DEPARTMENT OF MODERN LANGUAGES

ENG 101 COURSE BOOKLET

FALL 2019-2020
METU

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 ACADEMIC WRITING

Academic writing is, essentially, the writing you have to do for your university courses. The majority of your
assessment at university level is done through exams and writing assignments such as essay, research
paper, term paper, or lab reports. You may be expected to write different types of written pieces ranging
from a short answer for an exam question to a long research paper.

Writing assignments at university level require you to think clearly and critically, use valid evidence and
produce well-structured and coherent pieces of writing, which require an academic writing style. This
writing style is the process of breaking down ideas and using deductive reasoning and formal voice. In other
words, it is about what you think and what evidence has contributed to that thinking. Therefore, you are
required to develop skills in researching, evaluating and analysing information, organizing ideas, and
expressing yourself clearly in writing. These skills are valuable not only for your academic studies but also
for your future career. For this reason, it is important to fully understand the following academic writing
conventions presented in this module.

Academic Writing Conventions:

A) Presentation of and elaboration on ideas

B) Organization of ideas
C) Style
D) Mechanics

A) PRESENTATION OF AND ELABORATION ON IDEAS

In order to write an effective academic text, you should remember the following tips:

 put forward clear, well-defined arguments*/ ideas.

 avoid shallowness – do not leave the reader with questions and do not make the reader
do mind reading.
 give solid evidence by using different patterns of organization – provide sufficient and
relevant support for your points so that your arguments can be strong and credible. (See
Appendix 1 for patterns of organization)
 present your ideas in a coherent and well-organized manner to maintain a smooth flow in
your expressions.
 avoid vague terms – write precisely (be clear and to the point).
 Something must be done to eradicate child abuse. (vague)
 The government should design laws and policies to deter child abuse by focusing
mainly on increasing the severity of punishment. (more precise)

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  try to include specific supporting details such as examples, evidence, reference, citation,
facts, and figures).
 People know that unemployment rate has increased recently. (not supported)
 Clarkson (2018) states that the unemployment rate in the country increased to 5.8
percent in 2017. (supported with specific detail)

* ARGUMENTS in academic writing are the claims or interpretations that you put forward with relevant
reasons and evidence. An academic argument appeals to logic and provides evidence in support of an
intellectual position. When you make an academic argument, you are arguing for a particular position,
which is an opinion. However, the difference between the kind of opinion expressed in an academic
argument and everyday opinions is that academic opinions must be supported by evidence that is considered
authoritative in the academic community for which the argument is written. Therefore, the justification for
an academic argument is not a writer’s right to express him or herself, as it is in pure opinion, but the
legitimacy and persuasiveness of the evidence that the writer uses in support of his or her argument.

An effective paragraph should be supported with relevant and logical arguments and should be
fully developed by providing solid and convincing justifications, examples, and/or evidence. If the
ideas are immature and if the reader is left with questions after reading the paragraph, it means
that the paragraph has not been adequately developed. To develop your ideas in a paragraph, you
can use the following supporting techniques:
 definition
 description
 explanation
 examples
 evidence (facts and figures & authority’s opinion)
 comparison
 opinion
 analogy

! One or more of these supporting techniques can be used in a single paragraph to develop the ideas in it
effectively. Which technique(s) to be used depends on the topic and the type of the writing task.

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Task 1: Read the sentence below and discuss how this idea can be developed.

I believe the role of prisons is to rehabilitate people, not just to punish them.

a. Write down the supporting techniques you think can be used to develop this idea in a paragraph.
_________________________________________________________________

Now, read the following version and discuss how the idea has been developed.

I believe the role of prisons is to rehabilitate people, not just to punish them. This is because policies that
promise to get tough on crime often focus on political and economic factors rather than on helping prisoners
reintegrate into society after serving their sentences.

b. Write down the supporting technique used to develop this idea.

_________________________________________________________________

Now, read the following version and discuss how the idea has been further developed.

I believe the role of prisons is to rehabilitate people, not just to punish them. This is because policies that
promise to get tough on crime often focus on political and economic factors rather than on helping prisoners
reintegrate into society after serving their sentences. For example, if a prisoner serves a 10-year sentence in
a punishment-oriented environment and is released back into society without accommodation, a job, or
training skills for employability, that offender is highly likely to reoffend after release and return to prison.

c. Write down the supporting technique used to develop this idea.

_________________________________________________________________

Now, read the following version and discuss how the idea has been further developed.

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I believe the role of prisons is to rehabilitate people, not just to punish them. This is because policies that
promise to get tough on crime often focus on political and economic factors rather than on helping prisoners
reintegrate into society after serving their sentences. For example, if a prisoner serves a 10-year sentence in
a punishment-oriented environment and is released back into society without accommodation, a job, or
training skills for employability, that offender is highly likely to reoffend after release and return to prison.
In this regard, a study of post-prison recidivism in 2002 across France found that 59% of former convicts
were reconvicted within five years of their release, and 80% of them were reincarcerated
(Kensey&Benaouda, 2011, as cited in Monnery, 2015). With reference to stricter prison regimes and
recidivism, Chen and Shapiro (2007) found that harsher prisons in the US “do not reduce post-release
criminal behaviour and may even increase it” (p.24).

d. Write down the supporting technique used to develop this idea.

_________________________________________________________________

! When you develop the main idea of your paragraph using explanations, examples and evidence like in
the sample above, or any other supporting technique, your argument becomes more improved, more
credible, and more likely to convince the reader.

Task 2: Read the paragraph below and decide whether the ideas are developed effectively or not.
Explain why.

Throughout the years, mice have proven to be invaluable model organisms for biomedical research,
allowing researchers to investigate disorders by manipulating the environment or the genome. Unlike
their human counterparts, mice can easily be studied, and researchers can manipulate environmental
factors. In addition to this, they are remarkably similar to humans in terms of their physiology and
genetics.

Now read the improved version and discuss how the differences contribute to the overall effectiveness
of the paragraph by answering the following question:

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 a) Which techniques does the writer use to develop each major idea?

__________________________________________________________________

Throughout the years, mice have proven to be invaluable model organisms for biomedical research, allowing
researchers to investigate disorders by manipulating the environment or the genome. Unlike their human
counterparts, mice can be studied in a carefully controlled environment. It is also relatively easy for
researchers to manipulate diet composition, food availability, exercise, and other environmental factors that
can contribute to differences in physiological outcomes in mice. In addition to being relatively inexpensive,
fast to reproduce, and easy to maintain compared to other mammalian models, mice are also remarkably
similar to humans in terms of their physiology and genetics. Mice and humans share approximately the
same number of genes and exhibit extensive synteny. Because of their genetic similarity to humans, mice
have been used to pioneer genetic manipulation technologies, such as gene overexpression and gene
knockout and knockdown models at the whole-organism level or in specific tissues. These technological
breakthroughs in genetics research have fueled several decades of rapid discovery and knowledge expansion
in many biomedical fields. To summarize, the ability to manipulate both genetic and environmental variables
with relative ease has made mice one of the most widely used in vivo models in biomedical research today.

Taken from https://www.aje.com/en/arc/editing-tip-paragraph-structure-making-most-your-ideas/

Task 3: Read the student writing which is developed without support and rewrite it to develop the
ideas effectively.

In order to influence people, leaders need to have some traits. First of all, they must speak effectively in
front of people. In addition to this, they must be persuasive because this is the most important skill a
person should have to be a leader.

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Improved version:

B) ORGANIZATION OF IDEAS

Developing ideas effectively in your paragraph does not suffice to write an effective academic text. You
should also organize those ideas following certain conventions. To write a well-organized piece of text,
you should

 maintain unity in your paragraph, and

 present your ideas in a coherent and well-organized manner to maintain a smooth flow in
your expressions.

UNITY is writing around one main idea/ topic without deviating from it.
Unity in a paragraph can be maintained by

 having one central idea (main idea/controlling idea) usually given in a topic sentence,
 providing supporting ideas which are related to this idea, and
 not including irrelevant details/off-topic sentences.

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 Topic Sentence: The main/controlling idea of each paragraph is usually expressed somewhere in the
paragraph by one sentence. This sentence is called ‘topic sentence’ and is usually found at the
beginning of the paragraph, but it can also come at the end or even in the middle of the paragraph.

TASK 4: Identify the main idea of the following paragraphs and find the irrelevant sentence in each.

1. Our assessment of attractiveness is automatic, and strongly influences how we judge the person on a
range of other traits, including personality so good looks affect people in several ways. First of all, beauty
and health are tightly linked. The closer a face is to the symmetrical proportions of Gwyneth Paltrow or Zac
Efron, and to the average face in a population, the more it advertises developmental stability, meaning that
pathogens or genetic mutations have not adversely affected its owner. Secondly, good looks also confer a
well-documented "halo effect": a beautiful man or woman is consistently evaluated in a positive light. In a
research study, each face was exposed for 13 milliseconds, well below the threshold of conscious awareness
and that was enough to judge looks. Therefore, good-looking people are assumed to be smarter than their
homelier peers, although there is no correlation between intelligence and appearance above a median level
of attractiveness. Thirdly, good-looking people are consistently rated higher on positive traits. When
volunteers were asked to evaluate faces in a UK study, the most attractive individuals received the highest
ratings for extraversion and agreeableness. For example, when judges looked at digital composites made
from people who scored at the extremes for extraversion and agreeableness, they gave those faces the
highest attractiveness ratings.

2. They are mesmerized by magazine covers, fixated on their diets and addicted to working out. The subject
of the discussion is not supermodels - these are men obsessed with bulking up and being too ripped is never
enough. There's even a name for their obsession - it's called "bigorexia” or “muscle dysmorphia.” People
with bigorexia are obsessed with how they look. And they are never satisfied with their appearance. Just
like the people who suffer from bigorexia, anorexics too are never happy with their body image. They often
have a distorted body image and believe their muscles are much smaller than they actually are. Who are
prone to this disorder more? It is more common in men than in women, unlike most other eating disorders.
People who take part in sports that emphasize body size are also at greatest risk of developing bigorexia.
This includes bodybuilding, football, wrestling, and boxing. When muscle dysmorphia was first identified by
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psychiatrists in America two years ago, it was not so common but now experts here are sounding alarm
bells. "There is a growing insecurity among men about their bodies now," warns Dr John Morgan (2011, p.
3), a consultant psychiatrist at St Thomas's Hospital, who is writing a book on the subject. "Body-image
disorders like bigorexia are increasing in prevalence, and we are seeing the tip of an extensive iceberg."

Task 5: Circle the number of the sentence that disrupts the unity in the following paragraph.
1) Standardized tests limit students’ social life because students spend most of their time getting ready for
these tests, which denies the opportunity to enjoy their lives in the way they want. 2) Starting from little
ages, students taking these tests just sit and study for the exam instead of adding unforgettable memories
to their minds. 3) Nevertheless, these early grades should be the time to discover, play, and explore. 4)
Considering the developmental stages and the requirement of each stage, what students need is not the
exam preparation but doing a great deal of reading. 5) To do this, students need to socialize, develop new
interests in music, sports, and arts because socializing and having interests in art or sport are much more
valuable than performing in tests. 6) Thus, standardized tests have adverse effects on students’ life, as they
prevent them from spending their valuable ages on more creative and enjoyable activities.

COHESION is writing the sentences in a logical and smooth flow establishing relationship between ideas
so that one sentence leads easily into the next sentence, making all the sentences well-connected.

Cohesion in a paragraph can be achieved through

 organizing ideas following organizational patterns (See Appendix 1)

 ordering ideas in a logical sequence
 repeating the key words/phrases to help the reader remain focused

Notice how the repetition of the keyword “fear” contributes to the cohesion of the excerpt below.

When worry escalates, the result is fear. Everyone has experienced fear. A swimmer of only moderate skill
might be afraid of swift waters; a child might fear the dark. A hiker will probably feel fear when hearing the
distinctive warning of a rattlesnake; a jogger might experience it when confronted with an angry dog. Fear
causes the heart to race, the head to spin, the palms to sweat, the knees to buckle, and breathing to become
labored. Its physical effects are such that the human body cannot withstand it indefinitely.

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  using pronouns to establish close links between sentences
Following are some guidelines to help you keep your writing clear and unambiguous
while using pronouns:

1. Be sure the pronoun has an exact reference:

AMBIGUOUS: The university’s enrollment is decreasing each year because they don’t have a very good
recruiting program.
(Does “they” refer to the university? Since the university is both singular and an abstraction, they might
refer to a particular group of people, like the staff of the admissions office.)

CLEAR: The university’s enrollment is decreasing each year because the admissions staff doesn’t have
a very good recruiting program.

2. The pronoun should refer to only one antecedent (whether the antecedent is singular, plural, or a
compound):

AMBIGUOUS: When the boss gave John a raise, he was unhappy.

(Does “he” refer to the boss or to John?)

CLEAR: The boss was unhappy when he gave John a raise. (or) John was unhappy with the raise his
boss gave him.

3. Do not use a demonstrative or relative pronoun to refer to an entire clause or sentence unless
the antecedent is perfectly clear:

AMBIGUOUS: The murder of the mayor was reported by the newspaper, which was a pity.
(Does “which” refer to the murder or to its being reported by the newspaper?)

CLEAR: The murder of the mayor, reported by the newspaper, was a pity. (or) The reporting of the
murder of the mayor was a pity.

Taken from Gefvert, C. J. (1988). The confident writer. New York, NY : W. W. Norton & Company, Inc.

 using synonyms to add variety and to avoid unnecessary repetition

Notice how the use of synonyms spices up the language in the following excerpt:

Pollution of our environment has occurred for centuries, but it has become a significant health
problem only within the last century. Atmospheric pollution may lead to conditions such as
respiratory disease and to lung cancer in particular. Other health complications directly related
to air pollutants include heart disease, eye irritation, and severe allergies.

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  using transitions/transition signals that help connecting ideas

Notice how the lack of transitions results in a disrupted flow in the following excerpt.

One difference among the world’s seas and oceans is that the salinity – salt content – varies in different
climate zones. The Baltic Sea in northern Europe is only one-fourth as salty as the Red Sea in the Middle
East. There are reasons for this. In warm climates, water evaporates rapidly. The concentration of salt is
greater. The surrounding land is dry and does not contribute much freshwater to dilute the salty seawater.
In cold climate zones, water evaporates slowly. The runoff created by melting snow adds a considerable
amount of freshwater to dilute the saline seawater.

Notice how the use of transitions maintains a smooth flow in the improved version of the previous
excerpt.

One difference among the world’s seas and oceans is that the salinity – salt content – varies in different
climate zones. For example, The Baltic Sea in northern Europe is only one-fourth as salty as the Red Sea in
the Middle East. There are two reasons for this. First of all, in warm climates, water evaporates rapidly,
therefore, the concentration of salt is greater. Second, the surrounding land is dry, consequently, it does
not contribute much freshwater to dilute the salty seawater. In cold climate zones, on the other hand,
water evaporates slowly. Furthermore, the runoff created by melting snow adds a considerable amount of
freshwater to dilute the saline seawater.

TASK 6: Put the sentences in the correct order to make the paragraph cohesive.
1.
a. These sailors returned home wearing tattoos; they also brought back drawings of decorated
islanders and Indians—and occasionally the islanders and Indians themselves, who were exhibited at fairs
and circuses.
b. Until the advent of Christianity, tattoos were commonplace in Europe.
c. These tattoos were then favoured mostly by working-class Europeans, but they gained popularity
among upper-class men and women in England in the late 19th century.
d. However, they were banned by the church, and virtually disappeared but they were 'rediscovered'
by European sailors who came into contact with American Indians and Pacific Islanders.

1. _______ 2. ________ 3. _________ 4. _________

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2.
a. This might give the viewers the message that “you have to go under the knife to look as beautiful
as these women”.
b. The morning shows on TV also greatly contribute to this trend because plastic surgeons explain how
“easy” it is now to have plastic surgery in these programs.
c. There are various TV shows such as Beni Baştan Yarat and True Life in which people turn into
gorgeous beings after a so-called simple and trouble-free operation.
d. For instance, Deniz Akkaya and Ajda Pekkan are shown as miracles of plastic surgery in many TV
programs.
e. The media encourage people to undergo plastic surgery in two ways.
f. Not only through celebrities but also through the programs which depict plastic surgery as painless
and easy do the media contribute to the popularity of plastic surgery.
g. One way of this encouragement is through the celebrities who have had plastic surgery.

1. _______ 2. ______ 3. ________ 4. _______ 5. ________ 6. ________ 7. _________

TASK 7: Insert the sentences “a” and “b” into the following paragraphs.

1.
a. For example, tattooing is commonly cited as a tribal badge that signifies identity with the likes of military
personnel, prisoners, gangs (motorcycle, street, and criminal organizations) sports teams, or youth cultures.

b. Someone who has the initials of her lover as a tattoo sends out a certain sympathetic message saying
that he is deeply in love with the person.

(1) _____ People have marked their bodies with tattoos almost everywhere in the world at one time or
another. (2) _____ As evidenced by mummified remains discovered in Europe, Egypt, Siberia, and
elsewhere, the practice has been around for thousands of years. (3) _____ However, tattoos have meant
different things to different cultures: For some people a tattoo promised invincibility in war; for some
tattoos protected against sickness or misfortune; for some they offered safe passage into heaven or the
afterworld, and for some they furnished a visible badge of rank or of membership in a certain group. (4)
_____ They can also serve as a way of advertising one's emotional (or philosophical) attachments. (5)_____
Most commonly, however, tattoos have been and still are used for decoration.

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2.
a. For example, facial attractiveness contributes to a higher social status and a higher salary later in life.
b. The best known of these is the three equal parts concept, in which three measurements of facial
structures - from the trichion to the eyebrow, from the eyebrow to the base of the nose, and from the nose
to the chin - are ideally equal.

(1) _____ Balance, harmony, and unity are pillars in the concept of facial beauty. (2) _____ Although “beauty
is in the eye of the beholder,” certain mathematical proportions apparently play a major role in beauty. (3)
_____ Interestingly, intercultural differences in perception of beauty are minimal since the significance of
facial attractiveness is obvious; throughout history, all cultures have had artists who produced works
showing attractive faces. (4) _____ The perception of beauty is linked to the instinct for survival, because
a variety of positive features are attributed to a person with an attractive face. (5) _____ Although there
are not many intercultural differences in the concept of beauty, concepts of facial aesthetics have changed
throughout history.

TASK 8: Fill in the blanks with the following words.

1.
they it (2) one this that their(2)

The immediate question: Why is society so shallow that a bump on the nose might have such an effect on
someone's self-esteem or on one’s success?
We all know the role that appearance plays in our lives and the impact (1) _______________has on our
relationships with others. Dr. Joyce Brothers has clearly shown that how we are perceived by others
determines how (2) ______________ interact with us. She says, "When you look good and feel great, people
treat you as if you're special. Your appearance sends signals to others about who you are, how you feel,
even about your values and aspirations. When people treat you as if you are intelligent and friendly, you
behave that way, and (3) _______________ starts an upward spiral of success.- "As facial plastic surgeons,
we can feel comfortable as we do facial rejuvenation surgery, knowing that we are helping our patients’
outward appearance more appropriately mirror (4) ____________ inner vitality." says Dr. Kridel.
But what happens when we change a feature with which (5) ______________was born? Are we bowing to
society's whims? Not according to some more recent authors. In fact, several scientific articles about the
science of beauty by well-respected bio-psychologists indicate that the desire for beauty may be an
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instinctive reproductive desire rather than an arbitrary cultural artefact. As author Brad Lemley states, "If
beauty is not truth, (6)________________ may be health and fertility: Lemley goes on to state that
landmark studies show that attractive males and females not only garner more attention from the opposite
sex. "They also get more affection from (7) ______________ mothers, more money at work, more votes
from the electorate, more leniency from judges, and are generally regarded as more kind, competent,
healthy, confident and intelligent." The facial plastic surgery community is helping individuals achieve (8)
______________ instinctual need with cosmetic facial plastic surgery.

2.

themselves this it (2) these itself they

Being preoccupied with muscle development may involve a disturbance in body image similar to anorexia.
Bigorexia (muscular dysmorphia) is now affecting hundreds of thousands of men. For some men muscle
development is such a complete preoccupation that (1)________________ will miss important events,
continue training through pain or broken bones, even lose their job rather than interrupt their physical
development schedule. Curiously, (2)____________________same men are not in love with their bodies.
Despite a well-developed physique they are unlikely to show(3) ____________________ off and will shy
away from situations that expose their bodies.
Muscle Dysmorphia aka bigorexia
The term 'muscle dysmorphia' was coined in 1997 to describe (4)____________________ new form of
disorder. Other people refer to the condition as 'reverse anorexia', and now more commonly 'bigorexia'.
The causes of (5)________________ are not known but two key ideas revolve around bigorexia as a form
of obsessive compulsive behaviour and secondly, the effect of the media putting the same type of
pressure on men to conform to an ideal shape as has been the case with women for years.
Treatment Options for Bigorexia
At the time of writing no systematic studies have been produced to compare the effectiveness of one
treatment over another, either individually or in combination. A particular problem with the condition is
that, rather like anorexics, men rarely see (6)_______________________ as patients having a problem
and are unlikely to come forward for treatment. The condition (7)____________________occurs partly as
a response to feelings of depression and lack of self-esteem so coming forward for treatment is admitting
defeat.

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TASK 9: Fill in the blanks in the texts below with the transitions in the box. There are more transitions
than you need.

unlike nevertheless in addition also

because of for this reason in spite of similarly
while since for example in fact

Consumers considering cosmetic surgery are almost universally unaware of the differences between
“cosmetic” surgery and “plastic” surgery. (1) ______________, they are easily misled to believe that board
certification in plastic surgery proves a physician can perform cosmetic surgery.
People view “cosmetic surgery” as more temporary and less technically difficult than “plastic surgery”,
according to a new study. The study (2) ___________ shows that the public thinks “cosmetic surgeons”
require less specialized training than “plastic surgeons”.
Cosmetic surgery is a subspecialty that uniquely restricts itself to the enhancement of appearance through
surgical and medical techniques. It is specifically concerned with maintaining normal appearance, restoring
it, or enhancing it toward some aesthetic ideal. (3) ________________, a 60 year old man may have a face
that is normal for a 60-year-old. When he gets a face-lift, he is trying to improve the appearance of
something that was basically normal to begin with. (4) __________________cosmetic surgery, plastic
surgery deals with the repair, reconstruction or replacement of physical defects of form or function such as
the repair of a cleft lip or the straightening of a nose. (5) ___________ cosmetic surgery is not considered
medically necessary, it is going to be out-of-pocket for the patient. Insurance companies do not recover
surgeries that are not essential to the maintenance or improvement of one’s physical health.
(6) __________________ the American Board of Plastic Surgery may verify a physician’s competency in
“plastic surgery”, it does not verify competence in “cosmetic surgery”. (7) ________________ the
difference between the two types of surgeries, many board-certified plastic surgeons seek to equate the
terms “plastic” and “cosmetic” in order to represent their certification in plastic surgery as evidence of their
competency to perform “cosmetic” procedures.
There are many extremely qualified cosmetic surgeons who are not board-certified in plastic surgery. (8)
________________, many cosmetic procedures were developed by physicians from specialties other than
plastic surgery. Surgeons develop their skills in cosmetic surgery through experience.

See Appendix 2 for the use of transitions.

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Task 10: Study the paragraph below and insert the appropriate statements into the correct places to
maintain cohesion. Note that there is one extra statement.

Standardized tests can provide criteria for teachers and parents. To begin with, standardized testing gives
both parents and teachers information on how children are performing compared to children in their local
areas or nations. With the help of such tests, the areas where children need improvement can be identified.
1. ____________________ These tests also give information to teachers about student achievement and
their teaching. Seeing the weaknesses of their students, based on the scores in the tests, teachers design
their lessons accordingly as these tests give teachers a structure of what needs to be taught, revised or
emphasized. 2.______________________. As a result, teachers can increase students’ motivation as they
can dwell on the areas that need further support.

A) This helps to provide extra support for students who need further help as well as providing

guidelines for curriculum.

B) Becoming aware of these areas, parents can support their children by providing extra help,

such as private tutoring.

C) In this way, time-wasting activities are decreased thanks to standardized testing because it focuses on
only required and essential contents.

Task 11: The following excerpt lacks cohesion. Rewrite to make it cohesive.

The recent water shortage in California forced changes in Californians' lifestyles. Water was rationed.
They learned how to conserve water. They did not water their lawns or gardens. They did not wash
their cars. They took fewer showers and baths. They learned to recycle water. They used rinse water
from their washing machines to water their houseplants and gardens.

Improved version:

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C) STYLE

In the academic environment of a university, a written piece of work does not simply need to communicate
information but it has to communicate it in a certain way if it is to be taken seriously and understood clearly.

Formal vs. Informal Writing

Academic writing requires a more formal type of language, so you need to write at a certain level of
formality, which is usually determined by the expectations of your audience and your purpose. For example,
if you are writing a cover letter for a job application or a research paper, you would write in a formal style.
If you are writing a letter to a friend or an article for an interest magazine, you would use a more informal
style. By formality, we mean the use of technical, elevated or abstract vocabulary, complex sentence
structures, and the avoidance of the personal voice (I, you). The level of formality in writing is determined
by the purpose and the audience. Depending on the level of formality, you may decide upon the tone, the
choice of words, and the way the sentences are formulated.

Task 12: Read the paragraph below and identify the informal expressions.

A) Alcoholism is more likely to occur in societies that forbid children to drink but where it is
okay for adults to get drunk (i.e., Ireland), than in societies that teach children how to drink
responsibly (i.e., France, or Greece). In cultures with low rates of drunkenness, adults drink
and introduce kids to drinking at the family dinner table. Alcohol is not used to mean you
are now grown-up, nor is it associated with being the "big man." You don't laugh at people
who don't drink, and you don't think getting drunk is cute, funny, or manly; people who get
bombed are considered dumb and obnoxious.

Taken from http://staff.uny.ac.id/sites/default/files/lain-lain/titik-sudartinah-ss-

ma/ACADEMIC%20WRITING%20EXERCISE.pdf

B) The term hacker used to mean a person with lots of computer smarts, but the term has
recently taken on a more sinister meaning due to true computer criminals. However, most
times hackers do not try to steal your money or land. But they create fake accounts and
destroy or change files. They think it's funny to mess up your e-mail. Or they want to show
off or bug people they don't like. They have invaded Web sites and put dumb jokes on them.
They think of their activities as mere pranks.

Taken from http://staff.uny.ac.id/sites/default/files/lain-lain/titik-sudartinah-ss-

ma/ACADEMIC%20WRITING%20EXERCISE.pdf

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Writing in a formal way does not guarantee an academic style. Below are the features of an academic
style:

 using an objective tone

 using tentative language (hedging)
 avoiding logical fallacies
 using formal academic vocabulary
 using formal grammar
 being concise

1. Using an objective tone

Academic writing is generally based on facts and evidence, and it is not influenced by personal
feelings. It requires objective language which is considered fair and accurate. Therefore, when
writing for an academic audience, you must use an objective tone which refers to an impersonal,
unbiased style of writing.

To achieve an objective tone in your writing, it is essential to avoid the following:

a) excessive use of personal statements: In academic writing, you should refer to what
evidence has contributed to your thinking rather than emphasizing what you think. This
involves avoiding excessive use of personal pronouns such as “I”, “We”, or “In my opinion”.
Traditionally, you are expected not to use personal pronouns to express an opinion in
certain subject areas such as sciences so as not to lose objectivity. However, in some
disciplines such as social studies, the use of personal pronouns might be acceptable
because you might be expected to express your viewpoint. Therefore, in order to use
personal pronouns appropriately, depending on the task type and the requirements of your
department, it is important to consult your lecturers and/or tutors.

The following are the examples of using the first person pronoun:

Inappropriate Uses:
- I feel that eating junk food causes obesity.

Appropriate Use:
-In this report, I will present a literature review on research about the effects of

eating junk food on obesity.

-The writer states that eating junk food causes obesity, but I do not totally agree

with her because there are many people who eat junk food and still keep fit.

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Study the table below to see how the excerpts are improved to sound more objective.

Inappropriate direct reference A more academic approach

to the writer’s opinion/
feelings/thoughts
From my understanding of the article, capital According to the article, capital punishment may
punishment may not be beneficial because it is not be beneficial because it is inhumane. It seems
inhumane. I feel that societies should provide a that societies should provide a better solution to
better solution to citizens than putting their citizens than putting their criminals to
criminals to death. My essay will demonstrate to death. Below, three reasons why capital
you that capital punishment should be abolished, punishment should be abolished will be
and I will provide three supporting reasons. discussed.

Inappropriate reference to what the writer More objective and academic approach
thinks or feels rather than to his or her
research findings
My research suggests strong perceptions of the The research suggests strong perceptions of the
programme as delivering language improvement, programme as delivering language improvement,
friendship and increased world knowledge, and I friendship and increased world knowledge
believe that it should be promoted more and the results indicate that it should be
rigorously within the university. I am convinced promoted more rigorously within the
that universities should consider participation in university. It is evident that universities may
such schemes as a prerequisite for student consider participation in such schemes as a
exchange programmes, rather than relying wholly prerequisite for student exchange programmes,
on criteria such as IELTS scores or other scholastic rather than relying wholly on criteria such as
achievements. IELTS scores or other scholastic achievements.
Taken from: http://elss.elc.cityu.edu.hk/ELSS/Resource/Academic%20Style%20and%20Tone%20ICOSA%20Version/

b) use of second person pronoun “you”: using second-person pronouns such as ‘you’ or
‘your’ to address the reader is inappropriate and can make your piece of writing read like
an informal speech.

Below is a student writing with inappropriate use of pronouns which makes the writing sound
informal. Read the excerpt and then compare it with the more formal alternatives provided.

Student Writing:
Using bilingual dictionaries helps you learn another language easily. However, using these kind of
dictionaries would cause some problems. For instance, it could make you to become confused with
the differences of usage of the words in two languages. Even so, if you don’t know the second
language really well, then you should use bilingual dictionaries to correlate between two
languages.

19
 More Formal Alternatives:

We may rewrite hypothetical examples in the paragraph using the phrase “a person”, that is,
in the singular third person.

Using bilingual dictionaries helps a person learn another language. However, using such a
dictionary could also cause some problems. For instance, it could lead the person to become
confused with the differences in word usage in the two languages. Even so, if the person
doesn’t know the second language very well, then s/he should use a bilingual dictionary to
quickly increase the range of his/her vocabulary.

We could use the plural “people” in order to avoid saying s/he, him or her, his or her,
himself/herself to avoid using sexist language.

Using bilingual dictionaries helps people learn another language. However, using such a
dictionary could cause some problems, too. For instance, it could lead people to become
confused with the differences in word usage in the two languages. Even so, if people don’t know
the second language very well, then they should use a bilingual dictionary to quickly increase the
range of their vocabulary.

Using “one” is similar to using “a person” but this sounds more formal. Nevertheless, we
have to deal again with s/he, him/her, etc.

Using bilingual dictionaries helps one when learning another language. However, using bilingual
dictionaries could cause some problems. For instance, differences in usage of the word in the two
languages could confuse one. / The lack of information about differences in usage of a word may
lead one to become confused. Even so, if one’s knowledge of the second knowledge is
preliminary, one should still benefit from bilingual dictionaries as they provide quicker
understanding of basic terms and help enhance one’s vocabulary with speed.

Task 13: Read the excerpt below and make the necessary changes to avoid using the pronoun
“you”.

The monolingual dictionary has some advantages and disadvantages. First, think that you are reading some
text and you do not know the meaning of some words. Then you choose to look at a monolingual dictionary
to learn the meanings of those words. You can learn the definition of the word, or you can learn the
synonyms of the term. But this method has got one disadvantage: if you do not understand the language
of the definition, then you cannot learn the meaning of that word.

The bilingual dictionary has some advantages and disadvantages, too. One of its biggest advantages is that
you can learn the meaning of a word in your native language. In this way, it will be easier for you to
remember the definition of the word. But this method has got some disadvantages as well. …

20
Task 14: Read through the following paragraph and identify the instances of inappropriate
use of personal pronouns. Discuss what can be done to avoid self-mention and personal tone.

In this assignment, I will present the point of view that expenditure on education in recent years
has been insufficient in the area of new technologies. I will argue that the lack of investment is
primarily a governmental failure and, as far as I am concerned, this will impact negatively on
computer literacy. So, in my conclusion, I will propose alternative funding policies that I hope you
will consider more forward looking.

Taken from https://academicguides.waldenu.edu/writingcenter/scholarlyvoice/first#s-lg-box-2873414

Task 15: Read through the following paragraph and identify the instances of inappropriate use of
personal pronouns. Rewrite it to make it more academic.

I would call Wagner a subjective artist. What I mean is that his art had its source in his personality; his work
was virtually independent, I always feel, of the epoch in which he lived. On the other hand, I always consider
Bach an objective artist. You can see that he worked only with the forms and ideas that his time presented
him. I do not think he felt any inner compulsion to open out new paths.
Taken from http://www.uefap.com/writing/exercise/feature/styleex6.htm

Improved version:

c) judgemental and/or evaluative language: Although it is acceptable to make a judgement

as a writer, you should avoid using judgmental/evaluative language (e.g., I feel, it is
good/bad, fortunately, regrettably, or badly, etc.) since using such language makes your
writing sound as if you come to your conclusions on your own depending on your beliefs
and values rather than evidence, making your writing subjective. Although you need to
build your own arguments and claims, the language you use should be detached, objective
and based on evidence rather than emotions or personal values.

Study the table below to see the examples of judgemental and evaluative language and how they can
be improved.

21
 1. Inappropriate use:
Regrettably these days, lots of people do not have jobs.

Appropriate use:
According to results of a research study conducted by Thompson (2017),

these days 20% of young people do not have jobs.

2. Inappropriate use:
These really lucky people may be advantaged by healthcare services that…

Appropriate Use:
These people may be advantaged by healthcare services that…

3. Inappropriate use:

The conditions were really horrendous. It is no wonder that so many of

the poor children suffered such dreadful diseases.

Appropriate use:

The conditions were poor and were likely to have contributed to the

high levels of childhood infectious diseases that were observed.

Task 16: Examine the following paragraphs written in two different ways (subjective and
objective manner). Underline the expressions that signal subjective and objective tone in each
paragraph.

A.

Indeed, there are countless values that are shared by our Australian community and which are extremely
relevant to the life-threatening issue of compulsory childhood immunisation. Of course, the protection of
the health and well-being of Australian kids must be a shared response. Obviously, they are such vulnerable
creatures who cannot protect themselves, and it is the full responsibility of the Australian community to
stop endangering their fragile lives. Mandatory childhood immunisation policy is definitely consistent with
the view we share as Australians, that is, our children’s healthcare is a total priority. Clearly, if childhood
immunity is not vigorously promoted across Australia, then all our children will contract ghastly vaccine-
preventable diseases leading to death. So, enforcing childhood immunisation programs TODAY is the only
logical way for us to watch over the precious youth of our nation.

22
B.

There are a number of values that are shared by the Australian community and which are relevant to the
issue of compulsory childhood immunisation. The protection of the health and well-being of Australian
children should be a shared response (Australian Government, 2007). Children can be seen as potentially
vulnerable individuals who do not have the capacity to protect and promote their own healthcare, and it is
therefore the responsibility of the state and the Australian community at large to behave in ways that do
not endanger their lives. It can be argued that a mandatory childhood immunisation policy would be
consistent with the view shared by many Australians, that is, children’s healthcare needs should be
considered a priority (Anton et al., 2005). If childhood immunity is not promoted across Australia, then
children may become at risk of contracting a variety of vaccine-preventable diseases leading to possible
death (Gray & Davies, 2004). Enforcing timely childhood immunisation programs, therefore, would be
highly beneficial for protecting the youth of this nation.

Taken from https://www.adelaide.edu.au/writingcentre/docs/learningguide-objectivelanguage.pdf

2. Using tentative language (hedging)

Tentative language means being cautious and careful in your claims in order to sound more credible,
convincing and objective. In academic writing, you need to use tentative language because your statements
or claims cannot be absolutely certain in every case as it is unlikely to examine all possible evidence.
Moreover, the results or findings of studies might later be proven inaccurate, or they could be interpreted
differently with new discoveries.

Look at the following non-academic example and analyze its tentative version to see how the statement
is made more academic.

A. Non-academic version:
Low scores in essay writing always result from immature ideas, so teachers focus on development of
ideas.
Consider the following questions:
 Are you 100% sure that all students receive low grades because of lack of ideas? Could it be because
of poor command of language or ineffective organization?

 Does every instructor focus on the same problem? Can’t it change from class to class depending on
student needs? Do you know how every teacher teaches? Do you have evidence to support this claim?
B. Tentative version:
Low scores in essay writing often result from immature ideas, so teachers tend to focus on development
of ideas.

23
To display cautious language in your writing, it is essential to

 refrain from absolute expressions and definitive statements,

 avoid quick conclusions and broad generalizations, and
 use appropriate verbs, nouns, adjectives, adverbs, and quantifiers.

The table below summarizes the words used to signal tentativeness:

Verbs & Modals Nouns adjectives Adverbs Quantifiers

Seem Probability probable apparently some
appear possibility possible possibly many
tend assumption uncertain probably most
can likelihood perhaps majority
could claim often minority
may usually a few
might sometimes several
generally a large quantity of
rarely a majority of
almost a great number of
unlikely/likely a large number of
a great deal of
a large amount of

See Appendix 3 for expressions that could help you to formulate tentative sentences.

The table below shows how assertive statements are converted into tentative statements:

non-academic Academic

Parents set rigid rules to discipline their Some parents tend to set a rigid rule to discipline
children. their children.

Teenagers all around the world find it difficult Teenagers in most countries often/usually find it
to communicate with older generations. difficult to communicate with older generations.

The new legislation will give rise to poverty. The new legislation may give rise to poverty.

Jessen’s (1956) theory is the most influential Jessen’s (1956) theory remains one of the most
for scholars in education… influential for scholars in education…

24
Task 17: Compare the following sentences and identify assertive and tentative statements. Write
“A” in front of assertive statements and “T” for tentative statements.

1. ______ It may be said that the commitment to democracy was stronger than it is now.
______ The commitment to democracy was stronger than it is now.

2. ______ In some cases, avoidance would seem to be the only possible method of conflict
resolution.
______ In some cases, avoidance would be the only possible method of conflict resolution.

3. ______ There is no doubt that these students need to improve their note-taking skills.
______ It may be the case that these students need to improve their note-taking skills.

4. ______ It is unlikely that students will improve their language skills unless they work hard.
______ Students will not improve their language skills unless they work hard.

5. ______ Experience is a contributing factor to one’s success in his/her profession.

______ Experience is likely to be a contributing factor to one’s success in his/her profession.

Task 18: Identify the hedging expressions used in the following sentences.

1. There seems to be no difficulty in explaining how a structure such as an eye or a feather

contributes to survival and reproduction; the difficulty is in thinking of a series of steps by
which it could have arisen.
2. For example, it may be necessary for the spider to leave the branch on which it is
standing, climb up the stem, and walk out along another branch.
3. There is experimental work to show that a week or ten days may not be long enough, and
a fortnight to three weeks is probably the best theoretical period.
4. Conceivably, different forms, changing at different rates and showing contrasting
combinations of characteristics, were present in different areas.
5. One possibility is that generalized latent inhibition is likely to be weaker than that
produced by pre-exposure to the CS itself and thus is more likely to be susceptible to the
effect of the long interval.
6. For our present purpose, it will probably be useful to distinguish two kinds of chemical
reaction, according to whether the reaction releases energy or requires it.

25
 7. It appears to establish three categories: the first contains wordings generally agreed to be
acceptable, the second wordings which appear to have been at some time problematic
but are now acceptable, and the third wordings which remain inadmissible.

Taken from http://www.uefap.com/writing/exercise/feature/hedgeex.htm

Task 19: Identify the assertive statements in the sentences below and convert them into tentative
statements.

1. First-time parents have problems in adjusting to their new roles.

2. It is clear that working smart is definitely more effective than working hard to achieve
success.
3. Due to having career goals, working women prefer to have children later in life.
4. Young drivers, being inexperienced and taking risks more easily, have more accidents than
older ones.
5. The evidence shows that diet is the most important factor preventing the cardiovascular
diseases.
6. International students have problems adjusting to a different culture.
7. In less developed countries the extensive use of land to grow exportation products make the
dwellers in these countries much poorer.
8. Children who are exposed to violence suffer from attachment problems and anxiety.
9. Commitment to voluntary work and involvement in charity organizations are stronger now.
10. Previous work experiences of individuals, especially their relationships with their line-managers- have
a considerable effect on their job satisfaction.

3. Avoiding Logical Fallacies

In academic writing, you are expected to avoid logical fallacies which can simply be defined as “errors of
reasoning”. Before dwelling more into what logical fallacies are or how to avoid them, it is a good idea to
remember what an argument is.

As explained previously, arguments in academic writing are the claims or interpretations that you put
forward with relevant reasons and evidence. Therefore, it can be said that each argument has mainly two
interdependent parts, which are the main claim (the conclusion you want to draw) and a support or premise
(the evidence –facts, expert opinion, statistics and so on to back up your claim).

26
For example,

Claim: Autism has grown worldwide in the last 8 years.

Support: From the year 2007 to 2015, the number of children diagnosed with autism increased to a
percentage of 7.

In order to present a strong and logical argument, you can

 provide relevant and true premises/supports, and

 avoid logical fallacies

At this point, it is important to understand what logical fallacies are. A fallacy is an error in reasoning, which
weakens your arguments. A fallacious argument does not provide sufficient support with its premises for
the conclusion or the claim. Although it is not uncommon to see these fallacies used intentionally to mislead
the audience especially in political speeches or advertisements, it is unacceptable to have them in academic
writing as they weaken the arguments and undermine the credibility and objectivity of the writing. As a
student, learning to look for fallacies both in your own writing and in the writings of others can improve
your critical thinking skills while evaluating the arguments you make and the arguments you encounter,
which can make it easier for you to avoid errors of reasoning in your own writing.

Some of the most common logical fallacies that students make are explained in the following

table:

Types Explanation Examples

This is a generalization based on My brother who studies at METU is hardworking.
inadequate data or unrepresentative His girlfriend studying at METU is really
evidence. It involves making hardworking, too. All METU students must be
assumptions based on a limited hard-working.
sample, or making conclusions based
Hasty Generalizations

on unreliable data. In all modern families, family members cannot

build strong relationships due to excessive use of
social media.

After being in Izmir for a week, I can tell that

people living there are the happiest in Turkey.

Two out of three students who were taught by

using tablets for vocabulary teaching reported
learning vocabulary better. Therefore, tablets are
effective in teaching vocabulary.

This fallacy is about assuming that because President X raised taxes, and then the rate of illiteracy
X comes after Y, Y caused X. Although went up. X is responsible for the rise in illiteracy.
False Cause

sometimes one event really does cause

another one that comes later, it does not
mean that two events that seem related in
time chronologically have always a cause
and effect relationship.

27
 An argument by analogy relies on Guns are like hammers—they’re both tools with metal
similarities between two or more objects, parts that could be used to kill someone. And yet it

Weak Analogy
ideas, or situations. However, not all would be ridiculous to restrict the purchase of
analogies are appropriate. If the two things hammers—so restrictions on purchasing guns are
that are being compared are not really equally ridiculous.
similar in the relevant points, the analogy
is questionable, which is the fallacy of weak Taken from https://writingcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-
analogy. tools/fallacies/
Arguments are often strengthened by We should eat multiple smaller meals throughout the
Appeal to Authority

referring to respected and credible sources day instead of three bigger meals to maintain a healthy
or authorities. However, if you try to life. Many respected people, such as actress, Jessica
strengthen your arguments and influence Biel, have publicly stated that this type of a diet is
your reader simply by referring to a famous healthier.
name or by appealing to an authority who
really is not an expert in the field you are
discussing, you commit the fallacy of
appeal to authority.
Using popular and common ideas to Genetic engineering is just unethical. As the latest
popularity

support your argument or to make your public poll shows, 70% of people in this country think
Appeal to

reader accept your argument is the fallacy so!

of appeal to popularity. Just because
everyone else believes something does not
make it correct or acceptable.
The appeal to pity takes place when an The human resources department is planning to fire the
arguer tries to get people to accept a newly hired engineer because he could not meet his
Appeal to

conclusion by making them feel sorry for performance objectives. But he has two kids taking
pity

someone. education! What will happen to his family when their

wage earner is unemployed! They should reconsider
their decision.
The appeal to ignorance is basically It is not proven if superior living exists in other planets
drawing a conclusion out of lack of in the universe. Therefore, there are not any developed
ignorance

evidence. civilizations in other planets.

Appeal to

OR
People believe that there are not any other civilizations
in other planets. However, it could not be proven that
there is not any. Therefore, there exist other
civilizations in other planets in the universe”
In this fallacy, part of an argument is International students should not be required to take
Reasoning
Circular

asserted again in slightly different words to Turkish university entrance exam because this exam is
support the very same claim. Asserting a meant for Turkish students.
point that has just been made. To be a good leader, one has to speak effectively
because good leaders speak well.
In this fallacy, the argument is based on Caldwell Hall is in bad shape. Either we tear it down and
(false dilemma)

only two options. All the other alternatives put up a new building, or we continue to risk students’
argument
Either or

are ignored as a black and white situation safety. Obviously we shouldn’t risk anyone’s safety, so
is created. we must tear the building down.

Taken from https://writingcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-

tools/fallacies/

28
Task 20: Read the sentences below and identify the type of fallacy in each one.
Sentences Type of fallacy
a. There are only two types of people in the world. Either they are
your friends or they are your enemies.
b. Statistics show that more car accidents happen during the day
than at night. So it may be safer to drive at night.
c. All my Instagram friends are also your Facebook friends. Many
of your Facebook friends are intellectual. Therefore, many of my
Instagram friends are intellectual.
d. People who think that men and women are equally intelligent
should remember that most scientists are men.
e. I know our grade is based on our performance in the exam, but
you should give me a second chance because I’m on probation.

4. Using Formal Academic Vocabulary

Your vocabulary choice for an academic piece of writing should be more consider ate and careful.
Rather than using informal or simplistic words, you should use words from general academic words,
which frequently appear in academic texts across a wide range of subjects. This, however, does not mean
that you should use highly advanced or unnecessarily complex words to sound knowledgeable or
competent. Indeed, such use of words usually confuse the readers and make it difficult to convey your
message. What is important is to use the right word that effectively communicates your message.

To display good command of vocabulary in your writing, it is essential to avoid

 slang, idiomatic expressions, daily expressions, and

 repeating the same vocabulary items over and over; instead, try to display lexical variety
using synonyms.

Parts of speech Informal vocabulary Formal (more academic) vocabulary

Nouns Thing factor/issue/aspect/item/object/device/phenomenon
place location/site
parts elements/components
answer response/solution
kids children
boss employer
stuff materials/objects
Phrases good thing benefit/advantage
good enough adequate
lots of many/numerous
to do with regarding
29
 Adjectives Good Positive/useful/valuable
bad negative/harmful
big large/major/significant/substantial
little small/minor
Adverbs Around approximately
like for example/such as
etc. so on
Verbs Get obtain
gonna/wanna going to/ want to
have got have
watch observe
stay remain
keep preserve
guess estimate
happen occur
go up rise/increase
look into consider
get rid of eliminate
look at examine
Adapted from https://www.jcu.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0010/218629/Choosing_the_right_word.pdf

Study the table below to see how word choice of a writer changes the level of formality.

Less formal use: T.V. and the movies got more and more
T.V. and the movies got more and more dependent on each other in the 1980s as T.V.
companies put a lot of money into making movies.

Formal & academic use:

The relationship between television and cinema grew increasingly symbiotic in the
1980s
Taken fromashttps://unilearning.uow.edu.au/academic/2b.html
television companies invested heavily in feature filmmaking.

Task 21: Underline the non-academic lexical items in the sentences below. Then replace them
with more academic alternatives. You may need to refer to a thesaurus (synonym dictionary).

1. Using social media has lots of advantages for individuals as it offers things like promoting
their products or even establishing their brand.
2. They got together with the scientists in an experimental study of the use of plant extracts
to relieve muscular spasms.
3. A new learning management system was set up through the end of 2004 in order to sort
out the reported problems.

30
 4. Some students who live far away from their parents seem to be demotivated as they
experience some sort of loneliness.
5. It is important to get rid of impurities so a lot of effort has gone into finding optimal
methods of refinement.
6. Some citizens who cannot get proper treatment in fully-fledged hospitals suffer from their
illnesses.
7. Her nervous breakdown has a lot to do with the deterioration of her budget and the risk of
bankruptcy.
8. It is difficult to guess the amount of time spent on duty each month.
9. If employees want to succeed, they should keep up the good work.
10. This will cut down the amount of drug required and so the cost of treatment.
11. The previous president was considered a bit conservative.
12. Researchers have already wasted a big amount of time and money, but still have not
completed the study.
13. One of the reasons why people lead a sedentary life is the increasing use of labour-saving
things in modern houses.
14. The students in the control group did well in the performance test compared to the
students in the experimental group.
15. The administration needs to make sure that all the resources are exploited as fully as
possible.

5. Using Formal Grammar

Academic writing requires clarity and effective expression of ideas and to do this, you need to
display a good command of language. Therefore, you should use grammar structures accurately
without repeating the same structures. While doing this, do not make your writing unnecessarily
complex and unnatural to read. The ability to show your competence in language does not mean writing
long and complex sentences but rather, to be able to write clearly and accurately.

To display good command of grammar in your writing, it is essential to

 use full forms rather than contractions or abbreviations (rather than: 'TV', 'memo',
'quote' ‘doesn’t’; write: 'television', 'memorandum', 'quotation', ‘does not’)
 do not repeat language structures over and over. If too many sentences start with the
same word, or structure especially the, it, this, or they, your writing can grow tedious. To
avoid this, try to display grammatical variety.
 Avoid using too short or simplistic sentences.

31
 non-academic academic

In 2001, the bridge was built. This was good The bridge was completed in 2003, which
politically. Two countries united. resulted in a positive political move that united
two countries.

The excessive use of social media may cause

Teenagers are using social media excessively.
teenagers to lose sense of reality.
Due to this, they lose sense of reality.

6. Being Concise

Writing concisely means getting straight to your point in a way that the reader easily understands the
message. In this sense, conciseness requires choosing your words carefully and properly.

Usually, students have a tendency to write a lot of words trying to fully explain their point and this results
in wordiness in writing. Likewise, for fear that they fall short of the word limit, some students write
unnecessary words. Choose your words wisely because if your instructor asks you to write 1000 words,
s/he means 1000 good words. Using the fewest possible words without sacrificing meaning makes your
writing more understandable. Have variety in your writing but while doing this, pay attention to not being
wordy.

To achieve conciseness in your writing, it is essential to eliminate

 unnecessary repetitive words,

 excessive detail, and
 circumlocutions (use of many words where fewer could do)
Reminder: The best academic expression is one that fully covers a message with the fewest words.

“Maximum message + Minimum number of words! ”

32
Notice the revisions done in the following sentences to make them more concise.

Original: There are 30 participants who volunteered for the study.

Revision: Thirty participants volunteered for the study

Original: I feel that the study is very significant to scholars in psychology because...
Revision: The study is significant to psychology scholars because…

Original: Scholars, researchers, and writers have recommended and promoted student

assessment as a means by which to address the achievement gap.

Revision: Researchers have recommended student assessment to address the

achievement gap.

Taken from https://academicguides.waldenu.edu/writingcenter/scholarlyvoice/writingconcisely#s-lg-box-2835477

Task 22: Read the following paragraph and identify the problems related to conciseness. Then,
rewrite the paragraph to make it concise.

Increasing foreign competition and technological change, in a variety of forms, are now, as they
always have been, disrupting various well-established patterns in terms of industrial
organization. An apparent growing quality in the upward movement of economic change is also
causing geographers’ interest in regional adjustment problems to grow as well: problems that
often focus concern on regional economic decline in a context of low rates of national
productivity improvement, on loss of international competitiveness in sectors such as
automobiles and primary metals.

33
 Improved version:

Adapted from https://www.e-education.psu.edu/styleforstudents/c1_p2.html

C) MECHANICS
Although a paper has strong command of language and effective presentation of ideas, it might still not
leave a good impression if it has several problems in terms of mechanics. For this reason, your piece of
writing should be edited and proofread in terms of mechanics:

 punctuation
 margins
 spacing
 indentation
 spelling
 capitalization

You can use the following tools to check your language:

http://www.hemingwayapp.com

www.grammarly.com

http://www.gingersoftware.com/grammarcheck#.WiWLuLaB29Y

http://www.reverso.net/spell-checker/english-spelling-grammar/

Reminder: Do not submit your paper without checking the spelling! Use the spell check functions in your
Word processor.

34
 PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER

Task 1: Study the paragraph below and analyse how the paragraph is developed to answer the following
questions.

- What is the main idea that the paragraph revolves around?

- Which supporting techniques were used to develop that idea?
- Which techniques were used to maintain smooth flow?

One important measure for transferring information in an effective way is the standardized test. Such testing
gives the teacher important diagnostic information about what each child is learning in relation to what
s/he has been taught. Only in this way can the teacher know if the student needs intervention and
remediation, if the curriculum matches the course requirements, or if the teaching methods needed are in
some way lacking and require adjustment. Furthermore, standardized test gives valuable insight into
broader issues, such as the standard curriculum important to grade level requirements, and an education
reference point for fair and equitable education for all children in all schools- district by district and state by
state. This can also lead to better teaching skills, as the teacher will be held accountable to help his/her
students meet these standards. Moreover, student growth can be a very significant outcome for
standardized tests, for though a child may return low score he may show a growth pattern that is positive.
These tests may act as tool for teachers to diagnose their students’ teaching needs so that an individual and
child-centered curriculum can be developed. As a result, standardized testing is an objective and critical
measure of achievement in skills, knowledge and abilities, the value of which in education should not be
underestimated.

35
Task 2: Read the paragraph below and decide whether the ideas are developed and organized
effectively or not. Explain why.

Many leaders in the corporate world are nervous of public speaking and some even outright avoid
it. According to Forbes magazine (2014), 20% of business leaders say they would do anything to avoid
giving a presentation. Despite this, 70% agree that presentation skills are critical for career success,
which indicates that public speaking is of utmost importance for a leader to succeed. History is full of
examples of how delivering outstanding public presentations has elevated individuals to success or
power, uniting people in times of change or struggle. When American civil rights activist Martin Luther
King Jr delivered his ‘I Have a Dream’ speech on August 28, 1963, he famously called for an end to
racism. Delivered to an audience of over 250,000 (Forbes, 2014), the speech was a defining moment of
the American Civil Rights Movement. Following his speech, King was named Man of the Year by TIME
Magazine for 1963. In 1964, he became the youngest person ever to be awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.
Like King, leaders have the opportunity to grow their influence, authority and career prospects by
understanding the mechanics of public speaking.

Adapted from https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/five-reasons-why-business-leaders-need-effective-public-

benjamin-ball

Task 3: Identify the informal expressions in the following excerpts and rewrite each to make them
sound formal.

A.

I think using a dictionary is essential when learning a language. Lots of learners say that they have difficulty
in dealing with unknown words, and they can’t express their ideas correctly if they can’t look them up. Don’t
you feel the same if you don’t know a word? So, using a dictionary helps learners to express their ideas
freely.

Adapted from https://aso-resources.une.edu.au/academic-writing-course/academic-writing-style/

36
Improved version:

B.

We don't really know what language proficiency is, but many people have talked about it for a long time.
Some researchers have tried to find ways for us to make teaching and testing more communicative because
that is how language works. I think that language is something we use for communicating, not an object for
us to study, and we remember that when we teach and test it.

Taken from http://www.uefap.com/writing/feature/objectiv.htm

Improved version:

37
Task 4: Below are some excerpts taken from different courses at different departments of METU.
Read and underline how academic language is used in each.

Excerpt 1:

Perception can be defined as the “process by which people organize and experience information that is
primarily of sensory origin” (Cole&Scribner, 1974, p.61). Perception as a psychological process has been
thought to link people to the world around them or within them: We perceive size, shape, color, pain, and
so on. Studies of perception flourished in the 1950s and 1960s, but their results remain significant today as
a means of correcting persistent misunderstandings about the way human perception works.

Schultz, E. A., & Lavenda, R. H. (2012). Cultural antrophology: A perspective on the human condition. London, UK: OUP.

Excerpt 2:

The science of geophysics applies the principles of physics to the study of the Earth. The scope of
geophysical investigations varies from studies of the entire Earth to exploration of a localized region of
the upper crust to determine the distribution of physical properties at depths that reflect the local
subsurface geology. 
Geophysical surveying, although sometimes prone to major ambiguities or
uncertainties of interpretation, provides a relatively rapid and cost-effective means of deriving
information on subsurface geology. An alternative method of investigating subsurface geology is, of
course, by drilling boreholes, but these are more expensive and provide information only at discrete
locations. Geophysical surveying does not dispense the need for drilling, but, when properly applied, it
can optimize exploration programmes by maximizing the rate of ground coverage and minimizing the
drilling equipment. 


Introduction to Mineral Industries. (2018). Lecture presented at METU, Ankara.

38
Excerpt 3:

The probability concept acquired an interpretation in terms of relative frequency because it was originally
developed to describe certain games of chance where plays (such as spinning a roulette wheel or tossing
dice or dealing cards) are indeed repeated for a large number of trials and where it is reasonable to assume
that the elementary events of interest are equally likely. Similarly, there are numerous situations, in which
statisticians make many obeservations under essentially the same conditions, and the mathematical theory
of probability can be given a relative–frequency interpretation in these situations as well. For instance, a
quality-control statistician may observe thousands of items produced by a certain production process, and
he may record the weight of each item or simply whether each item is defective or nondefective. An
actuarial statistician may observe the records of millions of persons, recording for each the number of
claims with regard to health insurance or automobile insurance. A medical statistician may observe
thousands of persons with a certain disease, recording for each the drug or drugs used and whether or not
the person is cured of the disease.

Winkler, R. L. (1972). An introduction to Bayesian inference and decision. New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

Excerpt 4:

The realization that DNA, RNA, and mechanisms of protein synthesis in mitochondria and chloroplasts are
most similar to those found in bacterial cells led biologists to formulate the endosymbiont theory. This
theory, proposed by Lynn Margulis (then Lynn Sagan) in 1967, proposes that mitochondria and chloroplasts
evolved from ancient bacteria that established a symbiotic relationship (a mutually beneficial association)
with primitive nucleated cells 1 to 2 billion years ago.

Hardin, J., & Bertoni, G. (2018). Becker's world of the cell. London, UK: Pearson Education Limited.

39
 READ SMART
Reading dense, lengthy academic texts can be a boring and difficult experience. However, as a university
student, you need to learn to deal with such texts as you will be expected to read several scholarly sources.
The trick is to read smart.

To read smart;

 Read with a purpose

 Read strategically
 Read actively (annotate)
 Read critically
 Consider writer’s technique

1. READ WITH A PURPOSE

X Do not just read for the sake of reading and do not treat an academic text like a novel. Try
to develop an academic approach to reading

X Do not just dive straight into the text, think and identify what you want to get out of the

text.

Strategy:
Always ask yourself the following questions:

 Why am I reading this?

Are you reading to find an answer to a question?

What subject will this article prepare you to discuss?
How does this article fit into the main questions or topics of the course?
What will the instructor ask me to do with the knowledge I gain from the article?
Are you looking for data, examples, opinions?
Do you need to verify something you read elsewhere?

 What might I need this information for?

Will you use it as a source to support your argument?

Will you write a reaction to it?
Will you answer an exam question?

40
2. READ STRATEGICALLY

X Do not feel overwhelmed by the density and length of the texts. Read smart!

Strategy:

 Read the abstract first! Check if it is relevant to your purpose/assignment

 Read the introduction and conclusion or the discussion part to identify the position of the author:
the claim, thesis, or argument
 Go through the subtitles to have an overall understanding of the text
 Utilize the references for further research. This could be a gateway into several other useful texts
about the same/similar topic.

3. READ ACTIVELY

Academic reading is not a passive activity. It requires active reading, which is the ability to approach the
text as something that needs a response from you. That is, active reading requires full engagement with
the text.

Reading is not about answering a set of comprehension questions.

It is a process of thinking and an inner conversation with the text.

Strategies:

 always read with a pencil in hand as you read

 preview: consider the text structure
- get a sense of what the text is about and how it is organized
- skim to get an overview of the content and organization. Pay attention to:

 identify the main argument(s) or idea(s) in the text

 predict, visualize, connect ideas
 infer; draw conclusions
 react to the arguments, ideas, claims
 annotate (see the next page for the details of annotation)

41
TEXT ANNOTATION
Annotating is underlining or highlighting key words/phrases/parts as well as making notes and
comments in the margins of a text as you read. In other words, it is having a conversation with the
text; it involves more than just highlighting some parts of it. In fact, it is an excellent way to help
you formulate your own ideas for writing assignments based on your reading.

Leave tracks of thinking as you read

Benefits of Text Annotation

 helps you identify key points

 helps you locate and interpret the meaning
 helps you remember more

 encourages you to notice and think about the features of the text
 keeps you from getting distracted and missing important points.
 helps you read actively and develop your critical analysis skills

How to annotate

As you are annotating a text, you may make margin notes to;

 label the important information, main ideas, key concepts, definitions, examples, characteristics,
key features, causes, effects, reasons, similarities, differences, names, dates, events
 define the key words, collocations, phrases or expressions
 highlight puzzling or confusing ideas that need clarification
 trace the development of ideas or arguments throughout the text
 express your thoughts, reactions, criticism, agreement or disagreement to the ideas or arguments
in the text,
 formulate or pose your own questions about the topic, ideas or arguments in the text
 make connections to your personal experiences or ideas from other texts or class discussions.

When annotating, you can use symbols to capture your reactions. Below are some symbols that you can
use in the margins of a text.

42
Below is an example text annotation:

43
For further study, you can visit the links below:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pf9CTJj9dCM

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NmVAfoXhhPM

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pf9CTJj9dCM

3. READ CRITICALLY

Critical reading is the process of reading that goes beyond just understanding a text.

Writers generally make

assertions that they want you to accept as true. As a critical reader, you should not accept anything on
face value but to recognize every assertion as an argument that must be carefully evaluated. You should
question the statements made by the author so that you can identify the strengths and weaknesses of the
argument put forward. When you assess an argument, you are concerned with the process of reasoning
as well as its truthfulness. (See p. 2 of Module 1- Academic Writing Input for information on arguments)

When reading critically, consider the following question:

 Who is the author?

 What type of source is it?
 What evidence is used to support ideas?
 Is the evidence fact, research, opinion, or personal experience?
 Is the evidence accurate? Is it convincing?
 Is the evidence relevant to the conclusion?
 What are the counter arguments?
 Are there any contradicting parts?
 Are there any flaws in the reasoning?
 Are conclusions based on facts or opinions?
 Are there any logical fallacies?
 Are there any author biases?
 Are the writer(s)’s arguments are strong?
 Are there logical connections between the claim and the
evidence?
 What other perspectives are there on this issue?
 How does it relate to other sources and research?

44
For further study, you can visit the links below:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iOGvwPmKOqQ

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L6jFea6OT94

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5Hc3hmwnymw

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H2znt-udk1A

WRITER’S TECHNIQUE
Critical readers also consider writer’s technique, bearing in mind that different authors present the same
information in different ways, which is due to their own unique style. Two texts on the same topic might
present totally different perspectives and the writers might totally hold a different stance (position,
argument or thesis- where they stand). For this reason, each text might have a different method of
organization, purpose and tone. Therefore, an effective academic approach to reading requires recognizing
the writer’s technique.

To be able to identify writer’s technique, you should identify:

 Audience - the group whom the writer intends to address
 Purpose - the reason the writer writes
 Tone - the attitude the writer conveys

To identify the purpose and tone of a text, you need to use text-based evidence (textual clues such as
word choice).

Purpose Tone

Every writer has a purpose for writing, Tone is the writer’s own attitude toward the subject. It
which is actually his reason for writing. indicates the writer’s voice and attitude towards the
issue and is not expressed or explained directly in the
text.
Below are some common purposes: A writer’s word choice, point of view, stance and level of
formality determines his/her tone, which is described by
adjectives such as:
To… informative ironic accusing
inform amuse warn critical objective approving
persuade compare suggest impartial subjective offensive
explain contrast illustrate cynical neutral skeptical
prove describe list angry optimistic provocative
criticize annoyed pessimistic humorous
indifferent serious cautious

45
Task 1: Study how the word choice helps you to identify the tone and purpose of the writer in the
following excerpt:

Celebrity photographers, also known as paparazzi, have gone too far in their quest to snap pictures
of the stars. Everyone—even celebrities—should have the right to privacy, yet photographers
routinely hound famous people everywhere they go. The creepiest of these photographers are
not above following their prey into bathrooms or climbing trees to get shots of celebrities in their
own homes. This constant invasion forces the rich and famous to become rude and mean, setting
a bad example for their often youthful fans. Even worse, though, the paparazzi's behavior is
frequently downright dangerous and irresponsible.

(Source of information: Michael Paul, Lenoir, NC, "Paparazzi Go Much Too Far," USA Today, September 9,
2004, p. 12A)

The author's purpose is to _____________________________

The author's tone is ___________________________________

For further study, you can visit the links below:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ehYMAVDkyLM
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pYFbRam2jUE
http://fsc.lonestar.edu/GCPASS_lonestar/PREPReading/prepreading_topic7.htm
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5zaLT1Q2VPE

Study the paragraph below to see the traces of read smart strategies.

46
 EFFECTIVE INTEGRATION OF CITATIONS

One of the most important aspects of academic writing is integrating ideas of others from different
sources into your essay without plagiarising. When doing this, you need to incorporate the source
material smoothly, without distorting the flow of your paper. If you fail to effectively incorporate
the ideas of others into your writing, all your efforts in doing research and finding the relevant
academic sources could be futile.

Follow the steps below to effectively integrate sources into your essay:

1. Maintain your own voice

Every piece of writing has a voice which refers to the way the writer reveals himself/herself. In your writing,
you should always maintain your own voice, without letting others’ ideas take over. That is, the majority of
your paper should be your original ideas in your own words and your own voice should be the predominant
one in your writing. To do this, when you incorporate sources into your writing, avoid overuse of citations
without any attempt to explain their relevance to your point.

To maintain your own voice in your writing:

 do not cite too many sources; otherwise, your own voice will disappear.
 do not rely too much on direct quotations; make your own paraphrases and summaries of
research using proper citations. 

 use quotations at strategically selected moments. Filling your paper with quotations will
not necessarily strengthen your argument.
 use sources to emphasize and support a point you have made, but let your own ideas,
rather than research, drive your paper.

Task 1: Compare the two paragraphs below from an essay on cybercrime. Answer the questions below:
a) What is the purpose of each citation?
b) In which paragraph does the writer appear to be more in control?
c) How does the writer express his opinion in the second paragraph without using ‘I’?

Paragraph 1

Wall (2003) divided cybercrime into 3 categories. Firstly, there is traditional cybercrime, which is common
traditional crimes that are committed using the Internet such as fraud, stalking, and so on. Secondly, there
is hybrid cybercrime, defined as online criminal acts which enable perpetrators to commit traditional
crimes. Hacking and ID theft are examples of this. Thirdly, there is true cybercrime where criminals make
new opportunities for new types of crime, for example phishing, intellectual property piracy and so on.

47
Paragraph 2

The incidence of cybercrime has increased significantly. Online crime complaints in the US increased
substantially between 2007 and 2009 (IC3, 2010). In the US, the reported loss related to online fraud
amounted to more than 550 million dollars in 2009, twice the figure of the previous year (IC3, 2010). In the
UK, a similar situation prevailed. Online banking fraud alone accounted for 59.7 million pound in losses, a
14 % rise on the 2008 figure (UKCA, 2010). These figures reinforce Smith et al.’s (2004, p. 35) contention
that the Internet has become a “playground for criminals”.

Taken from Williams, A. (2013). Research: Improve your reading and referencing skills. London, U.K.: HarperCollins
Publishers.

2. Make smooth moves

When incorporating ideas or language into your writing, you should make smooth moves by carefully
connecting the source material to what you say so that the citations you use will not distort the flow of your
writing and will not confuse the reader. In this way, the readers can clearly see the connection between an
integrated quotation and what it is trying to prove. Otherwise, your reference will be left hanging and its
relation to your argument will be left unclear.

To be able to make smooth moves, never drop quotes. That is, do not just use quotes in your writing
without introducing and/ or explaining because a dropped quote distorts the flow of your writing, as it
makes it difficult for the reader to understand the relationship between your words and the borrowed
parts.

! Always try to introduce and explain your quotations so that they can provide your reader with the context
they need to understand the quote.

You can integrate others’ ideas smoothly into your essay by following the ICE method!

1. I – Introduce AND/OR Integrate

2. C - Cite
3. E - Explain

48
 1. Introduce (Lead-in)

Use introductory phrases and signposts that tell how the citation connects to your idea/ argument. To do
this, you can

 provide context for each citation (otherwise your reader will wonder who that person
is/might get confused)
 attribute each citation to its source (tell your reader who is speaking)
 introduce the source and the speaker
 try not to get stuck saying “he says/she says” throughout the whole essay. Use a variety
of verbs such as state, declare, believe, contend, recall, write, note, critique, propose, etc.
depending on the content.
Below are some examples for how you can introduce a citation:

 In her critique of soap operas, Tania Modleski argues that some view television as a…
 In her study of childrearing patterns and social class, Lareau (2003) argued that class
differences were far more significant than …
 Research in cognitive science has found that … (Willingham, 2011).
 Drawing on findings in cognitive science, Willingham (2011) explains “…”

Analyse the tables below to compare the dropped and integrated versions of the same quotes:

A.

Dropped Quote Integrated Quote

A number of journalists have been critical of A number of journalists have been critical of genetic
genetic engineering. “The problem is, no one engineering. Lisa Turner (2017), in an article for the
really knows the long-term effects of such magazine Better Nutrition, targets the
complex genetic manipulation— and the unpredictable nature of this new technology: “The
potential dangers to humans and the problem is, no one really knows the long-term
environment are substantial” (Turner, 2017, effects of such complex genetic manipulation—and
p. 21). the potential dangers to humans and the
environment are substantial” (p. 21).

The quote stands on its own, and it’s not clear In this sentence, the quote is anchored. We know who
who Turner is or why this person is quoted. The said it and why she is an authority, and it now flows in
relevance of the quote is not anchored so floats the logic of the sentence.
away in the reader’s mind.
Taken from http://accounts.smccd.edu/skyenglish/rhetoric.pdf#page=262

49
B.

Dropped Quote Integrated Quote

Schools and parents should not set limits on Schools and parents should not set limits on
how much teenagers are allowed to work at how much teenagers are allowed to work at
jobs. “We conclude that intensive work does jobs. Lee and Staff’s (2007) carefully designed
not affect the likelihood of high school study proves this as they found that
dropout among youths who have a high “intensive work does not affect the likelihood
propensity to spend long hours on the job” of high school dropout among youths who
(Lee & Staff, 2007, p. 171). Teens should be have a high propensity to spend long hours on
trusted to learn how to manage their time. the job” (p. 171). Thus, teens should be
trusted to learn how to manage their time.
The reader is thinking, who is this sudden, ghostly Here the quote is introduced so that we know who
“we”? Why should this source be believed? If you said it and why she is an authority, and it now
find that passages with quotes in your draft are flows in the logic of the sentence.
awkward to read out loud, that’s a sign that you
need to contextualize the quote more effectively.

Taken from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/sanjacinto-englishcomp2kscope/chapter/6-e-using-sources-

effectively-guptill/

Reporting Verbs for Referring to Sources

If you select your verbs carefully, you can introduce your quotes effectively and this will help you to
voice your opinions/arguments better in your assignment work. To do this, make sure that you report the
text/author’s ideas accurately by

 choosing precise verbs for attribution

 using the correct tense for reporting verbs

 using grammatically correct verbs to match your intended meaning
 going beyond “says” approach

Task 2: Indicate how each of the reporting verbs below changes the writer’s opinion in the following
sentence:

Smith et al. (2004) suggest/demonstrate/imply/claim that the Internet has become a “playground for
criminals”.

Taken from Williams, A. (2013). Research: Improve your reading and referencing skills. London, U.K.: HarperCollins
Publishers.

50
Task 3: Read the sentences below in which different reporting verbs have been used and answer the
questions that follow.

a) Johnson (2007) suggests that people who see themselves as lucky are in fact lucky
because they take advantage of more opportunities.
b) Johnson (2007) discusses whether people who see themselves as lucky are in fact lucky
because they take advantage of more opportunities.
c) Johnson (2007) argues that people who see themselves as lucky are in fact lucky because
they take advantage of more opportunities.
d) Johnson (2007) states that people who see themselves as lucky are in fact lucky because
they take advantage of more opportunities.

1) In which case is Johnson’s belief strong?

2) Which two verbs simply describe or report a fact?

3) Which two reporting verbs indicate a value judgment?* (* Value judgments are not statements
of fact. They are subjective opinions, assessments, or beliefs about how good or bad something is.)

4) In which case is Johnson’s belief weaker and more hesitant?

Different reporting verbs require the use of different grammatical patterns.

Study the tables and the examples below for the accurate use of some reporting verbs:

Reporting verb + THAT + MAIN IDEA

accept complain find Realise

acknowledge conclude know recommend
admit confirm imply remark
advise consider indicate restate
announce decide infer reveal
agree declare maintain show
allege deny note state
argue determine observe suggest
assert discover object think
assume doubt point out understand
believe emphasise predict verify
claim estimate propose warn
comment explain prove

51
Examples:

 Peterson et al. (2013, para. 36) acknowledge that Internet privacy is a growing
issue in the modern world of communication.
 Da Souza argues that previous researchers have misinterpreted the data.
 Researchers have demonstrated that the procedure is harmful.
 Positivists find that social disorders are exacerbated by class factors.
 Singh infers that both conditions are essential.

Some reporting verbs cannot be followed immediately by ‘that’ but follow the pattern below:

REPORTING VERBS + SOMETHING/SOMEONE + CONNECTING WORD + (e.g. as, because, by,

in terms of, for, that)

Advocate define express question

analyze demonstrate highlight refer
appraise defend identify refute
assess describe illustrate reject
assure discuss interpret study
blame encourage investigate support
challenge evaluate object (to) validate
classify examine present verify
criticize puts forward view

Examples:

 Jackson (2012, pp. 23-38) refutes the claim made by Smith that . . .
 Studies by Campbell (2005, 2008) highlight the disadvantages in terms of . . .
 Research by Smith et al. (2006, para. 36) validates the argument that . . .
 These findings illustrate the importance of Internet privacy as . . . (Brown, 2007;
Jackson, 2011)
 Brown and Peters (2013, pp. 3-5) describe Johnson’s findings as ‘disturbing’. . .
 Cleary (2009, para. 6) advocates for the rights of Internet users because . . .
 Joseph et al. (2010, p. 6) question all previous research on the subject in terms of
...
 TechTimes (2013, p. 73) discusses the reasons behind the increase in Internet
bullying by . . .
 Jones (2012) describes the findings as resting on irrefutable evidence.

Adapted from : https://aso-resources.une.edu.au/academic-writing/paragraphs/reporting-verbs-for-introducing-

authors/

52
Reminder: The following verbs are used to indicate that the writer makes strong arguments and claims
for the main idea:

argues, asserts, challenges, claims, contends, denies, emphasizes, maintains, negates, refutes, rejects,
supports the view that, strongly counters the view/ argument that, theorizes

Task 4: Circle the reporting verb that is correctly used in the citations below.
1. Boyce (2004) (analyzes / notes) that animals kept in captivity suffer from many aliments.
2. It is clear that Lam and Wong (2009) (confuse / imagine / dispute) animals used as food
(the / that / with) animals which are primarily used as pets.
3. Smith et al. (2010) have (discovered / investigated) that free range cattle live better lives than
those kept inside.
4. Some academics (estimate / point out) that meat is unhealthy, but Wong’s (2009) paper
(refutes / investigates / notes) this claim.
5. This paper (investigates / mentions) the effects of organic food on minor illnesses and
(decides / concludes) that further research be conducted as a matter of urgency.

Taken from
http://elss.elc.cityu.edu.hk/ELSS/Resource/Using%20Intext%20reference%20verbs%20(ICOSA%20version)/

Task 5: Read the citations below and correct the mistakes in the use of reporting verbs.
1. In Wong’s (2010) view, she maintains that playing computer games leads to sight
deterioration.
2. In their handbook, according to the BMA (2000) state that…
3. Smith (2016) agrees with Sharpling (2012) reporting verbs have subtle differences in
meaning.
4. According to Purvis (2005) explores the relevance of brands…
5. As Liu (2009) has shown that teenagers in Hong Kong are becoming addicted to ….
6. According to Gillard (2012), he indicated that her negative opinion of Abbott’s proposal.

2. Cite
The citations you use should contribute to the credibility of your arguments and they should not distort the
flow of your paper. To ensure this, use citations when you really need to support your arguments and do
not cite unnecessarily just for the sake of reaching the word count! Make sure that you use a citation of
proper length. An overabundance of long quotes usually means that your own argument is undeveloped.

53
3. Explain
Introducing the quote and just writing it is not enough. You need to comment on or evaluate the ideas you
use. If you do not do this, you will not be critical or analytical enough. Always provide your own reasoning
and analysis explaining the relevance and significance of the quote and its connection to your discussion.
This step is very important as it ties your quotation to the rest of your paper.

To do this, ask yourself the following questions:

 How might this author’s idea relate to my thesis?

 How does this data add to what I am trying to prove in this paragraph?
 Why am I using this quotation in my paper?
 What am I trying to show here?

Analyse the table below to see how the quote is explained:

As there are different situations, which require different styles of leadership, there are
also different roles of leaders that they need to have depending on the situation or the
people. Wasserberg claims that “the primary role of any leader is the unification of
people around key values” (as cited in Bush, 2000, p. 6). This is crucial because without
understanding the values of an organization, neither the leader nor the followers can
achieve success. The values they have and the vision they follow should be a shared,
organizational one.

Reminder: Discussing the significance of your evidence develops and expands your paper!

Below is an example of the ICE method at work in a paragraph:

In the beginning stages of the juvenile justice system,

it operated in accordance to a paternalistic I: Introduce & Integrate
philosophy. This can be understood through the
published words of Judge Julian Mack, who had a
hand in the establishment of the juvenile justice
system. In 1909, he stated that this system should
treat juveniles “as a wise and merciful father handles C: Cite
his own child” (as cited in Scott & Steinberg, 2008,
p.16). Judge Mack viewed juveniles as children first.
He envisioned a system that would protect and give
treatment to these young offenders so that they
could become productive adults, and saw no place E: Explain
for criminal responsibility and punishment within
this system.
Taken from https://awc.ashford.edu/PDFHandouts/Guidelines_for_Incorporating_Quotes_08.18.2015.pdf

54
Analyze the table below to see how the citations are integrated:

Ineffective Use of Citation More Effective Use of Citation

Direct Quote Today, Americans are too self-centered. Even our
Today, we are too self-centered. “We families do not matter as much anymore as they
are consumers-on-the-run . . . the once did. Other people and activities take
very notion of the family meal as a sit- precedence, as James Gleick (2013) says in his
down occasion is vanishing. Adults book, Faster. “We are consumers-on-the-run . . .
and children alike eat . . . on the way the very notion of the family meal as a sit-down
to their next activity” (Gleick, 2013, p. occasion is vanishing. Adults and children alike eat .
148). Everything is about what we . . on the way to their next activity” (p. 148). Sit-
want. down meals are a time to share and connect with
others; however, that connection has become less
valued, as families begin to prize individual
activities over shared time, promoting self-
centeredness over group identity.

Paraphrase Today, Americans are too self-centered. Even our

Today, we are too self-centered. families do not matter as much anymore as they
Most families no longer sit down to once did. Other people and activities take
eat together, preferring instead to eat precedence. In fact, the evidence shows that most
on the go while rushing to the next American families no longer eat together,
appointment (Gleick, 2013, p. 148). preferring instead to eat on the go while rushing to
Everything is about what we want. the next appointment (Gleick, 2013, p. 148). Sit-
down meals are a time to share and connect with
others; however, that connection has become less
valued, as families begin to prize individual
activities over shared time, promoting self-
centeredness over group identity.

Taken from: https://wts.indiana.edu/writing-guides/pdf/using-evidence.pdf

55
Task 6: Read the essay and the excerpts below and decide where in the essay the ideas in the excerpts
can be inserted. Then, integrate the ideas from the excerpts into the appropriate blanks by
quoting/paraphrasing/summarizing (Remember to use the ICE method while integrating the citations).

Prompt: Discuss why assignment essays are common assessment tasks in undergraduate tertiary
coursework, and evaluate the effectiveness of assignments as an avenue for learning. (Word limit: 500
words)

Essay:

Assignment essays are developed from set questions that give students a period of time to research
a topic and produce their answer with references to their sources of information. While there are some
disadvantages with using assignment essays as an assessment tool, there are sound educational purposes
underpinning this practice. This essay examines the reasons why assignment essays are beneficial for
student learning and considers some of the problems with this method of assessment.

Assignment essay tasks are set to assist students to develop mastery of their study subject. Firstly,
assignment tasks enhance understandings about subject matter. To master learning materials and extend
understandings, students need to write about the meanings they gain from their research. (1)
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________. Secondly,
research (Jinx, 2004; Zapper, 2006) clearly demonstrates that students learn the writing conventions of a
subject area while they are researching, reading and writing in their discipline. This activity helps them to
“crack the code” of the discipline (Bloggs, 2003, p. 44). Thus, students are learning subject matter and how
to write in that disciplinary area by researching and writing assignment essays.

Using assignment essays for assessment also supports student learning better than the traditional
examination system. It is considered that course-work assignment essays can lessen the extreme stress
experienced by some students over ‘sudden-death’ end of semester examinations. (2)
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________.
Additionally, Jones et al. (2004) propose that assignment essays can be used to assess student learning mid-
course and so provide them with helpful feedback before they are subjected to the exam experience. Exams
only provide students with a mark rather than specific feedback on their progress. Therefore, setting
assignment essays for a substantial part of student assessment is a much fairer approach than one-off
examination testing.

As an assessment tool, assignment essays have some disadvantages for lecturers and students. It
has been found that assignment essays consume a great deal of staff time and money to mark and student
56
time to prepare (Sankey & Liger, 2005). A consequence of these problems is that feedback to students is
frequently delayed, and this is much less useful to students than rapid feedback.
(3)_______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________. It is partly because of these disadvantages that other
assessments such as multiple-choice tests and short answer questions have an enduring place in the tertiary
learning environment.

To conclude, it seems that assignment essays continue to have a prominent role in tertiary
education as an assessment tool. This is mainly because they are very effective in developing knowledge
and writing skills for subject areas. Also, assignment essays can be less stressful than examinations as they
allow students to show their understanding of content in less pressured circumstances. On the other hand,
the time consuming nature of writing and marking essays points to some disadvantages that also need to
be considered. The weight of evidence, however, supports the writing of assignment essays for student
assessment because this approach has such positive and proven effects for improved student learning.

References

Bloggs, J. (2003). Linking teaching, learning and succeeding in higher education. London, UK.: Bookworld.

Jinx, J. M. (2004). Student essay writing. Journal of Research in University Education, 9(2), 114-125.

Jones, J., Smith, P. L., Brown, K., Zong, J., Thompson, K., & Fung, P. A. (2004). Helpline: Essays

and the university student. Tokyo, Japan: Courtyard Printers.

Sankey, J. M., & Liger, T. U. (2003). Learning to write essays [CD-ROM]. Sydney, Australia: Wonderland
University.

Zapper, Y. (2006). Learning essay writing. In F.T. Fax & Y. Phoney (Eds.), Learning Experiences at University
(pp. 55-70). Calcutta, India : Academic Scholar Press.

57
Excerpt 1:

A disadvantage of the traditional essay system is that often the carefully constructed instructor feedback
on the essay is not processed or even read by the students. Many students apparently read the instructor’s
feedback in only the most cursory fashion, or not at all. The latter is necessarily the case in the many
instances where students fail to pick up their marked essays.

Another growing disadvantage of the essay system is the ease of plagiarism ushered in by the Internet and
related digital information storage and transfer technologies. Although there are a variety of anti-plagiarism
services and techniques available, none are fool-proof, and the variety of digital essay sources available
provides a daunting problem for the classic essay system.

Other disadvantages for the traditional essay system include the substantial amount of paper used every
year to provide the medium for the transmission of essays, as well as the inconvenience of delivering,
receiving, filing, transporting, storing, and returning paper-based essays.

(Source: Smith, M. (2012). Can online peer review assignments replace essays in third year university
courses? And if so, what are the challenges? The Electronic Journal of e-Learning, 10 (1), 147-158.
Retrieved from www.ejel.org )

Excerpt 2:

If we insist that all students write about everything they have learned in their study courses at the same
time and in the same place (e.g., in examinations), we are not giving all of our students equal opportunities.
Some students are not daunted by the exam experience while others suffer ‘exam nerves’ and perform at
the lowest level of their capabilities.

(Source: Wonderland University. (2006). Attributes of a university graduate. doi:10.1098/063-112 p.4)

Excerpt 3:

It appears from the findings of this study that the assignment essay is the more appropriate form of
assessing students’ learning of this course since it provides students with the opportunity to develop higher
levels of thinking and learning skills during the process of essay writing and to demonstrate these skills in
terms of the quality of the end product. It allows students to demonstrate flexibility and exercise control
over their learning. Of particular importance are the findings that students were aware that higher order
intellectual skills were involved in essay writing (in contrast to preparing for MCQ examinations), and that
there was an association between this perception and their employment of deeper learning approaches.

58
(Source: Scouller, K. (1998). The influence of assessment method on students’ learning approaches:
Multiple choice question examination versus assignment essay. Higher Education, 35, 453-472. Retrieved
from http://eds.a.ebscohost.com/eds/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=0&sid=4b62aeb8-3a8d-4e6c-875b-
473dc01e0c07%40sessionmgr4009)

Effective Integration of Citations – Checklist  or X

I have established solid context and introduction for the quote.
My paper maintains smooth transition between the two voices (the voice of
the quoted author and my voice).
I explained the relation between the quote and my own argument.
I used reporting verbs appropriately.
Each quote is connected directly to either the point of the paragraph (check
topic sentence) or the thesis of the paper.
I explained why/how my evidence backs up my ideas.
I cited my sources correctly.

59
 MAKING INFERENCES

The notes you have jotted down helped you make inferences about the speakers’ points of view. That
way you made inferences about the speakers’ attitude towards reading devices. Making inferences is a
skill that we already use in daily life. We all make inferences based on some clues such as people’s facial
expressions, tone of voice, or body language. For instance, if your friend looks upset after an important
exam, you can infer that he found the exam difficult and could not show his best performance; or you
infer from dark, grey clouds overhead that it may not be a good idea to go out without an umbrella. In
each case, you make an “educated”, reasonable guess based on your observations, experiences and prior
knowledge. Making inferences is definitely required in everyday life but it is also required in academic life.
In academic life, making an inference means drawing your own conclusions about the unsaid based on
what is actually said; thus, it is a critical skill for reading comprehension.

When making inferences as a critical reader, you:

• deduce word meaning from context.

• find implied main ideas.

• recognize organizational patterns.

In order to do all these and thus to interpret a writer’s views on a topic, please note that your own
cultural background and assumptions play a major role.

For example:

“The secret to managing your child’s exposure to television lies in not obsessing over how many minutes
and hours of the day the television is on; instead, it requires having a consistent daily social routine that is
punctuated by sharing opportunities for media encounters.”

Possible valid inferences:

a) Children’s media exposure needs to be controlled.

b) Restricting television viewing by setting strict time periods for children to watch TV everyday will not
help parents to control their children’s viewing habits.

c) Turning the routine of watching TV into a social activity where parents and children could share ideas
related to what they watch will help parents to control their children.

Invalid inferences:

a) Children should not be let watch TV.

b) It is not the duration of TV exposure but the violent content that needs to be considered by the
parents.

60
TASK 1: Read the paragraphs below and write (T) next to the true inferences, (F) next to the false
ones and (NI) next to the statements if there is no such information in the text.

1. Television, whatever they say about it, has become a fundamental part of modern social life.
Obviously, it does not justify its banality. Potentially, it can do a lot for people; as an instrument of
communication, information and amusement. Its failings are not inherent in the tube, but are, in reality,
the failings of social life displayed in three dimensions. It is quite true that most television programmes
reflecting social life are noisy, mediocre and pointless, and they have become more so since the launch of
the “commercialized” television. But why single out television? Are not most radio programmes
unnecessarily full of empty talk? And most films, novels, papers and plays?

a. The writer believes that the main problem with TV is the content of the TV programmes.

b. Commercialization is the sole reason for the banality of TV.

c. Commercialization has had a negative impact on the quality of radio programmes.

d. The writer criticizes not only TV programmes but also the other media tools.

e. The writer disapproves of most radio programmes.

2. Enid Blyton and I spent many rainy days, hot summer afternoons and cool dark nights together, in
the corner of our shed, by the village pond, sometimes even up in my shaky treehouse where my teddy
bear accompanied us. I started with The Famous Five and graduated to The Secret Seven series ... I
learned about strawberry jam and marmalade, bacon and eggs for breakfast, about high-tea and
crumpets, about pretty girls with bright golden hair, and about gruff policemen that said 'Oi! Wot's going
On?'

a. Enid Blyton is a friend of the writer.

b. Enid Blyton introduced the writer to different worlds that she did not know before.

c. The writer received a diploma from The Secret Seven.

d. The relationship between Enid Blyton and the writer dates back to the days when the writer was a
teenager.

e. Enid Blyton and the writer used to have breakfast together.

f. The writer loves strawberry jam and marmalade.

3. The study in which I found myself was very large and lofty. The windows were long, narrow, and
pointed. Feeble gleams of day light made their way through the panes, and served to make the more
prominent objects around the eye sufficiently distinct, however, struggled in vain to reach the remoter
angles of the room. Dark curtains hung upon the walls. I was possessed by a chilling feeling that the
ghosts of the past were haunting me. The general furniture was comfortless, antique, and worn. Many
books lay scattered around but failed to give any vitality to the scene. An air of stern, deep, and
irredeemable gloom hung over and pervaded all.

61
a. The writer accidentally visits this room.

b. There were ghosts in the room.

c. The room is not well-lit.

d. The writer is not very fond of the room he enters.

e. The writer does not like books.

4. Shifting shopping habits in the new dawning century have led to uneven fortunes for retailers.
More and more consumer companies of the previous era now struggle as their annual revenues decline.
The problem is more evident during the pivotal shopping season, the period between December and
February when most retailers make almost half of their annual revenues. Some put the blame on the
uncertain economy for consumers’ spending more cautiously; financial strains of the world economy are
regarded as the sole responsible for this unfortunate picture. According to research firms investigating the
shopping trends, however, the changes in consumer behaviour explains the fall in retail foot traffic. Fewer
people are in and out of stores because rather than heading to stores, consumers of the 21st century
increasingly buy online, which help online shopping to flourish and thus take the place of the joyful
activity of shopping.

a. The writer believes that the cause of fall in the annual revenues is the uncertain economy.

b. Retailers make less profit in the period between December and February.

c. As people shop less from stores, there is less traffic congestion.

d. Retailers greatly suffer from changing shopping habits of consumers.

e. The writer longs for the good old days when consumers used to shop from stores.

62
 UNDERSTANDING WRITING PROMPTS
Much of the student writing at university level is prompted by an assignment, an essay or exam question.
If the prompt (set of directions telling you what to write) is not fully understood, students tend to write
either a great deal of information which does not answer the question at all or provide an insufficient or
incorrect answer although their knowledge of the subject matter is adequate. Therefore, in order to fulfil
the requirements of the task, you must learn to analyse the prompt before responding to it.

ANALYZING THE PROMPT AND PLANNING THE ANSWER

Before you begin writing your response, you need to analyse the prompt to make sure you understand it.
Once you analyse and understand what the prompt asks you to write, do not directly start writing. Always
spend some time for planning in order to better organize your ideas and present your answer in an effective
way.

To do this, go through the following 4 steps:

Step 1 - Read the prompt carefully .

Step 2 - Underline key words.

Step 3: Brainstorm all your ideas and arrange them in groups.

Step 4: Put all of your ideas together in a coherent and well-organized manner.

Step 1 - Read the prompt carefully to make sure you understand what is being asked of you.

Step 2 - Underline key words that indicate task expectations.

There are important clues in writing prompts that signal the type of the answer and thereby the purpose.
These words indicate the form of writing required, and they make it easier to organize your answer. Here
are some key words (directive words/instruction words) to look for:

63
Adapt requires an answer that shows how a concept/subject/theory/idea can be used in another
context or can be modified to fit a new/different context.
Argue requires an answer presenting facts and reasons that support and justify your
opinion/stance/position.
Account for requires an answer that explains or clarifies an issue or that gives reasons for something.
Analyze requires an answer that explains an idea or concept in a step by step approach,
considering all the concepts and examining the issues critically (requires an analytical type
of writing).
Compare requires an answer that tells how two things are alike stating similarities and differences
between objects, concepts or ideas.
Comment requires an answer that gives main points and your own opinion along with relevant
on/upon evidence and/or logical reasoning.
Contrast requires an answer that emphasizes only the differences or dissimilarities or distinguishing
features.
Consider requires an answer that provides describing and giving thoughts.
Criticize requires an answer that makes judgements by pointing out the weaknesses and proving
evidence.
Define requires an answer that includes an exact meaning of a word, term or a concept (usually
includes an extended definition).
Demonstrate requires an answer that shows how (examples/stages/logical order/factors).
Describe requires an answer giving a detailed account of something including its traits,
characteristics, qualities, explaining what something is like.
Discuss requires an answer that includes an explanation of a concept and points out different sides
of the issue (pros/cons, advantages/disadvantages etc.) with supports and examples and
explores implications and conclusions.
Elaborate requires an answer that gives more information on a subject with more details.
Evaluate/assess requires an answer that determines the value of a piece of evidence, statement or fact.
The judgement should be supported with evidence.
Explain requires an answer that gives reasons for or justifications of something and details of how
and why something occurs.
Explore requires an answer that dwells deeply on a subject considering the details and different
perspectives.
Identify requires an answer that determines what key points are.
Illustrate requires an answer that provides examples to make a particular issue/ point/ subject clear
and explicit.
Interpret requires an answer that explains and makes an issue clear by giving a judgement or
opinion.
Justify requires an answer that gives reasons for and responses to the possible oppositions.
List requires an answer that briefly gives topics/points in numerical, developmental, or
chronological order.
Outline requires an answer that gives main features/principles of the subject by listing only the
main and subordinate parts in short phrases or sentences. No elaboration needed.
Prove requires an answer that provides reasons and examples to support assertions including
factual evidence and research.

64
 Refer requires an answer in which a specific idea/subject/theory/citation is mentioned/used
while explaining.
Relate requires an answer that shows the connections between two or more things/ideas.
Review requires an answer that provides a critical assessment by looking into a subject
thoroughly.
State requires an answer that provides necessary/relevant points clearly and briefly.
Summarize requires an answer that contains only the main points avoiding the details.
Trace requires an answer that gives a brief description in logical or chronological order of the
stages/steps/development of something.
To what extent/ requires an answer that discusses and explains in what ways something is true or not.
How far

To define the scope and length of the answer, the question may include one or more of the following
words as well:

role concept concise (short/brief) in relation to

function criteria implication(s) in context of (referring to)

factor scope limitation(s) with/by reference to

example significance deduction valid/validity

Read the sample prompts below and study how key words in the prompts could be

interpreted.

65
 Prompt 1:

Give details of the theories in a

few sentences (like an
introduction to your answer).

Briefly explain “media effects theories”

and identify how each of these theories
can be used today. To what extent do Explain the way
advertisements affect
advertisements influence the way a actions of a person.
person acts towards someone or
something? Explain by referring to
“symbolic interactionism theory” with
examples.

Explain in what ways these theories

can be used today and give
examples while explaining.
Give examples while explaining this in
relation to/by considering symbolic
interactionism theory.

66
Prompt 2:

Write what PBL is in a few State similarities and differences

sentences including only the of PBL and TBL.
main points.

Summarize Project Based Learning. Compare and contrast this with Task-Based Learning.
Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of each. How would you adapt them to your own
teaching situation?

Explain strengths and weaknesses of Explain how you would use them in your
each theory providing evidence. own teaching by justifying how they would
be applied into your context.

Task 1: Look at the following prompts and analyze them in the same way as in examples above.
Underline the key words and discuss with a partner what the student is expected to write.

Prompt 1:

Dissonance theory has been extremely important in shaping the field of social psychology.
What are the central propositions of the theory? Under what circumstances do we expect
cognitive dissonance to occur? Give an example of how you might use the theory to
persuade a colleague to agree with your opinion of a political candidate.

Prompt 2:

Discuss the changes in Turkish society that took place after World War I. How do you think
these changes have shaped contemporary Turkish culture?

67
Prompt 3:

Define a scenario test and describe the characteristics of a good scenario test. Imagine developing a set of
scenario tests for the Outlining feature of the word processing module of Open Office. What research would
you do in order to develop a series of scenario tests for Outlining? Describe two scenario tests that you
would use and explain why each is a good test. Explain how these tests would relate to your research.

Prompt 4:

Write an essay in which you explain why diversity is, or is not, important to the success of society. Is diversity
more critical in certain situations but less important in other situations? Explain your point of view while
also making reference to the text.

Prompt 5:

What makes you want to buy a product? Is it peer influence, cultural pressure, or social status? Do
generational marketing techniques, like the ones described by Rushkoff, influence you? Write an essay
exploring the way advertising targets specific age groups. Support your essay with information from this
article, as well as your own consumer experience.

Prompt 6:

What is the difference between a conductor and an insulator? Give experimental evidence for the
descriptions that you give, and try to account for these descriptions using a microscopic model of the
material.

See Appendix 4 for further practice.

68
Step 3: Brainstorm all your ideas and arrange them in groups as it is impossible to include
everything in your answer. Then, choose the ideas focusing precisely on the question.

For this, you can make use of the following visual plans:

Taken from: https://www.hmhco.com/~/media/sites/home/education/disciplines/language-arts/homeschool/write-

source-homeschool/samplers/g9_sampler.pdf?la=en

Step 4: Put all of your ideas together in a coherent and well-organized manner.
In your answer,

- address the question by stating the topic and controlling idea(s)

- build your argument

Reminder: If you are answering in an essay format, you need to formulate a thesis statement
depending on the prompt.

69
 SAMPLE QUESTION ANALYSIS
SHORT ANSWER

Task 2: Study the prompt and its answer below considering the following questions.

Prompt

Define the term epidemiological study? Why are such studies important in nutrition science?

Sample Answer

The term epidemiological study refers to the studies on human populations, which attempt to
link human health effects (e.g., diseases) to a cause (e.g., exposure to certain chemicals). The
most common types of epidemiological research are cross-sectional studies, case-control
studies, and cohort studies. It is important for nutrition science because it can find the
relationship between the food consumed and how healthy those people who consumed the
food are. It also collects data over time to find the impacts of some nutrients on some diseases.
Therefore, it can give an idea about how nutrients affect human health in certain areas and
people having special conditions.

1. Has the student answered the question completely? Are all the parts of the question
answered?

2. How has the student organized the answer in line with the question?

3. Has the student used an academic style? If yes, please give examples.

70
Task 3: Study the prompt and analyse the two sample answers below considering the following
questions.

Prompt
Define standardized tests. Explain the main purpose of standardized testing. How do standardized
tests influence students’ life and their perception of success? (max 300 hundred words)

Sample Answer 1
Standardized testing is a fair and objective assessment measure of student ability. In a
standardized test there are equivalent questions, the test is taken under similar conditions, and
the scoring is done fairly. A good example of this is the SAT exam, given in the United States, which
was introduced in 1926 to assess students’ readiness for college. The SAT consists of the same
sections for everyone who takes it: all the students are given the same amount of time, the
procedure is always done the same, and the scoring is uniform. There are many different types
of standardized tests such as achievement tests, aptitude tests, college-admission tests,
international-comparison tests, and psychological tests. There are controversial views on the
benefits of standardized tests; for example, some critics of such tests argue that they are
misleading indicators of student learning since they can only evaluate a narrow range of
achievement. Another criticism is that standardized tests are unfair because they ignore multiple-
intelligence theory and have the same expectation from each and every student.

1. Has the student answered the question completely? Are all the parts of the question
answered?

2. How has the student organized the answer in line with the question?

3. Has the student used an academic style? If yes, please give examples.

71
Sample Answer 2
A standardized test is any form of testing that requires all test takers to answer the same
questions, or a selection of equivalent questions from a common bank of question. Such exams
are administered to large populations of students and are scored in a standard or consistent
manner which makes it possible to compare the performance of students. Standardized tests may
be given for a wide variety of educational purposes. They may be used to determine students’
readiness for a particular level of education, to identify students with special needs, place
students in different academic programs or course levels, or to award diplomas and other
education certificates. Even though there are pragmatic benefits of such large-scale tests,
standardized tests are not without their flaws; in fact, they have serious negative impact on test
takers. One negative criticism directed at standardized tests is that students orient their lives
entirely around the impending test and spend a lot of time on test preparation, which lead to an
impoverished, if not dead, social life. Another consequence of standardized tests is a shift in
students’ perception of success. Students may wrongly associate success with high scores, which
is problematic because such tests, which are mostly comprised of multiple-choice questions, fail
to raise creative free-thinkers or problem-solvers. Takers of standardized tests may also
eventually prioritize higher test scores with genuine success and thereby favor memorization over
learning.

1. Has the student answered the question completely? Are all the parts of the question
answered?

2. How has the student organized the answer in line with the question?

3. Has the student used an academic style? If yes, please give examples.

72
 APPENDIX 1
PATTERNS OF ORGANIZATION

Paragraphs can be developed in many different ways. It is the writer’s responsibility to make the
paragraph structure and organization clear for the reader. In order to do that, there are various
organizational patterns to develop main ideas in paragraphs, essays and more. These patterns
are important in that they signal how the facts/ideas will be presented.

REMINDER: Although key signal words help to identify the particular type of pattern, a single paragraph
can be a mixture of different patterns.

The table below demonstrates common patterns of organization:

Pattern of Key Language

organization
Definition Defined as, is, known, is used to mean, for example, to illustrate, for
instance, such as
Order of Central, principal, chief, major, main, key, primary, significant, finally,
importance lastly, most important

Chronological first, third, next, finally, eventually, following this how to, in the process
(Time) Order or of, the following steps, previously, after, afterward
Sequence
Comparison - Similarly, like, in the same way, compared to, likewise, but, yet, on the
Contrast other hand, nevertheless, on the contrary, as opposed to, conversely,
although, rather than, different from, while
Cause and Effect Because, for this reason, due to, on account of, as a result, since
consequently, resulting, result in/from, accordingly, therefore, thus
Classification Categories, classifications, groups, classes, elements, features, kinds,
types, varieties, methods, traits, characteristics
Problem solution Problem, need, difficulty, dilemma, challenge, issue, answer, propose,
suggest, indicate, solve, resolve, plan
Evidence and As an illustration, for example, for instance, once, such as, to illustrate
illustration
Listing In addition, moreover, furthermore, as well as, plus, in fact, also, next,
second

Read the following excerpts to see different patterns of organization.

73
Pattern of Example
organization
Definition & Cholera is an intestinal infection that can be described according to its cause, symptoms, and
explanation treatment. Cholera is caused by a bacterium, called Vibrio cholera. Contaminated food, water,
or faeces can result in the rapid spread of this disease. Patients who have been exposed to the
disease may exhibit mild to extreme symptoms. The primary signs are watery diarrhea and loss
of water and salts. Other symptoms include clammy skin, wrinkled hands and feet, sunken eyes
and a dry mouth. If the severe diarrhoea is not treated, it can be life-threatening because of
dehydration and electrolyte imbalances. Possible treatments for cholera can include oral or
intravenous replacement of fluids and salts as well as certain antibiotics. Prompt and
appropriate treatment appears to significantly reduce the mortality rate and suffering.

Taken from aso-resources.une.edu.au

The life and death of a star begins somewhere in space. Astronomers claim that a star begins as
Chronological
a cloud of hydrogen and helium. As the cloud moves about it collects bits of dust and more
(Time) Order or floating gases. Then the cloud begins to warm as more dust and gases are pulled into it. After a
Sequence long period of time as the cloud becomes denser, heat and friction cause the atoms to explode.
That is how a star is born. The star will burn for about ten billion years as it radiates heat and
energy. When the hydrogen begins to burn out the star becomes even larger. At this stage, it
gives off a lot of light but not much energy. The star may continue to burn brightly but dies when
it runs out of hydrogen. This is the life cycle of a star.

Taken from sponsoravillage.ca

Comparison - Although West/Central Africa’s drinking-water coverage improved from 49 per cent in 1990 to
Contrast 55 per cent in 2004, it needs to reach a far target of 75 per cent by 2015. The total number of
people in the region without access to improved drinking-water sources actually increased over
the 1990–2004 period. In Eastern/Southern Africa, the situation for access to drinking water is
similar, as the region improved coverage from 48 per cent in 1990 to 56 per cent in 2004 but
faces a target of 74 per cent. In CEE/CIS, meanwhile, coverage has stagnated at 91 per cent; its
2015 goal is 96 per cent.

Taken from unicef.org

Cause and Headaches can have several causes. One obvious cause is stress. People have hectic lives and
Effect frequently have multiple stressors everyday, like work, family and money. Another reason for
headaches in some people has to do with diet. Some get headaches because they are
dependent on caffeine. Other people may be allergic to salt, or they may have low blood
sugar. The environment can also cause this uncomfortable condition. Allergens such as
household chemicals including polishes, waxes, bug killers, and paint can lead to headaches.
Lowering stress, controlling your diet and avoiding allergens can help avoid headaches.

Taken from academic.pgcc.edu

Because of new policies and the new data about the epidemiology of TB-HIV in the Region, the
Western Pacific Regional Office recognized that updates to the previous regional framework
were needed. The goal of this updated framework is, therefore, to draw on global documents,

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 along with relevant recently published evidence, to improve TB-HIV control through the
Classification & following primary means. First, national TB programmes and national AIDS programmes need to
work collaboratively to decrease the case-fatality rate for persons with both TB and HIV through
Listing
earlier detection of TB and HIV and appropriate management of people with both. Second, as
one of the steps to achieve this, new approaches are needed to improve the rates of HIV testing
among TB patients and of TB screening among people living with HIV. Third, TB laboratories
must be expanded to meet the challenges of diagnosing TB and drug-resistant TB in people
living with HIV. Finally, TB infection control measures must be scaled up to prevent transmission
of disease within health facilities, a step made even more important in the era of multidrug-
resistant (MDR) TB and extensively drug- resistant (XDR) TB.

Taken from www.wpro.who.int

Problem Deforestation is a serious problem because forests and trees aren’t just pretty to look at, they
solution do an important job making the earth’s envrionment suitable for life. They clean the air, store
water, preserve soil, and provide homes for animals. They also supply food, fuel, wood
products, and paper products for humans. In the past fifty years, more than half of the world’s
rainforests have been destroyed. Today, the forest of the world are being cut down at a rate of
fifty acres every minute! Scientists say that if deforestation continues, the world’s climate may
change, floods may become more common, and animals will die.
One solution to the problem of deforestation is to use less paper. If you use less paper, fewer
trees will be cut for paper making. How can you use less paper? One answer is to reduce your
paper use by using both sides of the paper when you photocopy, write a leer, or write an essay.
A second answer is to reuse old paper when you can, rather than using a new sheet of paper.
The backs of old envelopes are perfect for shopping lists or phone messages, and when you
write a rough draft of an essay, write it on the back of something else. A final answer is to
recycle used paper products instead of throwing them away. Most schools, offices, and districts
have some kind of recycling center. If you follow the three RS – reduce, reuse, and recycle – you
can help save the world’s forests.
Taken from www.udesantiagovirtual.cl
Evidence and Smoking is directly connected to dangerous health problems. According to the Centers for
illustration Disease and Control, smoking is the cause of almost 500,000 deaths a year in the United States.
The CDC also states, “more deaths are caused each year by tobacco use than by all deaths from
human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), illegal drug use, alcohol use, motor vehicle injuries,
suicides, and murders combined”. Evidence clearly shows that smoking is dangerous to an
individual’s health and with such negative consequences, it is difficult to believe that any
university would support such a death sentence. Not only does smoking cause serious health
problems for the individual, but it also effects others who choose not to smoke.
Taken from utoledo.edu
Listing There are at least three ways to organize a paragraph. The first is to follow a structure where
you make a main point develop it with an explanation and then illustrate it with an example.
The second is to list separate points that connect to the main ideas stated in the topic sentence.
The third is the compare and contrast paragraph in which you examine the relationship
between two different ideas.
Taken from dcielts.com

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 APPENDIX 2
Contrast

• however • on the other hand • conversely • in contrast

• nonetheless • yet • in spite of • while
• nevertheless • even so • despite • whereas
• although • even though • as opposed to • still
• on the contrary

• John worked hard. In contrast, Mary hardly did any work at all.
• Some people think that through knowledge is not necessary in forming opinions; on the
contrary, it is the most basic requirement for informed opinions.
• Six is more than five; conversely, five is less than six.
• She studied diligently for several months. Nevertheless/However/Yet/Nonetheless, she failed.
• The identity of the attacker is known to the police. However/Nevertheless, no name has been
released.
• Test results indicate that, although our students can perform basic skills well, they are not doing
well on critical thinking.
• The identity of the attacker is known to the police. A name has still not been released.
• George is very handsome. Yet, he is not popular with girls.
• My uncle is 70 years old now. Nonetheless, he maintains his interest in legal matters.
• I prefer city life, whereas John prefers country life.
• I prefer city life as opposed to country life.
• It’s raining. Even so, we must go out.
• Even though I don’t agree with him, I think he is honest.
• In spite of the importance of cognition, feeling and volition as functions of the mind, it is
cognition, or thinking, which is the key to the other two.
• Despite his desperate need for money, he made no effort to economize.

Result

• as a consequence • accordingly • hence • thus

• as a result • consequently • therefore • for this reason

• He passed his exams. Therefore/Thus/Hence/Accordingly/Consequently, he had some good news to

tell his parents.
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• Professor Brown is an outstanding scientist. Hence, he is highly respected.
• He has been studying hard for a long time. Thus, he has made considerable progress.
• He lacks self-confidence. As a consequence, he is unlikely to be successful.
• The demand has increased sharply. Accordingly, the prices are higher now.

Addition and Listing

 Also  Further  Furthermore

 Besides  Moreover  In addition

 first (firstly, first of all, to  secondly (second, in  thirdly (third, in the

begin with, in the first the second place), third place
place, for one thing for another thing  finally, lastly, last of
all

• Karl plays football Moreover/Besides/Also, he runs a restaurant.

• Heather writes short stories. In addition, she writes articles for a newspaper.
• To prepare his homework, Jack went through various history books. Furthermore, he took notes
from several encyclopedias.
• During her spare time, Ayla practices the piano; in addition, she plays the violin.
• I prefer to buy fruits and vegetables in the open market because they are quite cheap there.
Besides, they are much fresher than fruits and vegetables sold at the greengrocers’.
• Living in a big city offers good job opportunities. Also, it provides good educational
opportunities.
• Dustin does not have a gift for music. Moreover, he lacks motivation to practice music.
Therefore, he can’t become a good musician.
• Owning a car has some advantages. First (First of all/Firstly/To begin with), it gives you
comfort. Secondly, it saves you a lot of time. Thirdly, it gives you great freedom of movement.

Time
211

• at first • in the meantime • later

• afterwards • then • meanwhile

• I read the morning papers for a while. Afterwards, I took a shower.

• First pick up the receiver and then insert a coin into the coin-box.
• At first, I had great difficulty with grammar. Later, however, I was able to overcome these
difficulties by studying hard.
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• The party is Tuesday, but in the meantime I have to shop and prepare the food.
• They’ll be here soon. Meanwhile, let’s have coffee.

Exemplification

• for instance • for example • to illustrate

• Women generally live longer than men. For instance, in the United States life expectancy for women
is 75, while it is 73 for men.
• Earthquakes can be highly destructive. To illustrate, the earthquake which occurred in
Erzincan in 1939 devastated the whole town, killing more than 35,000 people.

Particularization

• in particular • particularly • specifically

• Shopping in small markets is quite advantageous. In particular, one can find specialty items that
larger stores do not contain.
• We still needed to arrange several details for the trip. Specifically, we had to make plane and train
reservations as well as decide on the final itinerary.

Explanation

• that is to say • namely • in other words

• that is

• The brochure dealt with traveling in Morocco. That is / In other words/ Namely, it discussed
transportation, currency, and language.

Similarity

• likewise • correspondingly • in the same way

• similarly • by the same token

• Men must wear a jacket and a tie; similarly, women must wear a skirt or a dress, not
trousers.
• She was late and I similarly was delayed.

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 • You can’t teach navigation in the middle of a storm. Likewise, you can’t build a system of
values in the current educational climate.

Emphasis

• in fact • as a matter • actually

• indeed • of fact

• He is quite wealthy. In fact, he is one of the richest men in Turkey.

• I like reading. As a matter of fact, it is my favourite pastime.
• Andrew is a highly talented musician. Indeed, he has an extraordinary gift for music.

Reformulation

• in other words • to put it in a different way • put differently

• He is a conservative. In other words, he favors the preservation of old institutions in their original
form.
• Is there a cheaper solution? In other words, can you make a cheaper device?

Correction

• rather • to be more precise

• He is enjoying himself. Rather, he seems to be enjoying himself.

• This system must be improved. Rather, it must be thoroughly changed.

Transition

• Regarding • as for • with respect to

• with regard to • as to • concerned
• as far as X is • as regards

• Both David and Sean are my friends. Sean studies law at Harvard. As for David, he studies mechanical
engineering.
• As far as comfort is concerned, a car is definitely much better than a bicycle. On the other hand, with
respect to convenience, it is difficult to say the same thing.

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 • METU and ITU are similar in several respects (=ways). First, they are both technical universities.
Secondly, they are alike as regards to the courses offered.
• The Sony stereo, which is $550, is much more expensive than the Grundig stereo, which is $440.
However, as far as quality is concerned (With regard to/As regards quality), the former is far better than
the latter.

Negative Condition

• or else • otherwise

• I must leave now, or else I’ll be late.

• You must study hard. Otherwise, you may fail.

Summation/Conclusion

• In summary • in short • to sum up

• to be brief • in conclusion • all in all
• in brief

• This is our most disastrous and embarrassing defeat ever; in short, it is a fiasco.
• The system lacked originality, efficiency and ingenuity. In conclusion, it was a complete failure.

Other Sentence Connectors

• after all: considering all the factors in the situation

I don’t think he should be punished for breaking the window. After all, he’s only five years old.
• incidentally/by the way (used to introduce an additional point that the speaker has just thought of)
Some people, and incidentally that includes Robert, just won’t look after themselves properly.
• above all: more than anything else
He misses all of us, but he longs above all to see his family again.
• all the same: even so, nevertheless, in any case
I like him; all the same, I don’t trust him
• anyway, anyhow, in any case
I wasn’t asked; anyway/anyhow/in any case, I wasn’t keen to go.
• instead (used to indicate contrast)
Mary did not answer. Instead, she looked out of the taxi window.
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 APPENDIX 3
STYLE - Using tentative language (hedging)
Below is a list of expressions that could help you to formulate tentative sentences:

Expressions that distance the author from a Expressions for being cautious when giving
claim: explanations
It is thought that … It may be….
It is believed that … It is likely
It has been reported that … It could be
It is a widely held view that … It is possible
It is probable
It has commonly been assumed that …
It is almost certain
According to Smith (2002), …
A likely explanation is that
According to recent reports, … A probable explanation is that
According to many in the field … A possible explanation is that
Many scholars hold the view that …
Smith (2001) holds the view that …
Recent research has suggested that …
There is some evidence to suggest that …
Expressions for discussing findings and Expressions for being cautious when explaining
implications results
These data must be interpreted with caution This inconsistency may be due to …
because … This discrepancy could be attributed to …
These results do not rule out the influence of A possible explanation for this might be that …
other factors in … This rather contradictory result may be due to …
This account must be approached with some It seems possible that these results are due to …
caution because … The observed increase in X could be attributed to
…
It is important to bear in mind the possible bias
The possible interference of X cannot be ruled
in these responses.
out …
The findings of this study suggest that …
There are several possible explanations for this
One possible implication of this is that …
result.
Taken together, these results suggest that …
There are two likely causes for the differences
The evidence from this study suggests that …
between …
The data reported here appear to support the
A possible explanation for these results may be
assumption that …
the lack of adequate …
The findings from these studies suggest that X
can have an effect on
Expressions for avoiding over-generalizations Expressions for being cautious when writing
In general, this requires … about the future
In general terms, this means … It is likely
Xs use generally accepted principles to … It is possible
X is generally assumed to play a role in … It is almost certain
Authors generally place an emphasis on … There is a possibility
Generally accepted methods for X include: …

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X tends to ….. There is a small chance
There is a tendency for X to…. There is a strong possibility
X often/generally/sometimes

Adapted from: http://www.phrasebank.manchester.ac.uk/using-cautious-language/

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 APPENDIX 4
Understanding Writing Prompts
Optional Task: In pairs, analyse the sample prompts/questions and discuss how they can be
answered.

1. Illustrate the diversity of anaerobic bacteria by reference to mechanism of energy

generation.
2. Discuss the implications of the Milgram Experiment for understanding individuals’
behavior in situations involving authority.
3. Write an analysis essay that explores the reasons why identity theft has become such
a popular crime. What specific aspects of our society and daily routines make identity
theft such an easy crime to commit?
4. Volunteer to do some charity work for an organization. Then, write a narrative of
your experiences with the organization. Your narrative should do more than simply
summarize your experience. It should also offer an account of what you have learnt
from the experience.
5. Research the economic development of Vietnam since the end of the Vietnam War.
Then, write an informative report that details the economic road the country has
taken since the end of the war.
6. In a well-developed essay, respond to the following quotation:
“I cannot teach anybody anything, I can only make them think.” Socrates
7. List two features of existentialism that are shared by another philosophy and list two
features that differ. Then, write a comparison-contrast essay about the two
philosophies.
8. Choose one area of substantive personal interest and illustrate in some depth how
one or more of the following areas might help to focus research issues in the field:
a. Attribution theory
b. Behaviorism
c. Expectancy theory
d. Maslow's theory of human development
9. Human beings often speculate on the causes of others’ behavior. What are some of
the social and individual consequences of the types of attributions we make?
10. “Acid rain” is a phenomenon we have become aware of in the last twenty-five years.
Explain the effects of acid rain on the environment.
11. Evaluate the contributions of United Nations in promoting world peace and security.
How valid is the criticism of “The Guardian” on the achievements of U.N.?
12. Write a paper that explores the relationship between self esteem and work. To what
extent is one’s self esteem connected with one’s work? Use specific details and
examples to support your opinion.
13. What are some of the errors and pitfalls that occur when people are trying to
understand social environment? How costly or problematic are these errors?
14. Account for the large-scale immigration into Malaya in the late 19th Century.
15. Outline the requirements as to 'locus standi' in relation to injunctives and declaratives.

83
16. To what extent is an understanding of the various approaches to industrial relations
useful in allowing us to make better sense of the changing nature of the employment
relationship?
17. Summarise the main requirements of the law in respect to the employer-employee relations.

84