/yr.
Calculate (i) the time required for 90% consolidation if the drainage
is double, (ii) time required for 90% consolidation if the drainage is
single, (iii) time required for consolidation of 50% if the drainage is
double, (iv) settlement at five years from the date of filling if the
drainage is double, (v) produce a time vs settlement curve for double
and single drainage.
(i) For double drainage:

H
Drainage is double, therefore H dr = = 5m
2
Applying Equation 12.8 to find Tv when U v = 0.9
0.9 =
[4T / p ] v
0.5
[1 + (4T / p ) v ]
2.8 1.79
Tv = 0.848
Applying Equation 12.9 to find the time required

t
Tv = Cv
H dr2
230 Chapter 12
0.848 ¥ 5 2
t= = 21.2 years
1
Therefore, the time required for 90% consolidation with double
drainage is 21.2 years.
(ii) For single drainage:

H d = H = 10 m
Applying Equation 12.9 to find the time required:
0.848 ¥ 10 2
t= = 84.8 years
1
Therefore, the time required for 90% consolidation with single
drainage is much longer, up to four times that required for double
drainage.
(iii) For time required for 50% consolidation, find Tv first using Equation
12.8.
0.5 =
[4T / p ]
v
0.5
[1 + (4T / p )
v ]
2.8 1.79
Tv - 0.216
Find the time required, with double drainage conditions by applying

Equation 12.9:
0.216 ¥ 5 2
t=
1
t = 5.40 years
Therefore, the time required for 50% consolidation with double

drainage is not half, but much shorter.
(iv) To find out the settlement at five years from the date of instantaneous
filling, we must first find out the time factor Tv by applying Equation
12.9.
1¥ 5
Tv = = 0.2
25
Find the degree of consolidation, using Equation 12.8.
Uv =
[ 4 ¥ 0.2 / p ]
0.5
[1 + (4 ¥ 0.2 / p )2.8 ]
1.79
U v = 0.4856 = 48.56%
In order to simplify the example, the ultimate primary consolidation
settlement is taken from Example 12.1 as 2.35 meters. Therefore, the
degree of consolidation is defined as:
St
Uv = (12.10)
Sult
\ S5 yers = 0.4856 ¥ 2.35
= 1.141 meters
Settlement at five years, with double drainage conditions, is found to

be 1.141 meters. As an example (12.1), settlement at various times is
calculated using Equation 12.8 and 12.10 for both single and double
drainages. The resulting settlements at time “t” is shown in Table
Examples 12.6a and 12.6b. Settlement vs time curves is shown in
Figure Example 12.6.
For single drainage,

Cv (m2/year) = 1
Hdr = 10
For double drainage,

Equivalent Cv (m2/year) = 1
Hdr = 5
12.5 ■ TIME RATE OF CONSOLIDATION FOR

MULTI-LAYER CONDITIONS
The above examples are simple calculations for time rate of settlement or
consolidation of homogeneous soft soil where Cv is assumed to be constant
throughout the soil profile. In nature, this will be a rare case. Various soil
layers with various Cv values can be encountered. However, Equation 12.9
only allows for single values of Cv. As such, an equivalent Cv method is
used to calculate the time rate of consolidation for multi-layers. In the
equivalent Cv method, one Cv values can be the average of several Cv values
from various soil layers, or any selected Cv value can be assumed as an
equivalent Cv. From these, the equivalent drainage length is calculated by
applying the following equation:
1
ÈC ˘ 2
H1eq = H1 Í vassu ˙ (12.11a)
Î Cv1 ˚
232 Chapter 12
Table Example 12.6a Time rate of settlement calculation. The ultimate

settlement is 2.35 from Example 12.1.
Time (year) Tv 4Tv/3.14 A Uv Settlement (m)

0 0
1 0.01 0.013271 1.000006 0.11520145 0.270723404
2 0.02 0.026543 1.000039 0.16291849 0.382858442
4 0.04 0.053086 1.000269 0.23039203 0.541421268
10 0.1 0.132714 1.003501 0.36407151 0.855568057
20 0.2 0.265428 1.024381 0.51298039 1.20550391
50 0.5 0.66357 1.317163 0.77540373 1.822198754
100 1 1.32714 3.208853 .93503182 2.197301274
200 2 2.65428 16.38335 0.98763232 2.32093595
400 4 5.30856 108.1359 .9963405 2.341400178
A=1+(4Tv/3.14)2.8
Table Example 12.6b Time rate of settlement calculation. The ultimate

settlement is 2.35 from Example 12.1.

0 0
1 0.04 0.053086 1.000269 0.23039203 0.541421268
2 0.08 0.106171 1.001874 0.32573003 0.765465576
4 0.16 0.212342 1.013053 0.45973781 1.080383853
10 0.4 0.530856 1.169799 0.70842921 1.66480865
20 0.8 1.061712 2.182548 0.89604297 2.105700984
50 2 2.65428 16.38335 0.98763232 2.32093595
100 4 5.30856 108.1359 0.9963405 2.341400178
200 8 10.61712 747.1375 0.99693002 2.342785545
400 16 21.23424 5197.403 0.99630566 2.341318298
A=1+(4Tv/3.14)2.8
0 10 20 30 40 50
0
Single drainage
0.5 Double drainage
Settlement (m)
1.5
2.5
Time (yr)
Figure Example 12.6 Time rate of settlement for single and double
drainage.
1 12
ÈC ˘
H 2 eq = H 2 Í vassum ˙ ---------- etc. (12.11b)
Î Cv 2 ˚
The equivalent drainage path can be calculated for all various layers
and the total equivalent drainage length is given by:
ÂH drequi = H1eq + H 2 eq + LL (12.12)
From these time rates of consolidation, the settlement or degree of

consolidation can be calculated using the Cvassum and the Hdr equivalent by
applying Equations 12.8, 12.9 and 12.10. This method is only used for
calculating the time rate of consolidation for multi-layer soil. However, it
has been reported to give poor results. Therefore it is not widely used in
practice. Nevertheless, it is described here for completeness.
Example 12.7
Reclamation is carried out on the foreshore area where the underlying
soil is not homogenous and has various soil parameters, as shown in
Example 12.5. (i) Calculate the time required for 90% consolidation
for double drainage conditions. (ii) Calculate the time rate of settlement
for double drainage conditions.
(i) As shown in Figure Example 12.5, CV values vary throughout the

profile of soil.
Let us assume Cv values of 1 m2/yr as equivalent to Cv(equi).

The equivalent drainage lengths of various layers are found by applying
Equation 12.11.
1
ÈC ˘ 2
H1eq = H1 ¥ Í vassum ˙
Î Cv1 ˚
= 2.582 meters
Hdr equi2 = 4.424 meters
Hdr equi3 = 2 meters
Therefore, ÂH eq = H1eq + H 2 eq + LL = 12.103 meters

234 Chapter 12
Therefore, Hdri equi = 6.0515 meters
As calculated in Example 12.6, the time factor for 90% consolidation

is 0.845.
Therefore, the time required for 90% consolidation is

2
Tv H equi
t=
Cvassum
= 31 years
(ii) As explained in Example 12.5, in order to obtain the settlement vs

time curve for the whole consolidation process, it is necessary to
calculate the settlement for varying time intervals. By applying
Equations 12.8 and 12.9 and with the help of a spreadsheet, the
following results can be obtained, as shown in Table Example 12.7.
The time rate of settlement is shown in Figure Example 12.7.
Table Example 12.7 Assume different values of Cv to one assumed

Cv value. Assumed Cv(m2/year) = 1.
Org H Org Cv Eq H
H1l 2 0.6 2.581989
H2l 3 0.5 4.242641
H3l 2 1 2
H4l 2 0.7 2.390457
H5l 1 2 0.707107
10 11.92219

1 0.028142 0.035849 1.0009 0.018934 0.35140667
2 0.056283 0.071698 1.000624 0.267735 0.496916534
4 0.112566 0.143396 1.004348 0.378383 0.702278992
10 0.281415 0.358491 1.056564 0.592873 1.100372268
20 0.562831 0.716982 1.393933 0.797874 1.480855446
50 1.407076 1.792454 6.124534 0.967917 1.796453138
100 2.814153 3.584908 36.68933 0.993542 1.844014578
200 5.628305 7.169816 249.5549 0.9969222 1.850287552
400 11.25661 14.33963 1732.037 0.996706 1.849887128
Note: A=1+(4Tv/3.14)2.8
0 10 20 30 40 50
0
Settlement (m)
0.5
1.5
2
Time (yr)
Figure Example 12.7 Time rate of settlement for multi-layers.
12.6 ■ TIME RATE OF CONSOLIDATION WITH RADIAL

DRAINAGE
When the thickness of the clay layer is greater, consolidation takes much
longer. In order to accelerate the consolidation process either a sand drain
or PVD is installed. The drainage path then becomes shorter. There are two
patterns of installation, such as square and triangular spacing. Some are
installed with rectangular spacing. The equivalent drainage path (de) can
be calculated from the spacing.
60º
s
For square spacing

de = 1.128 S (12.13)
For triangular spacing
de = 1.05 S (12.14)
When vertical drain systems are introduced, the permeability along

the vertical direction becomes less important and the permeability along
the horizontal direction becomes more important. Most natural soil deposits
are anisotropic and form a thin horizontal layer. Therefore, the permeability
along the horizontal plane is usually greater than the vertical plane unless
the soil is homogenous and isotropic. The coefficient of consolidation as a
236 Chapter 12
result of horizontal flow (Ch), which is related to permeability with

compressibility parameters given by the following equation, becomes much
more important.
Kh
Ch = (12.15)
mvg w
where Kh is the permeability along the horizontal plane,
mv is the volume compressibility.
The time rate of consolidation is given by:
Ch t
Th = (12.16)
de 2
where Th is the time factor for horizontal drainage.
The degree of consolidation due to horizontal flow is given by:
È -8Th ˘
U h = 1 - exp Í ˙
Î F (n) ˚
(12.17)
F( n ) =
n2
( ) -
(3n 2 - 1)
(n 2 - 1) n
where L n
4n2
de
where n=
dw
dw = [2( a + b)] / p
a = width of drain
b = thickness of drain
dw = equivalent diameter of drain
Although the vertical drainage is insignificant in soil consolidation

with smaller spacing of horizontal drainage, Carrillo (1942) combined the
average degree of consolidation as follows:
(1 - uvh ) = (1 - uv )(1 - uh ) (12.18)
Therefore, the degree of consolidation and the time rate of

consolidation can be calculated by applying Equation 12.17.
Example 12.8
The soil model is the same as Example 12.1, with double drainage
conditions. However, the consolidation process is to be accelerated
with prefabricated vertical drains at 2 meters spacing: (i) in a square
pattern and (ii) in a triangular pattern. If Ch=2 m2/yr and Cv= 1m2/yr,
calculate the degree of consolidation at six months for (a) square
spacing, and (b) triangular spacing. Also calculate the time rate of
settlement for (a) square spacing (b) triangular spacing.
For the double drainage with PVD, first calculate the degree of
consolidation with vertical drainage for six months using Equations
12.8 and 12.9.
Cv t
Tv =
d2
1 ¥ 0.5
Tv = = 0.02
52
È 4 ¥ 0.02 ˘
0.5
ÍÎ p ˙˚
Uv = 1.79
È Ê 4 ¥ 0.02 ˆ 2.8 ˘
Í1 + ÁË ˜ ˙
Î p ¯ ˚
U v = 0.16 = 16%
Secondly, calculate the degree of consolidation at six months with
PVD, using Equation 12.16.
Assume vertical drain width (a) = 100 mm

Thickness (b) = 4 mm
\ dw = [2(100 + 4 )] / p
= 66.208 mm
For square spacing

de = 1.128 x 2 = 2.256
n = 34.074

de = 1.05 x 2 = 2.1
n = 31.718
Th for square spacing using Equation 12.15

238 Chapter 12
2 ¥ 0.5
Th = = 0.1965
(2.256) 2
Th for triangular spacing
2 ¥ 0.5
Th = = 0.2268
(2.1) 2
U h for square spacing using Equation 12.17
È -8Th ˘
U h = 1 - exp Í ˙
ÍÎ F( n ) ˙˚
F( n ) =
n2
( ) -
(3n 2 - 1)
(n 2 - 1) n
L n
4n2
For square spacing
F(n) = 2.783
F(n) = 2.7195
For square spacing

È -8 ¥ 0.196 ˘
U h = 1 - exp Í
Î 2.7818 ˙˚
= 0.4307
Combined degree of consolidation can be calculated using Equation

12.18:
(1 - U vh ) = (1 - 0.16)(1 - 0.4317)
Uvh = 0.522 = 52.2%

È -8 ¥ 0.227 ˘
U h = 1 - exp Í
Î 2.7195 ˙˚
(1 - U vh ) = (1 - 0.16)(1 - 0.487)
Uvh = 0.569 = 57%
The time rate of settlement for both square and triangular spacing can
be calculated with the help of a spreadsheet program, as shown in
Table Example 12.8. Figure Example 12.8 shows the time rate of
settlement with 2 meter square spacing and triangular spacing
compared with no vertical drain conditions. For comparison purposes,
the ultimate settlement is taken as 2.35 meters.
Table Example 12.8a Square spacing.
Given B = 100 mm, T = 4 mm. So dw = 2*(B+T)/3.14 = 66.24204 mm = 0.06624 m,

H = 10 m. Ultimate settlement is 2.35 m. S = 2m square spacing.
dw (m) de (m) n=de/dw Ln (n) n2 a Cv(m2/yr)
0.06624 2.26 34.11836 3.529836 1164.062 2.783085 1
Note: Ch=2 m2/yr
Time Tv Uv Ch Tr Uh Uvr Settlement

(year) (m2/yr) (m)
0.2 0.008 0.100951 2 0.078315 0.201576 0.282178 0.663118
0.4 0.016 0.142766 2 0.156629 0.36252 0.45353 1.065796
0.6 0.024 0.17485 2 0.234944 0.491021 0.580016 1.363038
0.8 0.032 0.201897 2 0.313259 0.593619 0.675666 1.587816
1 0.04 0.225723 2 0.391573 0.675536 0.748775 1.759621
1.2 0.048 0.24726 2 0.469888 0.74094 0.804996 1.891739
1.4 0.056 0.267062 2 0.548203 0.793161 0.848399 1.993739
1.6 0.064 0.285487 2 0.626517 0.834855 0.882001 2.072703
1.8 0.072 0.302785 2 0.704832 0.868144 0.908068 2.13396
2 0.08 0.319139 2 0.783147 0894723 0.928321 2.181555
Table Example 12.8b Triangular spacing.
Given B = 100 mm, T = 4 mm. So dw = 2*(B+T)/3.14 = 66.24204 mm = 0.06624 m, H = 10

m. Ultimate settlement is 2.35 m. S = 2m triangular spacing.
dw (m) de (m) N=de/dw ln (n) n2 A Cv(m2/yr)
0.06624 2.12 32.00483 3.465887 1024.309 2.719518 1
Note: Ch=2 m2/yr Cv

(year) (m2/yr) (m)
0.2 0.008 0.1009508 2 0.0889996 0.230342806 0.30804035 0.723894823
0.4 0.016 0.1427657 2 0.1779993 0.407627804 0.492198206 1.156665784
0.6 0.024 0.1748503 2 0.2669989 0.544076478 0.623794833 1.465917858
0.8 0.032 0.2018971 2 0.3559986 0.649095181 0.719941862 1.691863376
1 0.04 0.2257234 2 0.4449982 0.729923582 0.79088614 1.858582429
1.2 0.048 0.2472605 2 0.5339979 0.792133742 0.843530854 1.982297507
1.4 0.056 0.2670615 2 0.6229975 0.840014239 0.882740282 2.074439664
1.6 0.064 0.2854865 2 0.7119972 0.876865808 0.912018963 2.143244563
1.8 0.072 0.3027853 2 0.8009968 0.905228884 0.933924182 2.194721829
2 0.08 0.3191394 2 0.8899964 0.927058728 0.950337159 2.233292323

240 Chapter 12
0 10 20 30 40 50
0
No Drain
0.5
With PVD
Settlement (m)
1.5
2.5
Time (yr)
Figure Example 12.8a Time rate of settlement for 2 meter square

spacing of PVD.
0 10 20 30 40 50
0
No Drain
0.5
With PVD
Settlement (m)
1.5
2.5
Time (yr)
Figure Example 12.8b Time rate of settlement for 2 meter triangular

spacing of PVD.
12.7 ■ SMEAR EFFECT DUE TO MANDREL

PENETRATION
When PVDs are installed into the soft soil, the soil around the mandrel
penetration point is disturbed and a smear zone occurs. Because of this
disturbance and remolding of the soil in the smear zone, the soil parameter
will change, especially its permeability. If the disturbance is significant,
permeability caused by horizontal and vertical flows becomes equal, or
both will become the same as remolded permeability.
Barron (1941) and Hansbo (1979 & 1981) have stated that smearing
affects the performance of vertical drains. The actual smear zone in the
field and the reduction of permeability caused by the smear effect of the
mandrel penetration could be one or two orders higher than those found in
early literature (Buddhima Indraratna & Wayan Redna I 1997, Bo et al.,

1998).
The reduction of permeability in the horizontal direction is generally
expressed by a permeability reduction ratio, which is the ratio of horizontal
permeability to the remolded soil (Kh/Kr). In order to include smear terms,
the function of drain spacing is changed to the following equation proposed
by Hansbo (1981).
Èn ˘ Èk ˘
Fs (n) = log e Í ˙ - 0.75 + Í h ˙ log e (s) (12.19)
Îs˚ ÎKr ˚
ds
where s is the smear zone ratio d and ds is the diameter of the smear zone.
w
ks is the coefficient of permeability of the soil in the smear zone.
Example 12.9
The soil model is the same as Example 12.8 but there is a smear zone
of 2 times the effective drain diameter and a permeability reduction
ratio of 2.5 due to mandrel penetration. Calculate the time rate of
settlement for both square and triangular spacing, compared with the
time rate of settlement without a smear effect.
By applying Equation 12.19
For square spacing

Fs(n) = 3.81826
Fs(n) = 3.74661
Details of the results are shown in Table Example 12.9.
As can be seen in Figure Example 12.9, the time rate of settlement is

much slower.
242 Chapter 12
Table Example 12.9 Time rate of settlement with vertical drain

consideration of smear effect.
Cv (m2/year) 1
Ch (m2/year) 2
H (m) 10
Width (a) (m) 0.1
Thickness (b) (m) 0.004
Spacing (m) 2
dw (m) 0.066208
de (Square spacing) (m) 2.256
de (Triangular spacing) (m) 2.1
N (Square spacing) 34.07428
N (Triangular spacing) 31.71808
Ln(n/s) (Square spacing) 2.835396
Ln(n/s) (triangular spacing) 2.76374
N2 (square spacing) 1161.056
N2(triangular spacing) 1006.036
Dia. of smear zone (ds)(Sq) 4.512
Dia. of smear zone (ds) (Tri) 4.2
Smear zone ratio (s) (Sq) 2
Smear zone ratio (s) (Tri) 2
Ln(s) (Square spacing) 0.693147
Ln(s) (triangular spacing) 0.693147
Permeability reduction ratio (sq) 2.5
Permeability reduction ratio (Tri) 2.5
F(n) (Square spacing) 3.818264
F(n) (Triangular spacing) 3.746608
Ultimate Settlement (m) 2.35

Table Example 12.9 Settlement (m).
Time (yr) Tv Uv Th (square) Th (Tri) Uh (square) Uh (Tri) Uvh (Square) Uvh (Tri) (Square) (Triangular)
0.1 0.004 0.0714 0.0392963 0.04535 0.07903511 0.092296 0.1447764 0.15709 0.3402245 0.369164044
0.2 0.008 0.101 0.0785926 0.0907 0.15182368 0.176074 0.2374478 0.25925 0.5580023 0.609238035
0.35 0.014 0.1335 0.1375371 0.15873 0.25036345 0.287468 0.3504738 0.38262 0.8236134 0.89916527
0.5 0.02 0.1596 0.1964816 0.22676 0.33745503 0.383802 0.44320807 0.48216 1.041539 1.133069829
0.75 0.03 0.1955 0.2947223 0.34014 0.46070917 0.516295 0.56613341 0.61085 1.3304135 1.435504936
1 0.04 0.2257 0.3929631 0.45351 0.56103417 0.6203 0.66011901 0.70601 1.5512797 1.659117068
1.25 0.05 0.2524 0.4912039 0.56689 0.64269557 0.701942 0.73286384 0.77716 1.72223 1.826323966
1.5 0.06 0.2764 0.5894447 0.68027 0.7091654 0.76603 0.78956036 0.83071 1.8554668 1.952158571
2 0.08 0.3191 0.7859263 0.90703 0.807309 0.855828 0.86880428 0.90184 2.0416901 2.119321568
2 0.08 0.3191 0.7859263 0.90703 0.807309 0.855828 0.86880428 0.90184 2.0416901 2.119321568
4 0.16 0.4505 1.5718525 1.81406 0.96287018 0.979214 0.97959835 0.98858 2.3020561 2.323160645
5 0.2 0.5028 1.9648157 2.26757 0.98370128 0.992108 0.99189652 0.99608 2.3309568 2.340778787
Design Process for Land Reclamation and Soil Improvement
243
244 Chapter 12
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
(a) 0
0.5
Settlement (m)
with smear effect

1
without smear effect
1.5
2.5
Time (yr)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
(b) 0
with smear effect

0.5
without smear effect
Settlement (m)
1.5
2.5
Time (yr)
Figure Example 12.9 Comparison of time rate of settlement with and

without smear effect for (a) square spacing
(b) triangular spacing.
12.8 ■ WELL RESISTANCE
It is well known that vertical drains never perform as perfect drainage

systems. The performance of vertical drains is reduced because of decreased
discharge capacity caused by well resistance (Barron 1948, Yoshikuni 1967,
Hansbo 1981 and Bo et al. 1997b).
Therefore, well resistance parameter “L” was introduced in the
calculation by applying Yoshikuni and Nakanido’s (1974) equation:
2
32 È k h ˘ È l ˘
L=
p 2 ÍÎ k w ˙˚ ÍÎ d w ˙˚
(12.20)
where kh is the coefficient of permeability in the horizontal direction in m/s

kw is the cross-plane coefficient of the permeability of vertical drain
filters in the case of prefabricated vertical drains, and permeability

of sand in the case of sand drains
L is the characteristic length of the drain, which is half the drain
length for open drains and the entire length for closed drains.
Therefore, the equation becomes (Yoshikuni and Nakanido [1974])
È -8Th ˘
U h = 1 - exp Í ˙
Î F ( n ) + 0.8 L ˚
(12.21)
Example 12.10
The soil model is the same as Example 12.9, but the smear effect of
well resistance is taken into consideration in this case, where the
characteristic drain length (L) is 9.5 m, Kh is 1x10-9m/s and the
permeability of the PVD filter is 1x10-4m/s. Calculate the time rate of
settlement and compare this with perfect drain conditions, and smear
effect.
Calculate the well resistance parameter (L) using Equation 12.20
32 È1 ¥ 10 -9 ˘ È 9.5 ˘
2
L= 2Í
p Î1 ¥ 10 -4 ˙˚ ÍÎ 0.0662 ˙˚
= 2.6675
Calculate Uh using Equation 12.21
Table Example 12.10 shows the resulting values, and Figure Example
12.10 shows the time rate of settlement with well resistance.
Table Example 12.10a

Vertical drain design with well resistance
Given B = 100 mm, T = 4 mm. So d = 2*(B+T)/3.14 = 66.24204 mm
= 0.06624 m, H=10 m
Ultimate settlement is 2.35m (2.35m is used for comparison purposes).

S = 2m square spacing
246 Chapter 12
Table Example 12.10a Vertical drain design with well resistance.

d D n=D/d ln(n) n2 a Cv K7 Kh I L
0.06624 2.26 34.1184 3.52984 1164.06 2.78309 1 0.0001 0.000000001 19 0.0093

(year) (m2/yr) (m)
0 0
0.2 0.08 0.10095 2 0.07831 0.2011 0.28175 0.6621056
0.4 0.016 0.14277 2 0.15663 0.36252 0.45353 1.0657959
0.6 0.024 0.17485 2 0.23494 0.49102 0.58002 1.3630377
0.8 0.032 0.2019 2 0.31326 0.59362 0.67567 1.5878157
1 0.04 0.22572 2 0.39157 0.67554 0.74878 1.7596214
1.2 0.048 0.24726 2 0.46989 0.74094 0.805 1.8917395
1.4 0.056 0.26706 2 0.5482 0.79316 0.8484 1.9937388
1.6 0.064 0.28549 2 0.62652 0.83485 0.882 2.0727032
1.8 0.072 0.30279 2 0.70483 0.86814 0.90807 2.13396
2 0.08 0.31914 2 0.78315 0.89472 0.92832 2.1815546
Settlement (m)
Time (yr)
Figure Example 12.10a Comparison of time rate of consolidation for

perfect drain conditions, with smear effect,
and with well resistance for square spacing.
Table Example 12.10b

Vertical drain design with well resistance
Given B = 100 mm, T = 4 mm. So d = 2*(B+T)/3.14 = 66.24204 mm
= 0.06624 m
Ultimate settlement is 2.35 m.

S=2m triangular spacing
Table Example 12.10b Vertical drain design with well resistance.

d D n=D/d ln(n) n2 a Cv K7 Kh I L
0.06624 2.12 32.0048 3.46589 1024.31 2.71952 1 0.0001 0.000000001 19 0.0093

(year) (m2/yr) (m)
0 0
0.2 0.008 0.10095 2 0.089 0.22979 0.30755 0.722732885
0.4 0.016 0.14277 2 0.178 0.40763 0.4922 1.156665784
0.6 0.024 0.17485 2 0.267 0.54408 0.62379 1.465917858
0.8 0.032 0.2019 2 0.356 0.6491 0.71994 1.691863376
1 0.04 0.22572 2 0.445 0.72992 0.79089 1.858582429
1.2 0.048 0.24726 2 0.534 0.79213 0.84353 1.982297507
1.4 0.056 0.26706 2 0.623 0.84001 0.88274 2.074439664
1.6 0.064 0.28549 2 0.712 0.87687 0.91202 2.143244563
1.8 0.072 0.30279 2 0.801 0.90523 0.93392 2.194721829
2 0.08 0.31914 2 0.89 0.92706 0.95034 2.233292323
Settlement (m)
Time (yr)
Figure Example 12.10b Comparison of time rate of consolidation for

perfect drain conditions, with smear effect,
and with well resistance for triangular spacing.
12.9 ■ SOFTWARE AVAILABLE FOR CONSOLIDATION

ANALYSIS
There are several softwares available for predicting the magnitude and time
rate of consolidation. Among others CONSOL99 developed by Wong and
Duncan (1988) is an interesting software. It has several useful features,
such as:
— it permits intermediate drainage due to the presence of a sand layer.
— it computes the reduction in stress as the overlying fill submerges below
the water table with time (that is, buoyancy effect).
248 Chapter 12
— it computes stress due to changes in the ground water level.

— it computes stress due to placement or removal of a layer of large area fill.
— it computes stress due to strip fill.
— it computes stress due to a circular area fill.
Details on the application of CONSOL99 are found in Wong and
Duncan (1988). However, this program only calculates without vertical
drain conditions. It is possible to calculate with vertical drain conditions by
introducing a drainage layer at every boundary, the distance of which is
equivalent to the vertical drain boundary.
In addition to its special features explained above, it also takes into
account the large strain consolidation by updating the change in thickness
from one time step to another, and also the change of geotechnical parameters
such as void ratio from one time step to another.
Because it takes into consideration the submergence effect, and updates
the thickness and void ratio, it usually predicts a lower magnitude of
settlement and a faster rate of consolidation than conventional calculation.
A comparison of the predicted magnitude and time rate of settlement using
CONSOL99 and the conventional method is shown in Figure 12.3. The
effect of submergence, large strain and non-linear strain on time rate of
consolidation and the effect of a multi-layer system are explained through
Figures 12.4 to 12.6. A comparison with the conventional method and all
its effects is shown in Figure 12.7. The details can be found in Wong and
Choa (1980).
Other software available for prediction of magnitude and time rate of
consolidation using finite element methods are SAGE CRISP and PLAXIS.
Details are found in the SAGE CRISP and PLAXIS manuals. Both software
can create models with and without vertical drain conditions. Another
software which applies a different method is the Visual Basic program
VDRAIN99 developed by B.K. Low, details of which can be found in the
soil improvement textbook written by Bo et al. (2003a).
Some examples of magnitude and time rates of settlement carried out
by some computer programs are shown in Figures 12.8 to 12.11 together
with conventional analyses.
It can be seen that most computer software predict faster rates of
settlement than conventional calculation (Figure 12.8). Figure 12.9 shows
a comparison of time rates of settlement calculated for perfect drainage,
with PVD and with smear effect. It can be seen in Figures 12.10 and 12.11,
that the time rate of settlement calculated with perfect drainage by
conventional and with PLAXIS software are almost the same under perfect
drain and smear conditions.
6.8 m Pi = 129.3 kPa 2.8 m
4m
Pf = 95.2 kPa
Soft Clay
3
Hi =20m = 15 kN/m
e 0 = 2.5 H f =16m Soft Clay
Cc = 1.2
Cv = 12m /yr
(a) Initial stage (b) Final stage

e (yea s)
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
0
Conventional m ethod
(no correction for submergence)
2
(m) 3
ult.=4.0m
4 CONSOL
(with correction for
submergence) ult.=4.6m
5
Figure 12.3 Comparison of predicted curves with the conventional

method and CONSOL99 (after Wong and Choa 1987).
Time (year)
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Percentage of final settlement
25
No submergence effect
50
Submergence effect
75
100
Figure 12.4 Effect of submergence on time rate of settlement

(after Wong and Choa 1987).
250 Chapter 12
Time (year)
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
25
Conventional, small strain
50 CONSOL, 20% strain
CONSOL, 40% strain

75
100
Figure 12.5 Effect of large strain on time rate of settlement

Time (year)
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Conventional method
(m)
0.1 CONSOL
0.2
Figure 12.6 Effect of non-linear strain on the time rate of settlement

Time (year)
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
25 Conventional
Large strain effect (E=20%)

50
Non-linear strain effect
CONSOL - Combined effe cts

75 including submergence
100
Figure 12.7 Effect of large strain, non-linear strain, and submergence on

the time rate of settlement (after Wong and Choa 1987).
Time (year)
0 10 20 30 40 50
0
plaxis
0.5 consol 99
conventional
Settlement (m)
1.5
2.5
Figure 12.8 Comparison of time rate of calculation between

the conventional method, CONSOL99 and PLAXIS.
Time (year)
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
0
0.5
N o drain
w ith PV D
Settlement (m)
1
w ith smear
1.5
2.5
Figure 12.9 Comparison of time rate of calculation with PLAXIS without

drain, with drain, and with smear effect.
252 Chapter 12
Time (year)
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
0
conventional calculation (perfect
drain)
plaxis (perfect drain)
Settlement (m)
Figure 12.10 Comparison of time rate of settlement for perfect drain

conditions, between the conventional method and PLAXIS
software.
Time (year)
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
0
conventional calculation with smear
Plaxis with smear
Settlement (m)
Figure 12.11 Comparison of time rate of settlement with smear effect

between the conventional method and PLAXIS software.
Application of Geotechnical Instruments in Reclamation and Soil Improvement Projects 253
CHAPTER 13
Application of Geotechnical
Instruments in Reclamation
and Soil Improvement Projects
Deformation of soil involves the combined effects of elastic, plastic and

viscosity. Therefore, the deformation behavior is somewhat complex. In
addition to the complex nature of soil deformation, the additional stresses
imposed on the soils vary not only in terms of magnitude but also in
directions. This makes it difficult to predict the deformation of soil. However,
geotechnical engineers have been predicting ground behaviour in advance
with the help of finite difference or finite element computer modeling.
Nevertheless, most of the cases, performances were far from the predictions
because of the complexibility of the soil profile, parameters, and hence
loading conditions.
Geotechnical instrumentation fulfills the gap between prediction and
performance and prevents soil mass failure as well as damage to the structure
on the ground. Geotechnical instrumentation can provide construction
control as well as performance monitoring. First, it will provide safe
construction of earth as infrastructure on the soil, and secondly, it will
provide back analysed in-situ soil parameters for future analysis. In a way,
a more economical and safer design can be established.
13.1 ■ TYPES OF POSSIBLE GEOTECHNICAL

PROBLEMS IN LAND RECLAMATION
Numerous geotechnical problems can arise in reclamation on soft clay.
The followings are some of the problems that may be encountered.
(a) Slope stability
(b) Stability of the retaining structure
(c) Consolidation settlement of soft clay
(d) Immediate settlement of granular soil
(e) Liquefaction.
In order to manage the situation, prediction, instrumentation,
construction control, and performance monitoring become essential.
254 Chapter 13
However, the discussion in this chapter will only emphasize the first three
problems.
13.2 ■ TYPES OF MEASUREMENT
In order to control the geotechnical problems arising from the process,

geotechnical instruments are deemed necessary and the following should
be measured during the process of reclamation and soil improvement.
Category A: Measurement of ground behaviour during construction

in order to control the construction process.
Category B: Monitoring of performance of the ground during

loading, unloading and soil improvement process.
13.3 ■ SELECTION OF LOCATION FOR GEOTECHNICAL

INSTRUMENTS
The selection of locations for the instruments depends upon the type of
measurement. To measure the total settlement of the ground, surface
settlement plates are usually installed in a certain grid pattern. Generally, a
square grid pattern with 50 meters by 50 meters spacing is necessary for
soil improvement works on a few hundred hectares of land. Grid spacing
can be varied depending upon the variation of the sub-surface compressible
soil profile. The grid spacing can be wider where less variation of the sub-
surface layer is evident.
On top of the settlement plates, other major instruments are deep
settlement gauges and piezometers which form an instrument cluster.
Instrument clusters are also spread throughout the area at certain intervals,
but more clusters are installed in critical areas and those areas with the
thickest layer of compressible soil. Deep settlement gauges are usually
installed on top of a sub-layer whereas piezometers are installed at the
center of a sub-layer. With this arrangement, settlement and effective stress
of the sub-layer can be correlated. A typical arrangement of an instrument
cluster in the Changi East reclamation projects, where three types of soil
layers existed, is shown in Figure 13.1.
Inclinometers are installed to monitor the lateral movement of the
ground at the edge of the reclamation area or shore protection works. The
locations are selected based on slope stability analysis. Generally, an
inclinometer is installed at the trough of a possible slip circle line. One
each could be installed on the crest and the toe. The typical arrangement
2. ACTUAL INSTALLATION DEPTH OF SOIL INSTRUMENTS

(C2S-03) SP-038
C2-23
DEPTH 0.00 DS PP/OP WS-C2S-3
E.L.+3.7mCD
SAND -1.0
-3.0 -3.0 DS-049
Very soft to soft marine CLAY -5.9 PP-054
-8.7 -8.7 DS-050
SAND
-12.0
PP-058 -14.6 PP-055

Soft to firm marine
-17.2 DS-051
CLAY
PP-059 PP-057 PP-060 PP-061 PP-055 -19.8 PP-056
-22.3 DS-052
Firm to stiff -22.3
silty CLAY -24.3 PP-057
DS-056 PP-056 OP-011OP-012 PP-054 -26.3
Y 406.80 SAND -28.4 OP-011
SP-038 -30.4 -30.4 DS-053
WS-C2S-3 DS-049
DS-057 DS-052
-33.9 PP-058
-37.4 DS-054
DS-054 DS-053 DS-051 DS-050
DS-055
-40.9 PP-059
X 6005.63
Firm to stiff
silty CLAY -44.4 DS-055
-47.9 PP-060
-51.3 DS-056
-54.8 PP-061
-58.3 DS-057
-62.0
SAND
-63.0 OP-012 SCALE 1:300 M
Figure 13.1 Typical arrangement of an instrument cluster in the Changi

East reclamation project.
IN
SURCHARGE
IN
+6.80m CD 250-350kg ROCKS

1.0 250-350kg ROCKS
0.5 1.1
0 0
3kg ROCKS 250-350kg ROCKS
+1.0m CD 0.50m
0.6 1.1m
0 0.80m 1:3
-3.0m CD
25-100kg ROCKS GEOFABRIC 0.6m -5.0m CD
25-100kg ROCKS
4.57
0 -8.531m CD
25-100kg ROCKS 1.50m 1:6
GEOFABRIC -10.88m CD
-10.50 mCD
SANDFILL
CLAY LAYER
-49.70 mCD
-59.00 mCD OLD ALLUVIAL
SECTION A - A
RETAINING BUND
Figure 13.2 Typical arrangement of an inclinometer installation at

the shore protection structure.
for inclinometer installation at the shore protection structure is shown in

Figure 13.2. Settlement plates are also installed together in order to relate
with vertical displacement. For a vertical wall, inclinometers are attached
to the inner side of the wall.
256 Chapter 13
13.4 ■ TYPES OF GEOTECHNICAL INSTRUMENTS
There are two types of geotechnical instruments. One measures ground

behaviour during construction whereas the other measures the performance
of the ground during loading, unloading, and soil improvement.
TYPE A: Measurement of ground behaviour during construction.

(a) Settlement pad
(b) Inclinometers
(c) Pore pressure transducers
(d) Earth pressure cell
TYPE B: Monitoring of ground behavior during loading, unloading, and

soil improvement.
(a) Settlement plate
(b) Deep settlement gauges
(c) Multi-level settlement gauges
(d) Pore pressure transducers
(e) Earth pressure cell
(f) Inclinometer
Instruments can be installed on the reclaimed platform where vertical

drains will be installed or on a special platform erected offshore. Instruments
are usually installed on the platform during or before installation of vertical
drains since settlement that occurs before installation of vertical drains is
insignificant and installation and protection of instruments offshore is
difficult and costly.
Some instrument clusters are installed offshore with proper protection
to monitor settlement occurring during reclamation. The typical protection
used in the Changi East reclamation project is shown in Figure 13.3. The
offshore and on-land instrument clusters with proper protection during filling
are shown in Figures 13.4 and 13.5 respectively. Some contractors use a
sand mound to surround the instruments as protection. Normally, instruments
are installed in a cluster and the following instruments are included in a
cluster.
● Deep reference point
● Settlement plate
● Liquid settlement gauge
● Multi-level settlement gauge
● Piezometers
● Open type piezometer
● Water standpipe
● Total earth pressure cell and

● Inclinometer
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 13.3 Typical types of protection used in the Changi East

reclamation project: (a) instrument protection platform
under construction, (b) offshore cluster with protection
platform, (c) on-land cluster protected with a stage.
258 Chapter 13
Figure 13.4 Off-shore instrument cluster installed on a platform

which can protect the instruments during filling.
Figure 13.5 On-land instrument cluster protected with

scaffolding during surcharge.
13.4.1 ■ Deep reference point
Deep reference points are installed to be used as benchmarks for survey

purposes. A normal benchmark set by the surveyor may not provide the
required accuracy especially when the benchmarks are far from the site or
when it is installed on a pile which is driven through unstable settling ground
or sit on the formation above a groundwater aquifer which is being exploited.
In the first case, the benchmark can settle because of the pile being dragged
down and in the later case it could be moved down owing to land subsidence
caused by groundwater extraction. Unstable conditions can occur because
of the lowering of groundwater or seasonal thermal effects.
Therefore, some deep reference points should be installed at the site,

anchored on the bedrock and installed with a negative friction reducer. A
typical design of a deep reference point is shown in Figure 13.6. There are
records of data showing heaving of deep reference points relative to the
benchmark when checked some years after installation. It is not really the
heaving of the deep reference point but the settlement of the benchmarks
after a few years.
13.4.2 ■ Settlement plate
A settlement plate can be installed on the seabed with some protection

against damage during filling. The required extensions are made whenever
necessary during filling. Settlement plates are mostly installed on the
platform where vertical drains are installed. The settlement rods need to be
extended when the fill level is raised to the surcharge level. The riser rod
should be protected with a friction reducer sleeve pipe. Protection during
surcharging is necessary to avoid damage during filling. Measurements are
taken using survey methods. A typical design of a settlement plate is shown
in Figure 13.7. These surface settlement plates can measure the total
settlement of the ground. Figure 13.8 shows a photograph of a settlement
plate, and Figure 13.9 shows a settlement plate being installed. Generally,
the top of the settlement rod is measured by the survey method to monitor
the settlement of the ground. Table 13.1 shows the monitoring data during
settlement, and Figure 13.10 shows a typical monitoring record in graphical
STEEL PIPE
(25mm∅)
FILL LEVEL
PVC PIPE
(75mm∅)
FILL SOIL
5000mm
HARD STRATUM
CEMENT GROUT
CONE
Figure 13.6 Typical design of a deep reference point.

260 Chapter 13
form. Settlement records are usually shown together with the soil profile
and record of construction activities, as in Figure 13.10. If settlement plates
are installed with certain grids, the isoline of settlement can be obtained
(Figure 13.11).
STEEL PIPE
(25mm∅ )
PVC PIPE
(75mm∅ )
FILL LEVEL
500mm
200mm
STEEL PLATE
(600 X 600 X 10)
EXISTING SEABED
Note: Measurements shown are in mm
Figure 13.7 Typical design of a surface settlement

plate.
Figure 13.8 Photograph of a settlement plate.

Figure 13.9 Installation of a settlement plate in progress.
13.4.3 ■ Liquid settlement gauge
A liquid settlement gauge is used with a pneumatic pressure indicator to

monitor the settlement of the foundation. Liquid settlement gauges can be
read from a central location and the vibrating wire types are particularly
useful where automatic recordings are required. It can be installed before
filling or in a borehole. By measuring the change in differential elevation
between the pressure sensor and the reference reservoir, settlement records
are taken. The diagram of a liquid settlement gauge and the principle of
measurement are shown in Figures 13.12 and 13.13. Table 13.2 shows the
processing of measured data to obtain settlement records from a liquid
settlement gauge. However, liquid settlement gauges are only suitable for
measuring the total surface settlement. Using liquid settlement gauges in
deep-seated locations below groundwater level is not advisable. Figure 13.14
shows the monitoring data in graphical form. High capacity pressure cells
are required for deep-seated locations and hence the measurements are less
accurate. Table 13.3 shows the range of pressure cells available for liquid
settlement gauges and their accuracy.
262
Chapter 13
Figure 13.10 Typical monitoring record in graphical form.

Table 13.1 Surface settlement monitoring and processed data.

264
Chapter 13
Note: Values are in mm.
Figure 13.11 Isoline of settlement obtained from settlement monitoring data.

Figure 13.12 A liquid settlement gauge.

(Courtesy of Slope Indicator Co.)
Figure 13.13 Principle of settlement measurement with

a liquid settlement gauge.
266 Chapter 13
Table 13.2 Data obtained by a liquid settlement gauge.
EXAMPLE OF LIQUID SETTLEMENT GAUGE RECORD DATA

PROJECT : RECLAMATION AT PROJECT C DATE OF FILL : 25 / 11 / 96 - 18 / 01 / 97
LOCATION : LT-04 (A3W AREA) DATE OF V.D INSTALL : 27 / 06 - 30 / 06
PLATE NO. : SG-024 ABC Factors mH20 GROUND E.L : (+) 9.684 mCD
PLATE S/NO : 69766 -1.8017E-05 DATE OF INSTALLATION : 30 / 12 / 9
INSTALL ELEV. : -11.40 mCD 5.0145E-03 COORDINATES : X 1201.82 Y 1676.23
INSTALL DEPTH : 21.08 m 152.45 DATE OF SURCHARGE : 31 / 07 - 12 / 08
DATE READING TO TAL FLUID READING (mH2O ) SETTLEMENT SURCHARGE

NO INTERVAL TIME FLUID BARO METRIC CO RRECTED INTERVAL TO TAL ELEV. REMARKS
(day) (day) READ (S/N 69835) READ (m) (m) (mCD)
1 24-M ay-2000 0 0 32.134 9.730 22.404 0.000 0.000 9.612
2 31-M ay-2000 7 7 32.382 9.985 22.397 -0.007 -0.007 9.656
3 07-Jun-2000 7 14 22.217 -0.150 22.367 -0.031 -0.037 9.693
4 17-Jun-2000 10 24 27.241 4.861 22.380 0.013 -0.024 9.686
5 21-Jun-2000 4 28 26.641 4.259 22.382 0.002 -0.022 9.679
6 24-Jun-2000 3 31 26.699 4.320 22.379 -0.002 -0.025 9.677
7 28-Jun-2000 4 35 25.877 3.486 22.391 0.012 -0.013 9.675
8 01-Jul-2000 3 38 25.741 3.364 22.376 -0.015 -0.028 9.673
9 05-Jul-2000 4 42 25.570 3.182 22.388 0.012 -0.016 9.671
10 08-Jul-2000 3 45 25.818 3.412 22.406 0.018 0.002 9.673
11 12-Jul-2000 4 49 26.371 3.978 22.393 -0.013 -0.011 9.674
12 17-Jul-2000 5 54 26.453 4.031 22.422 0.028 0.018 9.676
13 26-Jul-2000 9 63 25.711 3.290 22.421 -0.001 0.017 9.679
14 02-Aug-2000 7 70 25.843 3.432 22.411 -0.010 0.007 9.682
15 10-Aug-2000 8 78 25.852 3.412 22.440 0.029 0.036 9.699
16 16-Aug-2000 6 84 25.716 3.283 22.433 -0.008 0.029 9.716
17 24-Aug-2000 8 92 26.569 4.105 22.464 0.031 0.060 9.700
18 31-Aug-2000 7 99 26.148 3.675 22.473 0.009 0.069 9.684
19 06-Sep-2000 6 105 25.901 3.445 22.456 -0.018 0.051 9.699
20 13-Sep-2000 7 112 26.410 3.937 22.473 0.017 0.069 9.714
21 20-Sep-2000 7 119 25.925 3.466 22.459 -0.013 0.055 9.708
22 27-Sep-2000 7 126 26.294 3.803 22.491 0.032 0.087 9.702
23 04-O ct-2000 7 133 26.095 3.628 22.467 -0.024 0.063 9.701
24 11-O ct-2000 7 140 26.622 4.119 22.503 0.036 0.099 9.699
25 18-O ct-2000 7 147 26.144 3.668 22.476 -0.027 0.072 9.702
26 25-O ct-2000 7 154 26.269 3.776 22.493 0.017 0.089 9.705
27 01-N ov-2000 7 161 26.636 4.132 22.504 0.011 0.100 9.701
28 08-N ov-2000 7 168 26.134 3.655 22.479 -0.025 0.075 9.697
29 15-N ov-2000 7 175 26.603 4.092 22.511 0.032 0.107 9.696
30 22-N ov-2000 7 182 26.211 3.735 22.476 -0.036 0.072 9.694
31 29-N ov-2000 7 189 26.182 3.715 22.467 -0.009 0.063 9.686
32 06-D ec-2000 7 196 26.434 3.917 22.517 0.050 0.113 9.678
33 13-D ec-2000 7 203 26.723 4.239 22.484 -0.033 0.080 9.683
34 20-D ec-2000 7 210 26.391 3.897 22.494 0.010 0.090 9.687
35 27-D ec-2000 7 217 26.827 4.340 22.487 -0.007 0.083 9.692
36 03-Jan-2001 7 224 26.838 4.342 22.496 0.009 0.092 9.696
37 10-Jan-2001 7 231 26.617 4.139 22.478 -0.018 0.074 9.704
38 17-Jan-2001 7 238 26.530 4.038 22.492 0.014 0.088 9.711
39 25-Jan-2001 8 246 26.784 4.297 22.487 -0.005 0.083 9.721
40 31-Jan-2001 6 252 26.634 4.146 22.488 0.001 0.084 9.730
41 07-Feb-2001 7 259 26.612 4.125 22.487 -0.001 0.083 9.736
42 13-Feb-2001 6 265 27.117 4.594 22.523 0.036 0.119 9.742
43 21-Feb-2001 8 273 27.193 4.674 22.519 -0.004 0.115 9.732
44 28-Feb-2001 7 280 26.684 4.206 22.478 -0.041 0.074 9.722
45 07-M ar-2001 7 287 26.833 4.340 22.493 0.015 0.089 9.724
Time (day)
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
0
LS-272
0.5
LS-271
Settlement (m)
LS-270
1
LS-269
1.5 LS-268
LS-267
LS-266
2
SP-487
2.5
Figure 13.14 Typical liquid settlement gauge monitoring data.
Table 13.3 Range of pressure cells available for liquid settlement gauge.
Cell Type Resolution Cell Diameter Cell Height

(psi) (mm) (mm) (mm)
20 2 63 91
50 8.3 63 91
100 16.5 63 91
13.4.4 ■ Deep settlement gauge
A deep settlement gauge can be installed at various levels in order to monitor

the settlement of various sub-layers. There are two major types of deep
settlement gauges: screw plate deep settlement gauge, and Borros anchor
deep settlement gauge. Both types of settlement gauges are installed in a
borehole with the necessary friction reducer. Friction reducers must be
installed at a sufficient distance above the screw plate to allow settlement
of the friction pipe caused by the down drag, otherwise the friction reducer
will push down the settlement plate and an overestimation of settlement of
the sub-layers will result. The typical designs of deep settlement gauges
are shown in Figures 13.15 and 13.16. Figure 13.17 shows a photograph of
a deep settlement gauge. Deep settlement gauges are usually installed on
top of each sub-layer to monitor the magnitude of the settlement of sub-
layers. Measurements are usually taken using the survey method, and
268 Chapter 13
Table 13.4 shows data obtained from deep settlement gauges. Figure 13.18
shows a graphical presentation of settlement measurements from deep
settlement gauges. The measurements are usually shown together with the
soil profile, level of installation, and construction stages.
MEASURE SURFACE OF
THIS DISTANCE EMBANKMENT
STEEL PIPE
(25mm∅)
SETTLEMENT
PLATFORM PIPE
OUTER ANCHOR PIPE
EMBANKMENT
PVC PIPE
INNER ANCHOR PIPE
(75mm∅)
ORIGINAL
GROUND SURFACE
FILL LEVEL
100 to 2000mm
COMPRESSIBLE SOIL
500 to 1900mm
STEEL PIPE
BORROS ANCHOR
UNYIELDING LAYER
Figure 13.15 Screw plate deep Figure 13.16 Borros anchor deep
settlement gauge. settlement gauge.
Figure 13.17 Photograph of deep settlement gauge.

SETTLEMENT - TIME
SETTLEMENT (CM)
-40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
(6)
(4) PC-19(GV) *SP-362
(2)
0
SAND
2
DS-127
4
10 DS-128
12
ELEVATION (X-1 mCD)
14
CLAY
16
DS-129
18
20
DS-130
22
24 DS-131
26
SAND
28
30
32
34
29-May -98 08-Mar-99 03-Apr-2000 09-Jan-2002
36 Vertical Drain installed on 30th Dec.1997.

Filling to +4.0mCD completed on 18th Jan.1997.
38
Surcharge to +8.5mCD completed on 27th July 1998.
40 * = Settlement measured af ter installation of Deep Settlement Gauge.
42
Time (day)
0 500 1000 1500 2000
-2 0
0 D
DSS -- 1
1321
0
9
20
40
Settlement (cm)
60
D S - 128
80
100
120
140
160
180 D S - 127
200
S P - 362
220
Figure 13.18 Graphical presentation of settlement measurements from

deep settlement gauge.
270 Chapter 13
Table 13.4 Typical processed data from deep settlement gauges.
13.4.5 ■ Multi-level settlement gauge

Multi-level settlement gauges are made up of a series of spider magnetic
rings. An access tube is installed in a borehole and drilled to the hard
formation. The tube is anchored on the hard formation where no settlement
can occur. A datum magnet is installed on the anchored location and the
spider rings are installed along the access tube at predetermined intervals
and spider arms are then released to anchor them to the formation. The
measurements are taken with the help of a magnetic probe which detects
the location of the spider rings relative to the datum magnet. The spider
rings settle together with the soil mass during consolidation settlement. To
obtain the latest elevation of the spider ring with reference to the datum
magnet, monitoring is carried out together with an elevation survey at the
top of the access tube. The various types of multi-level settlement gauges
and the typical installation arrangement of multi-level settlement gauges is
shown in Figure 13.19 (a and b). Table 13.5 shows processed data from
multi-level settlement gauges and Figure 13.20 is a graphical presentation
of monitoring data from multi-level settlement gauges. Readout used in
monitoring multi-level settlement gauges is shown Figure 13.21.
In some cases, the multi-level settlement gauges measure lower rates
of settlement of the sub-layer than the screw type deep settlement gauges.
Figure 13.22 shows a comparison of measurements of the rate of settlement
of the sub-layers at the same elevation by screw plate deep settlement gauges
and multi-level settlement gauges in one particular case. It can be seen that
multi-level settlement gauges underestimate the settlement. There are
various reasons for this under- or over-measurement of settlement:
1. The grout is not deforming.
2. The spider rings do not follow soil mass because of a jam between the
access tube and the ring.
3. The datum magnet moves down because of the down drag on the
access tube, thus underestimating the relative movement when the
top of the excess tube is not surveyed.
4. The deflection of the access tube or riser pipes because of lateral stress
and movement.
5. The gap between the spider rings and the coupling is not sufficient.
6. Settlement caused by the dead weight of the screw type settlement
gauge and riser pipes.
7. Kink in the riser pipe of the deep settlement plate because of lateral
soil movement, resulting in measurement of the settlement at the kink
rather than at the plate.
Note: Problems 2 and 3 can be minimized by using telescopic coupling for the access tube.
Therefore, interpretation of data from multi-level settlement gauges
should be done with care.
272 Chapter 13
3mm o NYLON
FILL LEVEL
70mm O.D. CASING
SENSING ELEMENT
B.H DIA. 5"
STOPPER
MAGNETIC/INDUCTIVE
EXTENSOMETER ANCHOR
TELESCOPIC COUPLING
END CAP MAGNETIC/INDUCTANCE DATUM
Figure 13.19a Typical installation procedure of a multi-

level settlement gauge.
Figure 13.19b Various types of magnetic spider rings

and accessories required for installation.
Table 13.5 Typical processed data from a multi-level settlement gauge.
MULTI-LEVEL SETTLEMENT DEVICE RECORD SHEET
PROJECT : RECLA MA TI ON OF PROJECT C
LOCA TI ON : LOT 2 .0 M I N PI LOT (P I S-05 ) DA TE OF FI LL : 25 / 11 / 9 6 - 18 / 0 1 / 9 7
I NSTRUMENT NO. : MS-0 05 (SPI DER NO.A ) DA TE OF V.D. I NSTA LLA TI ON : 21 / 03 / 9 7
I NSTA LL E.L OF SPI DER : -6 .3 71 mCD DA TE OF I NSTA LLA TI ON : 0 1 / 08 / 9 7
I NSTA LLA TI ON DEPTH : 1 4.2 00 m COORDI NA TES : X 5 9 73 .30 Y 93 9.31
GROUND E.L : +7.829 mCD DA TE OF SURCHA RGE : 06 / 06 - 17 / 0 6 / 9 7
NO DA TE REA DI NG TOTA L DA TUM MA GNET MA GNETI C REA DI NG REDUCED DI STA NCE OF SETTLEMENT SURCHA RGE REMA RK
I NTERVA L TI ME DEP TH(m) (m) MA GNET SPI DER ELEV. HEI GHT
(day ) (day ) (A ) (B ) A VERA GE (A ) (B ) A VERA GE (m) (m) (mCD) (m)
1 04-Aug-97 0 3 70.933 70.977 70.9550 14.835 14.878 14.8565 56.0985 0.000 7.829 3.83 V .D install
1 04-Aug-97 0 3 70.933 70.977 70.9550 14.835 14.878 14.8565 56.0985 0.000 0.000 -4.00
1 04-Aug-97 0 3 70.933 70.977 70.9550 14.835 14.878 14.8565 56.0985 0.000 7.829 3.83
2 11-Aug-97 7 10 70.903 70.946 70.9245 14.836 14.879 14.8575 56.0670 0.031 7.822 3.82
3 18-Aug-97 7 17 70.878 70.927 70.9025 14.845 14.892 14.8685 56.0340 0.065 7.804 3.80
4 25-Aug-97 7 24 70.859 70.908 70.8835 14.862 14.906 14.8840 55.9995 0.099 7.705 3.71
5 01-Sep-97 7 31 70.842 70.889 70.8655 14.872 14.916 14.8940 55.9715 0.127 7.680 3.68
6 08-Sep-97 7 38 70.824 70.872 70.8480 14.886 14.930 14.9080 55.9400 0.158 7.639 3.64
7 22-Sep-97 14 52 70.787 70.834 70.8105 14.903 14.949 14.9260 55.8845 0.214 7.584 3.58
8 29-Sep-97 7 59 70.773 70.817 70.7950 14.915 14.962 14.9385 55.8565 0.242 7.570 3.57
9 06-Oct-97 7 66 70.750 70.468 70.6090 14.928 14.607 14.7675 55.8415 0.257 7.546 3.55
10 13-Oct-97 7 73 70.744 70.793 70.7685 14.944 14.988 14.9660 55.8025 0.296 7.517 3.52
11 20-Oct-97 7 80 70.734 70.783 70.7585 14.944 14.989 14.9665 55.7920 0.306 7.493 3.49
12 27-Oct-97 7 87 70.724 70.775 70.7495 14.965 15.025 14.9950 55.7545 0.344 7.464 3.46
13 05-Nov-97 9 96 70.700 70.752 70.7260 15.968 16.020 15.9940 54.7320 0.367 7.455 3.46
14 14-Nov-97 9 105 70.700 70.754 70.7270 15.987 16.028 16.0075 54.7195 0.379 7.411 3.41
15 21-Nov-97 7 112 70.670 70.740 70.7050 15.990 16.045 16.0175 54.6875 0.411 7.393 3.39
16 28-Nov-97 7 119 70.662 70.715 70.6885 16.015 16.055 16.0350 54.6535 0.445 7.367 3.37
17 05-Dec-97 7 126 70.650 70.700 70.6750 16.010 16.063 16.0365 54.6385 0.460 7.360 3.36
18 12-Dec-97 7 133 70.647 70.680 70.6635 16.020 16.075 16.0475 54.6160 0.483 7.338 3.34
19 17-Dec-97 5 138 70.630 70.680 70.6550 16.035 16.085 16.0600 54.5950 0.503 7.316 3.32
20 27-Dec-97 10 148 70.624 70.667 70.6455 16.044 16.080 16.0620 54.5835 0.515 7.289 3.29
21 31-Dec-97 4 152 70.615 70.650 70.6325 16.045 16.068 16.0565 54.5760 0.523 7.260 3.26
22 10-Jan-98 10 162 70.595 70.641 70.6180 16.049 16.098 16.0735 54.5445 0.554 7.234 3.23
23 21-Jan-98 11 173 70.570 70.619 70.5945 16.055 16.103 16.0790 54.5155 0.583 7.223 3.22
24 06-Feb-98 16 189 70.536 70.583 70.5595 16.061 16.106 16.0835 54.4760 0.623 7.187 3.19
25 14-Feb-98 8 197 70.520 70.565 70.5425 16.065 16.105 16.0850 54.4575 0.641 7.120 3.12
26 28-Feb-98 14 211 70.500 70.548 70.5240 16.075 16.120 16.0975 54.4265 0.672 7.107 3.11
27 14-Mar-98 14 225 70.475 70.520 70.4975 16.085 16.130 16.1075 54.3900 0.709 7.066 3.07
Application of Geotechnical Instruments in Reclamation and Soil Improvement Projects
28 28-Mar-98 14 239 70.460 70.505 70.4825 16.095 16.140 16.1175 54.3650 0.734 7.039 3.04
273
274 Chapter 13
PROJECT : RECLAMATION OF PROJECT C DATE OF INSTALLATION : 01 / 08 / 97
LOCATION : LOT 2.0M IN PILOT (PIS-05) SETTLEMENT COORDINATES : X 5973.30 Y 939.31
INSTRUMENT TYPE : MULTI LEVEL SETTLEMENT DEVICE vs. TIME DATE OF V.D. INSTALLATION : 21 / 03 / 97
INSTRUMENTS NO. : - MS-005 DATE OF SURCHARGE : 06 / 06 - 17 / 06 / 97
12
10
Surcharge(mCD)
8
V.D install
2
29-J ul-97 26-Nov -97 26-Mar-98 24-J ul-98 21-Nov -98 21-Mar-99 19-J ul-99 16-Nov -99 15-Mar-2000
27-Sep-97 25-J an-98 25-May -98 22-Sep-98 20-J an-99 20-May -99 17-Sep-99 15-J an-2000
0 60 120 180 240 300 360 420 480 540 600 660 720 780 840 900 960
-20
0
MS5-I
MS5-H
MS5-G
20 MS5-F
MS5-E
40
MS5-D
60
Settlement(cm)
MS5-C
80
100
MS5-B
120
140
MS5-A
160
180
200
Figure 13.20 A graphical presentation of monitoring data from a multi-

settlement gauge.
Figure 13.21 Portable readout used in monitoring a multi-settlement

gauge. (Courtesy of Slope Indicator Co.)
10.0
8.0
6.0 V. D. Install
4.0
2.0
Surcharge (mCD)
0.0
0.00
0.20 DS-305
0.40
DS-301
0.60
0.80
DS-300
Settlement (m)
1.00
-0.20
0.00 MS17-G
0.20 MS17-E
0.40
MS17-B
0.60
0.80
Settlement (m)
1.00
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Time (day)
Figure 13.22 Comparison of measurements of the rates of settlement of the sub-layer at the same elevation,
by a screw plate and a multi-level settlement gauge.
275
276 Chapter 13
0.0 DS-300 (-12 mCD)

MS17-B (-12.018 mCD)
0.2
Settlement (m)
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
0.0 DS-301 (-24.5 mCD)

MS17-E (-24.395 mCD)
0.1
Settlement (m)
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0 200 400 600 800 1000
0.00
DS-305 (-31.5 mCD)
0.05 MS17-G (-32.455 mCD)
Settlement (m)
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Time (day)
Figure 13.22 Comparison of measurements of the rates of settlement

(continued) of the sub-layer at the same elevation by a screw plate
and multi-level settlement gauge.
13.4.6 ■ Earth pressure cell (EPC)
Earth pressure cells are designed to measure the total pressure of earth and
water imposed on the cell. Together with static water pressure measurement
from a water standpipe, the effective pressure caused by the fill and surcharge
can be measured. The earth pressure cell can be installed on the foundation
before filling, or it can be installed in a borehole. The earth pressure cell
can be installed in two positions depending upon the situation. One is with
the sensitive side down and the other is with the sensitive side up. If the
pressure cell is to be installed on a rigid foundation or structure, it should
be installed with the sensitive side facing the rigid foundation surface. If it
is to be installed on a flexible surface, the sensitive side should face the
filling soil.
The pressure cell will give different measurement data depending upon
whether the sensitive side is up or down, even in laboratory loading. A
comparative graph of earth pressure measurements with the sensitive side
up and down is shown in Figure 13.23. An underestimation by the earth
pressure cells installed under a granular fill is mostly due to arching of the
earth fill on the pressure cell. The EPC should be installed with its sensitive
surface in direct contact with the soil. Both surfaces of the EPC must be in
full-face contact with the soil or the rigid structure.
A point load on the surfaces of the EPC will result in over
measurement. The EPC should be installed on rigid structures measuring
1000mm x 1000mm (150mm thick concrete or 12mm thick steel) to
minimize arching problems which can result in under-measurement of the
fill. Pressure cells must be calibrated before usage. On-site calibration is
possible when a large diameter tube well is available.
The measured data can be calibrated against the actual water pressure
on the cell. Table 13.6 shows processed data from earth pressure cell
measurements. Figure 13.24 shows the various types of earth pressure cells
and readout unit. Monitored data are also shown together with construction
activities and static water level, as in Figure 13.25.
278 Chapter 13
140
120
Pressure (kpa)
100
EP-2(UP)
80 EP-3(DOWN)
60
40
20
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Time (day)
Figure 13.23 Comparative graph of earth pressure measurements with

the sensitive side of the cell up and down under surcharge
fill.
Figure 13.24 Various types of earth pressure cells and

readout units. (Courtesy of Slope Indicator Co.)
Table 13.6 Typical processed monitoring data from earth pressure cells.
EARTH PRES S URE CELL MONITORING AND PROCES S ED DATA
PROJECT: RECLAMATION OF PROJECTS PLATE S/NO.: 64256

PROJ ECT : RECLA MA TI ON OF PROJ ECT C
LOCATION: PILOT AREA DATE OF FILL: 04/12 – 11/12/93
LOCA TI ON : P I LOT A REA P LA TE S/ NO. : 6 4 2 5 6
PLATE NO.: EP-005 DATE OF V.D INSTALL: 21/03/97
P LA TE NO. : EP-0 0 5 DA TE OF FI LL : 0 4 / 1 2 - 1 1 / 1 2 / 9 3
COORDINATE:
COORDI NA TE : XX 55990.75
9 9 0 .7 5 Y 879.25
Y 8 7 9 .2 5 DATE
DA TEOF
OFINSTALLATION:
V.D I NSTA LL31/05
: 21 / 03 / 97
I NSTA LLA TI ON ELEV.
INSTALLATION ELEV.:: (+)
(+)3 3.500
.5 0 0 mCD
mCD DA TEOF
DATE OFSURCHARGE:
I NSTA LLA TI ON : 3 1 / 0 5
17/06/97
GROUND E.L : (+) 4 .0 0 0 mCD DA TE OF SURCHA RGE : 1 7 / 0 6 / 9 7 &
GROUND E.L.: (+) 4.000 MCD
DATE READING TOTAL READING PRESSURE SURCHARGE

NO INTERVAL TIME INTERVAL TOTAL ELEV. HEIGHT REMARKS
(day) (day) (PSI) (kPA) (kPA) (mCD) (m)
1 06-Jun-97 0 6 0.670 0.000 4.620 3.611 0.00 V.D install

1 06-Jun-97 0 6 0.670 0.000 4.620 0.000 0.00
1 06-Jun-97 0 6 0.670 0.000 4.620 3.611 0.00
2 11-Jun-97 5 11 1.261 4.077 8.697 4.022 0.02 Surcharge
3 13-Jun-97 2 13 3.999 18.876 27.572 5.155 1.16
4 16-Jun-97 3 16 5.693 11.679 39.251 5.856 1.86
5 18-Jun-97 2 18 12.081 44.049 83.300 8.500 4.50
6 23-Jun-97 5 23 11.644 -3.015 80.285 8.319 4.32
7 25-Jun-97 2 25 11.576 -0.466 79.818 8.291 4.29
8 27-Jun-97 2 27 11.547 -0.200 79.618 8.279 4.28
9 30-Jun-97 3 30 11.545 -0.017 79.601 8.278 4.28
10 02-Jul-97 2 32 11.504 -0.283 79.318 8.261 4.26
11 04-Jul-97 2 34 11.467 -0.250 79.068 8.246 4.25
12 07-Jul-97 3 37 11.448 -0.133 78.935 8.238 4.24
13 11-Jul-97 4 41 11.354 -0.650 78.285 8.199 4.20
14 14-Jul-97 3 44 11.281 -0.500 77.786 8.169 4.17
15 16-Jul-97 2 46 11.272 -0.067 77.719 8.165 4.17
16 21-Jul-97 5 51 11.194 -0.533 77.186 8.133 4.13
17 23-Jul-97 2 53 11.153 -0.283 76.903 8.116 4.12
18 25-Jul-97 2 55 11.136 -0.117 76.786 8.109 4.11
19 28-Jul-97 3 58 11.120 -0.117 76.669 8.102 4.10
20 01-A ug-97 4 62 11.081 -0.267 76.403 8.086 4.09
21 07-A ug-97 6 68 11.045 -0.250 76.153 8.071 4.07
22 11-A ug-97 4 72 10.977 -0.466 75.686 8.043 4.04
23 13-A ug-97 2 74 10.955 -0.150 75.536 8.034 4.03
24 18-A ug-97 5 79 10.895 -0.416 75.120 8.009 4.01
25 20-A ug-97 2 81 10.844 -0.350 74.770 7.988 3.99
26 25-A ug-97 5 86 10.793 -0.350 74.420 7.967 3.97
27 27-A ug-97 2 88 10.769 -0.167 74.254 7.957 3.96
28 01-Sep-97 5 93 10.740 -0.201 74.052 7.945 3.95
29 03-Sep-97 2 95 10.696 -0.303 73.749 7.844 3.84
30 08-Sep-97 5 100 10.673 -0.159 73.590 7.917 3.92
31 10-Sep-97 2 102 10.634 -0.269 73.321 7.901 3.90
32 22-Sep-97 12 114 10.537 -0.669 72.653 7.861 3.86
33 29-Sep-97 7 121 10.452 -0.586 72.067 7.950 3.95
34 06-O ct-97 7 128 10.375 -0.528 71.538 7.794 3.79
35 08-O ct-97 2 130 10.412 0.250 71.788 7.809 3.81
280

LOCATION : PILOT AREA TOTAL PRESSURE COORDINATE : X 5990.75 Y 879.25
Chapter 13
INS TRUMENT TYPE : EARTH PRESSURE CELL vs. TIME DATE OF V.D INSTALL : 21 / 03 / 97
PLATE NO. : EP-005 PLATE S/NO. : 64256 DATE OF SURCHARGE : 17 / 06 / 97 & 26 / 12 / 2000
SOIL PROFILE SOIL 12

REF. BOREHOLE : DC-012 INSTRUMENT
E.L. DEPTH SOIL E.L.
10
(mCD) (m) TYPE (mCD)
4 0 SAND EP-005
3.5 8
13.4.7 ■ Piezometers
6
Surcharge(mCD)
4
(a) Pneumatic piezometer

-8.18 12.18 CLAY
2
30-May -97 26-Nov -97 25-May -98 21-Nov -98 20-May -99 16-Nov -99 14-May -2000 10-Nov -2000 09-May -2001 05-Nov -2001
28-Aug-97 24-Feb-98 23-Aug-98 19-Feb-99 18-Aug-99 14-Feb-2000 12-Aug-2000 08-Feb-2001 07-Aug-2001
200
190
(b) Vibrating wire piezometer and

180
170
(c) Casagrande open type piezometer

160
-29.2 33.15 SAND 150

-30.9 34.86 CLAY 140
130
120
110
-38.8 42.83 SILT
100
90
80 EP-005
PRESSURE (kPa)
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
-61.8 65.8 SAND
0
-63 67
0 90 180 270 360 450 540 630 720 810 900 990 1080 1170 1260 1350 1440 1530 1620
Three types of piezometers are usually used in reclamation projects.

Figure 13.25 A graphical presentation of total pressure measurements.
installation. On-site calibration can be carried out in a large diameter tube

wire piezometers should be calibrated for the local environment before
Piezometers are installed in a borehole. Each piezometer should be
installed in a borehole at a predetermined elevation. Pneumatic and vibrating
well and pressure measured against the actual water column pressure on
the piezometer. In the case of the vibrating wire piezometer, calibration is
frequently done against the actual water pressure. An example of a site
calibration is shown in Figure 13.26.
Piezometers are packed in a sand bag and saturated in water at least
twenty-four hours before installation. After installation in a borehole, sand
should be filled around it to a certain limit and a bentonite seal placed on
top of the sand column. The bentonite should be suitable for marine
conditions and upon reaction with seawater sufficient swelling and reduction
of permeability must be achieved. On top of the bentonite plug, the borehole
should be backfilled up to the original seabed level, preferably with original
soil. If not, it should be backfilled with a good mixture of bentonite cement
with permeability equivalent to or lower than the natural soil. Backfilling
with sand will lead to underestimation of the pore pressure at the measured
location because of rapid dissipation of pore pressure along the sand fill
column above the piezometer. A typical installation of a piezometer is shown
in Figure 13.27. Figure 13.28 shows a photograph of a pneumatic and
vibrating wire piezometer.
Piezometers generally measure pressure or water head above the
measured level. The measured values are generally translated into
piezometric head or excess pore pressure. Data are usually presented together
with construction stages and activities. However, care should be taken in
analyzing piezometer results. Piezometer readings should be corrected by
taking into account piezometer tip settlement. Uncorrected piezometer
monitoring data would lead to an under-estimation of the degree of
dissipation (Bo et al. 1999b). Table 13.7 shows measured and processed
data, and Figure 13.29 shows data presented in terms of pressure head,
piezometric elevation, and excess pore pressure.
A comparison of corrected and uncorrected excess pore pressure data
is shown in Figure 13.30. Normally, a pneumatic piezometer and a vibrating
wire piezometer will produce similar results.
Basically, piezometers are installed to monitor the dissipation of excess
pore pressure. However, some are installed prior to reclamation to check
the natural variation of pore pressures in the soil. Sometimes, natural pore
pressures in the soil vary from the static condition because of hydrogeologic
boundary conditions at the drainage layer. As such, it would mislead the
interpretation of excess pore pressure on the piezometer head.
282 Chapter 13
Figure 13.26a Site calibration in progress.
SITE CALIBRATION OF A PNEUMATIC PIEZOMETER

S/N : 48775 (PP-203) DATE : 12-January-98
CLUSTER N O. : A4S-07 (A4 Area)
1.SIT E CALIB RAT ION D AT A
DEPTH READIN G READING DEPTH READING READ IN G
(m) (PSI) (mH2O) (m) (PSI) (mH2O)
1 1.42 1.00 10 14.20 10.00
2 2.84 2.00 15 21.30 15.00
3 4.26 3.00 20 28.54 20.09

4 5.68 4.00 25 35.64 25.09
5 7.10 5.00 30 42.74 30.09
SITE CALIBRATION RESU LT

PN EU MATIC PIEZOMETER (PP-203)
30.0
28.0
26.0
24.0
22.0
20.0
18.0
mH2O
16.0
14.0
12.0
10.0
8.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
0.0
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 16.0 18.0 20.0 22.0 24.0 26.0 28.0 30.0
D EPTH (m)
Figure 13.26b Site calibration for a piezometer.

MONITORING CABLE MONITORING WIRE
FILL LEVEL FILL LEVEL
SAND BACKFILL SAND BACKFILL
BOREHOLE
BOREHOLE
(100mm )
(100mm )
1000mm
1000mm
BENTONITE SEAL BENTONITE SEAL
200mm
200mm
PNEUMATIC VIBRATING WIRE
400mm
PIEZOMETER TYPE PIEZOMETER
400mm
SAND FILTER SAND FILTER
Figure 13.27 Typical installation of: (a) a pneumatic piezometer, and

(b) a vibrating wire piezometer.
(a) (b)
Figure 13.28 (a) A pneumatic piezometer, and (b) a vibrating wire

piezometer. (Courtesy of Slope Indicator Co.)
284
Table 13.7 Typical processed data from a piezometer monitoring data.
EXAMPLE OF VIBRATING WIRE TYPE PIEZOMETER MONITORING AND PROCESS DATA

Chapter 13
PROJECT : RECLAMATION PROJECT C DATE OF FILL : 25 / 11 / 96 - 18 / 01 / 97

INSTRUMENT NO. : PZ - 092 DATE OF V.D. INSTALLATION : 30 / 12 / 97
LOCATION : A4 AREA GROUND E.L : (+) 4.243 mCD
SERIAL NO. : 65072 DATE OF INSTALLATION : 17 / 01 / 98
INSTALL E.L OF PIEZO : -6.40 mCD COORDINATES : X 5303.49 Y 2049.20
INSTALLATION DEPTH : 10.64 m DATE OF SURCHARGE : 03 / 07 - 27 / 07 / 98
DATE READING READING TOTAL PIEZOMETER W S P(WS-A4S06) PORE WATER PRESSURE SURCHARGE REMARK
CORRECTED
No. TIME INTERVAL TIME READINGS PIEZO E.L READING TOP E.L WATER LEVEL STATIC EXCESS EXCESS ELEV. HEIGHT
(day) (day) PSI (kPa) (mCD) (m) (mCD) (mCD) (kPa) (kPa) (kPa) (mCD) (m)
1 21-Jan-98 16:00 0 4 19.4200 133.901 7.258 0.730 4.733 4.003 101.830 32.071 31.847 4.243 0.00
2 04-Feb-98 10:00 14 18 19.3035 133.098 7.176 0.710 4.733 4.023 102.026 31.072 30.848 4.243 0.00
3 11-Feb-98 09:40 7 25 19.0028 131.024 6.964 0.720 4.714 3.994 101.742 29.283 28.932 4.248 0.00
4 18-Feb-98 09:40 7 32 18.9189 130.446 6.905 0.750 4.701 3.951 101.321 29.125 28.687 4.215 0.00
5 25-Feb-98 15:20 7 39 18.8351 129.868 6.847 0.900 4.685 3.785 99.696 30.172 29.610 4.199 0.00
6 04-Mar-98 10:10 7 46 18.7512 129.289 6.788 0.940 4.672 3.732 99.177 30.112 29.463 4.175 0.00
7 11-Mar-98 09:00 7 53 18.6673 128.711 6.729 0.950 4.656 3.706 98.923 29.789 29.027 4.160 0.00
8 18-Mar-98 09:35 7 60 18.5834 128.133 6.670 0.950 4.640 3.690 98.766 29.367 28.502 4.081 0.00
9 25-Mar-98 09:15 7 67 18.4996 127.554 6.611 0.980 4.628 3.648 98.355 29.200 28.263 4.086 0.00
10 03-Apr-98 09:07 9 76 18.4157 126.976 6.552 0.920 4.614 3.694 98.805 28.171 27.150 4.115 0.00
11 17-Apr-98 08:40 14 90 18.3318 126.398 6.493 0.940 4.588 3.648 98.355 28.043 26.851 4.087 0.00
12 24-Apr-98 08:56 7 97 18.2479 125.820 6.434 0.910 4.575 3.665 98.521 27.298 26.027 4.076 0.00
13 08-May-98 09:20 14 111 18.1641 125.241 6.375 0.850 4.549 3.699 98.854 26.387 24.934 4.028 0.00
14 15-May-98 08:40 7 118 18.0802 124.663 6.316 0.800 4.543 3.743 99.285 25.378 23.924 4.038 0.00
15 22-May-98 10:45 7 125 18.0048 124.143 6.263 0.830 4.534 3.704 98.903 25.240 23.718 4.030 0.00
16 05-Jun-98 15:30 14 139 17.9671 123.883 6.236 0.870 4.526 3.656 98.433 25.450 23.860 4.042 0.00
17 12-Jun-98 16:35 7 146 17.9105 123.493 6.196 0.850 4.503 3.653 98.404 25.089 23.372 4.001 0.00
18 19-Jun-98 16:00 7 153 17.8822 123.297 6.176 0.820 4.489 3.669 98.560 24.737 22.917 3.988 0.00
19 27-Jun-98 17:55 8 161 17.8538 123.102 6.156 0.830 4.485 3.655 98.423 24.679 22.844 3.986 0.00
20 03-Jul-98 16:30 6 167 18.7456 129.251 6.784 2.810 7.242 4.432 106.029 23.222 21.331 3.980 0.00
21 06-Jul-98 15:20 3 170 19.6374 135.400 7.411 2.740 7.231 4.491 106.603 28.797 26.875 4.546 0.55 Under surcharge
22 09-Jul-98 09:18 3 173 20.5292 141.549 8.038 2.750 7.219 4.469 106.394 35.154 33.204 5.112 1.11
LOCATION : A4 PIEZOMETRIC ELEVATION COORDINATES : X 5303.49 Y 2049.20

INSTRUMENT TY PE : VWP PIEZOMETER vs. TIME DATE OF V.D. I NSTALLATION : 30 / 12 / 97
INSTRUMENTS NOS : - PZ-092 / 093 / 094 / 095 DATE OF SURCHARGE : 03 / 07 - 27 / 07 / 98
SOIL PROFILE SOIL

12
REF. BOREHOLE : PC-19 INSTRUMENT
10
4.5 0 SAND
8
Surcharge(mCD)
4
-1.3 5.8 CLAY
2
17-Jan-98 16-Jul-98 12-Jan-99 11-Jul-99 07-Jan-2000 05-Jul-2000 01-Jan-2001 30-Jun-2001 27-Dec-2001
17-Apr-98 14-Oct-98 12-Apr-99 09-Oct-99 06-Apr-2000 03-Oct-2000 01-Apr-2001 28-Sep-2001 27-Mar-2002
PZ-092
-6.4 30
28
PZ-093
26
-10
24
PZ-094 22
-13.6 20
18
16
PZ-095
14
-19
12
10
PZ-093
-22.3 26.8 SAND 8 PZ-094
Piezometric E.L. (mCD)

PZ-092
6 PZ-095
W.L
4
-2
-30.8 35.25
0 90 180 270 360 450 540 630 720 810 900 990 1080 1170 1260 1350 1440 1530
Figure 13.29 Data presentation in terms of pressure head, piezometric elevation, and excess pore pressure.
285
286 Chapter 13
EXCESS PORE PRESSURE - TIME

EXCESS PORE PRESSURE (kPa)
-40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280
(6)
(4) PC-19(GV)
(2)
0
SAND
PZ-092(JAN/98)
6
10 PZ-093(JAN/98)
12
PZ-094(JAN/98)
ELEVATION (X-1 mCD)
CLAY
14
16
18
PZ-095(JAN/98)
20
22
24
26
SAND
28
30
32 Vertical Drain installed on 30th Dec.1997.

34 Filling to +4.0mCD completed on 18th Jan.1997.
Surcharge to +8.5mCD completed on 27th July 1998.
36
38
40
42
25-Mar-98 03-Jul-98 03-Dec-98 09-Mar-99 31-May -99 24-Aug-99 03-Apr-2000
24-Jul-2000 26-Dec-2000 30-Apr-2001 26-Jun-2001 04-Sep-2001 01-Oct-2001 09-Jan-2002
Figure 13.29 Data presentation in terms of pressure head, piezometric

(continued) elevation, and excess pore pressure.
20
Piezometric Elevation
15
(mCD)
10
5
Data Corrected PP-466
Data Uncorrected PP-466
0
0 1 2 3 4
Time (years)
Figure 13.30 Comparison of corrected and uncorrected piezometer

elevation.
13.4.8 ■ Casagrande open type piezometer
Open type piezometers are installed in more permeable formations where

the drainage condition needs to be checked constantly. Open type
piezometers are installed in the same manner as pneumatic piezometers.
Instead of a pneumatic cable and a water pressure cable, it has an extruding
open pipe for water to flow. Water depths are measured with the help of a
water level indicator. Sometimes, water can overflow through the pipe
because of extremely high artesian pressure at the aquifer below the
compressible layer. As such, a pressure gauge should be installed to measure
the water head (Figure 13.31b).
A typical installation design is shown in Figure 13.31a. Figure 13.32
shows a water level indicator of an open type piezometer used in monitoring.
Table 13.8 shows measured and processed data. Figure 13.33 shows a
graphical presentation of processed data. Data are generally presented at
the piezometric head or elevation. Figure 13.34 shows a photograph of a
Casagrande open type piezometer.
PROTECTIVE CAP
FILL LEVEL
SAND BACKFILL
BOREHOLE
(100mm )
PVC PIPE (25mm )

1000
BENTONITE SEAL
SAND FILTER
PIEZOMETER
300
Note: Measurement are in mm
Figure 13.31 (a) Typical installation of an open type piezometer;

(b) Casagrande open type piezometer with pressure gauge.
Figure 13.32 Water level indicator used in monitoring water

standpipe. (Courtesy of Slope Indicator Co.)
288
Table 13.8 Measured and processed data.
CASSAGRANDE OPEN TYPE PIEZOMETER

Chapter 13
PROJECT : RECLAMATION OF PROJECT C

INSTRUMENT NO. : OP-019 DATE OF FILL : 05 / 12 / 96 - 18 / 01 / 97
LOCATION : A4 DATE OF V.D. INSTALLATION : 30 / 12 / 97
INSTALL E.L OF PIEZO : -26.00 mCD DATE OF INSTALLATION : 07 / 01 / 98
INSTALLATION DEPTH : 30.24 m COORDINATES : X 5301.62 Y 2056.21
GROUND E.L : (+) 4.243 mCD DATE OF SURCHARGE : 03 / 07 - 27 / 07 / 98
Sr. DATE READING READING TOTAL PIEZOMETER W S P(WS-A4S06) EXCESS PORE SURCHARGE REMARK
No. TIME INTERVAL TIME READING TOP E.L PIEZO E.L READING TOP E.L WATER LEVELWATER (P) ELEV. HEIGHT
(day) (day) (m) (mCD) (mCD) (m) (mCD) (mCD) (kPa) (mCD) (m)
1 21-Jan-98 16:00 0 14 0.71 4.816 4.106 0.73 4.733 4.003 1.03 4.243 0
2 4-Feb-98 10:00 14 28 0.76 4.816 4.056 0.71 4.733 4.023 0.33 4.243 0
3 11-Feb-98 9:40 7 35 0.76 4.81 4.05 0.72 4.714 3.994 0.56 4.248 0
4 18-Feb-98 9:40 7 42 0.82 4.809 3.989 0.75 4.701 3.951 0.38 4.215 0
5 25-Feb-98 15:20 7 49 0.98 4.804 3.824 0.9 4.685 3.785 0.39 4.199 0
6 4-Mar-98 10:10 7 56 1.04 4.801 3.761 0.94 4.672 3.732 0.29 4.175 0
7 11-Mar-98 9:00 7 63 1.04 4.796 3.756 0.95 4.656 3.706 0.5 4.16 0
8 18-Mar-98 9:35 7 70 1.08 4.79 3.71 0.95 4.64 3.69 0.2 4.081 0
9 25-Mar-98 9:15 7 77 1.05 4.791 3.741 0.98 4.628 3.648 0.93 4.086 0
10 3-Apr-98 9:07 9 86 1.07 4.787 3.717 0.92 4.614 3.694 0.23 4.115 0
11 17-Apr-98 8:40 14 100 1.1 4.779 3.679 0.94 4.588 3.648 0.31 4.087 0
12 24-Apr-98 8:56 7 107 1.08 4.775 3.695 0.91 4.575 3.665 0.3 4.076 0
13 8-May-98 9:20 14 121 1.05 4.762 3.712 0.85 4.549 3.699 0.13 4.028 0
14 15-May-98 8:40 7 128 0.98 4.763 3.783 0.8 4.543 3.743 0.4 4.038 0
15 22-May-98 10:45 7 135 0.81 4.761 3.951 0.83 4.534 3.704 2.47 4.03 0
16 5-Jun-98 15:30 14 149 1.02 4.761 3.741 0.87 4.526 3.656 0.85 4.042 0
17 12-Jun-98 16:35 7 156 1.01 4.754 3.744 0.85 4.503 3.653 0.91 4.001 0
18 19-Jun-98 16:00 7 163 0.96 4.739 3.779 0.82 4.489 3.669 1.1 3.988 0
19 27-Jun-98 17:55 8 171 0.98 4.741 3.761 0.83 4.485 3.655 1.06 3.986 0
20 3-Jul-98 16:30 6 177 2.83 7.514 4.684 2.81 7.242 4.432 2.52 3.98 0
21 6-Jul-98 15:20 3 180 2.75 7.516 4.766 2.74 7.231 4.491 2.75 4.546 0.55 Under surcharge
22 9-Jul-98 9:18 3 183 2.77 7.518 4.748 2.75 7.219 4.469 2.79 5.112 1.11
LOCATION : A4 WATER ELEVATION COORDINATES : X 5301.62 Y 2056.21
INSTRUMENT TY PE : OPEN-TY PE PIEZOMETER vs. TIME DATE OF V.D. INSTALLATION : 30 / 12 / 97
INSTRUMENT NO. : OP-019 DATE OF SURCHARGE : 03 / 07 - 27 / 07 / 98
Figure 13.34
SOIL PROFILE SOIL
12
10
4.5 0 SAND
8
Surcharge(mCD)
4
-1.3 5.8 CLAY
2
07-Jan-98 06-Jul-98 02-Jan-99 01-Jul-99 28-Dec-99 25-Jun-2000 22-Dec-2000 20-Jun-2001 17-Dec-2001 15-Jun-2002
07-Apr-98 04-Oct-98 02-Apr-99 29-Sep-99 27-Mar-2000 23-Sep-2000 22-Mar-2001 18-Sep-2001 17-Mar-2002
30
28
26
24
22
20
18
16

14
12
10
-22.3 26.8 SAND 8
Piezometric E.L. (mCD)

6
OP-019 W.L
OP-019
-26 4
Photograph of a Casagrande open type piezometer.

-2
-30.8 35.25 0 90 180 270 360 450 540 630 720 810 900 990 1080 1170 1260 1350 1440 1530 1620
Figure 13.33 Graphical presentation of procssed data.

289
290 Chapter 13
13.4.9 ■ Water standpipe
Water standpipes are installed to measure the static pressure of ground water
during and upon completion of filling. Some water standpipes installed
prior to filling should provide an open slot above the seabed so that water
intake from the granular fill is possible after filling. If not, the water levels
from the standpipe may not be representative of the ground water level in
the fill. Sufficient open area, normally greater than 11%, should be provided
to reduce the hydrodynamic time lag. On the other hand, the opening slot
must be small enough to retain the surrounding soil. In normal practice,
geotextile is wrapped around the slotted area in order to retain the
surrounding soil. A typical installation design of a water standpipe is shown
in Figure 13.35. Figure 13.36 shows a photograph of a water standpipe.
Measurement, data processing and presentation are the same as for the
PVC PIPE
(50mm )
FILL LEVEL
SAND FILL
NYLON NET FILTER

2000mm
OR GEOTEXTILE
300mm
Figure 13.35 Typical installation design of a water standpipe.
Figure 13.36 Photograph of a water standpipe.

open type piezometer. Table 13.9 shows processed data, and Figure 13.37
shows an example of data presentation.
Table 13.9 Processed data from a water standpipe.
WATER STAND PIPE RECORD SHEET

PROJECT : RECLAMATION AT PROJECT A DATE OF FILL : 05 / 12 / 96 - 18 / 01 / 97
LOCATION : A4S-06 AREA DATE OF V.D. INSTALLATION : 30 / 12 / 97
GROUND E.L : (+) 4.243 mCD
DATE OF SURCHARGE : 03 / 07 - 27 / 07 / 98
DATE READING READING TOTAL W S P(WS-A4S06) PORE WATER(P) SURCHARGE

No. TIME INTERVAL TIME TOP E.L WATER LEVEL STATIC EXCESS ELEV. HEIGHT
(day) (day) (mCD) (mCD) (kPa) (kPa) (mCD) (m)
1 21-Jan-98 16:00 0 7 4.733 4.003 101.83 49.86 4.243 0
1 21-Jan-98 16:00 0 7 4.733 4.003 101.83 49.86 0
1 21-Jan-98 16:00 0 7 4.733 4.003 101.83 49.86
2 4-Feb-98 10:00 14 21 4.733 4.023 102.026 46.217 4.243 0
3 11-Feb-98 9:40 7 28 4.714 3.994 101.742 47.19 4.248 0
4 18-Feb-98 9:40 7 35 4.701 3.951 101.321 45.543 4.215 0
5 25-Feb-98 15:20 7 42 4.685 3.785 99.696 32.688 4.199 0
6 4-Mar-98 10:10 7 49 4.672 3.732 99.177 42.86 4.175 0
7 11-Mar-98 9:00 7 56 4.656 3.706 98.923 43.804 4.16 0
8 18-Mar-98 9:35 7 63 4.64 3.69 98.766 51.545 4.081 0
9 25-Mar-98 9:15 7 70 4.628 3.648 98.355 44.372 4.086 0
10 3-Apr-98 9:07 9 79 4.614 3.694 98.805 43.232 4.115 0
11 17-Apr-98 8:40 14 93 4.588 3.648 98.355 44.372 4.087 0
12 24-Apr-98 8:56 7 100 4.575 3.665 98.521 43.516 4.076 0
13 8-May-98 9:20 14 114 4.549 3.699 98.854 43.872 4.028 0
14 15-May-98 8:40 7 121 4.543 3.743 99.285 43.442 4.038 0
15 22-May-98 10:45 7 128 4.534 3.704 98.903 41.755 4.03 0
16 5-Jun-98 15:30 14 142 4.526 3.656 98.433 39.467 4.042 0
17 12-Jun-98 16:35 7 149 4.503 3.653 98.404 42.254 4.001 0
18 19-Jun-98 16:00 7 156 4.489 3.669 98.56 42.098 3.988 0
19 27-Jun-98 17:55 8 164 4.485 3.655 98.423 43.614 3.986 0
20 3-Jul-98 16:30 6 170 7.242 4.432 106.029 38.076 3.98 0
21 6-Jul-98 15:20 3 173 7.231 4.491 106.603 41.639 4.546 0.55
22 9-Jul-98 9:18 3 176 7.219 4.469 106.394 42.538 5.112 1.11
23 13-Jul-98 15:30 4 180 7.208 5.328 114.8 56.886 5.678 1.68
24 16-Jul-98 8:00 3 183 7.213 5.523 116.708 54.977 5.55 1.55
25 20-Jul-98 15:20 4 187 9.34 5.39 115.406 56.279 5.421 1.42
26 23-Jul-98 14:30 3 190 9.349 6.049 121.857 55.344 7.061 3.06
27 27-Jul-98 16:00 4 194 9.294 7.014 131.303 91.406 8.335 4.34
28 30-Jul-98 8:15 3 197 9.277 6.687 128.102 92.538 8.343 4.34
29 4-Aug-98 14:38 5 202 9.26 6.89 130.089 93.309 8.35 4.35
30 6-Aug-98 14:25 2 204 9.246 6.746 128.675 90.586 8.348 4.35
7
Water Level (mCD)
0
0 500 1000 1500
Time (days)
Figure 13.37 Example of data presentation.

292 Chapter 13
13.4.10 ■ Inclinometer
Inclinometers are installed to measure the lateral movement during filling

or during consolidation. To measure the lateral movements during filling,
inclinometers are installed in an offshore cluster.
To monitor the lateral movement during a surcharge filling,
inclinometers are installed at or near the edge of the surcharge embankment.
As such, vertical displacement caused by consolidation and lateral
displacement can be differentiated.
An inclinometer should be anchored on a hard formation where there
is no lateral movement. Since an inclinometer measures relative movement
at the toe, any movement at the toe would lead to an underestimation of
lateral displacement.
A typical installation design of an inclinometer is shown in Figure
13.38. The probe generally measures the degree of inclination between
two points, and lateral displacement is calculated using the following simple
equation:
Lateral displacement (D) = L Sin q

where L is length of probe, q is angle measured.
Cumulative displacements are calculated from this measurement. Table
13.10 shows an example of processed data, and Figure 13.39 shows an
example of data presentation. Figure 13.40 shows a photograph of various
Figure 13.38 Typical design and principal of inclinometer measurement

(after Slope Indicator Co. & CEP).
types of couplings and casings used in inclinometer installation. Figure

13.41 shows the inclinometer probe used for monitoring, and Figure 13.42
shows the inclinometer spiral sensor for checking casing twist.
Generally, the stage construction technique is applied in shore
protection and surcharging along the edge of the reclamation. The three
types of instruments which can be used to ensure the safe construction of
slopes are inclinometers, settlement pads, and plates. Inclinometers provide
absolute measurement of lateral movements. Settlement pads are placed
along the side of the slope. In this case, surveying of pads along the line at
close intervals is essential.
The factor which causes slope failure is not only the magnitude of the
lateral movement but also the rate of movement. Therefore, a sudden
increase in the rate of movement at the maximum displacement point is an
indication of danger to slope stability. Figure 13.43 shows construction
control using inclinometer monitoring data.
Alternatively, slope construction can be controlled by monitoring the
settlement at the crest with a settlement plate, and the lateral movement
with an inclinometer. The ratio of settlement caused by lateral movement
is a good indication of slope stability.
10
sand
-10
Elevation (mCD)
-20 soft clay
-30
stiff clay
-40
22-Sep-99
sand 22-Jan-00
-50 29-Apr-00
24-Aug-00
18-May-01
stiff clay 12-Oct-01
-60
sand
-70
-400 -200 0 200 400 600
Horizontal Displacement (mm)
Figure 13.39 Example of data presentation for

inclinometer measurement.
294 Chapter 13
Table 13.10 Processed data.
DIRECTION
DEPTH SET40 SET70 SET89 SET106 SET142 SET152 SET158
(mCD) 22-Sep-99 22-Jan-00 29-Apr-00 24-Aug-00 18-May-01 27-Jul-01 12-Oct-01
(70.0 m) 22/09:1416~1435 22/01:1439~1509 29/04:1559~1620 24/08:1639~1701 18/05:1003~1030 27/07:0854~09112/10:0950~1015
Disp Disp Disp Disp Disp Disp Disp
6.03 -38.97 -114.24 -138.08 -112.25 -142.96 -146.59 -146.32
5.03 -37.52 -113.64 -138.08 -109.44 -142.72 -145.56 -145.76
4.03 -39.66 -107.98 -118.84 -88.36 -117.52 -113.88 -112.36
3.03 -33.38 -91.48 -98.38 -63.2 -85.98 -81.64 -79.42
2.03 -28.8 -78.22 -80.72 -40.86 -57.54 -52.62 -49.48
1.03 -24.04 -66.08 -64.02 -19.48 -30.42 -24.52 -20.54
0.03 -18.98 -53.58 -46.88 2.22 -3.2 3.66 8.42
-0.97 -13.76 -40.48 -29.22 24.42 24.44 32.22 37.78
-1.97 -8.56 -27.36 -11.5 46.72 52.42 60.74 67.1
-2.97 -3.6 -14.6 5.8 68.56 79.5 88.82 95.98
-3.97 0.1 -3.8 21.26 88.26 104 114.54 122.62
-4.97 3.88 8.04 37.86 109.06 130.42 141.62 150.64
-5.97 10.02 22.66 57.68 133 160.58 171.9 181.64
-6.97 15.1 35.74 75.64 155.26 188.48 200.5 211.02
-7.97 19.24 47.22 92.04 176.04 214.34 227.62 239.06
-8.97 25.18 61.42 111.08 199.62 243.48 257.58 269.76
-9.97 28.66 72.6 127.08 219.94 269.96 284.48 297.58
-10.97 33.06 84.54 143.76 241.06 296.8 311.98 325.9
-11.97 38.4 98.38 162.62 264.48 325.88 342.02 356.82
-12.97 43.14 110.52 179.42 285.76 352.16 369.1 384.7
-13.97 47.9 124 198.02 308.98 381.42 399.12 415.52
-14.97 52.22 136.86 215.7 331.44 410.26 428.5 445.42
-15.97 57.12 149.26 232.66 352.08 435.56 454.08 471.6
-16.97 62.48 162.24 250.06 373.16 462.18 481.12 499.26
-17.97 64.44 167.9 258.08 382.48 473.96 493.12 511.86
-18.97 67.08 171.44 262.36 387.98 479.9 499.86 518.98
-19.97 66.56 170.02 260.78 385.48 476.56 496.48 515.96
-20.97 66.72 170.18 260.68 382.76 473.62 492.82 502.98
-21.97 64.36 167.64 254.78 371.66 461.36 478.12 489.1
-22.97 64.12 166.36 252.08 365.74 454.04 469.62 480.32
-23.97 62.42 162.16 246.78 360.52 446.8 464.14 474.6
-24.97 58.68 155.5 237.12 346.48 430.6 446.82 456.96
-25.97 58.68 153.72 233.6 339.26 422.02 435.98 438.72
-26.97 54.66 145.64 221.4 323.46 403.58 417.68 422.92
-27.97 50.86 137.5 209.48 307.92 386.7 402.1 410.58
-28.97 47.38 130.1 199.06 294.14 369.96 384.3 392.22
-29.97 42.28 118.92 181.8 271 343.6 357.7 366.42
-30.97 36.18 105.32 163.2 247.38 315.8 329.24 337.52
-31.97 32.56 95.3 145.8 218.14 275.64 285.88 292.1
-32.97 30.26 88.06 135.32 202.74 256.4 265.76 270.52
-33.97 31.96 85.94 126 178.28 214.66 220.22 222.6
-34.97 29.4 77.98 112.34 151.66 175.1 177.84 176.44
-35.97 22.88 60.92 86.22 114.18 134.04 136.8 136.4
-36.97 17.1 42.24 57.38 76.68 93.3 96.74 99.02
-37.97 12.94 28.46 34.26 45.88 60.32 64.44 67.88
-38.97 9.54 18.7 22.08 32.72 47.34 51.86 56.34
-39.97 7.3 14.76 18.08 27.54 39.34 43.72 49.22
-40.97 7.26 13.34 15.74 22.72 29.52 33.14 38.28
-41.97 4.74 12.92 18.14 27.66 35.2 38.54 42.74
-42.97 3.6 10.26 14 21.44 29.02 32.48 36.64
-43.97 4.02 10.78 14.34 21.62 29.74 33.26 37.62
-44.97 4.08 11.66 16 23.38 30.94 34.2 37.3
-45.97 3.14 7.42 9.26 13.3 20.7 24.88 29.76
-46.97 1.16 7.2 9.14 11.58 13.96 17.04 20.62
-47.97 0.62 3.12 3.86 7.96 14.56 20.04 27.86

-48.97 4.16 10.94 14.26 20.64 28.64 33.62 39.28
-49.97 3.94 11.14 14.26 19.24 23.34 27.02 30.08
-50.97 2.22 7.42 9.74 16.42 23.18 27.66 31.44
-51.97 3.86 8.64 8.34 8.04 -4.88 -7.36 -10.6
-52.97 4.14 3.88 2.5 7.16 8.1 8.86 14.12
-53.97 3.12 5.96 6.8 11.52 14.78 16.24 16.54
-54.97 1.76 4.02 2.64 1.76 -0.2 0.12 -1.4
-55.97 -0.94 -1.3 -4.58 -6.64 -8.38 -7.88 -8.9
-56.97 -2.4 -1.86 -4.66 -7.3 -9.78 -9.5 -10.6
-57.97 -2.06 -2.96 -5.42 -5.98 -7.94 -7.56 -7.8
-58.97 -1.98 -2.24 -3.56 -2.34 -2.68 -2.16 -1.82
-59.97 -0.24 0.78 0.18 2.62 3.46 3.6 4.54
-60.97 0.56 2.26 2.04 3.92 5.5 6.06 7.3
-61.97 1.12 2.74 3.1 5.5 7.6 8.16 9.02
Figure 13.40 Photographs of various types of couplings and casings.

Figure 13.41 Inclinometer probe used for monitoring.

Figure 13.42 Using the spiral sensor for checking

casing twist.
296 Chapter 13
Displacement Rate vs. Time (AO-A180)

10
8
Displacement Rate (mm/day)
6
4
2
0
-2
-4
-6
-8
-10
28-Aug- 25-Jan- 23-Jun- 20-Nov- 19-Apr- 16-Sep- 13-Feb-
99 00 00 00 01 01 02
Maximum Displacement vs. Time (AO-A180)

700
600
Displacement (mm)
500
400
300
200
100
0
28-Aug- 25-Jan- 23-Jun- 20-Nov- 19-Apr- 16-Sep- 13-Feb-
99 00 00 00 01 01 02
Time (day)
Figure 13.43 Construction control using inclinometer monitoring data.
13.4.11 ■ Automatic monitoring instrument
Sometimes it is necessary to install automatic monitoring instruments to

monitor the deformation behaviour of the foundation soil at a centralized
location. The instruments selected should be able to record the readings
automatically. For the monitoring of settlement, instruments such as liquid
settlement gauges are used since these can be installed at various elevations,
and the measured data can be auto-logged.
For static water level measurement, either a water standpipe with an
automatic water level recorder or low air entry vibrating wire piezometer
with auto-logger is used. For the piezometer, a vibrating wire piezometer is

normally used. All the signal cables are connected to one instrument
monitoring hut where all the auto-loggers are located. Power supply is
normally provided by batteries that are charged by a solar panel. Figure
13.44 shows the data logging station for long-term monitoring.
Solar Panel
Electric power cable
Enclosure of
data logger
15mm thk. Plywood
Signal
200 cm cable
50mm Steel angle frame
Reservoir
Earth Ground
(copper pack)
10 cm
100 cm
Concrete
Figure 13.44a Example of a long-term automatic monitoring instrument

using auto-logger and solar power.
Solar Panel
Enclosure of
data logger
15mm thk. Plywood
Signal
200 cm cable
50mm Steel angle frame
Reservoir
Earth Ground
(copper pack)
10 cm
100 cm
Concrete
Figure 13.44b Hut and details of automatic monitoring instruments.

298 Chapter 13
Solar Panel
Wooden hut
Non settled reference point

(DR)
Enclosure (c/w data logger,multiplex,interface and
rechargeable battery,data storage module)
Liquid Reservoir
Signal cable laying in trench
PZ for monitoring
static pore pressure RECLAIMED SAND
P.V.C. Pipe
MARINE CLAY
25mm steel pipe
Liquid settlement gauge V.W.P. Piezometer
(V.S. settlement cell)
Figure 13.44c Hut and details of automatic monitoring instruments.
13.5 ■ MONITORING PROGRAM AND FREQUENCY
After the instruments have been installed, the second step is to make a
schedule of the monitoring program. The monitoring program should be
scheduled according to the purpose of monitoring. It should be carried out
at the right time, otherwise the recorded data may not be meaningful and
useful.
For example, monitoring of the consolidation process should be
planned such that the duration is long enough for a high degree of
consolidation to take place, and closer intervals should be planned at the
initial stage and longer intervals at the later stage.
To monitor the construction process, such as slope stability control,
forces and load measurements should be carried out prior to the application
of the load to serve as baseline data, and close-interval measurements of
lateral and vertical movements during the application of the load should be
monitored. Otherwise, it may not be possible to control the situation. Table
13.11 shows the typical monitoring program adopted in the Changi East
reclamation projects. Details of the application of geotechnical, instru-
mentation in land reclamation projects can be found in Bo et al. (1998c)
and Bo and Choa (2002b).
Table 13.11 Typical monitoring program adopted in the Changi East

Frequency 2nd and

Type of 1st month 4th month
3rd month
Instrument after filling after filling
after filling
Settlement Plate (SP) Once/3 days Once/1 week Once/1 week

Settlement
Monitoring & Deep Settlement gauge (DS) Once/3 days Once/1 week Once/1 week
Datum Point Deep Reference Point (DR) Once/1 day – Once/1 week Once/1 week
once/3 days
Pneumatic Piezometer (PP) Once/1 week – Once/1 week Once/1 week

once/3 days
Pore Pressure Open type Piezometer (OP) Once/1 day – Once/1 week Once/1 week
& Water Level once/3 days
Water Standpipe (WS) Once/1 day – Once/1 week Once/1 week
once/3 days
Horizontal Inclinometer (IN, IV) Once/1 day – Once/1 week Once/1 month
Displacement once/3 days
13.6 ■ ASSESSING THE RELIABILITY OF MEASURED

DATA
There are two important geotechnical instruments that are needed for land
reclamation and soil improvement projects. One is the settlement gauge
and the other is the piezometer. Settlement monitoring data rely totally on
survey measurements whereas accurate measurement of pore pressure
requires a combination of piezometric head measurements using a pressure
transducer and elevation adjustment by applying survey measurements.
Although the accuracy and precision of instruments are selected to suit the
local environment, it is still necessary to recalibrate the instruments prior
to installation. A function test of the piezometer is essential before sealing
the borehole.
In the case of deviation of instrument readings from the linearity, the
instrument should be rejected and replaced. Even when the instrument has
been properly selected, calibrated and installed, it is still necessary to check
the reliability of the instruments in the ground after installation. This can
be done if the initial condition of the pore pressure is known, as in the case
of the piezometer.
As shown in Figure 13.45, a piezometer installed at 44 meters below
the ground water level under static pore pressure conditions should give an
approximate reading of 440 kN/m2 pore pressure magnitude. If the measured
pore pressure deviates from the expected pore pressure, there are a few
possible reasons:
300 Chapter 13
(i) malfunction of the piezometer.

(ii) in-situ pore pressure is lower or higher than the static water pressure.
(iii) the installed depth is shallower than planned because of borehole
inclination.
In such a case, a dispute may arise among the instrument supplier, the
owner, and installation contractor over the reliability of the instrument, the
mode of installation, and in-situ conditions. The functionability of the
instrument can be checked by applying or reducing the load. In-situ pore
pressure can be checked by other means, such as a CPT holding test, using
an alternative piezometer, such as the open type piezometer and water
standpipe.
However, during the installation of counter-checking instruments,
special care has to be taken to install the piezometer at the correct depth by
creating a straight vertical hole. Failure to drill a straight and vertical
borehole could result in installation of the piezometer at a shallower depth,
which would give a lower pore pressure than expected. This sort of situation
can be encountered at locations where an intermediate stiff layer exists or
the operation is carried out by an unskilled driller using inappropriate drilling
equipment. This scenario is briefly explained in Figure 13.46. It is difficult
to assess the settlement monitoring data since measurements are simple
and purely based on the survey method. Nevertheless, this can be done
when the data are accumulated. Figure 13.47 shows a good spread of
settlement monitoring data obtained from a special pilot test area. It can be
seen that the settlement data are hyperbolic and the settlement rate reduces
+4 mCD Ground level

+3 mCD GWL
-4 mCD Top of soft clay
Soft Clay
-14 mCD
Stiff to hard Clay
-16 mCD
Actual depth, 40 m
Measured Depth, 45 m
-37 mCD
Figure 13.45 Measurement of lower pore pressure caused by inclination

of the borehole.
Figure 13.46 Measurement of the inclination of a borehole with a plumb

bob.
over time. This agree with consolidation theory. In contrast, there is another
set of settlement data (Figure 13.48). It also shows hyperbolic and settlement
rate reducing over time. However, if the data are processed with the
settlement rate, the two sets of data are very different. The first one shows
a decreasing rate over time whereas the second one shows significant
fluctuation. Therefore, it can be concluded that the first set of data is more
accurate than the second one.
302 Chapter 13
(a)
0
1
Settlement (m)
6
0 20 40 60 80 100
(b)
0.25
Settlement Rate (mm/week)
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (week)
Figure 13.47 Reduction of settlement rate over time: (a) settlement vs.
time; and (b) settlement rate vs. time.
0
0.5
Settlement (m)
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
0 100 200 300 400 500
Elapsed time (day)
Figure 13.48 (a) Variation of the settlement rate due to inaccurate

measurements.
0.12
0.10
Settlement Rate
(mm/week)
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.00
0 100 200 300 400 500
Elapsed time (day)
Figure 13.48 (b) Variation of the settlement rate due to inaccurate

(continued) measurements.
Quality Management in Prefabricated Vertical Drain Projects 305
CHAPTER 14
Quality Management in
Prefabricated Vertical Drain
Projects
Quality management is one of the most important tasks in prefabricated

vertical drain (PVD) project. The expected results can be ensured only if a
good quality control system is established. The quality management of PVD
works consists of several processes, starting from the selection of vertical
drain material to performance verification in the field. The system includes
controlling the quality at every stage of the process. The various stages are:
(i) selection of material according to the specifications, (ii) planning and
deployment of suitable types of vertical drain rigs, including special types
of rigs required for difficult ground conditions, (iii) selection and quality
control of accessories such as mandrel and anchor, (iv) quality control on
PVD material, (v) quality control during installation, and (vi) assessing the
performance of the PVD.
14.1 ■ SELECTION OF VERTICAL DRAIN
There are several types of vertical drains. However, most vertical drains
have basically the same dimensions of 100 mm width and 4 – 6 mm
thickness. Vertical drains are fabricated with drainage cores and filter jackets.
Most drains provide sufficient discharge capacity to drain out the pore water
from compressible soil and an efficient filter which can retain the
surrounding fine grain soil. The cross-section and shapes of various types
of drains and cores are shown in Figures 14.1 and 14.2 respectively. Table
14.1 shows the various specifications called by different clients.
Even though some specifications are called to suit the actual site
conditions, the environment, geotechnical parameters, and depth to install
the vertical drain, it has never been possible to obtain particular types of
vertical drains which fulfil client’s or designer’s requirements exactly. Thus,
selection has to be made from the vertical drains available in the market
which have specifications close to requirements.
306
Table 14.1 Specifications called by various clients.

Chapter 14
Description Unit Standard Netherlands Singapore Thailand Hong Kong Malaysia Taiwan Australia Finland Greece
Stable layer less Unstable layer
than 10 m thick larger than 10 m depth
Width mm ASTM 100 100 100 W/T 50:1 95 100 100 100 100
Thickness mm D1777 3~4 3 3~6 >3 >3
Tensile Strenght (Dry) kN ASTM >0.5 >0.5 >1 (10%) >0.5 >2 >1 >1
(Wet) kN D4595 >0.5 >0.5 >1 (10%) >2 >1 >1
Elongation % 2~10 2~10 <30 <20 15~30
(0.5kN) (0.5kN) (1kN) (Yield)
-6
Discharge capacity m³/s x 10 ASTM >10 >50 >25 >16 >5 >6.3 >10 >100 >10 >10
Straight D4716 350kPa 350kPa 350kPa 200kPa 200kPa 400kPA 300kPa 300kPa 100kPa
USA 30 days 30 days 28 days 7 days 1=1 1=1
Australia 1=1 1=1
Discharge capacity m³/s x 10-6 >7.5 >32.5 >10 >6.3
Folded 350kPa 350kPa 400kPa
30days 40m
2
Crushing Strength kN/m 500
Equivalent Diameter mm 50 65
free surface filter mm2/m 150000
Elongation % <30 (3kN) <40 >15
Tear Sttrength N A.D4533 100 >300 >250 >380
Graph Strength N A. D4632 >350
Puncture Strength kN A.D4833 >200
Bursting Strength kPa A.D3785 >900
Poresize O95 um A.D4751 <160 <80 <75 <90 <120 <75 <90
Permeability mm/s A.D4491 >0.05 >0.1 >0.01 >0.1 >0.17 >0.5
Permitivity s-1 >0.005 >0.005 >0.005
Cross-section of
various versions of
core with filter
jacket
Figure 14.1 Cross-section of various versions of core.
(a)
(b)
Figure 14.2 (a) Geometrical shapes of different vertical drain cores

(after Bergado 1994); (b) Photographs of Colbond CX100
and Mebra MD7007. (Courtesy of Colbond & Mebra.)
308 Chapter 14
14.2 ■ PLANNING AND SELECTION OF VERTICAL

DRAIN RIGS
The selection of a suitable type of installation rig is essential in implementing
a vertical drain project.
The types of rig normally used in PVD projects are:
Type of Rig Suitability

Static rig Normal ground
Static rig with water balancing system Very soft soil
Vibratory rig Firm to stiff soil
The size and weight of the rig should be suitable for the prepared
platform with a certain load bearing capacity. The mobilization of an
overweight rig would lead to instability of the equipment. On the other
hand, a lightweight rig may not provide sufficient installation power and
reaction against penetration resistance, and therefore may not have the
desired penetration force.
Other factors to consider are the depth to install and the type of soil.
Rigs of a suitable height are also important, depending upon the depth of
installation. Installation rigs with heights of 20m – 54m can be found in the
market. Based on the type of soil expected to be encountered, the capacity
and type of rig selected are important. In addition, some special installation
equipment should be made available in case there are difficulties during
installation of the vertical drains. Table 14.2 shows a specialized rig used
for troubleshooting in the Changi East reclamation projects. Figure 14.3
shows various types of drain installation rigs used in the Changi East
reclamation projects, and Figure 14.4 shows various types of special
equipment used in the same project.
Table 14.2 Specialized rigs mobilized for troubleshooting in Changi East

Type of Rigs Purpose

Vibratory rig To penetrate a stiff layer at depths.
Rig with water jetting To penetrate through dense granular soil at an

intermediate depth.
Prepunching rig To punch through dense or desiccated stiff layer on

the seabed.
Auguring rig To auger through dense and stiff layer at shallow depths.
Rig with water balancing system To protect soil ingression into the mandrel during
installation in very soft soil.
High power slow speed rig To penetrate through dense layers at deeper depth.
Cofra Rig (Dutch Co.) B + B Rig (Hong Kong Co.)
Econ Rig (Singapore Co.) Dae Yang Rig (Korea Co.)
Figure 14.3 Various types of drain installation rigs.
Figure 14.4 Various types of special equipment for penetrating difficult

ground.
310 Chapter 14
14.3 ■ TYPES OF MANDREL
Basically, there are four types of mandrel:

(i) Rhombic (iii) Square
(ii) Rectangular (iv) Circular
The first two types are most commonly used and the last one is least
commonly used. The shapes of the mandrels are shown in Figure 14.5. On
the one hand, a mandrel must be strong enough to be able to penetrate the
formation vertically, and on the other hand, the mandrel must not be so big
that it disturbs the soil to a great extent. Normally, a smaller rhombic mandrel
is preferable since soil disturbance and smear effect caused by such mandrel
is minimal.
However, to penetrate firm to stiff soil, a rhombic mandrel may not
have enough stiffness, and a rectangular mandrel made with stronger and
thicker steel would be more suitable.
14.4 ■ TYPES OF ANCHOR
An anchor serves two purposes. It must be strong enough to anchor the

vertical drain on firm ground. It must also be capable of preventing the soil
from ingressing into the mandrel. The available types of anchors are as
follows:
(i) Steel bar
(ii) Flexible metal plate
(iii) Vertical drain material
Normally, small steel bars are preferable since disturbance to soil
during penetration is less. To use the steel bar, the mandrel has to be equipped
with a mandrel shoe with an opening capable of being adjusted to fit the
steel bar dimension.
14.5 ■ INSTALLATION
Vertical drains should be installed on a land platform that is graded as a flat

plane to ensure a verticality of drain. The verticality of the rig can be checked
with a spirit level. A vertical drain should normally be installed at platform
level, that is, one meter above the groundwater table. Groundwater table is
taken to be the high tide level after reclamation. However, in some vertical
drain projects, vertical drains are installed offshore. In addition to the
verticality of the rig, it is important to maintain the mandrel in good and
straight condition. Any bending of the mandrel at the tip would cause the
vertical drain to deviate from the vertical. The operator should also be careful
when installing vertical drains which have to penetrate through layers of
different density. Density changes between two layers can cause the mandrel
to slide along the boundary and the vertical drain can deviate from the
vertical. Normally, vertical drain installation points are set out using anchors.
Figure 14.5 Mandrels and anchors of various shapes.

312 Chapter 14
Figure 14.5 Mandrels and anchors of various shapes.

(continued)
14.6 ■ QUALITY CONTROL ON PREFABRICATED

VERTICAL DRAIN MATERIAL
Generally, drains are delivered in rolls of 200–300 meters in length. A single
delivery may consist of one million meters of drains in ten containers.
Therefore, full-scale testing of the drain material by an accredited laboratory
for every one million meter length of drains is usually carried out as they
generally come from the same batch in the manufacturing process. An in-
situ specialized laboratory is also usually set up to check on the discharge
capacity, tensile strength, AOS and permeability.
The consistency of quality of the drains should be monitored and
controlled based on the results from the laboratory. Details of quality
management in PVD works in land reclamation projects are widely
discussed by Bo et al. (2000f). The types of measurements required and the
factors affecting the measurement are discussed in the following sections.
14.6.1 ■ Dimension of the drain

The dimensions of drains supplied by various PVD manufacturers are now
standardized at 100 mm wide and 4 mm thick, except for some large
dimension vertical drains produced for special purposes by some
manufacturers.
The specifications of most projects, however, require the drain
dimension to be 100 ± 2 mm wide and 3–4 mm thick. Most drains comply
with the specified values although some have been found to be slightly
386
Ch = 2 m2/Year
384 384
1.5 m x 1.5 m Spacing
383
382
381
380
Time (day)
380
378 378
377
376
375
374 2 mm ( Thickness ) 374
3 mm ( Thickness )
372 372
4 mm ( Thickness )
370
95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
Width (mm)
Figure 14.6 Time required to complete 90% consolidation with vertical

drains of various dimensions (after Bo 2000f).
lower than the specified margin. The effect of drain dimension on the time
required for consolidation is shown in Figure 14.6. It can be seen from the
figure that variation in time required for 90% consolidation, with specified
spacing caused by variation of dimension to a maximum 6 mm in width
and 2 mm in thickness in certain types of soil, is found to be only 12 days.
The maximum percentage difference in duration for one (1) year is only
3%. However, it may be necessary to check the thickness of the vertical
drain under pressure. Since a reduction of drain thickness will lead to a
reduction of discharge capacity of the drain, it can affect the performance
of the drain. At the laboratory in the Changi East reclamation project, the
measurement of the width was carried out with a vernia scale and variation
of thickness under pressure was measured with simple shear equipment
which was able to measure accurately the vertical displacements under
different loads. Figure 14.7 shows the variation in the thickness of vertical
drains caused by normal pressure. It can be seen in the figure that the
variation of thickness of the Colbond drain is greater than the Mebra type.
14.6.2 ■ Apparent opening size (AOS)
The apparent opening size (AOS) is specified for filter material. Since the
filter of the drain is to prevent the fine grain soil from entering into the core
and yet provide sufficient permeability, an AOS of O95 less than or equal to
75 mm is required. For a woven or non-woven geotextile, if the AOS is
smaller than D85 of the surrounding soil, piping will not occur. Generally
314 Chapter 14
D85 of natural soft clay is greater than 75 mm. Therefore, specifying O95 of
75 mm is sufficient to retain the surrounding soil. On the other hand, AOS
of O95 or O15 should also be large enough to prevent clogging. The following
criteria are suggested to prevent clogging:
AOS = O95 ≥ 3D15 (14.1)
or
O15 = 2 – 3D15 (14.2)
The AOS tests are carried out using standard glass beads with diameter
of 40–170 mm. The percentage of glass beads retained on the filter cloth is
calculated from the following equation:
B = 100P/T (14.3)
where B represents the beads passing through the specimen (%)

T & P are the total mass of glass beads used & mass of glass beads in
the pan in grams respectively.
The AOS is obtained from the grain size distribution curve provided
by the glass beads manufacturer (Figure 14.8). The test method follows
ASTM D4751-87. Some manufacturers use the optical method to measure
the AOS.
4.5 Colbond CX100

Mebra MD7007(Korea)
Thickness (mm)
3.5
2.5
2
0 100 200 300 400
Confining pressure (KPa)
Figure 14.7 Variation of thickness of the vertical drain under various

normal pressures (after Bo 2000a).
100

80
60
40
20
0
10 100 1000
Diameter (um)
Figure 14.8 Cumulative size distribution chart for standard glass beads.
14.6.3 ■ Tensile strength
The drain should be able to withstand the tensile stress caused by the drain
installation process. Elongation of the drain may also occur. Therefore, the
vertical drain should have the required tensile strength at an allowable
elongation which could more or less maintain the dimension of the drain
without major deformation.
For the Changi East reclamation project, the tensile strength of the
vertical drain has been specified as 100 N/cm, or 1 kN/10 cm, at 10%
elongation for both dry and wet conditions. However, the actual elongation
test carried out with a vertical drain installation rig shows that elongation
of the Mebra MD7007 is as low as 1%. It indicates that the stress occurring
as a result of the friction between the roll of the vertical drain during
penetration is insignificant. However, Bergado (2000) has reported that
stress on the PVD caused during extraction of the mandrel is much higher
than that during installation.
Typical tensile strength test results of the Mebra MD7007, Colbond
CX1000, and Flexi FD767 under wet conditions are shown in Figure 14.9.
It can be seen from the figure that the strain of the drain at a specified
tensile strength is normally lower than the specified strain of 10% for most
drains. The tensile strength tests at the site laboratory were carried out with
a modified triaxial compression machine. The vertical drain was gripped
across the whole section at the two ends. The size of the jaw face was
140mm in width and 50mm in height. Vertical displacement was measured
during extension with a linear vertical displacement transducer and stress
incurred was measured using an extension proving ring. The tensile strength
316 Chapter 14
tests were carried out under a strain rate of 7% strain/min on a PVD sample
with a gauge length of 200 mm. Figure 14.10 shows tensile strength testing
in progress at Changi East reclamation project. The method of testing
followed ASTM, D4595D:1988 except that the test was carried out under
high strain. However, the effect of the strain on the strength of geotextile
was found to be insignificant.
3.5
3
Tensile load (kN)
2.5
1.5
1 Mebra (Holland)
Mebra (Malaysia)
0.5 Colbond
Mebra (Korea)
Flexi
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Strain (%)
Figure 14.9 Tensile strength test results on various drains under wet
conditions (after Bo 2000a).
Figure 14.10 Preparation for testing the tensile strength of the vertical
drain.
14.6.4 ■ Permeability
To meet the permeability requirement, Holtz et al. (1991) has suggested

that the permeability of geotextile should be at least 10 times more than the
surrounding soil. Permeability tests can be carried out with a simple constant
head permeability apparatus. The apparatus used is similar to the apparatus
specified in the ASTM D4491-85. The device consists of an upper and
lower unit which can be fastened together. The sample can be positioned
between the two units. There are manometers connected to the upper and
lower units for water supply and head measurement. Permeability tests
were carried out under various head differences. Figure 14.11 shows the
permeability test apparatus used in the Changi East project. The Darcy
permeability measured for different drains are shown in Table 14.3.
Table 14.3 Permeability of various vertical drain filters.

Types of drain under laminar flow Permeability at 20ºC (1 x 10-4 m/s)
Colbond CX 1000 15
Mebra Holland (MD7007) 1.6
Mebra Korea (MD7007) 1.58
Mebra Malaysia (MD7007) 1.02
Flexi (FD767) 4.25
Figure 14.11 Preparation for testing the permeability

of the filter.
14.6.5 ■ Discharge capacity of drain

Discharge capacity is an important parameter that controls the performance
of prefabricated vertical drains. Only PVDs that have sufficient discharge
capacity will function well. There are two major problems related to the
discharge capacity of vertical drains. The first is the determination of the
required discharge capacity (qw) to be used in the design (Holtz et al. 1991).
Another is the measurement of the discharge capacity of the drain in the
318 Chapter 14
laboratory and in the field. The first problem is due to a lack of sufficient
field data and the second is the variation of discharge capacity with lateral
stress, and buckling of drain and siltation, etc.
14.6.5.1—Definition of discharge capacity
Discharge capacity is defined as the rate of water flow per unit of hydraulic
gradient.
Q dl
qw = =Q (14.4)
i dh
where qw is the rate of water flow per unit hydraulic gradient in m3/s, Q is
the average quantity of water discharged per unit time (m3/s), i is the
hydraulic gradient and is dimensionless, l is the sample length and h is the
head difference over the sample length of water in the meter.
Since the discharge capacity is dependent upon the water flow rate, it
is measured under a temperature of 20 ∞C (68∞F).
ASTM D4716-87 is usually adopted in the determination of constant
head hydraulic transmisitivity (in-plane flow) by the laboratory for geotextile
and geotextile products. A discharge capacity parameter can be obtained as
by product. More specific and relevant methods have been proposed by Ali
(1991), Miura et al. (1993), Kamon et al. (1994), Bergado (1994) and Chu
and Choa (1995) with the use of different apparatus to measure the discharge
capacity. Details on the NTU discharge capacity apparatus developed by
Chu can be found in Bo et al. (2003a). Photographs of the NTU discharge
capacity apparatus for both straight condition tests and buckled condition
tests are shown in Figure 14.12. Different apparatus, and methods of testing
often give different values of discharge capacity. This section discusses the
determination of the required discharge capacity and factors that affect the
test results.
Required discharge capacity was proposed by Mesri and Lo (1991)
as five times the discharge factor (D) based on previous analysis data for
three major embankment projects. The discharge factor is defined as:
qw
D= (14.5)
kh ¥ lm2
(a)
(b)
Figure 14.12 Preparation for testing on discharge capacity:

(a) straight test, and (b) buckled test.
14.6.5.2—Determination of required discharge capacity
The required discharge capacity is qw = 5K h lm , where Kh is horizontal

2
2
permeability of soil, lm is maximum drainage length. For most clay, the
required discharge capacity varies from 2 to 80 m3/yr. Kamon et al. (1994)
has defined the required discharge capacity as follows:
0.25 ¥ 0.1 ¥ Fs ¥ l ¥ p ¥ Ch
qw( req ) = (14.6)
4 Th
where q w(req) is the required discharge capacity in cm 3/d, T h is the
dimensionless time factor for radial drainage, Ch is the horizontal coefficient
of consolidation is cm2/day, and l is the length of the PVD in cm.
320 Chapter 14
Since consolidation involves the dissipation of water, the total amount

of water dissipated is dependent on the compressibility and thickness of
the soil. Den Hoedt (1981) has stated that the required discharge capacity
for a 100 mm wide drain should be at least 3 x 10-6 m3/s, based on an
allowable settlement of 40 mm/day for a 30 m long drain. Dutch has recom-
mended a minimum qw of 5 x 10-6 m3/s under a hydraulic gradient of 0.6 and a
confining pressure of 100 kN/m2. Kremer et al. (1982) has proposed qw
of 25 x 10-6 m3/s at 10∞C under a hydraulic gradient of unity and confining
pressure of 15 kN/m2. Holtz et al. (1991) recommended that the qw be
between 3 x 10-6 m3/s and 9 x 10-6 m3/s under 300–500 kN/m2 pressure.
A summary of the discharge capacity specified in a number of soil
improvement projects is presented in Table 14.4. It can be seen that the
specified discharge capacity ranges from 5 to 100 x 10-6 m3/s under straight
conditions and from 6.3 to 32.5 x 10-6 m3/s under buckling conditions.
As a rule of thumb, the total volume of water to be discharged can be
estimated using the following equation:
2
ÊD ˆ
Qv = le v Á e ˜ (14.7)
Ë 2¯
where Qv is the volume of water drained out from the soil in m3, l is the
drain length in meter, ev is the volumetric strain, and De is the equivalent
diameter of the drain in meters. If the time to complete the primary
consolidation is known, the average flow rate can be calculated as:
Qv
Q= (14.8)
t
The initial hydraulic gradient can be estimated using the initial excess
pore pressure and the vertical drain length. Then the required discharge
capacity becomes:
He v ( De / 2) pLg w
2
qw = (Q x L)gw = x (14.9)
Ds ' Ds ' t
where L is the prefabricated vertical drain length in meter, Ds is additional
effective load (kN/m2), and gw is unit weight of water (kN/m3).
Equation 14.9 gives the required average discharge capacity. Since
the rate of settlement varies during the consolidation process, the rate of
flow will be faster in the earlier and slower in the later stage. Therefore, the
discharge capacity required in the early stage may be greater than the average
discharge capacity estimated from Equation 14.9. In the Changi East
Table 14.4 Comparison of discharge capacity specified in different

projects.
Straight Condition Buckled Condition
D.C. Test Condition D.C. Test Condition
Netherlands <10m thick >10 350 kPa, 30 days >7.5 350 kPa
>10m >50 350 kPa, 30 days, i = 1 >32.5 350 kPa, 30 days
Singapore >25 350 kPa, 28 days >10
Thailand >16 200 kPa, 7 days, i = 1
Hong Kong >5 200 kPa
Malaysia >6.3 400 kPa, i = 1 >6.3 400 kPa, 40m
Australia >100 300 kPa
Finland >10
Greece >10 100 kPa

3 -6
Note: D.C. = Discharge Capacity in m /s x 10
reclamation project, the required average discharge capacity for each plot
of PVD with various spacings were estimated by applying Equation 14.9
and were shown together with the manufacturer’s specifications of discharge
capacity and the project specified discharge capacity (Table 14.5). It can be
seen that the project specified discharge capacity is usually lower than the
manufacturer’s discharge capacity and generally much higher than the
estimated required average discharge capacity. However, it should be noted
that the average discharge capacity obtained from Equation 14.9 is based
on the average rate of flow throughout the preloading period. In reality, the
rate of flow or the rate of settlement is much faster in the early stage of
settlement and much slower in the later stage. Therefore, the actual required
discharge capacity may be one or two orders higher than that suggested
from Equation 14.9.
14.6.5.3—Factors affecting the measurement of discharge capacity
(i) Type of apparatus
As explained in the earlier section, there are several types of discharge

capacity testing equipment. Based on Darcy’s law, the rate of discharge is
calculated as:
dh
Q = kiA = kA (14.10)
dl
As long as the hydraulic gradient is constant, the rate of discharge is
constant if the flow media has a constant permeability and cross-section
322
Table 14.5 Details of pilot areas.
PVD Spacing PVD Length Thickness of Clay Additional Load

Chapter 14
No. Project Type of Drain Panel No. (m) (m) Treated (m) (kPa) A B C
1 Colbond A2S-71 2.0 * 2.0 36.78 29 163 0.210 0.118

2 Phase Colbond A2S-71 2.5 * 2.5 43.95 35 152 0.540 0.194 90.00
IB
3 Colbond A2S-71 3.0 * 3.0 43.81 35 150 0.780 0.194
4 Mebra LOT 1.5M 1.5 * 1.5 43.01 33 181 0.144 0.144
5 Colbond LOT 1.5C 1.5 * 1.5 42.67 33 181 0.144 0.144
6 Mebra (H) LOT 1.5MH 1.5 * 1.5 42.91 33 181 0.144 0.144
7 Colbond LOT 1.8C 1.8 * 1.8 42.77 33 173 0.210 0.146
Phase
8 IC Mebra LOT 1.8M 1.8 * 1.8 42.94 33 178 0.210 0.146 90.00
9 Mebra LOT 1.8M (S) 1.8 * 1.8 34.39 25 182 0.117 0.081
10 Mebra LOT 1.8M (D) 1.8 * 1.8 46.05 37 173 0.270 0.188
11 Colbond LOT 2.0C 2.0 * 2.0 42.66 33 171 0.270 0.188
12 Mebra LOT 2.0M 2.0 * 2.0 43.14 33 171 0.270 0.188
13 Mebra (H) LOT 1.5M (H) 1.5 * 1.5 49.95 40 171 0.210 0.210
14 Area Mebra (H) LOT 1.5M (H) 1.5 * 1.5 49.89 40 181 0.210 0.210
“A” 90.00
15 North Mebra (H) LOT 1.8M (H) 1.8 * 1.8 50.47 40 172 0.315 0.219
16 Mebra (H) LOT 1.8M (H) 1.8 * 1.8 50.52 40 178 0.315 0.219
-6 -6
Note: A = Estimated average discharge capacity (x 10 m3/s). B = Estimated discharge capacity normalized by the duration of preloading (x 10 m3/s)
C = Manufacturer’s specified discharge capacity (x 10-6 m3/s).
regardless of the magnitude of the head (dh). However, as observed in some

tests, the rate of discharge through vertical drains increases with head
differences under the same hydraulic gradient. Therefore, the discharge
capacity of the vertical drains measured at the same hydraulic gradient
may increase with the length of the vertical drain tested. In other words, the
discharge capacity measurement is affected by the dimension of the
apparatus.
The variation of discharge capacity with different dimension apparatus
is shown in Figure 14.13. Various configurations of the core for some types
of vertical drains are shown in Table 14.6. It can be seen in Figure 14.13
that type B drain is most affected by the dimension of the testing apparatus.
Type A drains are also tested under straight and buckled conditions in
different laboratories using different types of apparatus such as ASTM 4716
and that of Chu and Choa (1995). It was found that the Chu and Choa’s 100
mm by 100 mm tester gave a lower discharge capacity than the ASTM
4716 apparatus in both straight and buckled conditions (Figure 14.14).
Table 14.6 Configuration of the core in tested vertical drains.

Types Core Configuration Remarks
A Wire-mesh core
B1 Corrugated core Same type of drains
B2 - do - manufactured in different
B3 - do - countries.
C - do -
D - do -
110
Type A Drain
100
Discharge Capacity
90 100 x 100 mm Tester

(10-6 m3/s)

70 Type B Drain
50
100 x 300 mm Tester
40
i = 0.5
30
0 100 200 300 400
Applied Vertical Pressure (kPa)
Figure 14.13 Variation of discharge capacity due to the dimension of

the apparatus.
324 Chapter 14
70 ASTM 4716
(Straight)
60
Discharge Capacity
ASTM 4716
50
(Folded within
(10-6 m3/s)
40 compacted
sand bentonite)
30
100 x 100 mm
20 Tester (Straight)
Buckled together
10 Type A Drain, i = 0.5
with soil to 20%
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Applied Pressure (kPa)
Figure 14.14 Variation of discharge capacity resulting from different

types of apparatus.
(ii) Duration of test
When PVD is compressed under pressure, the cross sectional area of the
drain becomes smaller over time due to creep. The filter is also squeezed
into the channel of the core. Furthermore, during the testing some fine
materials enter into the drain and hence leads to clogging of the drainage
channel. The variation of discharge capacity with the duration of the test
measured for type A drain is shown in Figure 14.15.
50
1st week
2nd week
45
Discharge Capacity (10-6 m3/s)
3rd week
4th week
40 6th week
7th week
35 8th week
9th week
30 10th week
Type A Drain
100 mm x 100 mm tester
25
(Chu & Choa 1995)
σ'v = 350 kPa
20
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
Hydraulic Gradient, i
Figure 14.15 Reduction of discharge capacity with duration of test.

(iii) Reduction of discharge capacity with hydraulic gradient
In Darcy’s law, the permeability of porous media is assumed to be constant.

Therefore, the discharge capacity of porous media for certain dimensions
of area is constant although the hydraulic gradient may vary.
However, the permeability of the vertical drain core is not constant
and varies with the hydraulic gradient. It can be seen in Figure 14.16 that
the permeability of the drain core reduces with hydraulic gradient. Hence,
the discharge capacity of the drains is reduced with hydraulic gradient. The
flow through the vertical drain may not follow Darcy’s law which usually
applies for flow through porous media. This matter was also discussed by
Kamon et al. (1994) after obtaining the critical flow rate through vertical
drain material using a transition number of 600. They commented that most
vertical drain flow rates are greater than the critical flow and the type of
flow is not laminar but found to be in transition.
100 0.250
100 kPa
90 200 kPa 0.225

300 kPa
Permeability (m/s)
80 350 kPa 0.200
70 0.175
60 0.150
Type B1 Drain
50 100 mm x 100 mm tester 0.125
Chu & Choa (1995)
40 0.100
0.10 0.30 0.50 0.70 0.90 1.10
Hydraulic Gradient, i
Figure 14.16 Reduction of permeability and discharge capacity with

a constant hydraulic gradient.
(iv) Types of surrounding material
It was observed that different discharge capacity values were obtained when
the PVDs were tested using different types of surrounding soil with the
same loading and hydraulic gradient, as shown in Figures 14.17 and 14.18.
It can be seen that the softer the soil, the lower is the discharge capacity.
This can be due to the following factors: (1) the amount of deformation of
the filters in the channels of the core is affected by the hardness of the
326 Chapter 14
surrounding soil; and (2) the filter may be clogged when fine soils are
used. Thus, the flow through the filter is reduced. The discharge capacity
tests were also carried out with synthetic surrounding materials such as
geomembrane and it was found that the greater the modulus of the material,
the higher is the discharge capacity.
Figure 14.17 Variation of discharge capacities due to various types of

surrounding material.
Figure 14.18 Variation of discharge capacities due to variation of

modulus of surrounding material.
(v) Confining pressure
The thickness of the prefabricated vertical drain is reduced under pressure,

as shown in Figure 14.17. Therefore, the discharge capacity will reduce
with increasing confining pressure. Kamon et al. (1994) has reported that
when PVD was confined at a cell pressure of 320 kPa, it could reduce
to 55 – 90% of that measured at a cell pressure of 5 kPa. However, this
reduction of discharge capacity due to confining pressure varies widely,
depending upon the type of drain.
Several types of vertical drains were tested with straight 100 mm by
100 mm discharge capacity test equipment and it was found that all types
of drains show reduced discharge capacity with confining pressure (Figure
14.19). It was also noted that the vertical drain with wire mesh core reduces
the discharge capacity under confining pressure more significantly than
the corrugated core.
(vi) Discharge capacity of deformed drain
Since PVD deforms with the consolidation of soil, the discharge capacity
of the drains should be measured under buckled conditions, as often
requested in land reclamation projects. However, the configuration of
buckling is different from apparatus to apparatus and from test to test. Some
types of discharge capacity tests are carried out with artificially deformed
drains without soil, force kinking, folding and twisting whereas some are
carried out on PVDs which have been compressed together with the soil.
Miura et al. (1993) carried out a discharge capacity test on five different
types of drains in a modified triaxial cell under five different configurations
and reported that in the most extreme case of a sharp bend, the discharge
120
100
80
60
A
40 B1 Straight Condition with
B2 100 x 100 mm Tester
20 B3 I = 0.5
C
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Applied Vertical Pressure (kPa)
Figure 14.19 Reduction of discharge capacity with confining pressures.

328 Chapter 14
capacity decreased to only 26% of the discharge capacity under straight

conditions. A reduction of discharge capacity with an increase in strain was
observed. Kamon et al. (1994) reported a reduction in discharge capacity
to 35–70% when the axial strain reaches 50%. Bergado (1994) also reported
that the discharge capacity of drains with a sharp bend was reduced to
10–20% of straight condition values. Twisting of the drain also reduces the
discharge capacity to 50% of straight conditions.
The discharge capacities of particular types of drain under various
types of buckling configurations are shown in the Table 14.7. It can be seen
that the twisted condition reduces the discharge capacity significantly. The
folded condition does not reduce the discharge capacity as much as buckling
with the soil column. Configurations of the core also affect the discharge
capacity of the drain under buckled conditions. A corrugated core does not
reduce the discharge capacity significantly under buckled conditions
whereas a wire-mesh type of core reduces the discharge capacity
significantly under buckled conditions.
Table 14.7 Discharge capacity of type D vertical drains under various

configurations of deformation (after Bergado 1994).
Type of Deformation Discharge Capacity (m3/s x 10-6)

Non-deform 62
15% free bend 36
20% free bend 32
90º twisting 31
180º twisting 30
20% sharp folding 16
30% sharp folding in 2 locations 5.5
14.6.5.4—Field measurement of discharge capacities
Field measurements of discharge capacities were carried out using settlement

and pore pressure data at various pilot test areas. It was found that field
mobilized discharge capacities ranged from 8.5 x 10-7 to 1.3 x 10-6 m/s.
Field measurement of discharge capacities from various test areas are shown
in Table 14.8.
Table 14.8 Measured discharge capacity from various test areas in the field.
Square spacing (m)

1.5 x 1.5 1.8 x 1.8 2.0 x 2.0 2.5 x 2.5 3.0 x 3.0
Project Colbond Mebra Colbond Mebra Colbond Mebra Colbond Colbond

Discharge capacity Discharge capacity Discharge capacity Discharge capacity
(m3/s) (m3/s) (m3/s) (m3/s)
Maximum 2.5E-06 3.2E-06 8.5E-07
Phase At 3 month 1.2E-06 1.5E-06 5.6E-07

IB
At 6 month 8.0E-07 8.9E-07 3.1E-07
Minimum 2.5E-08 6.2E-08 2.6E-08
Maximum 2.2E-06 2.2E-06 4.3E-06 3.5E-06 5.0E-06 2.9E-06
Phase At 3 months 5.3E-07 4.2E-07 5.0E-07 5.7E-07 6.7E-07 6.3E-07

IC
At 6 months 2.6E-07 2.2E-07 6.2E-07 2.6E-07 8.7E-07 6.6E-07
Minimum 1.9E-08 1.8E-08 2.0E-08 2.0E-08 3.3E-08 2.3E-08
Maximum 8.2E-06 1.3E-05
Area At 3 months 2.5E-07 7.2E-07
A
(North)
At 6 months 2.2E-07 6.7E-07
Minimum 2.1E-08 4.0E-08
Quality Management in Prefabricated Vertical Drain Projects
329
330 Chapter 14
14.7 ■ VERIFICATION OF FIELD PERFORMANCE
Verification of the performance of a vertical drain system is usually

determined by a pilot test. A pilot test generally consists of a few test plots
with different spacings and a control area with no vertical drain. The general
performance of the vertical drain can obviously be seen by comparing the
area with a vertical drain and without a drain. By comparing the performance
among various different spacings, suitable spacing can be determined. Figure
14.20 shows a pilot embankment test carried out at one of the Changi East
reclamation projects. The results from a pilot test area carried out with two
different types of drains and three different drain spacings are shown in
Figure 14.21 where “M” denotes a Mebra manufactured in Korea, “C”
denotes a Colbond drain, and “MH” denotes a Mebra drain manufactured
in Holland. The degree of consolidation achieved in terms of settlement
can be assessed by applying hyperbolic and Asaoka (1978) methods as
shown in Figure 14.22. Figure 14.23 shows an assessment of the degree of
consolidation from settlement monitoring data using the Asaoka and
hyperbolic methods.
( )
The average degree of consolidation U is given by:
St
U (%) = x100 (14.11)
Sult
where the ultimate settlement (Sult) is determined by applying either the
hyperbolic or Asaoka method using settlement monitoring data. Settlement
at time “t” (St) can also be obtained from the settlement monitoring data.
On the other hand, the degree of consolidation (U) can be assessed
using pore pressure monitoring data. The degree of consolidation of soil
element is given by:
ui - ut
U (%) = x100 (14.12)
ui
where ui is the initial excess pore pressure, and ut is pore pressure at time
“t”.
Figure 14.24 shows the degree of consolidation assessed from
settlement gauges and pore pressure data.
Alternatively, in-situ testing methods can be used for assessing
improvement of soil. With in-situ testing, both improvement in terms of
the degree of consolidation, which is usually calculated from the over-
consolidation ratio (OCR), and of undrained shear strength can be
determined. Useful in-situ testing methods are:
(i) Cone penetration test (CPT).

(ii) Dissipation test with CPTu.
(iii) Field vane shear test (FVT).
(iv) Dilatometer test (DMT).
(v) Dissipation test with dilatometer.
(vi) Self-boring pressuremeter test (SBPT).
(vii) Dissipation test with self-boring pressuremeter.
(viii) Dissipation test with BAT permeameter.
Details of in-situ tests can be found in Bo et al. (1997a and 2002a)
and also explained in Chapter 4. Figure 14.25 shows determination of OCR
using in-situ methods, and Figure 14.26 shows determination of undrained
shear strength using various in-situ methods.
Another way of assessing improvement is by laboratory testing.
Undisturbed samples can be collected from the boreholes and tested at the
laboratory. Water content, undrained shear strength determined from a
triaxial compression test, and preconsolidation pressure determined from
oedometer tests will indicate the improvement of soils.
Figure 14.27 shows a comparison of laboratory test results before
and after improvement at the soil improvement area, and Figure 14.28 shows
the degree of consolidation determined from laboratory test results.
Figure 14.20 Layout plan of pilot embankment at Changi East

332

REF. BOREHOLE : PAN-20 INSTRUMENT
(mCD) (m) TYPE (mCD) 9
Chapter 14
3.9 0 SAND SP-132

DS-075 6
-1.3 1st PVD installation Installed PVD at
-3.17 7.07 CLAY
DS-076 3 surrounding area
-6.6
Surcharge (mCD)
PP-078 (EL. -8.3)
DS-077
0
-10.1 13.97 SAND -10
0
DS-078
DS-084
-15.6 19.47 CLAY -15.6 0.5 DS-083
PP-079 (EL. -19) DS-082
1
DS-080
DS-079 DS-079
1.5
-22.3 DS-078
PP-081 (EL. -25.6) 2 DS-077
DS-076
DS-080
-29 32.87 SAND -29
2.5
DS-075
Settlement (m)
3 SP-132
-32.8 36.67 SILT
3.5
PP-082 (EL. -39)
DS-082 250
-42.2
DS-083
200
-48.5
PP-084 (EL. 51.6) 150
DS-084
-54.7
(kPa)
PP-081
PP-085 (EL. 58.4)
100
PP-079
PP-084
50 PP-082
Excess pore pressure

-64.2 68.07 SAND
0 PP-085 PP-078
-69.2 73.07 0 200 400 600 800 1000
Time (day)
Figure 14.21a Settlement and pore pressure measurement at Area A (North) Pilot Area using
1.5m x 1.5m Mebra (Malaysia) drains.
REF. BOREHOLE PAN-1 INSTRUMENT
E.L. DEPTH SOIL E.L. 10
(mCD) (m) TYPE (mCD) 8
3.9 0 SAND SP-122
1st PVD installation
3.44 6
DS-065
-1.84 5.74 CLAY -1.8 4
Installed PVD at
DS-066
2 surrounding area
-7.64 11.54 CLAY -6.8
Surcharge (mCD)
0
-9.84 13.74 SAND DS-067
-13 16.94 CLAY -13 0
DS-074
0.5 DS-071
DS-070
PP-070 1
-20.9 DS-069
PP-071 (EL. -24.9)
1.5
DS-069 2
-28.7 32.64 SILT -28.7 DS-067
DS-070 2.5 DS-066
-32.4 36.34 CLAY -32.4 DS-065
Settlement (m)
3
-36.8 40.74 SILT 3.5 SP-122
DS-071 250
-41.6
PP-074
-44.6
200
PP-075 150 PP-071

-53.7
PP-070
PP-075
(kPa)
100 PP-076
PP-074
W.L.
DS-074 50
-62.8 66.74 SAND -62.8

0
-69.9 73.81 0 200 400 600 800 1000
Time (day)
Figure 14.21b Typical settlement pore pressure measurement at Area A (North) Pilot Area
using 1.5m x 1.5m Mebra (Holland) drains.

333
334

E.L. DEPTH SOIL E.L. 10
8
Chapter 14
2.033 0 SAND SP-001

1.69 6 1st PVD installation
DS-001 4
-6.03 8.063 CLAY -6
Installed PVD at
2
PP-001 surrounding area
Surcharge (mCD)
-11 13.06 SAND -7.7 0
DS-003
-14.4 16.46 CLAY -14.4 0.0 DS-010
PP-003 DS-08
0.5
DS-004/PP-004 DS-06
DS-05
-19.3 1.0 DS-04
DS-005/PP-005
-24.2 26.26 SAND -24.2 1.5
2.0 DS-03
2.5 DS-01
Settlement (m)
SP-01
DS-006
3.0
-36.2 38.26 CLAY -36.2 200
PP-006
-42.15
150
PP-003
DS-008 PP-006
-50.6 100
PP-009
PP-009
(kPa)
-59.4 PP-005
50
PP-004
DS-010
PP-001

PP-002
W.L.
-65.1 67.16 SAND -65.1 0
-66 68.06 SILT 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
-68.6 70.64
Time (day)
Figure 14.21c Typical settlement and pore pressure measurement at Area A (North)
Protection 1 Pilot Area (no-drain area).
(a)
450
400
Time/Settlement (days/m)
350
300
250 a
b
200
150 b/a = ultimate settlement
100
50
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Time (day)
(b)
3
Ultimate Settlement
2.5
Settlement (m)
1.5
0.5
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Settlement [i-1], (m)
Figure 14.22 Settlement monitoring data and ultimate settlement

prediction by the hyperbolic and Asaoka method at
a vertical drain location (after Bo et al. 1997a).
336
-10 BOREHOLE PB-39 INSTRUMENT

12
-20 ORIGINAL E.L(m CD) Vertical Drain +10 mCD
-30 SEABED -3.29 Installation
8
Chapter 14
0 1 2 3 4 5
-40
Water Level
FINE TO DS-93 4
(mCD)
-5 MEDIUM SAND -4.1m CD
Fill Elevation
0
VERY SOFT
MARINE CLAY
-4
WITH SOME
-10 SEA SHELL DS-106
FRAGMENTS -10.9m CD
0.00
DS-110
DS-107 0.50 DS-109
-15 SOFT SILTY DS-108
-14.8m CD
CLAY 1.00 DS-107
DS-106
FIRM SILTY CLAY 1.50
DS-108
-20 2.00
-20m CD DS-93
2.50
Settlement (m)
SOFT MARINE SP-95
CLAY
Elevation (m CD)
3.00
-25 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
DS-109 Time (year)
-27.1m CD
2500
DS-110
SOFT TO FIRM 2000 DS-109
-30
SILTY CLAY
1500 DS-108
DS 107
1000 DS-106
DS-110
(day/m)
CLAYEY SAND
DS-93
-34.1m CD 500 SP-95
-35 SILTY SAND 0
Time/Settlement
DENSE SILTY SAND
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
DENSE CLAYEY
SAND Time (day)
-40
Figure 14.23 Settlement monitoring data and ultimate settlement prediction by the hyperbolic
and Asaoka method at a vertical drain location (after Bo et al. 1997a).
3.5
3 DS-93
Settlement (m)
2.5
1.5
0.5
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
2
DS-106
1.5
Settlement (m)
0.5
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
1.5
DS-107
Settlement (m)
0.5
0
0 0.5 1 1.5
1
DS-108
0.75
Settlement (m)
0.5
0.25
0
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1
Settlement [i-1], (m)
Figure 14.23 Settlement monitoring data and ultimate settlement

(continued) prediction by the hyperbolic and Asaoka method at a
vertical drain location (after Bo et al. 1997a).
338
0 1 2 3 4 5
-5
-10 INSTRUMENT PIEZOMETER DEEP SETTLEMENT GAUGE DEEP SETTLEMENT GAUGE CPT HOLDING
Chapter 14
-15 BOREHOLE PB-39

-20 (Hyberbolic) (Asaoka)
-25 ORIGINAL
-30 0 1
SEABED 2
-3.29 3 E.L(m4CD) 5 100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 00% 100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 00% 100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% 100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0%
-35
-40
FINE TO DS-93
-4.1m CD -5 -5 -5 -5
-5 MEDIUM SAND
PP-76
VERY SOFT -6.92m CD
MARINE CLAY PP-77
WITH SOME -9.91m CD
-10 -10 -10 -10 -10
SEA SHELL
FRAGMENTS DS-106
-10.9m CD
DS-107
-15 -15 -15 -15 -15
SOFT SILTY CLAY -14.8m CD
PP-79
FIRM SILTY CLAY -17.8m CD
-20 -20 -20 -20 -20
SOFT MARINE
PP-80
CLAY
-22.9m CD
-25 -25 -25 -25 -25
Elevation (m CD)
DS-109
-27.1m CD
PP-81
-27.8m CD
-30 SOFT TO FIRM -30 -30 -30 -30
SILTY CLAY PP-82
-32.08m CD
CLAYEY SAND Date of Surcharge:
-35 -35 30th Dec 1994 -35 -35 -35
SILTY SAND
DENSE SILTY SAND Date of Analysis : Date of Analysis: Date of Analysis: Date of Test :
DENSE CLAYEY 21st Aug 1996 16th Aug 1996 16th Sep 1996 30th Nov 1996
SAND
-40 -40 -40 -40 -40
Figure 14.24 Comparison of the degree of consolidation from different instruments at a vertical drain location
(after Bo et al. 1997a).
PRIOR TO RECLAMATION AFTER SOIL IMPROVEMENT FIELD VANE CONE PENETRATION TEST SELF BORING DILATOMETER
WITH VERTICAL DRAIN PRESSURE METER
0 PB-39 (SEABED -3.29 m CD) 4 0 4 8 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2
FINE TO MEDIUM
-5 SAND -5
PB-87(-6.71 m CD)
VERY SOFT
MARINE CLAY
WITH SOME SOFT TO FIRM
-10 -10 MARINE CLAY
SEA SHELL
FRAGMENTS
FIRM TO STIFF
-15 SOFT SILTY -15 MARINE CLAY
CLAY WITH
FIRM SILTY CLAY
-20 -20
FIRM
MARINE CLAY
SOFT
MARINE
CLAY
Elevation (m CD)
-25 -25
SOFT TO FIRM
-30 SILTY CLAY -30
FIRM TO STIFF
WITH TRACES OF
MARINE CLAY
ORGANIC
MATTERS
CLAYEY SILTY SAND
-35 STIFF CLAYEY SAND -35 SILTY SAND Date of Surcharge:
DENSE SILTY SAND DENSE SILTY SAND 30th Dec 1994 Date of Assessment Test: Date of Assessment Test: Date of Assessment Test:
DENSE CLAYEY 6th Aug 1996 9th Nov 1996 12th Nov 1996
DENSE CLAYEY SAND Date of Assessment Test:
SAND
-40 -40 4th Jun 1996
Figure 14.25 Comparison of in-situ over-consolidation ratio with existing load after soil improvement at a vertical
drain location (after Bo et al. 1997a).
339
340
Chapter 14
Figure 14.26 Comparison of shear strengths from various in-situ tests at a vertical drain location (after Bo et al. 1997b).
PRIOR TO RECLAMATION AFTER SOIL IMPROVEMENT WATER NATURAL VOID PRECONSOLIDATION UU SHEAR STRENGTH
WITH VERTICAL DRAIN CONTENT (%) RATIO PRESSURE( kN/m2 ) ( kN/m2 )
0 5
PB-12 (Seabed -4.02 m CD) 0 5 0 25 50 75 100 0 1 2 3 0 100 200 300 0 15 30 45 60 75 90
-5
-5
PB-78( -7.22 m CD)
VERY SOFT MARINE

-10 CLAY WITH
FRAGMENTED
SEASHELLS AND SOFT MARINE CLAY
TRACES OF SAND -10 WITH FRAGMENTED
SEASHELLS AND
TRACES OF ORGINAL
MATERIALS
-15
-15
-20 SOFT MARINE CLAY

MIXED WITH SILTY
CLAY,FINE SAND AND
TRACES OF ORGANIC
Elevation (m CD)
MATTERS
-20 FIRM,MARINE SILTY CLAY
-25
SANDY CLAY
Predicted
SAND WITH GRAVELS DENSE, FINE TO Preconsolidation
-25 COARSE SAND WITH
-30 Pressure
TRACES OF SILT AND
VERY DENSE CLAYEY ORGANIC MATERIALS
Date of Surcharge:30th Dec 1994
SAND
Date of Assessment Test:2nd Apr 1996
Prior to Reclamation (PB-12) Predicted Improvement After Soil Improvement (PB-78)

-30
Figure 14.27 Comparison of laboratory results at a vertical drain location (after Bo et al. 1997a)
341
342
PRIOR TO RECLAMATION AFTER SOIL IMPROVEMENT Uz Uz

WITH VERTICAL DRAIN From Void Ratio From Preconsolidation Pressure
0 5 0 5 125 100 75 50 25 0 100 75 50 25 0

PB-12(SEABED -4.02 m CD)
Chapter 14
-5 -5
PB-78( -7.22 m CD)
VERY SOFT MARINE

CLAY WITH
FRAGMENTED
SEASHELLS AND SOFT MARINE CLAY
-10 TRACES OF SAND -10
WITH FRAGMENTED
SEASHELLS AND
TRACES OF ORGINAL
MATERIALS
-15 -15
SOFT MARINE CLAY

MIXED WITH SILTY
CLAY,FINE SAND AND
TRACES OF ORGANIC
MATTERS
Elevation (m CD)
-20
-20
FIRM,MARINE SILTY CLAY
SANDY CLAY
SAND WITH GRAVELS

-25 DENSE, FINE TO
-25 COARSE SAND WITH
TRACES OF SILT AND
Date of Surcharge:
ORGANIC MATERIALS 30th Dec 1994
VERY DENSE CLAYEY
SAND
Date of Assessment Test:
2nd Apr 1996
-30
-30
Figure 14.28 Comparison of the degree of consolidation from laboratory results at a vertical drain location
(after Bo et al. 1997a).
Densification of Granular Soil 343
CHAPTER 15
Densification of
Granular Soil
The reclamation of new land with hydraulic fill results in a loose profile of
granular soil mass. This loose granular soil will contribute to high elastic
immediate settlement as well as liquefaction upon dynamic forces. In
addition, the bearing capacity of a granular foundation is mainly dependent
upon shear characteristics such as the friction angle of the soil. The
compressibility is in turn dependent upon the elastic modulus of the soil.
To increase the friction and the elastic modulus of granular soil, it has
to be improved by a densification method. If reclamation is carried out by
landfill operation, granular soil mass can be densified by roller compaction
with a certain lift and a specified moisture. However, for existing land or
land reclaimed by hydraulic filling, such method may not be feasible and
hence one has to rely on deep compaction methods.
Before carrying out deep compaction, the first thing that needs to be
done is to ensure that the type of soil is densifiable with the deep compaction
method. Generally, granular soil with less than 10% of fine can be densified
with this method. Figure 15.1 shows a range of grain sizes of soils that can
be densified by the vibro compaction method.
There are a few methods of deep compaction. Among these, (i) dynamic
compaction, (ii) vibroflotation, and (iii) Muller resonance compaction are
the methods most commonly used in densification of granular soils. Before
carrying out the deep compaction works, the extent of densification required
must first be decided. This required degree of densification is based on the
bearing capacity and tolerable settlement of the soil.
344 Chapter 15
Figure 15.1 Relationship between particle size and available vibro

techniques. (Courtesy of Keller)
15.1 ■ DETERMINATION OF REQUIRED DENSIFICATION
15.1.1 ■ Degree of densification
The degree of densification required may be decided based on the magnitude

of bearing capacity required and the extent of tolerable settlement. The
bearing capacity of a shallow foundation is usually dependent upon the
geometry of the foundation and shear strength parameters, especially the
frictional angle of the soil, whereas the magnitude of settlement is inversely
proportional to the modulus of the soil. Therefore, in order to increase the
bearing capacity, the friction angle needs to be increased whereas to
minimize settlement, the modulus of granular soil needs to be increased.
However, in practice, it is technically impossible to measure the in-situ
friction angle and also difficult and time consuming to measure the modulus
of soil at the various levels. Some projects still specify an increase in
modulus and this is measured by a pressuremeter. This aspect will be
discussed later. Therefore, the required degree of densification is generally
given with the relative density, which can correlate well with both the friction
angle and modulus of soil. Firstly, an explanation is given below on how to
arrive at the required friction angle and modulus to increase the bearing
capacity and to minimize settlement.
Generally, relative density is correlated to friction angle, as shown in
Figure 15.2, as proposed by Hilf (1991). Therefore, if the required friction
angle for certain bearing capacity and type of fill material is known, the
required relative density can be determined. In order to determine the relative

density of the soil mass, three values, such as current dry density, and
maximum and minimum dry densities are required to be obtained. Although
maximum and minimum dry densities can be determined in the laboratory,
it is impossible to obtain the in-situ dry density at great depths. It is thus
common practice to determine the other in-situ parameters which can be
correlated to the relative density. Such in-situ tests include standard
penetration test (SPT), and cone penetration test (CPT). Both correlate well
with relative density. Correlation between SPT and relative density, proposed
in the Bureau of Reclamation’s Earth Manual and Coffman (1960) are
shown in Figures 15.3a and 15.3b.
Angle of internal friction f (degrees)
Relative density, Dr, in percent
Figure 15.2 Relative density vs. friction angle for cohesionless soils
(after Hilf 1991).
346 Chapter 15
100
Penetration resistance, blows per foot

80
The pressure values indicate

effective overburden pressure
atw hich the testis m ade
60
40psi 20psi
40
10psi
20 0psi
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
R ELATIVE D EN SITY - %
0 15 36 65 85 100
Very Very
Loose Loose M edium D ense D ense
N, blows per foot from standard

penetration test
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
0
1
Vertical pressure KIPS per sq ft
D r=100%
90
3
80
70
60
4 50
40
Figure 15.3 Correlation of relative density with standard penetration

test: (a) Bureau of Reclamation, and (b) Coffman (1960).
The correlation between CPT and relative density was proposed by

Schmertmann (1988), as shown in Figure 15.4. However, Schmertmann
has pointed out that the measured cone resistance is highly dependent upon
lateral stress in the soil, and cone resistance increases with lateral stress
increase. Lateral stress also increases with the over-consolidation ratio of
granular soil. Therefore, in order to correctly obtain the equivalent cone
resistance values of certain relative densities after compaction, correlation,
as proposed by Schmertmann, for over-consolidated granular soil needs to
be used. Based on the above proposed correlation, the required CPT value
is decided to obtain the necessary relative density (Figure 15.5).
Cone tip resistance qa, kg/cm2

0 100 200 300 400 500
0
For norm allycosolidated saturated

recentdeposits(noncem ented)
For overconsolidated sands
50
Pc,O C R
=1+3/4(O C R 0.42-1)
Pc,nc
100 P'c,O C R
OCR=
P'c,nc
Vertical stress po, kPA
150
200
250
D r=100
300
D r=80
60
40
20
0
350
Figure 15.4 Correlation between relative density and cone resistance

(after Schmertmann 1988).
(Courtesy of The McGraw-Hill Companies)
348 Chapter 15
Figure 15.5 Correlation between relative density and cone resistance

for over-consolidated soil (after Schmertmann 1988).
15.1.2 ■ Required depth of compaction
The second step is to determine the depth or thickness of the profile that
needs to be densified. If there are no expected seismic or dynamic forces
that can cause liquefaction in the future, the granular soil mass is densified
to increase the bearing capacity and to reduce the elastic settlement. The
densification depth should also be determined based on pressure bulb
calculation for particular types and geometry of foundation (Figure 15.6).
The soil mass beyond the stress influence zone may not need to be
compacted. If a liquefaction problem exists, the whole profile of granular
soil needs to be compacted.
Pressure
Bulb D Required densification depth
Figure 15.6 The required densification depth is up to the stress

influence zone.
15.2 ■ DYNAMIC COMPACTION
Dynamic compaction (DC) is a technique for improving the mechanical

properties of soil to relatively greater depths by repeatedly lifting and
dropping a heavy weight (pounder) onto the ground surface. It generates
repeated impacts at short intervals when the heavy weight hits the ground
surface. The force of the impact rearranges the soil particles into a denser
state. The selection of spacing of the impacts and the number of drops per
print point is important to achieve the specified density of DC.
The tamping process is usually repeated in several phases until the
requisite post-treatment in-situ strengths have been achieved. The initial
spacing of the impacts should usually be equal to the thickness of the
densifiable layer in order to compact the lower part of the layer to be
improved. Subsequent phases tend to have progressively closer spacing.
After each phase, the craters created by the dropping pounder are usually
backfilled with the surrounding materials before the next phase. Finally, an
“ironing” phase with low energy is carried out to compact the surface layer.
There is no further benefit from continued tamping on the same spot after
closure of the soil voids.
The basic mechanism underlying dynamic compaction in granular
soils is relatively well understood. When the pounder impacts the ground
surface, the force of the impact is transformed into seismic radiation
transmitting to the underlying soil mass. At the moment of impact by the
pounder, the force is transformed into body waves that consist of
compression waves and shear waves. Surface waves are also created in the
soil. Whilst the waves propagate radially outward from the source along a
hemispherical wave front, as shown in Figure 15.7, surface waves propagate
horizontally along the surface. The role of these shock waves is dependent
on the soil types and the degree of saturation. For dry deposits, the impact
induces compressive and shear waves to overcome the interlocking stresses
within the loose strata, resulting in a reduction of the voids. The mechanism
of densification for saturated granular deposits is quite different. The
compressive stresses induced by the DC impact result in a sudden increase
in pore water pressure, thereby forcing the soil into a state of liquefaction.
The shear waves and Rayleigh waves, which are slower, travel through the
solid skeleton. The combination of temporary loss of contact stresses and
dynamic oscillation causes the soil particles to be rearranged into a dense
state.
The pounders are usually square or circular in shape and made of
steel or concrete. Their weights normally range from 5 to 40 tons and drop
350 Chapter 15
-2 -2 -0.5
-1
-1
Figure 15.7 Wave propagation due to dynamic compaction

(after Na 2002).
heights of up to 25 m have been used frequently. Owing to the lack of

proper understanding of the mechanism of dynamic compaction, most
dynamic compaction projects are carried out by specialist contractors with
the help of a trial compaction. Presently, a rational or well-established design
procedure is not available. The common understanding is that the degree
of improvement increases with the energy applied and influence depth
increases with increases in pounder weight and drop height.
15.2.1 ■ Influence depth
Menard and Broise (1975) initiated and proposed a formula which estimates
the influence depth with dynamic compaction as follows:
D = (w ¥ h)
1
2 (15.1)
where w is the weight of the pounder in ton, and h is the height of drop in
meter. D is energy per drop in ton-meters. A more appropriate and accepted
equation is given as:
D = n(w ¥ h)
1
2 (15.2)
where n is an empirical coefficient factor varying from 0.3 to 1.0.

The effectiveness of dynamic compaction is strongly affected by the
soil condition as well as by the energy configuration.
The results of the numerous tests in Changi suggest that the “n” factors
for energy, weight and drop height vary from 0.33 to 0.44. It is worth noting
that the depth of influence is also dependent upon the size and shape of the
pounder. The same weight of pounder with the same energy can give
different influence depths if the geometry of the pounder is different. It can
be seen in Table 15.1 that different “n” values are obtained from the tests
using different pounders.
Van Impe (1992) also pointed out that the depth of influence depends
upon the surface area and the shape of the pounder. Lukas (1986) has stated
that multi-tamping only improves the zone of influence and not the depth
of influence. Mayne et al. (1984) has suggested that the degree of soil
improvement by dynamic compaction peaks at a critical depth, which is
roughly one half of the maximum depth of influence. The numerous test
data from Changi support the above concept (Na 2002).
From suggested correlations, an estimation of influence depth can be
made and the required pounder weight and height of crane can be selected
to meet the required depth of compaction. The effectiveness of dynamic
compaction is dependent on the combination of the weight, geometry of
pounder, height of drop, spacing, number of drops, and total compactive
energy applied. Details of the equipment and the energy produced, together
with the achieved densification in dynamic compaction work carried out at
Changi East, are presented in Table 15.2 (Na 2002).
Table 15.1 “n” value for various pounders (after Na 2002).
Pounder Weight (tons) 15 14 23 23

Drop Height (m) 20 20 12.5 25
2
Pounder Surface Area (m ) 3.87 2.25 5.5 5.5
Energy (ton.m) 300 280 287.5 575
Influence Depth (m 7.5 7 6 8
“n” Factor 0.433 0.418 0.354 0.334
Table 15.2 Details of dynamic compaction (after Na 2002).

Method
1 2 3 4
Pounder Weight (t) 23 15 18 18
Drop Height (m) 25 20 24 24
No. of Drops per pass 5 10 10 12
Energy per drop (t) 575 300 432 432
Spacing at each pass (m x m) 6x6 6x6 8.5 x 8.5 10 x 10
No. of passes 2 2 2 2
Effective surface area (m2) 5.5 3.87 3.4 3.4
Energy per m2 (ton-m/m2) 160 166 120 105
Compacted depth (m 7 7 7 7
Cone resistance achieved (MPa) @15 @15 @12 @12
352 Chapter 15
2500 mm
350 mm 1000 mm 350 mm
8 NOs 325mm HOLES

350 mm 320mm BOLT
100mm LIFTING EYE

2500 mm
1000 mm
350 mm
75mm THICK PLATE

1000 mm LIFTING HEAD
100 mm LIFTING EYE
SEE DETAIL SECTION A
8 NOs 325mm HOLES
320mm BOLT
500 mm
75 mm
100 mm 275 mm
100 mm
200 mm
Figure 15.8 Geometry of some pounders (after Na 2002).
15.2.2 ■ Shape of pounder
Pounders are usually square in shape but some pounders are hexagonal.
The thickness of the pounder also varies. Some pounders have foot studs
which use bolts and nuts to hold the steel plates together. Pounders are
usually made up of steel plates, but a few are made up of concrete blocks.
Figure 15.8 shows various types of pounders used in dynamic compaction
works. The pounder with a smaller base area will penetrate deeper than a
pounder with a bigger base area. This creates depth and settlement, which
will be discussed later.
15.2.3 ■ Lifting and dropping mechanism
Lifting is usually achieved by a winch system. A high capacity crane with

various boom lengths are used in DC works. However, if the pounder is too
heavy, a tripod is used instead of a crane. Drop points are just in front of the
crane, and if a tripod is used, the drop points are at the center of the tripod.
Figure 15.9 shows various types of cranes and tripod used in dynamic
compaction works. In most cases, when the pounder is released, the cable
follows the pounder. Therefore, there is significant friction between the
pulley and the cable. As such, there is some energy loss due to the friction.
This is taken into account in the empirical coefficient described in Equation
15.2.
There is a system which can drop the pounder in a free fall without
energy loss due to friction. This is a clip holder, as shown in Figure 15.10.
Figure 15.11 shows various types of pounders used in dynamic compaction
works. However, even with free fall there will still be energy loss due to
friction caused by air.
Figure 15.9 (a) Crane, and (b) tripod used in dynamic

compaction works.
Figure 15.10 A lifting mechanism with a clip holder.

354 Chapter 15
Figure 15.11 Various types of pounders used in dynamic compaction.
15.2.4 ■ Field measurement during dynamic compaction
Several measurements were made at the Changi reclamation project to check

the energy loss, displacement, stress and pore pressure due to dynamic
compaction. Figure 15.12 shows a comparison of theoretical velocity and
measured velocity of a pounder at the time when the pounder touches the
surface. It can be seen that the measured velocity is only about 80% of the
theoretical velocity. The impact of an 18-ton pounder dropped from a 10-
meter height is about 1200 kPa. By integrating the calculated velocity, the
displacement can be estimated (Figure 15.12). Figure 15.13 shows a
comparison of measured and estimated pounder displacement, and they
are found to be comparable (Na et al. 1997).
This mean displacement of the pounder—in other words, the crater
depth—can be pre-estimated. A typical relationship between the peak of
impact deceleration and drop number is shown in Figure 15.14, for an 18-
ton pounder dropped from a 10-meter height for various numbers of drops.
It was found that at the peak, three drops were made and after that
deceleration reduced it to six drops, which then remained constant. This
means after six drops the crater depth almost no longer increases. Pore
water pressure in the ground mass at 2 meters and 3 meters away from the
pounding point and at 5 meter depth was measured at the trial test. It was
found that a piezometer at 2 meters away measured excess pore pressure of
about 140 kPa, and 3 meters away measured only 60 kPa (Figure 15.15).
This pore pressure is almost tenfold less than the stress occurring at
the surface. The excess pore pressure peaks at only about 0.2 seconds and
within 2 – 3 minutes all pore pressure dissipates. Therefore, for dynamic
compaction in granular soil, excess pore pressure may not be a major issue.
The excess pore pressure was measured after every drop of the pounder
and it was found that excess pore pressure increased with the number of
drops. This could be due to an increase in the densification of the soil after
each drop.
(a) 60
Deceleration a/g
Drop height = 10 m; Drop weight = 18 tonnes
40 Drop number = 1
20
-20
16
(b)
Velocity (m/s)
12
Calculated velocity
8 Theoretical maximum velocity
4 Measured maximum velocity
0.4
(c)
Displacement (m)
0.2 Calculated settlement
Measured displacement
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Time (sec)
1200
(d)
Stress (kPa)
800
400
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
Displacement (m)
Figure 15.12 (a) Measured deceleration, (b) velocity measurement,

(c) displacement, and (d) stress (after Na et al. 1997).
0.4
Pounder Displacement
Drop height = 10 m
0.3 Drop weight = 18 tonnes
(m)
0.2
Measured
Calculated
0.1
0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21
Drop number
Figure 15.13 Comparison of measured and calculated pounder
settlement (after Na 2002).
356 Chapter 15
250
D=3m
Deceleration amax/g
200 D=7m
Drop weight = 18 tonnes D = 10 m
150 D = 15 m
D = 20 m
100
50
0
0 5 10 15 20
Drop number
Figure 15.14 Deceleration measurement after pounder drops
(after Na 2002).
(a)
1.5
(b)
p1
1
(bar)
0.5
-0.5
1.5
p2
1
(bar)
0.5
-0.5
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Drop number
Figure 15.15 (a) Layout of measurement points, and (b) measured

excess pore pressure vs. time (after Na et al. 1997).
15.2.5 ■ Degree of improvement
To design densification work, the selection of spacing and the number of

drops per point is crucial to achieve the specified density requirement. In
other words, the selection of total energy per unit surface area with the type
of pounder and drop height is important to achieve the specified density.
Leonards et al. (1980) has suggested that the degree of compaction correlates
best with the product of the total energy applied per unit surface area times
the energy per drop. The test results at Changi East shown in Figure 15.16,
support his concept but the upper limit of the maximum attainable cone
resistance may be about qc~ 180 kg/cm2 (18 MPa) for the soil type, as
In the Changi East project, to attain maximum cone resistance of 18
MPa (180 kg/cm2) and 12 MPa (120 kg/cm2), the energy per unit area
multiplied by the energy per drop of 92,000 and 48,900 square tons
respectively were applied. From the above correlation, the effective spacing
of the pounding point and the number of drops per point can be designed
for particular pounders and cranes, as shown in Tables 15.3 and 15.4. To
achieve the selected effective spacing, the sequence of pounding can be
arranged into two or more phases to allow for pore water pressure dissipation
between phases. Normally, spacing can be around 5 – 7 meters. In the Changi
East project, two phases of 6 by 6 meters square spacing using two different
energies per drop, with 5 and 10 drops, were applied to achieve the required
cone resistance of 15 and 18 MPa respectively. The resulting cone resistance
after compaction is shown together with pre-CPT in Figures 15.18 and
15.19 for methods A and B respectively.
Table 15.3 Calculation of required spacing.
Method A B
1 Required CPT qc (MPa) 18 15
2 Pounder Weight (tons) 23 15
3 Drop Height (m) 25 20
4 (2*3) Available Energy per Drop (ton-meter) 575 300
2 2
5 (Figure 1) Energy/m *Energy/Drop (ton ) 92,000 48,900
6 (5/4) Required Energy/m2 (ton-m/m2) 160 163
7 (4/6) Effective Area/Drop (m2) 3.59 1.84

358 Chapter 15
Table 15.4 Calculation of required number of drops.
Method A B
1 First Pass Effective (m2) 36 36
2
2 Second Pass Effective (m ) 36 36
3 Net Effective Area (m2) 17.97 17.97
4 (Table 2) Effective Area/Drop (m2) 3.59 1.84
5 (3/4) Required No. of Drops/Phase 5 10
0 x 10^4
Energy/m2 * Energy/drop
4 x 10^4
(tons^2)
8 x 10^4
12 x 10^4
16 x 10^4
0 50 100 150 200
Average qc in zone of max densification (kg/cm2)
Figure 15.16 Correlation between average cone resistance and

energy/m2 x energy/drop.
100
Passing percentage (%)
80
60
40
20
0
0.01 0.1 1 10
Particle diameter (mm)
Figure 15.17 Grain size distribution of granular fill for above trial tests.
Cone Resistance (MPa)
Depth (m)
Figure 15.18 Pre- and post-CPT from Method A.

Depth (m)
Figure 15.19 Pre- and post-CPT from Method B.

360 Chapter 15
15.2.6 ■ Normalized crater depth
Mayne et al. (1984) also suggested another useful correlation between

normalized crater depth, Dc/ (wh)1/2 and the number of drops.
The authors have also carried out such correlations on various types
of pounders and drop heights under various soil conditions. It is noted that
for the same pounder and the same initial soil condition, the trend of
normalized crater depth versus number of drops is the same although the
drop height varies. This can be seen in Figures 15.20 and 15.21.
However, for the same drop weight with the same pounder and same
drop height, the trend of normalized crater depth can vary if the initial soil
0.00
0.05
w=15 (tonnes)
0.10
h=15 (m) Location-2
Dc in meter
Location-3
0.15 Location-4
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Number of Drops
Figure 15.20 Normalized crater depth measured at different locations

under the same energy per drop.
0.00
0.05
0.10 w=23 (tonnes) h=25 (m)
w=23 (tonnes) h=12.5 (m)
0.15 Dc in meter
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Number of Drops
Figure 15.21 Normalized crater depth measured under different drop

heights.
condition is different. The different trends of normalized crater depth

measured after the first and second phases are shown in Figure 15.22. The
crater depths are shallower with the same number of blows in the second
phase since the soil has been densified to a certain degree in the first phase
of pounding.
If the geometry of the pounder is different, the trend of normalized
crater depth can vary even if a similar weight of pounder and the same drop
height are applied in the same soil type. This can be seen in Figure 15.23.
This information is very useful for site supervision since the trend of
normalized crater depths is the same for the same pounder.
0.00
0.05
0.10
w=15 (tonnes) 1st Pass
h=20 (m) 2nd Pass
Dc in meter
0.15
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Number of Drops
Figure 15.22 Normalized crater depth measured after the first and
second phases under the same energy per drop.
0.00
0.05
0.10
w=15(tonnes) h=20(m)
Base Area=3.87m2
0.15 w=14(tonnes) h=20(m)

Base Area=2.25m2
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Number of Drops
Figure 15.23 Normalized crater depth measured with a similar weight

pounder and drop height but different base area.
362 Chapter 15
As such, supervision can be kept to a minimum and the crater depth

can be measured after pounding. If a specified number of drops are applied,
the same crater depth will be measured for the same pounder with the same
drop height. As such, the physical counting of the number of drops and the
observation of drop heights may not be required after trial tests have been
carried out on the particular type of soil.
15.2.7 ■ Most compacted point
In most specifications, the test location for acceptance of compaction works

is specified at the centroid point based on the assumption that the centroid
location is the least compacted point. However, if the correct spacing is
used, it has been found that the centroid point is in fact the most compacted
point, and the location under the pounder is actually the least compacted
point.
The authors have carried out a large number of cone penetration tests
around and under the pounder, for 6 meter by 6 meter square grid spacing
for two phases of pounding and 7 meter by 7 meter square grid spacing for
two phases of pounding. The comparative CPT data can be seen in Figures
15.24 and 15.25. It was confirmed that the location under the pounder was
the least compacted although at about 2 – 3 meters depth of sandfill there
was a thin layer that was highly compacted. The centroid point was found
to be the most homogeneously compacted location. Therefore, it is suggested
that the location of the post-CPT point for acceptance of compaction work
Cone Resistance (3) Cone Resistance (2) Cone Resistance (1)

(MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15 20
0 0 0
-2 -2 -2
-4 -4
Depth (m)
-4
Depth (m)
Depth (m)
-6 -6 -6
-8 -8 -8
-10 -10 -10
-12 -12 -12

-14 -14 -14
C1-3(BLOWS:15) C1-1 (BLOWS:15) C1-1(BLOWS:15)
B1-3(BLOWS:10) B1-1 (BLOWS:10) B1-1(BLOWS:10)
A1-3(BLOWS:5) A1-1 (BLOWS:5) A1-1(BLOWS:5)
3
2
1
Weight = 23t Height = 25m
Figure 15.24 Cone resistance measured at various locations for 6m x 6m

grid spacing: (1) centroid point, (2) intermediate point,
and (3) under the point.
would be under the pounder for dynamic compaction works. Na (2002) has
produced a contour of densification under the print and centroid point from
several tests he carried out (Figure 15.26). It can be seen that for a single
pounding the degree of densification reduced with the distance from the
pounding point. When pounding is done with the correct grid pattern, the
centroid point is more compacted.
Cone Resistance (3) Cone Resistance (2) Cone Resistance (1)

(MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
0 0 0
-2 -2 -2
-4 -4 -4
Depth (m)
Depth (m)
Depth (m)
-6 -6 -6
-8 -8 -8
-10 -10 -10
-12 -12 -12
-14 -14 -14

F1-3(BLOWS:15) F1-2(BLOWS:15) F1-1(BLOWS:15)
E1-3(BLOWS:10) E1-2(BLOWS:10)
D1-3(BLOWS:5) E1-1(BLOWS:10)
D1-2(BLOWS:5) D1-1(BLOWS:5)
3
CPT LOCATION 2
1 Weight = 23t Height = 25m
Figure 15.25 Cone resistance measured at various locations for 7m x 7m

grid spacing: (1) centroid point, (2) intermediate point,
and (3) under the point.
EL (mCD)
Distance from print point (m)

EL (mCD)
Distance from center of grid (m)

Note: Values shown are density in g/cc.
Figure 15.26 Contour of densification under the print and centroid points
from several tests (after Na 2002).
364 Chapter 15
EL (mCD)
Distance from print point (m)

EL (mCD)
Distance from center of grid (m)

Note: Values shown are density in %.
Figure 15.26 Contour of densification under the print and centroid points
(continued) from several tests (Na 2002).
15.2.8 ■ Aging effect
Dynamic compaction is carried out in phases to allow for pore pressure

dissipation during the pause period. However, granular soil is highly
permeable and dissipation of excess pore pressure is quite rapid, as explained
in the earlier section. In addition to this, owing to the soil fissuring during
pounding, pore water pressure dissipation is very rapid. Therefore, no
significant aging can be seen after compaction. Negligible increases in cone
resistance values after compaction may be due to the slow redeposition of
soluble silica at grain contact, which acts as natural cementation. A
comparison of CPT testing results immediately and three months after
compaction can be seen in Figure 15.27.
Cone Resistance (Mpa)

0 10 20 30 40
0
2
Depth (m)
10
12
27-05-96 28-08-96
Figure 15.27 No significant aging in DC.

15.3 ■ MULLER RESONANCE COMPACTION (MRC)
MRC does not require water for penetration. In this method, a steady-state
vibrator is used to densify the soil. As a result of vibration, the friction
between the soil particles is temporarily reduced. This facilitates the
rearrangement of particles, resulting in densification of the soil. A specially
designed steel probe is attached to a vibrator which has variable operating
frequencies. The frequency is adjusted to the resonance frequency of the
soil, resulting in strongly amplified ground vibrations and thereby efficient
soil densification is achieved.
Generally, a higher capacity vibrator (MS-200) requires wider spacing,
whereas a lower capacity vibrator (MS-100) requires narrower spacing.
The achieved cone resistance at various distances from the probe point in
the MRC is shown in Figure 15.28 (Choa et al. 1997a). As can be seen in
the figure, the densification achieved is significant in the bottom part of the
profile. However, the top part of the profile seems to have been densified
by seepage forces before compaction.
Two main types of MRC vibrators used for Muller resonance compaction
are the MS-100 and MS-200 vibrators. The MS-100 vibrator has a maximum
static moment of 1000Nm while the MS-200 vibrator has a maximum static
moment of 1900 Nm. Details of the dimensions and specifications are shown
in Table 15.5. The probe profile is a “wing” of double Y-shaped flexible
plates with openings. The usual shape of the probe is shown in Figure 15.29.
The length of the “wing” as well as the size of the opening can vary
depending upon the soil condition.
15.3.2 ■ Procedure of compaction
The procedure of compaction is such that the probe is inserted into the
ground at a high frequency in order to reduce the soil resistance along the
shaft and the toe. Usually during penetration, a frequency of 23 to 25 Hz is
used. When the probe reaches the required depth, the frequency is adjusted
to the resonance frequency of the soil layers, thereby amplifying the ground
response. Normally, the natural frequency of uncompacted soil ranges
between 12 and 15 Hz. The natural frequency of the soil can be found by
spectral analysis (Massarsch 1991). This analysis was carried out at the
Changi site and the soil natural frequency was found to be about 12 Hz for
uncompacted sand. This is shown in Figure 15.30.
366
Cone Resistance Cone Resistance (MPa) Cone Resistance (MPa) Cone Resistance (MPa)
(MPa)
0 10 20 30 0 10 20 30 0 10 20 30 0 10 20 30
0 10 20 30
0
Chapter 15
Depth (m)
8
10
12
PRE-CPT 2 3 4 5
1
POST-CPT
Location of MRC and CPT points
5.0 m 5 x 5 m square spacing

a = 1.25 m
b = 2.50 m
b
+ Location of MRC
5
Location of CPT in between MRC points
1 2 3 4
5.0 m
a a a a
Figure 15.28 Variation of cone resistance with distance from the probe point after compaction.
m
0m
450 mm
70
m
0m
70
Figure 15.29 Usual shape of the probe.
6
Spectral Amplitude
4.8
3.6
2.4
1.2
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Frequency
Figure 15.30 Spectral amplitude vs. frequency measured at Changi site.
Table 15.5 Dimensions and specifications of the Muller vibrator.
Muller Vibrator MS-100HF MS-200H

Max. Centrifugal Force (kN) 2500 4000
Max. Static Moment (Nm) 1000 1900
High Frequency Step (Nm) 480 —
Max. Oscillation Frequency (rpm) 2156 1500
Total Weight without grip (kg) 10900 15500
Dyn. Weight without grip (kg 7700 11750
Oscillation Amplitude (mm) 26 34
Max. Pulling Power (kN) 600 800
Vibrator Height (m) 3.235 3.655
Vibrator Width (m) 0.66 1.352
Static Mass Width (m) 2.41 2.3
Static Mass Thickness (m) 0.6 0.75
368 Chapter 15
The MRC probe is executed in a vertical direction and the vibration

energy is transmitted to the surrounding soil along the entire length of the
probe. When resonance is achieved, the whole soil layer will oscillate
simultaneously and this is an important advantage compared to other
vibratory methods. The compaction duration depends on the soil properties
and the required extent of densification to be achieved.
Normally the speed of vibration required is two minutes per meter.
Compaction is usually carried out in a square grid pattern of two or more
phases. The square grid spacing typically ranges between 3 meters and 5.5
meters. In subsequent phases, the compaction is carried out between the
compaction points in the first phase. Figure 15.31 shows MRC in progress.
Figure 15.32 shows the type of MRC probe.
Figure 15.31 MRC in progress.
Figure 15.32 Type of MRC probe.

Figure 15.33 Example of monitoring data.

370 Chapter 15

0 10 20 30 40
0
4
Depth (m)
10
12
soon after compaction
5 months after compaction
Figure 15.34 Significant aging after MRC compaction.
15.3.3 ■ Monitoring of performance
The MRC system has a comprehensive monitoring unit. From the vibrator
and rig, the vibrator frequency, oil pressure and depth of probe can be
recorded throughout the operation. In addition, triaxial geophones are used
to measure radial, vertical, and tangential ground vibration velocity. An
example of monitoring data is shown in Figure 15.33. Quality control of
the compaction can be based on the monitoring data recorded by an
automatic recording system for each and every compaction point.
15.3.4 ■ Most compacted point
Like vibroflotation, the degree of compaction for the MRC type of system
is also largely dependent upon the vibrator, the spacing of the probe, the
duration of compaction, and the applied frequency. With closer spacing,
better ground densification can be achieved. Compared to the vibroflotation
method, the MRC method compacts the soil mass more homogeneously
and the variation of cone resistance with distance from the probe does not
vary significantly. CPT test results carried out after compaction along the
axis of the two diagonally compacted points are shown in Figure 15.28.
There is an aging effect after compaction but this is not as significant as

vibroflotation compaction because of the residual excess pore pressure soon
after compaction. This is shown in Figure 15.34.
15.4 ■ VIBROFLOTATION
Another method used for densification of granular soil is vibroflotation. It

is a technique designed to induce compaction of granular materials at depth.
The basic principle behind the process is that particles of non-cohesive
soils will be rearranged into a denser configuration by means of horizontal
vibrations induced by the depth vibrator. For non-cohesive soils with natural
dry densities less than the maximum dry density, the influence of vibrations
will result in a rearrangement of their grain structure. A schematic of the
vibroflotation technique is shown in Figure 15.35.
Before
h After
Figure 15.35 Schematic of the vibroflotation technique.

Figure 15.36 Schematic of motion of eccentric weight and horizontal

vibrations. (Courtesy of Keller)
372 Chapter 15
As a result of the vibroflotation process, the void ratio and

compressibility of the treated soil will decrease and the angle of shearing
resistance increase. The treated compacted soil is capable of sustaining
higher bearing pressures compared to untreated soil.
15.4.1 ■ Onshore vibroflotation method
The essential equipment for the vibroflotation process is a vibrator, a long

heavy tube enclosed with eccentric weight and either electrically or
hydraulically driven. The motion of eccentric weight inside the vibrator
induces effective horizontal vibrations. The motion of eccentric weight and
the resulting horizontal vibrations are schematically represented in Figure
15.36.
The vibrator is connected to a power source and a high-pressure water
pump. Extension tubes are added as necessary, depending on the treatment
depth, and the whole assembly is suspended from a crane of suitable
capacity. With the power source and water supply switched on, the vibrator
is lowered into the ground. The combination of vibration and high-pressure
water jetting causes liquefaction of the soils surrounding the vibrator, which
assists in the penetration process. When the required depth is reached, the
water pressure is reduced and the vibrator pulled back in short steps. With
the inter-particle friction temporarily reduced, the surrounding soils then
fall back below the vibrator and, assisted by vibration, are rearranged into
a denser state. This process is repeated up to the ground level, leaving on
Figure 15.37 A schematic of the onshore vibroflotation method.

Figure 15.38 Formation of cone-shaped depression at the surface.

completion, a column of well compacted dense material surrounded by

material of enhanced density. The whole process is schematically shown in
Figure 15.37.
The degree of improvement in compaction achieved depends on the
soil being treated (the grain shape and size, composition and percentage of
fine soil), the amount of time spent at each stage of compaction, the distance
374 Chapter 15
from the probe point, and the effect of vibration. Typically, the zone of
influence will have a diameter between 3 and 4 meters. The spacing of the
probes is designed to ensure that the zones of influence overlap sufficiently
to achieve minimum requirements throughout the treated area. Generally,
the effect of the compaction becomes visible at the ground surface in the
form of a cone-shaped depression, as shown in Figure 15.38. The depression
formed around the vibrator or the extension tubes is continually infilled
with granular materials, which is either imported or obtained from the natural
granular deposits at the site.
15.4.2 ■ Offshore vibroflotation method
In the offshore method, a single or multi-vibro set-up is used to compact

the sandkey formation under marine conditions. A barge or pontoon is
required to serve as a working platform on which a crawler crane of sufficient
capacity is mounted to support the vibro string assembly. The whole method
is the same as the onshore vibroflotation. A schematic diagram of a typical
set-up for offshore vibroflotation is shown in Figure 15.39. After shifting
the barge to the treatment zone, the exact positioning of the vibrator to the
each probe point is done by a crane using the data constantly provided by a
GPS (global positioning system) receiver mounted at the top of the vibro
string.
Sand key Trench

Clay
Dense Layers
Figure 15.39 A schematic of the onshore vibroflotation method.

Several types of vibroflotation equipment with slightly different

specifications can be used, driven either electrically or hydraulically. The
specifications of the different types of vibroflotation equipment used are
shown in Table 15.6. Figure 15.40 shows a photograph of the equipment.
Among the equipment listed in the table, the power rating of vibroflotation
is lower and that of pennine is higher. The V23 and V32 types of
vibroflotation equipment use the same power rating but different centrifugal
forces. Amplitudes range between 23 and 32 mm, and the model numbers
signify their amplitudes.
Keller (S-300) uses a higher power rating, but low centrifugal force
and amplitude. Pennine has a high centrifugal force and amplitude and its
dimensions are all the largest of the three plant types. In general, the
equipment is 3 to 3.5 meters in length and has a 350 to 400 mm diameter
Figure 15.40 Photographs of vibroflotation equipment.

376 Chapter 15
Table 15.6 Vibroflotation equipment specifications.
Company Vibroflotation Keller
Model V23 V28 V32 S300

Power Rating (kW) 130 130 130 150
Speed of Rotation (rpm) 1800 1800 1800 1775
Rated Current (Amp) 300 300 300 300

Centrifugal Force (kN) 280 330 450 290
Amplitude (mm) 23 28 32 25
Vibrator Diameter (mm) 350 360 350 400

Vibrator Length (m) 3.25 3.3 3.25 2.9
Vibrator Weight (kN) 22 25 25 24.5
vibrating poker with a vibrating electric motor inside. The power rating of
the vibrator ranges between 130 and 150 kW. The vibroflotation equipment
can compact up to 30 meters in depth.
15.4.4 ■ Procedure of compaction
The procedure of compaction is to use a vibrator probe to penetrate the

ground with the aid of tip-water jetting. On reaching the required depth,
the tip-water jets are shut off and vibration started with side water jetting.
Usually the duration of vibration varies from 30 seconds to one minute,
and the current required varies from 120 to 260 amperes, both of which
depend upon the required density, initial soil condition, and type of vibrator
used. The vibrator is raised up about 0.5 meters when the criterion is satisfied,
and the process repeated. During the compaction process, additional granular
soil on the surface and the collapsed soil layer caused by side water jetting
backfills the cavity in the cylinder. Based on the author’s experience, to
achieve 10, 12 and 15 MPa of cone resistance with V32 type of vibrator, a
corresponding amperage of 160 amp, 240 amp and 260 amp is required
respectively.
Sometimes difficulties arise in compacting deep portions of the soil if
there is an existing dense layer in the upper part of the soil profile. In such
cases, side water jetting may not be able to loosen the upper part of the
dense soil layer and hence the bottom part of the hole will be left unfilled
by the additional soil. As such, the bottom part of the soil may not be well
compacted. Compaction in such a soil profile can be carried out by increasing
the capacity of side water jetting or by repeated side water jetting onto the
wall of the hole by up and down penetrations to loosen the hard layer.
Figure 15.41 Typical quality control record. (Courtesy of Keller)
15.4.5 ■ Quality control
The monitoring of each probe point is performed by an automatic recording

device. This instrument yields a computer record of the installation process
in a continuous graphical mode, plotting depth versus time, and power
consumption versus time. The information provided by the recording device
also includes the probe reference number, date and period of execution,
maximum depth, and maximum power consumption. These records are the
main quality control tools during the compaction process. One such typical
record is shown in Figure 15.41.
15.4.6 ■ Design procedure
The purpose of vibroflotation is the densification of the existing soil. The

feasibility of the technique depends mainly on the grain size distribution of
the soil. The range of soil types treatable by vibroflotation is shown in
Figure 15.1.
The degree of improvement will depend on many factors including
soil conditions, type of equipment, procedures adopted, and skill of the site
staff. Such variables do not permit an optimum design to be established in
advance but rather require the exercise of experience and judgment for
378 Chapter 15
their successful resolution. For large projects, it is preferable and advisable

to conduct trials with varying probe spacing in order to determine the optimal
spacing of probes to achieve the minimum required specifications at the
probable weakest points.
15.4.7 ■ Monitoring of performance
To assess the performance achieved by vibroflotation, post-cone penetration

tests are conducted at the weakest points (typically at the centroid of the
grid pattern) to check the achieved tip resistance with depth in comparison
to the specifications. In general, these tests are conducted seven days after
the vibroflotation works to allow the dissipation of excess pore water
pressures developed during compaction works. As a result of densification
by vibroflotation, the expected settlements are in the range of about 10%
of treatment depth.
15.4.8 ■ Achievable cone resistance and most compacted point
The spacing of probe points will differ for different types of equipment to
achieve the same densification requirements, as shown in Table 15.7. It
can be seen in the table that, for the same vibrator, wider spacing produces
lower cone resistance. A higher capacity vibrator can achieve the same
degree of densification with wider spacing compared with a smaller capacity
vibrator. The variation of cone resistance with distance from the probe point
after compaction is shown in Figure 15.42. It can be seen in the figure that
cone resistance is highest at the probe point and lowest near the centroid
point of the triangle (CPT point 2 and 4). However, cone resistance at the
centroid of the four compaction points is higher than that at points 2 and 4.
The degree of compaction is largely dependent upon the type of
equipment, spacing of probes, duration of compaction, and the magnitude
Table 15.7 Details of vibroflotation equipment and spacing, together

with achieved cone resistance.
Serial Type of Equipment Model Spacing Cone Resistance

No. Achieved (MPa)
1 Vibroflotation V23 3 plus roller compaction 10
2 Vibroflotation V28 3.0 10
3 Vibroflotation V32 3.3 10
4 Agra V32 3.0 12
5 Keller S300 3.0 15
6 Pennine BD400 2.5 15
Cone Resistance (MPa) Cone Resistance (MPa) Cone Resistance (MPa) Cone Resistance (MPa)
0 10 20 30 0 10 20 30 0 10 20 30 0 10 20 30 0 10 20 30
0
Depth (m)
8
10
PRE-CPT
POST-CPT
12
1 2 3 4 5
Location of Vibroflotation and CPT points
5.524 m
1. 3.2 m Triangular Grid

2. Duration time - 40 sec
3.2 m 3.2 m 3. Probe type - V32, amplitude - 32 mm, centrifugal force - 450 kN
2 3 4 a = 1.38 m
1 5 b = 1.61 m
a a a a
b + Location of vibroflotation points
3.2 m 3.2 m Location of CPT in between vibroflotation points
Figure 15.42 Variation of cone resistance with distance from the probe point after compaction.
Densification of Granular Soil
379
380 Chapter 15
of amperage achieved. The closer the spacing, the greater the possibility of
densifying the whole mass of soil. If spacing is wider than required, some
loose profile can be found at the centroid point. Based on the author’s
experience with type of soil shown in Figure 15.12, a triangular grid spacing
of 2.5 to 3.0 meters is required to achieve a cone resistance of 15 MPa by a
V32 type of vibroflotation equipment. To achieve a cone resistance of 12
MPa, a triangular grid spacing of 3.0 to 3.2 meters is required with the V32
vibrator. For the S300 vibrator, a triangular grid spacing of between 2.4 to
2.6 meters is required to achieve a cone resistance of 15 MPa. However,
this is also dependent upon the initial soil condition.
CPT testing results after compaction carried out along the axis of two
far end vibro probe locations are shown in Figure 15.42 for the V32 vibrator.
It was found that the cone resistance decreases with distance from the probe
point.
No fissuring occurs during vibroflotation, but because of the application of

additional water pressure and pore water pressure, dissipation takes a longer
period than for the dynamic compaction process. Therefore, the aging effect
is quite significant for vibroflotation. The significant increase in cone
resistance four months after compaction can be seen in Figure 15.43.

0 10 20 30 40
0
4
Depth (m)
8
24-May-96
10 23-Sept-96
12
Figure 15.43 Significance of aging effect after vibrocompaction.

(a) Individual footings (b) Large reclamation area
Figure 15.44 Applications of vibroflotation. (Courtesy of Keller)
15.4.10 ■ Applications
Typical applications of vibroflotation include individual footings and large
reclamation areas. Typical plan views for these applications with an
appropriate grid pattern are schematically shown in Figure 15.44.
15.5 ■ CONCLUSION
The vibroflotation technique has been proven to be an effective and

economic method of improving the loose granular non-cohesive soils for a
wide range of applications. By compacting these soils using the
vibroflotation technique, the density will increase and improve the bearing
capacity of the ground. The technique also helps in improving the shear
strength and compressibility characteristics of granular soils and result in
reduced total and differential foundation settlements.
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Contract Management for Land Reclamation Projects 383
CHAPTER 16
Contract Management
for Land Reclamation Projects
The execution of a reclamation project is very complex and has a high

element of risk and uncertainty requiring experience, sophisticated
techniques, and expensive equipment. A comprehensive reclamation
contract is, therefore, necessary to provide an enforceable agreement
between the client and the contractor to enable them to successfully execute
the work. It should be a legal agreement that addresses all contingencies
covering the scope of work, payment, quality of work, and schedule of
work.
The form and type of contract will affect the final price of a project,
as much as some of the engineering specifications because of the element
of risk inherent in the reclamation operations. Time allowed for the tender,
the mobilization period, the timing of the award, and the duration of the
contract have to be taken into consideration. In addition, variable weather
and soil conditions affect the works and these uncertainties should either
be minimized prior to the tender, or the risks should be shared between the
client and the contractor. The contract should as far as possible reflect the
type of work to be executed and the circumstances in which it is being
performed.
Reclamation and ground improvement projects are often major projects
which require technical expertise, good and appropriate equipment, as well
as effective human resource and financial management. Only contractors
with strong financial support and experience in managing mega-projects
should be considered for such big projects. Contractors who own reclamation
equipment such as dredgers, barges, and transportation trucks have an added
advantage. Traditionally, Dutch and Belgian dredging companies have been
known to be the most suitable contractors for such work. There are also a
few large Japanese contractors who own dredging equipment. They may
also be suitable to execute such reclamation projects. South Korean
companies are also becoming increasingly involved in dredging and
reclamation projects.
384 Chapter 16
16.1 ■ CONTRACT DOCUMENT
The most suitable type of contract is one that splits the risk appropriately
between the client and the contractor. There are basically two types of
contracts: the fixed price contract and the cost reimbursement contract (cost-
plus contract). Until recently, an open competitive tender system was
traditionally favored by national governments for awarding reclamation
contracts. However, a modified form is now more popular in which the
reclamation contractors are first required to submit prequalification
documents, and only prequalified contractors will be invited to tender. This
reduces the risk of awarding contracts to irresponsible contractors who put
in bids which are far below the cost of the project and who then have
difficulty in completing the project successfully.
In order to successfully implement land reclamation and ground
improvement projects, suitably written conditions are necessary for the
contract. The conditions of contract that have traditionally been adopted in
the United Kingdom (UK) and its former colonies are those of the ICE
General Conditions of Contract drawn up by the Institution of Civil
Engineers, UK, for overseas works, mainly in civil engineering construction.
The first edition, published in August 1956, was reprinted in November
1969. Part II of the document, on “Condition of Particular Application”, is
usually modified to suit a particular area, country, or type of project. The
laws and procedures that have to be complied with in a particular country
are generally described in this section. The most internationally accepted
conditions of contract are those of the FIDIC Conditions of Contract, 3rd
edition, March 1977, published by FIDIC (Fédération Internationale des
Ingénieurs – Conseils).
Both material and fuel costs greatly affect the overall expenditure of
the reclamation project. Therefore, special conditions such as claims for
marine fuel and fluctuations in the price of imported materials have to be
provided for by a special clause.
In the course of the reclamation, there could be excessive inclement
weather conditions which would affect the progress of the project. Thus,
the contract should provide for claims of extension of time due to unexpected
weather conditions, based on the number of days in each calendar month
when weather may be considered to be inclement. This clause is usually
included in Part II of the Conditions of Contract.
16.2 ■ SPECIFICATIONS
Two types of specifications are usually used in civil engineering projects:

method specification, and performance specification. Both types of
specifications may be applied to reclamation projects. However, sometimes
a combination of both types of specifications is adopted. Method
specification may discourage innovation by the contractor. Therefore, in
some cases only a general method is specified and the contractor is allowed
to propose an alternative method to achieve the desired results. The work is
then controlled by performance monitoring, or checks.
Since reclamation projects usually cover a large area, the work is often
sub-divided into several sub-areas and implemented in stages. The stages
should be planned to take into account the available working area, sequence
of future usage, ease of scheduling navigation, and drainage. Not only is it
necessary to specify the stages in terms of area but also the stages in terms
of fill levels and work scope. For shallow reclamation, the level of fill to be
carried out is generally specified, which is usually one meter above the
high tide level with one lift. Other works, such as shore protection structures,
are usually carried out at this stage. If reclamation is carried out over a
deep seabed, two or more lifts may be required. If the ground condition
permits, it is usually specified that the first lift is to be done by direct dumping
and the second lift onwards by hydraulic filling. In very soft ground
conditions, an initial thin sand blanket may be required. These stages have
to be clearly described in the specifications.
Before starting the filling, dredging works are usually carried out to
remove unsuitable material or to form sandkeys for the shore protection
works. Although the method of dredging is rarely specified, cutter suction
dredging is usually not allowed for this work. Only grab or bucket dredgers
are suitable for this type of dredging. The dredged level is specified based
on site investigation data, and the gradient of slope is also specified so as to
control the stability of the dredged slope.
The fill material needs to be specified in order to control the quality
of the land fill, which is generally expected to provide good load-bearing
capacity for construction equipment and also for future development. The
quality of fill material is specified either by grain size distribution envelopes,
or fine content. Generally, the use of fine material of less than 63 microns
is limited to less than 20%. Unsuitable material, such as organic shell, coral,
plants, roots and clay should not be included in the fill material. It is also
necessary to check the chemical composition of the fill material and any
contaminated soil should be rejected. The source of fill material is either
386 Chapter 16
specified by the client or left to the contractors to source from their own
borrow area.
Although the method of filling is usually not specified, the formation
of mudwaves and slips, which alter the characteristic of the seabed and
lead to unacceptable additional settlements, must be controlled through the
specifications. It should also be specified that the cost of any loss in fill
volume due to settlement occurring during stage filling should be borne by
the contractor. The contractor has also to allow for any losses during
transportation and from settlements in the unit rate of fill material.
For PVD installation, the spacing and depth of PVDs to be installed
are usually specified for each area. However, the exhibited design
specification is again usually controlled by the performance specification,
which will be discussed later. In addition to the specification of PVD, a
pilot embankment must be carried out at the initial stage of the reclamation.
The purpose of a pilot test is usually to determine the type of drain, the
suitable spacing, and the appropriate installation depth. Several types of
PVDs are usually installed with different spacings and sometimes, varying
penetration depths. Generally, sufficient separation must be provided
between the various plots to eliminate boundary affects. An area with no
PVDs is also used as a control area. The performance of each PVD is
monitored with geotechnical instrumentation and assessed with in-situ and
laboratory testing. Some pilot tests need to be carried out not only to
determine the type of PVDs and the spacing to be provided, but also to
ascertain the suitability of the proposed installation rig, mandrel, and
anchors.
Only after the installation of the PVDs can the minimum period of
surcharge be specified. However, this again is controlled by the performance
specification. The method of placement of the surcharge is specified in
order to achieve the required density of the fill. This could be supplemented
with a performance specification.
In order to obtain the best performing PVD system, detailed
specifications of the PVD including a quality control system are essential.
The details of these specifications have been given in Chapter 7, and the
quality control process is explained in detail in Chapter 13.
The method of removal is not usually specified. However, the level to
be achieved is generally given. The last stage of the work is deep compaction.
The method of compaction must be specified with an exhibited design
describing the total applied energy and energy per square meter. However,
an alternative proposal is usually accepted if the proposed method is equal
or better than the exhibited design. Again, final acceptance is controlled by
the performance specification. Trial compaction using the exhibited method

and the alternative methods proposed by the contractor have to be carried
out in order to select the most suitable method, energy, equipment, spacing,
and number of passes. Trial compaction is usually carried out on various
test plots with different types of equipment and amounts of energy.
The typical design of shore protection structures is usually described
in the contract as well as the material to be used, such as rock or geotextiles.
Details of rock and geotextile specifications are given in Chapter 8. The
method of construction is usually not specified.
16.2.1 ■ Local authority requirements
The requirements of the local authorities, such as the environmental, marine,

land and port authorities, are also included in the specifications. For example,
the environmental agency would usually require contractors to protect the
environment from pollution and to control the environmental impact as a
result of the creation of the land. For example, silt barricades are required
to prevent the drifting of silt outside the working area. Marine and port
authorities usually require the contractor to monitor wave, current, tide,
and water quality. In order to control the changes to the seabed caused by
dredging and the deposition of fill, the port authority usually demands the
monitoring of the seabed and the beach. The type and quantity of dredged
material must also be checked before it can be dumped at an approved
dumping ground. The dumped soils are usually capped with clean sand.
Site investigation, such as boring and in-situ testing, need to be carried
out and this must be specified as well as the method of testing. Several
types of site investigation are necessary to select the suitable borrow material
and to characterize the seabed soil and fill material after deposition and
densification. Details of site investigation have been given in an earlier
chapter.
16.2.2 ■ Performance specification
Specifications for measuring the performance of ground improvement with

PVD must be carefully written. Generally, the completion of ground
improvement is measured by the degree of consolidation. Traditionally,
only 90% of the degree of consolidation can be specified because of the
much longer time required to complete the remaining 10%. Therefore, the
consequences of the occurrence of settlement after construction have to be
anticipated. Alternatively, the land can be overloaded with the equivalent
of this shortfall of 10% of the degree of consolidation. However, the degree
388 Chapter 16
of consolidation alone is not sufficient to define the required ground

improvement. It has to be related to the required loading, applied loading,
or remaining loading after the settlement. Three examples of specifications
written by the authors for some projects in the Far East are given below.
16.2.2.1—Settlement
Example 1
The consolidation settlement of the soft compressible soil to be achieved
shall be an improvement of soil such that 90% of the primary consolidation
settlement under the specified surcharge load intensity and the reclaimed
fill has taken place in the soft compressible soil before the removal of the
surcharge.
Example 2
settlement under the load of reclaimed fill up to the finished level has taken
place in the soft compressible soil before the removal of the surcharge.
Example 3
settlement under the load of the reclaimed fill up to the specified finished
level and the future load of 20 KPa, has taken place in the soft compressible
soil before the removal of the surcharge. Allowance must be made for the
change in stress resulting from the change in groundwater level up to
+3 mCD during or after consolidation settlement.
Again, there are two significant ways of measuring the degree of

consolidation. One is the degree of consolidation in terms of settlement
and the other is the degree of consolidation in terms of effective stress
gain. A technically well-planned and implemented ground improvement
project can achieve the degree of consolidation both in terms of settlement
and effective stress gain. Although the effective stress gain lags behind the
settlement, these two converge to almost 100% of improvement. Therefore,
at the time when 90% consolidation is achieved, these two measurements
are close although effective stress gain is slightly lower.
However, the designer can choose the type of specifications required
depending upon future usage. The purpose of ground improvement is simply
to eliminate future settlement, and to ascertain whether the degree of
consolidation specified in terms of settlement is sufficient. After achieving
the required degree of settlement, there will usually be residual excess pore
pressure but this will be dissipated with minimum settlement because of
the non-linearity of the effective stress gain behavior. Three examples are
given below of specifications relating to the degree of consolidation in
terms of effective stress.
16.2.2.2—Effective stress gain
Example 1
The degree of consolidation to be achieved shall be 90% of the primary
consolidation resulting from both the increase in stress because of the
recently reclaimed land and the load intensity of sand surcharge from
+4mCD to the levels specified in the drawings. Allowance must also be
made for the change in stress resulting from the settlement of the reclaimed
land and the surcharge caused by the consolidation settlement of the soft
clay. The specified degree of consolidation shall be achieved at all levels
within the entire thickness of the very soft to soft soil, including the reclaimed
fill. This degree of consolidation shall be achieved within the respective
times specified for handing over each area of treatment.
Example 2
consolidation resulting from the increase in stress caused by the recently
reclaimed land up to the specified finish level. Allowance of surcharge must
be made for the settlement of the reclaimed land resulting from the settlement
of the soft clay during the consolidation process. The specified degree of
consolidation shall be achieved at all levels within the entire thickness of
the very soft to soft soil, including the reclaimed fill. This degree of
consolidation shall be achieved within the respective times specified for
handing over each area of treatment.
Example 3
consolidation resulting from both the increase in stress caused by the recently
reclaimed land up to specified finished level and the future load of 20 KPa.
Allowance must be made for the change in stress caused by the change in
groundwater level to +3 mCD during or after consolidation. The specified
degree of consolidation shall be achieved at all levels within the entire
thickness of the very soft to soft soil, including the reclaimed fill. This degree
of consolidation shall be achieved within the respective times specified for
handing over each area of treatment.
390 Chapter 16
However, if ground improvement is carried out to improve the strength

of the soil to a certain level, it is deemed necessary that the required degree
of consolidation is achieved in terms of effective stress gain. For such
projects, another specification is added to ensure that the required strength
is obtained. This is generally related to the required load, applied load, or
remaining load after settlement. Generally, a strength equivalent to 20-30%
of the relevant load is specified, depending upon the type of soil. Three
examples of specifications written by the authors for some projects in the
Far East are given below.
16.2.2.3—Shear strength
Example 1
The shear strength to be achieved shall be undrained shear strength
increments throughout the entire depth of very soft to soft compressible soil
using prefabricated band-shaped plastic drains to achieve a 20% increase
in effective vertical stress from the reclamation fill and the specified
surcharge load intensity. Allowance must also be made for the change in
stress due to settlement of the reclaimed land and surcharge caused by the
consolidation settlement of the soft clay.
Example 2
using prefabricated band-shaped plastic drains, to achieve a 20% increase
in effective vertical stress from the reclamation fill up to the finished level.
Allowance of surcharge must be made for the settlement of the reclaimed
land due to the settlement of the soft clay during the consolidation process.
Example 3
using prefabricated band-shaped plastic drains to achieve a 20% increase
in effective vertical stress from the reclamation fill up to the finished level
and a future load of 20 KPa intensity. Allowance must also be nade for the
change in stress as a result of the change in groundwater level up
to +3 mCD during or after consolidation.
An example of performance specifications for the differential

settlement is shown on the following page.
Example
Additionally, the contractor must ensure that the differential settlement is
not more than 50mm within a distance of 100 meters along the length and
breadth of the treated area over a period of one year commencing from the
completion of the soil improvement works.
The densification of granular soil is generally measured by relative
density. Since relative density is not easy to measure, the improvement is
usually measured by using cone resistance. A static cone is usually used to
measure post-improvement density. If a certain reduction of elastic
settlement is to be achieved from the granular fill, the required modulus of
granular fill is specified and usually measured with a pressuremeter.
16.3 ■ METHOD OF MEASUREMENT AND PAYMENT

The method of measurement of work done is generally specified in the
specifications. For the payment of fill material, the fill volume is usually
measured by pre- and post-filling surveys. With this method, the settlement
which occurs during filling is already taken into account. However, in some
projects, payment is made based on the transported volume, which is
measured on board. The payment for the fill material is generally based on
the rate per cubic meter. For PVD, the payment is based on the installed
drain length which is measured manually or with an automatic recorder. In
some projects, the payment is made based on the area of improvement at a
fixed rate per square meter, regardless of the installation depth.
Densification works are also measured by the improved area and paid
at a per square meter rate. Shore protection works, especially for rock bunds
and rip-raps, are measured by pre- and post-filling surveys and payment is
made by volume at a rate per cubic meter. The geotexile laid for separation
is measured and paid at a rate per square meter.
For site investigation, the works are paid by a fixed rate per meter
run, or per borehole. Sometimes, instead of specifying the number of
boreholes and tests, the provision of equipment and manpower to carry out
site investigation for the duration of the project is specified. Payment is
made for the equipment and manpower, including capital and running costs.
The use of geotechnical instruments is also specified at a cost per
instrument with, and without, running costs. If the running cost is not
included, payment for monitoring is calculated at a cost per trip.
Laboratory tests are usually paid at a cost per test. For mega projects
involving ground improvement works, it is worth considering setting up a
laboratory. Payments are then made for setting up the laboratory and the
running cost.
392 Chapter 16
16.4 ■ SETTING UP OF PROJECT MANAGEMENT TEAM
Strong project management teams are essential for the implementation of

huge reclamation and ground improvement projects. The project manager
must not only have contract management skills but must also be able to
appreciate the need for specialists such as geotechnical engineers and coastal
engineers. An understanding of dredging techniques and equipment is also
necessary. Three major areas should be represented in the project team:
contract management, geotechnical expertise, and coastal engineering. The
contract management team will be responsible for planning, scheduling,
procurement, and quantity surveying with discussion and advice from the
other two divisions. While all the necessary geotechnical investigations
and testing should be undertaken by the geotechnical division, the coastal
and marine environmental measurements should be carried out under the
direction of coastal engineers.
The success of a project, in which high risks and unknown conditions
are likely to occur, requires a give-and-take philosophy by both contractors
and consultants. Insisting on following specifications to the letter must be
discouraged whist upholding standards and maintaining fairness to both
contractor and client. This approach must be adopted not only at the
management level, but should permeate through all levels of the execution,
especially the men on the site itself. This spirit of understanding and
cooperation between both parties involved is often the common factor in
all successfully completed projects where technical and safety standards
are high and claims resulting from unforeseen conditions and circumstances
are minimal.

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The authors would like to thank Dr A. Vijaratnam, former Chairman

Bo Myint Win (Dr M W Bo)

3 ■ Sourcing of Reclamation Material 15

4.2.3 Field vane shear test (FVT) 28

6.3 Rehandling from A Rehandling Pit 81

7 ■ Environmental Control During

8 ■ Types of Coastal Protection 103

9 ■ Stability of Slopes and Retaining

9.2.2 Coulomb earth pressure theory 130

10 ■ Improvement of Compressible Soil 151

11 ■ Characterization of Soft Clay 179

11.1.6.2 Liquid limit obtained by a cone

12 ■ Design Process for Land Reclamation and

13 ■ Application of Geotechnical Instruments

14 ■ Quality Management in Prefabricated

14.6.5.4 Field measurement of discharge

15 ■ Densification of Granular Soil 343

16 ■ Contract Management for Land Reclamation

16.2 Specifications 385

The newly formed reclaimed land is prone to erosion by wave and

and their interpretations are discussed with examples illustrating the

properties, are discussed with examples. Hydraulic parameters, such as

Expansion of land is generally necessary near or at the foreshore area of an

2.1 ■ ENGINEERING FEASIBILITY

One important aspect that needs to be considered before the selection of a

2.1.1 ■ Consideration of the coastal engineering aspect

reclamation and the construction of shore protection works, as well as to

2.1.2 ■ Consideration of the geotechnical aspect

Generally, reclamation is carried out on the seabed with suitable competent

2.1.3 ■ Consideration of the environmental aspect

Reclamation can create significant environmental changes and cause

2.2 ■ ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY

The cost of land expansion by means of land reclamation involves three

2.2.1 ■ Reclamation cost

Reclamation cost consists of dredging unwanted material and the cost of

and sandwiched between two sandy layers. Details on reclamation using

in volume, or in other words, the percentage of volume losses due to

Figure 2.2 Increase in volume of fill due to increase in settlement.

Fill level +5mCD

Figure 2.3 Reduction in percentage loss with increase in seabed depth.

Percentage loss due to

Figure 2.4 Increase in settlement due to a deeper seabed and reduction

2.2.2 ■ Soil improvement cost

Soil improvement is required when a thick layer of clay is encountered. A

Length per square meter

Figure 2.5 Increase in quantity of vertical drain with decrease in drain

8 Net thickness required

Figure 2.6 Increase in thickness of surcharge with greater effective

2.2.3 ■ Shore protection cost

Generally, shore protection cost includes the cost of stones, geofabric,

bund is proposed for such a seabed condition, a significantly longer cross-

In land reclamation, fill materials usually consist of earth. There is a wide

3.1 ■ TYPES OF FILL MATERIAL