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Social and Emotional Learning

in the Classroom: Evaluation of
Strong Kids and Strong Teens
on Students' Social-Emotional
Knowledge and Symptoms
a b
Kenneth W. Merrell , Michael P. Juskelis , Oanh K.
c a
Tran & Rohanna Buchanan
a
University of Oregon ,
b
West Harvey-Dixmoor School District , Illinois
c
California State University , East Bay
Published online: 11 Oct 2008.

To cite this article: Kenneth W. Merrell , Michael P. Juskelis , Oanh K. Tran

& Rohanna Buchanan (2008) Social and Emotional Learning in the Classroom:
Evaluation of Strong Kids and Strong Teens on Students' Social-Emotional Knowledge
and Symptoms, Journal of Applied School Psychology, 24:2, 209-224, DOI:
10.1080/15377900802089981

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 Social and Emotional Learning in the
Classroom: Evaluation of Strong Kids and
Strong Teens on Students’ Social-Emotional
Knowledge and Symptoms
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Kenneth W. Merrell
University of Oregon

Michael P. Juskelis
West Harvey-Dixmoor School District, Illinois

Oanh K. Tran
California State University, East Bay

Rohanna Buchanan
University of Oregon

ABSTRACT. This article describes the results of three pilot studies that
were conducted to evaluate the recently developed Strong Kids and Strong
Teens social-emotional learning programs in increasing students’ knowl-
edge of healthy social-emotional behavior and decreasing their symptoms
of negative affect and emotional distress. The first study included 120 middle
school students (in grade 5) from a general education student population.
The second study included 65 general education students in grades 7–8. The
third study included 14 high school students (grades 9–12) from a regional

Address correspondence to: Kenneth W. Merrell, School Psychology Program,

5208 University of Oregon, Eugene, OR 97403-5208 (E-mail: kmerrell@
uoregon.edu)
Journal of Applied School Psychology, Vol. 24(2), 2008
Available online at http://japps.haworthpress.com

C 2008 by The Haworth Press. All rights reserved.
doi: 10.1080/15377900802089981 209
 210 JOURNAL OF APPLIED SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY

special education high school, who were identified as having emotional dis-
turbance. The three groups participated in either the Strong Kids (groups 1
and 2) or Strong Teens (group 3) programs, receiving one-hour lessons and
associated assignments once a week for 12 weeks. Social-emotional knowl-
edge and negative emotional symptoms of participants were assessed using
brief self-report measures, in pretest-posttest intervention designs. All three
studies showed that, following participation in the respective programs, stu-
dents evidenced statistically significant and clinically meaningful changes
in desired directions on the target variables. Implications for future research
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are discussed, as is the importance of social and emotional learning as a pre-

vention and intervention strategy to promote mental health among students
in schools.

KEYWORDS. Social-emotional learning, prevention, intervention,

schools

Social emotional learning (SEL) is an important emerging focus in

education and children’s mental health. SEL includes a broad range of
methods and techniques to promote mental health and resilience, to teach
social, emotional, and life skills, and to prevent negative life outcomes,
through effective curricular programming, as an integral part of a school
program (e.g., Greenberg et al., 2003; Ragozzino, Reznik, O’Brien, &
Weissberg, 2003; Zins, Weissberg, Wang, & Walberg, 2004).
Although there is no single definition of SEL, one of the most influential
and widely-read definitions of the construct is from the Collaborative for
Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL), a leading group of
researchers and policy analysts who have championed the use of SEL in
schools. CASEL’s most visible definition of SEL from the organization’s
Web site reads:

Social and emotional learning (SEL) is the process of acquiring the

skills to recognize and manage emotions, develop caring and concern
for others, make responsible decisions, establish positive relation-
ships, and handle challenging situations effectively. Research has
shown that SEL is fundamental to children’s social and emotional
development—their health, ethical development, citizenship, aca-
demic learning, and motivation to achieve. Social and emotional ed-
ucation is a unifying concept for organizing and coordinating school-
based programming that focuses on positive youth development,
 Merrell et al. 211

health promotion, prevention of problem behaviors, and student en-

gagement in learning. (CASEL, 2006)

SEL has an impressive emerging research base. Empirical evidence to

date supports the notion that school-based SEL programs may be effective
in reducing emotional and behavioral problems and enhancing children’s
social and emotional competence, as well as showing a strong corollary
impact on academic achievement (e.g., Wilson, Gottfredson, & Najaka,
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2001; Zins et al., 2004). Although SEL is not the province of any one
discipline or professional field, we believe that these efforts should be
of particular importance for educators, administrators, and mental health
professionals such as psychologists, counselors, and social workers who
work in school settings, in their efforts to promote and to provide compre-
hensive educational and mental health services for children, adolescents,
and their families. SEL is a natural extension of efforts within the fields
of education and mental health to promote effective school-based mental
health and life-skills training (Merrell, 2002). Furthermore, SEL programs
are consistent with an approach to providing these services in a way that
they may positively affect large numbers of students simultaneously rather
than focusing on solving problems “one child at a time” (Shapiro, 2000, p.
561).
School-based interventions targeting mental health needs of a range of
students are increasingly important. Research has indicated that approxi-
mately 25% of students in schools will struggle with school adjustment at
some point (Weissberg, 2005), and that as many as 15%–22% of students
will develop serious enough social-emotional and mental health prob-
lems to warrant treatment (Greenberg, Domitrovich, & Bumbarger, 2001).
However, over 70% of the students in American schools who would ben-
efit from mental health interventions are not provided with appropriate
services (Greenberg et al., 2001, 2003). Further, the impact of untreated
social, emotional, and mental health problems extends beyond the current
needs of individual students. The behaviors of these students may dis-
rupt the learning process for other students, these students may experience
learning difficulties, and teachers may tire from working with students who
are not reaching their full potential (Elias, Zins, Graczyk, & Weissberg,
2003). Failing to appropriately treat existing social, emotional, and mental
health problems can place children at risk for later, more serious prob-
lems including psychopathology, school failure, or substance use (Doll
& Lyon, 1998; Greenberg et al., 2003). Addressing the social, emotional,
 212 JOURNAL OF APPLIED SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY

and mental health needs of youth in schools is a critical target for re-
searchers and school-based professionals. Researchers promoting social
and emotional learning programs are building a research base for interven-
tion efforts that focus on children and adolescent’s social, emotional, and
mental health needs (Greenberg et al., 2003).
In addition to addressing social, emotional, and mental health needs,
there is evidence to indicate that SEL programs can have a positive impact
on academic achievement, antisocial behavior, and substance use (Green-
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berg et al., 2003; Zins et al., 2004). Given the wide-reaching impact of
social, emotional, and mental health problems of students, we need in-
terventions that are capable of not only remediating existing problems but
also of preventing them from occurring from the start. Many SEL programs
take this prevention-oriented approach by teaching students skills to reg-
ulate their emotions and to appropriately interact with others (Greenberg
et al., 2003).
Although social and emotional learning efforts include a broad array of
methods and techniques, there are some commonalities. SEL programs and
practices tend to focus on preventing negative school and life outcomes
by focusing on positive youth development. Some of the specific focus ar-
eas of successful social-emotional learning and positive youth development
programs have included mental health promotion, substance use reduction,
and substance abuse prevention, reducing antisocial behavior and school
avoidance, and enhancing academic performance and learning (Greenberg
et al., 2003). Although the existing programs vary considerably in their
approach, focus, and amount of efficacy evidence available, there is reason
to be optimistic that such tools can be used to produce meaningful positive
changes in students’ lives. For example, in their review of a large number
of such positive youth development programs, Catalano, Berglund, Ryan,
Lonczak, and Hawins (2002) concluded that “Promotion and prevention
programs that address positive youth development constructs are definitely
making a difference in well-evaluated studies” (p. 62). The finding that so-
cial and emotional learning strategies have been shown to have a positive
impact on academic performance (Elias, 2004) is of strong potential inter-
est among professional educators and shows that benefits may be complex
and far-reaching. In effect, the integration of appropriate social and emo-
tional learning programs into a school curriculum may have three general
types of beneficial outcomes: Reducing current levels of students’ behav-
ioral and emotional problem symptoms, helping to reduce the number of
future occurrences of such problems, and enhancing students’ abilities to
successfully engage in academic learning (Elias et al., 2003).
 Merrell et al. 213

In 2003, the State of Illinois mandated the use of SEL efforts in all
schools, through the 2003 Illinois Children’s Mental Health Act (Pub-
lic Act 93-0491, SB 1951). Section 15(b) of this law states “Every Illinois
school district shall develop a policy for incorporating social and emotional
development into the district’s educational program. The policy shall ad-
dress teaching and assessing social and emotional skills and protocols for
responding to children with social, emotional, or mental health problems,
or a combination of such problems, that impact learning ability.” More
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recently, the State of New York adopted similar legislation, the Children’s
Mental Health Act of 2006 (New York Office of Mental Health, 2006).
Among other things, this $62 million initiative provides resources and
a system to encourage communication and collaboration between New
York’s department of education and the office of mental health, to promote
positive social-emotional development practices in schools. We believe
that these legislative acts are important and encouraging developments,
and that all school-based mental health professionals and educators would
do well to consider these particular promotions of SEL as harbingers of
things to come in other states and nationally in the near future.
Although SEL is a promising development with an increasing evidence
base, there is still a pressing need for development of unique SEL pro-
grams and additional research efforts to answer questions related to how to
best implement these curricula and programs. For example, the minimum
amount of time required for meaningful implementation of SEL curricula
is still an open question. Some proven or promising programs/curricula are
designed to be implemented frequently across an entire school year, and
other efforts are even multiyear and extremely difficult and expensive to
deliver. Such efforts are admirable and often effective; however, they may
also be difficult or unrealistic to implement in many settings. With instruc-
tional time being a precious commodity in educational settings, it seems
desirable to determine whether briefer, less time-consuming SEL curricula
may result in meaningful change at less cost. In addition, there is a wide
variation in personnel and training requirements for SEL programs, with
some requiring the use of specialists and expensive “certified trainer” pro-
cesses. Again, given the importance of making SEL efforts universal and
easily available, it seems desirable to investigate the efficacy of programs
that are more self-contained in design, and appropriate for implementation
or delivery by a wide range of educators and mental health personnel.
The particular focus of this article is the intervention impact of the
Strong Kids social and emotional learning programs. These companion
programs are semiscripted SEL curricula, focusing on prevention and early
 214 JOURNAL OF APPLIED SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY

intervention of internalizing problems, promotion of social and emotional

competence, and teaching students skills to increase their resilience to life
stressors. There are four different curricular components of the Strong Kids
programs, each one for a specific developmental level. Strong Start (Mer-
rell, Parisi, & Whitcomb, 2007) is for use with children in grades K–2.
Strong Kids (Merrell, Carrizales, Feuerborn, Gueldner, & Tran, 2007a,
2007b) includes separate curricula for students in grades 3–5 and grades 6–
8. Strong Teens (Merrell, Carrizales, Feuerborn, Gueldner, & Tran, 2007c)
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is designed for students at the high school level, grades 9–12. These cur-
ricula are practical and easy-to-use, brief (10–12 lessons of 45–50 minutes
each, plus optional booster lessons for use two or three months later),
adaptable across a range of students and settings and designed to be taught
in small groups or with entire classrooms by educators or support service
professionals. Minimal training is needed to teach these curricula, and
the manuals for each program include guidance for becoming proficient
in delivering the curricula. Additional information on the four programs,
including free downloadable assessment and progress monitoring tools, is
available on the Strong Kids Web site at http://strongkids.uoregon.edu.
The programmatic focus of the studies presented in this article is on both
the elementary and middle school versions of the Strong Kids curricula, as
well as the Strong Teens curriculum. These three programs are essentially
different age-level adaptations of the same curricula concepts. They are
similar in design features and content and differ only with respect to the
examples and language used, so that they are more age appropriate to the
specific developmental periods targeted. The lesson titles and content focus
of the 12 basic lessons in Strong Kids and Strong Teens include:

About Strong Kids/Teens (pretesting, curriculum overview, rules, ice-

breaker activities)
Understanding Your Emotions, Part 1 (increasing emotional vocabulary,
defining emotions)
Understanding Your Emotions, Part 2 (appropriate expression of emotions)
Dealing with Anger (understanding anger, cognitive-behavioral anger man-
agement training)
Understanding Other People’s Feelings (empathy training, taking perspec-
tive of others)
Clear Thinking, Part 1 (identifying thinking errors and maladaptive beliefs)
Clear Thinking, Part 2 (actively changing maladaptive beliefs and thinking
errors)
 Merrell et al. 215

The Power of Positive Thinking (learned optimism training)

Solving People Problems (interpersonal conflict resolution skills and prac-
tice)
Letting Go of Stress (practice in cognitive and behavioral methods of
relaxation)
Achieving Your Goals (goal-setting, behavior education, behavior-affect
connection)
Finishing UP! (cumulative review of major concepts, planning for future,
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posttesting)

The Strong Kids and Strong Teens programs use a combination of

cognitive-behavioral and affective education techniques, with each les-
son containing opportunities for review of prior concepts, instruction and
practice of new skills, corrective feedback, generalization activities, and
student handouts/worksheets. Although the lessons are scripted, they are
easily adaptable for specific circumstances, and the manuals include sug-
gestions for adapting the curricula for specific social, cultural, geographic,
or other circumstances.
Given the need to establish efficacy of the recently developed Strong
Kids and Strong Teens curricula, and the need to evaluate the impact of
brief, scripted SEL programs in general that are designed for a broad
range of applications, the purpose of the three pilot studies described in
this article was to determine the impact of Strong Kids and Strong Teens
on the knowledge and social-emotional functioning of selected groups
of students. These three pilot studies were the first efforts to empirically
evaluate the efficacy of these curricula.
Pilot studies are a useful tool for researchers who develop new in-
terventions and are interested in examining intervention effectiveness on
modest-sized populations prior to investing in large-scale randomized clin-
ical trials (Breakwell, Hammond, & Fife-Schaw, 2000). Pilot studies also
allow researchers to work through technical and theoretical questions re-
lated to the intervention such as level of training needed to deliver the
intervention, amount of time for each intervention session, and participant
response to the intervention (Breakwell et al.). Summarizing the findings
from multiple pilot studies offers researchers the opportunity to integrate
and to contrast findings. Studies utilizing similar materials, strategies, and
statistical analyses can be effectively compared and contrasted to pro-
vide more robust evidence for the intervention (Cooper & Hedges, 1994).
This integration of findings can strengthen one’s confidence in the results
obtained from individual studies, thus enhancing the external validity of
 216 JOURNAL OF APPLIED SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY

the studies themselves as well as the intervention as a whole (Cooper &

Hedges). The utility of integrating findings is particularly important with
studies related to the social and behavioral sciences, given the complexity
of human behavior (Wolf, 1986). Interventions in educational settings of-
ten differ across multiple variables. For example, participants may come
from a variety of socioeconomic, educational, cultural, ethnic, and linguis-
tic backgrounds. Given that social and behavioral research is complex, a
synthesis of pilot studies applying the same intervention across different
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settings allows researchers to build a body of evidence in which profes-

sionals in the field can have confidence.

STUDY 1
Participants and Method
Participants in Study 1 included 120 students in grade 5 (ages 10–11;
64 boys, 56 girls) who attended an elementary school located in the Mid-
western United States in a region that is currently changing from a rural
to a suburban setting and is near a major metropolitan area. The sample
was drawn from the fifth grade general education student population that
was 97.9% Caucasian and 2.1% Hispanic. These students were primarily
from middle-class families with 4.3% of the students classified as at the
low-income level and eligible for free/reduced lunch. The Strong Kid cur-
riculum for grades 3–5 was taught to all students in each of five different
home rooms by the school principal, an experienced classroom teacher, for
45 minutes once per week for 12 weeks. The principal had received prior
training from a consultant for the school who was had prior experience im-
plementing the program. Students completed pretest and posttest measures
of their knowledge of healthy social-emotional behavior (20 items) and
their current levels of internalizing symptoms (10 items). The knowledge
test was scored 1 point for each correct response from a multiple choice
format for the 20 items, whereas the symptoms test was scored on a 0–3
scale for each of the 10 items, with higher scores reflecting greater levels
of distress. Sample items from the two measures are presented in Table 1.
These tools were developed by the researchers specifically for evaluat-
ing the impact of Strong Kids. The knowledge measure has demonstrated
adequate internal consistency reliability for research and administrative
purposes (.60 to .70). The symptoms test has demonstrated adequate levels
of reliability for research, administrative, and screening purposes (.70 to
 Merrell et al. 217

TABLE 1. Sample Items from the Knowledge and Symptoms Tests

Knowledge Test (correct answers are indicated in italicized text)

Conflict resolution is best described as

a. Discussing a problem until there is a winner and a loser
b. Arguing with another person until they sec your point and give in
c. Problem-solving so you can reach an agreement
d. Talking about the problem until something changes their mind
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Which of the following statements best describes empathy?

a. Knowing how you are feeling
b. Wondering why another person is feeling sad
c. Understanding another person’s feelings
d. Thinking about another person
Which of the following is a positive way to express how scared you are for your parents to
get your report card?
a. Tell them why you are scared
b. Hide your report card
e. Tell your parents they are expecting too much from you
d. Say that your grades were bad because other kids at school distracted you
Symptoms Test
• can’t deal with my problems
• I argue with other people
• get so mad that 1 break or throw things
• worry about things
• feel depressed or sad
• Things don’t work out for me
• argue with my parents

Note. For the symptoms lest, students rate items according to the folio wing choices: Never True (0 points),
Hardly Ever True (1 point), Sometimes True (2 points), Often True (3 points)

.80) and has also evidenced strong convergent validity coefficients (.70 to
.88) with established social-emotional self-report measures, including the
Children’s Depression Inventory and the Internalizing Symptoms Scale for
Children.

Results
The mean pretest and posttest scores of students in Study 1 were con-
trasted to determine statistical significance of mean differences, as well as
effect size estimates. Mean scores were contrasted using a t test for de-
pendent means (matched-sample t test) to ascertain statistical significance
of mean score differences between pretest and posttest. In addition, effect
size (ES) estimates were computed for pre-post mean score differences
 218 JOURNAL OF APPLIED SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY

using Cohen’s (1988) recommended method of analysis and interpretation

to evaluate the practical meaning or clinical import of the score differences.
Cohen’s suggested interpretation guidelines are that ES estimates of less
than .20 are not meaningful, ES estimates of .20 to .49 are meaningful and
small, ES estimates of .50 to .79 are meaningful and of medium size, and
ES estimates of .80 and higher are large. The t test revealed a statistically
significant increase in social-emotional knowledge and effective coping
strategies (the knowledge test) from pretest (M = 11.39, SD = 2.82) to
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posttest (M = 14.35, SD = 3.47): t(119) = -9.80, p < .001. In addition,

the obtained ES of .94 reflected a large effect, slightly less than a full
standard deviation difference between pretest and posttest scores. How-
ever, differences with respect to the emotional symptoms checklist scores
between pretest (M = 12.39, SD = 4.84) and posttest (M = 12.14, SD
= 4.23) were neither statistically significant, t(118) = 0.60, p > .05, nor
clinically meaningful (ES = .05). In sum, the students in Study 1 showed
large and statistically significant gains in knowledge, but no meaningful
change in self-reported problem symptoms after participating in the Strong
Kids program.

STUDY 2

Participants and Method

Participants in Study 2 included 65 general education students in grades
7–8 (ages 12–14; 36 boys, 29 girls) in a public junior high school located
in a small town near a major metropolitan area in the upper Midwest region
of the United States. The entire sample was Caucasian or European Amer-
ican, which was essentially reflective of the population from the school
and surrounding community. Although socioeconomic status of individ-
ual participants was not assessed, the school population from which they
were drawn was in a primarily middle-class and working-class community.
These students participated in the Strong Kid curriculum for grades 6–8,
taught by study skills class teachers in one 50-minute session per week
for 12 consecutive weeks. These teachers had received previous training
in the curriculum from a consultant, one of the authors of Strong Kids.
The teachers also received ongoing curricular support as needed from a
consultant who was familiar with the curriculum and experienced in social-
emotional group interventions. Students completed the Strong Kids pretest
and posttest measures of their knowledge of healthy social-emotional
 Merrell et al. 219

behavior (20 items) and their current levels of internalizing symptoms

(10 items)—the same instruments as were used in Study 1.

Results
The mean pretest and posttest scores of students were contrasted using
the same analysis techniques described for Study 1, a paired t test to as-
certain statistical significance of mean score differences, with effect size
(ES) estimates also computed to evaluate the practical or clinical impor-
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tance of score differences. These score contrasts evidenced statistically

significant increases in knowledge of social-emotional concepts and cop-
ing strategies (the knowledge test) from pretest (M = 12.46, SD = 2.68)
to posttest (M = 14.80, SD = 3.25): t(64) = 6.10, p < .001. In addition,
the obtained ES of .79 was indicative of a meaningful effect of medium
size, approximately four-fifths of a standard deviation difference between
pretest and posttest. With respect to the emotional symptoms checklist,
statistically significant decreases were found in student’s self-reported in-
ternalizing problem symptoms and negative affect between pretest (M =
12.80, SD = 4.73) and posttest (M = 11.14, SD = 4.68): t(64) = 3.33,
p < .001. The resulting ES of .35 reflected a meaningful change of small
magnitude, slightly more than one-third of a standard deviation difference
between pretest and posttest. In sum, the students in Study 2 evidenced
significant and clinically relevant gains in social-emotional knowledge and
decreases in negative social-emotional symptoms, after participating in the
Strong Kids program.

STUDY 3

Participants and Method

Participants in Study 3 included 14 students in grades 9–12 (ages 14–17;
10 boys, 4 girls) who attended a regional special education high school in
a large urban area in the Midwestern region of the United States. These
students had all previously been identified as eligible for special education
services under the IDEA emotionally disturbed classification category.
They were considered to have severe emotional and behavioral problems
and thus received educational services at a special program in a regional
high school rather than in their home school district. Approximately 75% of
the sample was African American, and 25% was Caucasian. These students
were primarily from lower middle-class, working-class, and economically
 220 JOURNAL OF APPLIED SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY

disadvantaged families. The Strong Teens curriculum was taught in a life-

skills class, co-taught by the student’s primary special education teacher
and a psychologist/consultant who had received previous training on Strong
Teens by one of the authors and was familiar with the curriculum. The
Strong Teens curriculum consisted of 12 lessons, which were taught on a
once-a-week basis in sessions of 45 to 50 minutes. The students completed
researcher-developed pretest and posttest measures of knowledge of social-
emotional concepts and coping strategies (35 items) and current levels
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of emotional problem symptoms and negative affect (35 items). These

measures were an alternate version of the tools used in Study 1 and Study 2,
similar in aim, design, and scoring scheme, and differing only with respect
to the number of items and adolescent-oriented wording of some items.

Results
The mean pretest and posttest scores of students in Study 3 were con-
trasted to ascertain statistical significance and clinical relevance of mean
score changes. Because of the small sample size and skewed distribution
(all students were previously identified as having serious behavioral and
emotional problems) in this study, use of a parametric statistical test such
the t tests used in Study 1 and Study 2, which are based on the assump-
tion of normal distributions of data and require a moderately large sample
size for statistical power, is problematic (Howell, 1982). Therefore, the
scores were contrasted using a nonparametric or distribution free test, the
Wilcoxon Signed Ranks test for two related samples. This test provides a Z
value for differences across ranks of the related samples, as well as an exact
p value for the statistical significant of obtained differences. Statistically
significant increases in student’s knowledge of curriculum-related healthy
social-emotional behavior on the knowledge test were found between
pretest (M = 20.36, SD = 5.44) and posttest (M = 22.36, SD = 4.01):
Z = -4.95, p = .001, and the resulting ES of .42 indicated a meaningful,
small effect, slightly less than one-half a standard deviation in magnitude.
Student’s emotional problem symptoms and negative affect scores from the
symptoms test decreased significantly between pretest (M = 43.00, SD =
18.50) and posttest (M = 37.00, SD = 16.72); Z = -3.07, p = .002. The
resulting ES value of .34 reflected a clinically meaningful, small effect,
approximately one-third of a standard deviation. In sum, the students in
Study 3 evidenced statistically significant and clinically relevant changes
in their knowledge of social-emotional behavior/coping strategies and in
 Merrell et al. 221

their negative social-emotional symptoms, following participation in the

Strong Teens program.

DISCUSSION

The three pilot studies described in this article included similar pretest-
posttest intervention designs, but very different participant samples: Gen-
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eral education students in an elementary school in an upper middle-class

suburban area (Study 1), general education students in a junior high school
setting in a working-class rural/suburban area (Study 2), and special edu-
cation high school students with emotional-behavioral disorders in a large
metropolitan area (Study 3). Thus, the findings that replicated consistently
across two or more pilot studies increase the confidence with which the
results might be interpreted and generalized. This combined use of pilot
data greatly enhances the viability of the results in comparison to reporting
each study separately.
Each of the three studies showed that participation in the Strong Kids
or Strong Teens social-emotional learning program resulted in statistically
significant and clinically meaningful increases in student’s knowledge of
social-emotional concepts and effective coping strategies. Two of the three
studies showed that participation resulted in significant, meaningful de-
creases in self-reported social-emotional problem symptoms.
These results support the continued use, refinement, and research of the
Strong Kids and Strong Teens curricula and offer encouragement for the no-
tion that even brief social-emotional learning curricula (12 lessons, 45 to 50
minutes each, with supplemental assignments and classroom enrichment
activities) taught within school classrooms may provide a benefit to stu-
dents. The specific curricula used in these studies appear to be unique and
promising tools for promoting social-emotional learning among students.
The significant and generally sizable increases in social-emotional
knowledge of students over a relatively short period of time are encourag-
ing because of the possible “sleeper effect” that increased social-emotional
knowledge may provide over a longer period of time. Although we can
only hypothesize this effect because it was not studied directly, increased
knowledge regarding healthy and appropriate social-emotional behavior
may provide one element of protection that may lead to students mak-
ing better decisions in the future when faced with emotional and social
challenges. Although we are encouraged by the fact that two of the three
pilot studies demonstrated significant reductions in students’ self-reported
 222 JOURNAL OF APPLIED SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY

social-emotional problem symptoms, it is not surprising that the general

education sample in Study 1 showed no such effects. General education
student samples are typically relatively low in such symptoms on the av-
erage, and it may be rather difficult to reduce these symptoms with even
the best social-emotional learning programs when the symptoms are not
problematic in the first place. Although problem symptom reduction in an
at-risk or clinical sample would be a desirable outcome, such reductions
in a general education sample may not be realistic and perhaps akin to
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expecting an antibiotic or analgesic medication to produce temperature

reductions among children who are not currently experiencing a fever.
Although the combined results of these three studies are promising and
encouraging, we consider these efforts to be initial pilot studies because
of their limited scope and relatively simple design features. Some of the
limitations in this regard include use of existing or intact single groups
in a pretest-posttest design rather than randomized clinical trials using
experimentally derived treatment and control groups (Isaac & Michael,
1995), relatively modest or small sample sizes, brief experimenter-devised
assessment instruments to gauge change (rather than multimethod, mul-
tisetting, multirater assessment batteries), and the fact that we measured
improvements in affect and knowledge only in the short-term (i.e., with-
out longer term follow-up assessments). In addition, it would have been
desirable in retrospect to assess students’ social-emotional strengths and
assets in addition to measuring their knowledge and negative symptoms. A
strength-based approach to evaluating the outcome of a social-emotional
learning program may be a positive direction in future research.
In addition to the inclusion of strength-based assessments of social-
emotional assets of students, future research with the Strong Kids and
Strong Teens curricula and other brief social and emotional learning inter-
ventions should focus on intervention efficacy across differing conditions
of lesson delivery (e.g., two lessons per week versus one lesson per week),
differing school populations (e.g., with at-risk students, students from var-
ious types of cultural-ethic backgrounds, and types of schools), long-term
maintenance of observed changes, generalization of intervention effects
across settings, isolation of the most important aspects of the curricular
content, and appropriate adaptations for use with culturally and linguis-
tically diverse students. In sum, the three studies presented in this brief
report offer encouraging findings regarding the efficacy of brief social
and emotional learning curricula delivered in school settings. Social and
emotional learning is increasingly being viewed as an important and even
essential focus for educators and school-based mental health professionals.
 Merrell et al. 223

The findings presented here may be useful in the further advancement of

such efforts. The fact that our findings are derived from and replicated
well across three separate samples in pilot studies help to overcome con-
cerns regarding design or sample problems with any single sample and to
enhance the confidence with which the results may be interpreted.

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