systems

Article
Designing and Integrating a Digital Thread System
for Customized Additive Manufacturing in
Multi-Partner Kayak Production
Euan Bonham 1 , Kerr McMaster 1 , Emma Thomson 1 , Massimo Panarotto 2, * ,
Jakob Ramon Müller 2 , Ola Isaksson 2 and Emil Johansson 3
1 Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of Strathclyde, 75 Montrose St,
Glasgow G1 1XJ, UK; [email protected] (E.B.);
[email protected] (K.M.); [email protected] (E.T.)
2 Department of Industrial and Materials Science, Chalmers University of Technology,
Chalmersplatsen 4, 412 96 Gothenburg, Sweden; [email protected] (J.R.M.);
[email protected] (O.I.)
3 RISE IVF, Argongatan 30, 431 22 Mölndal, Sweden; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]




Received: 27 September 2020; Accepted: 5 November 2020; Published: 10 November 2020


Abstract: Additive manufacturing (AM) opens the vision of decentralised and individualised
manufacturing, as a tailored product can be manufactured in proximity to the customers with minimal
physical infrastructure required. Consequently, the digital infrastructure and systems solution
becomes substantially more complex. There is always a need to design the entire digital system so
that different partners (or stakeholders) access correct and relevant information and even support
design iterations despite the heterogenous digital environments involved. This paper describes how
the design and integration of a digital thread for AM can be approached. A system supporting a
digital thread for AM kayak production has been designed and integrated in collaboration with a
kayak manufacturer and a professional collaborative product lifecycle management (PLM) software
and service provider. From the demonstrated system functionality, three key lessons learnt are
clarified: (1) The need for developing a process model of the physical and digital flow in the early
stages, (2) the separation between the data to be shared and the processing of data to perform
each parties’ task, and (3) the development of an ad-hoc digital application for the involvement of
new stakeholders in the AM digital flow, such as final users. The application of the digital thread
system was demonstrated through a test of the overall concept by manufacturing a functional and
individually customised kayak, printed remotely using AM (composed of a biocomposite containing
20% wood-based fibre).

Keywords: additive manufacturing; digital thread; design automation

1. Introduction
Compared to conventional subtractive manufacturing, additive manufacturing (AM)
has numerous benefits, including minimising material waste and an increased capability to make quick
and highly individualised customisations to a product [1]. Additionally, AM provides the opportunity
for decentralised production, as the product can be printed wherever an AM machine is located.
Manufacturing the product in close vicinity to the customer has the potential to minimise delivery
time and cost, as well as reduce associated carbon emissions [2]. Such a decentralised approach to
manufacturing can be enabled by digital technologies, which allow different parties to contribute to
the manufacturing process. For example, a vision in the kayak manufacturing industry [3] is to allow

Systems 2020, 8, 43; doi:10.3390/systems8040043 www.mdpi.com/journal/systems

 Systems 2020, 8, 43 2 of 17
Systems 2020, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 17

users
[3] is to customise
to allow users totheir kayaks through
customise a Userthrough
their kayaks Interfacea(UI) (Figure
User 1) and
Interface communicate
(UI) (Figure 1) through
and
a central database. Such information can be used by the original equipment manufacturer
communicate through a central database. Such information can be used by the original equipment (OEM)
to communicate
manufacturer (OEM)with local AM providers
to communicate in the
with local AMproximity
providersofinthe
theuser, who can
proximity of then manufacture
the user, who can and
deliver the kayak to the user.
then manufacture and deliver the kayak to the user.

Figure 1. Vision for distributed and multi-party kayak production. The locations on the map are
Figure 1. Vision foronly.
demonstrative distributed and multi-party kayak production. The locations on the map are
demonstrative only.
This approach has been covered in a previous research paper [4]; however, this previous research
This approach
required has been
significantly covered
improved in a previous
methods researchintegration
and multi-party paper [4];techniques
however, tothis previous
bring it closer to
research required significantly
commercialisation standards. improved methods and multi-party
These improvements are presented integration techniques to bring it
in this paper.
closer to commercialisation
Despite the benefits standards.
of such a These
vision,improvements
one key challenge are presented
brought by in this paper.
customisation is that every
Despite theproduct
individual benefits is of suchalong
traced a vision, one keychain
the supply challenge
due tobrought by customisation
quality assurance is thatissues.
and warranty every It is
individual
important product
to know is traced
where along
and the
howsupply chain due
each product hastobeen
quality assurance
designed. and warranty
Additionally, issues.
in such It
a context,
is important to know where and how each product has been designed. Additionally,
it is important to catalogue and trace all parties’ contributions through the design and manufacturing in such a context,
it is important
process. For to catalogue
example, and trace all parties’
the transfer contributions
of production based on through the design
individual and manufacturing
specifications from the OEM
process. For providers
to local example, the posestransfer
seriousof production
concerns for based on individual
manufacturing specifications
repeatability, from
and it isthe OEM to that
important
localfaulty
providers poses serious
components concerns
can quickly for manufacturing
be traced to source [5].repeatability,
Rarely are theand it is important
conditions the same thatfor
faulty
different
components can quickly
printing locations. be traced
Another to source
challenge is to[5]. Rarely
ensure thatare conditions
all the partners usethethesame
most for different
current data and
printing locations.
can react quickly Another
as changes challenge is to ensure
are made. As in thisthat all the
case, the partners
customisationuse the most current
procedure is an data
actualanddesign
can react
step, quickly
requiring as several
changessteps are made. As in
to assure this
the case, the
validity customisation
of the procedure
specific instance beingisdesigned.
an actual design
step, requiringDue toseveral steps toofassure
the novelty the validity
AM, there is a needof the
to specific
design instance being designed.
how different parties (or stakeholders)
Due toinformation
access the novelty of andAM, there is
models, sucha need
thattothey
design
canhow different
access partiesinformation
appropriate (or stakeholders)
at the access
right time.
information
Additionally, and theremodels, such to
is a need that theysuch
design cana access
system appropriate
in a streamlined information
and ideally at automated
the right way, time.such
Additionally,
that it is notthere is a intensive.
labour need to design In thissuch a system
context, in a streamlined
the notion and ideally
of digital thread automated
[6] is becoming way,
increasingly
suchimportant
that it is among
not labour AM intensive.
manufacturers. In thisDigital
context, the notion
thread refers to ofthe
digital thread [6] isframework
communication becoming that
increasingly important data
allows a connected among flowAM andmanufacturers.
integrated viewDigital thread data
of the asset’s refers to the communication
throughout its lifecycle across
framework that allows
traditionally siloed aperspectives
connected data fromfloweachandpartyintegrated view of[7].
or stakeholder theThis
asset’s dataalso
thread throughout its
is a prerequisite
lifecycle across
to trace back traditionally
the settings siloed perspectives
and conditions from
used each partythe
throughout or stakeholder
design and [7]. buildThis thread
phase. also
Designing
is a prerequisite to trace back the settings and conditions used throughout the design and build phase.
Designing the digital thread for AM production is important when considering how to distinguish
Systems 2020, 8, 43 3 of 17

the digital thread for AM production is important when considering how to distinguish the different
parties involved in the AM industrial system along the digital thread. This raises the following research
question: how can a digital thread for AM kayak production be designed and integrated?
Therefore, this paper describes how the design and integration of a digital thread for AM can be
defined in a system that allows enterprises to anticipate and communicate bi-directionally and up and
downstream where the individual product is in the lifecycle. By doing this, this paper presents a digital
thread system, designed and integrated for kayak AM production. The next Sections (Section 1.1,
Section 1.2, and Section 1.3) provide a literature review focusing on the benefits and challenges related
to AM customisation, as well as on current research in digital threads. Following this, the results of the
research are shown in Section 2, detailing the main building blocks of the digital thread system for
kayak production. These results are discussed in Section 3, where the implications of the presented
digital thread system are discussed. Finally, Section 4 presents the research methodology that was
adapted to design and integrate the digital thread system.

1.1. Customisation in Additive Manufacturing: Potential and Challenges

Customisation in manufacturing is motivated by the opportunity to provide users with a
personalised product that more closely matches the demands of a customer compared to mass-produced
products [8]. Mass customisation, as opposed to mass production, is defined by Bhrigu Ahuja et al. [9]
as “the manufacture of similar but not identical products, thus enabling a unique customizable
feature ideally personalized”. Mass customisation originally gained popularity in the 1980s as an
opportunity for companies to gain a competitive advantage by matching demand for increasing
product diversity [10]. Similarly, AM is a relatively novel field, which originally emerged to produce
functional and aesthetic prototypes known as rapid prototypes [9]. Manufacturing can begin instantly
once a new printable computer aided design (CAD) file is received, meaning AM offers an additional
degree of geometric freedom [11], which makes it highly suitable to make quick design alterations and
offer personalised products [5]. A good example is where AM is utilised to offer personalised hip and
knee replacements that match a patient’s geometric measurements [11].
Despite this technology’s high potential and growth in the last three decades [1], the commercial
uptake has been somewhat stunted for several reasons. Particularly, as the technology is evolving
rapidly, the information exchange associated with the manufacturing chain has become increasingly
digitalised and data-intensive [12]. To ensure the quality of the printing phase, extensive monitoring
and control measurements are logged as a part of tuning and optimising the print processes. The success
of the AM build process is further dependent on the design parameters and configurations made
up-stream. The concept of a digital thread is a recurring theme that digitally connects all involved
parties in the AM process. This is especially important when considering manufacturing and material
traceability, but poses additional challenges regarding:

• Conformance with existing standards and lack of existing digital standards [13].
• The fact that manual processing of digital information can be highly labour intensive. This is
made worse by a disjointed digital thread.
• Remaining adaptable to allow for new parties in the AM process (e.g., new suppliers) [14].

The research in this field identifies that to maximise the potential of AM pertaining to Mass
Customisation, several digital issues must be addressed. As noted by Bonnard et al. [12,13], a key
difficulty is interacting with and exchanging models, in which the AM digital supply chain convention
for 3D CAD models is an STL representation. This limits the useful information that can be extracted
from the model. Such digital aspects are critical when considering AM being used for customisation,
as this requires local AM providers, end-users, OEMs, and designers to facilitate the digital exchange
of information in a streamlined and effective way. Kim et al. [14], developed a methodology for
integrating and streamlining the flow of digital information in the AM product realisation method,
noting there is a need to improve how individuals can interact with data.
Systems 2020, 8, 43 4 of 17

As far as the authors of this paper can tell, the consideration of digital thread for AM specific to
mass customisation in literature is very sparse, meaning a potential research gap exists here.

1.2. Multi-Party Industrial Systems in Additive Manufacturing: Potential and Challenges

Traditionally, large manufacturing businesses, such as those in aerospace, have had to deal with
complex and remotely operated industrial systems. This is due to the involvement of many partners in
the supply chain of an aircraft or engine. In basic terms, the supply chain can be viewed as the exchange
of information, models, and materials between multiple parties in a system. The sustainability of
the supply chain relies on these links being secure and traceable [15]. As the aerospace industry
has grown and developed in practise to develop complex, individualised products with multi-site
production, they have used their resources to create a more streamlined supply chain that relies heavily
on outsourcing and collaboration. The key players in the industrial system are:

• The OEMs who are the outward-facing organisation providing the product to the customer.
• First tier suppliers who directly supply the OEM.
• Second level suppliers who are the main suppliers of the first tier.
• Third level suppliers who are the suppliers of special components or a high-skilled process.

These complex systems also have access to research and government help [16]. This has created
more complex work packages and an element of risk; however, it can be designed to reduce costs and
delivery times [16].
It has been said that you cannot think of a small medium enterprise (SME) as a scaled-down large
business [17]. It operates differently, and an SME adopting AM can lead to a more complex industrial
system than it is used to without the resources to handle it. It has been established that even in existing
supply chains, information sharing is important, and when SMEs introduce AM, it will result in further
multi-party collaboration where the transparency and traceability of data are essential to the success of
the business and product [17]. This is an area that SMEs struggle to develop and integrate [17]. It is
important that a clear solution to this problem is found to make multi-party industrial systems in AM
successful. The authors have identified a gap in the literature regarding this problem in the kayak
production industry and believe a solution can be found.

1.3. Digital Threads

To successfully upscale AM methods from basic prototyping to fully-fledged manufacturing
lines, the method’s core reliance on digital technologies must be addressed [18]. Whether researching
new designs and experimenting with new materials or manufacturing customised components, huge
quantities of data are captured throughout a product’s lifecycle [19]. This data is required to optimise
the manufacturing process; however, not all information should be freely available to all parties in
the supply chain. Sensitive customer data should not be shared with the local manufacturers and IP
must remain protected. Alongside this, the data must be stored and handled in a way that allows fault
tracking back down the supply chain. This process is described through the phrase “digital thread”.
This is a relatively new term, and as such is not fully understood by industry yet. This provides the
opportunity for research to be completed and the technology gap to be filled.
Traditionally, collection of data and commercial traceability would be achieved manually through
paperwork [20]. With large projects, this method can quickly become overwhelming with strict, large
data filing systems being required. In modern-day manufacturing companies, electronic software-based
data recording and storage is utilised. The key advantages of AM allow the rapid creation of complex
and high-value products at a low cost [21]. This process and material based optimisation generates
a lot of data that requires analysing, as such this data management is one of the key issues for the
commercial adoption of this technology [22]. Currently, the solution to this issue is outdated and relies
on methods developed in the 1980s such as G-code and STL file type combinations [23,24], requiring
several modifications and file type combinations to produce a final product. These methods require
Systems 2020, 8, 43 5 of 17

modernisation and a standard framework for data exchange is key to the overall contextualisation
of the digital thread in this sector [25]. This standardisation will ensure key parameters will remain
accessible from design to testing.
One solution could be the additive manufacturing file (AMF) that has been recently developed,
which has native support for colours and materials. Even though standardising this file type would
streamline the data exchange, there is still a requirement to control the movement and access rights to
potentially sensitive data. However, there is little literature available on how to achieve this within this
context, and as such, the technology gap remains. The standardisation of an effective digital thread
remains as the primary method to close this gap.

2. Results
This section describes how a digital thread system for kayak production has been designed and
integrated in collaboration with an established kayak manufacturer—Hereafter named as original
equipment manufacturer (OEM).

2.1. Designing a Digital Thread for Customised Additive Manufacturing in a Multi-Party Industrial System for
Custom Kayaks
The OEM has an interest in AM for its benefits of providing large scale customisable products
that can be printed in proximity to the customer by local AM manufacturers. Compared to traditional
manufacturing methods, AM in principle requires no pre-existing tooling; usually, only a CAD file
needs to be provided for the product to be manufactured. Therefore, AM requires minimal physical
infrastructure (for example, in terms of costly tooling equipment) compared to other manufacturing
methods. However, one of the key challenges for the OEM in this context is that while the physical
infrastructure (machinery required) appears less complex than a conventional machining process,
the digital infrastructure (management of data flow) increases substantially. For distributed AM,
this means sharing richer information (design and production parameters are quite dependent)
effectively. The fact that the dialogue between several partners is a part of a design process means
that the requirement on traceability and effectivity (actuality of data accessed) becomes decisive.
For example, it is crucial that each local AM manufacturer only receives access to the required geometry
files for their specific orders, and that the same information is associated with the actual state of the
version communicated. This is important not just from the perspective of IP rights from the OEM,
but also to avoid confusion and customer dissatisfaction through the accidental production of the
wrong product. As issues with products will inevitably occur, data traceability serves an important
role to isolate and track the source of error (i.e., which party supplied the failing part, etc.). To facilitate
this within the digital thread, it is important to allow multi-directional data flow, but still conserve the
primary objective of selective data sharing. Therefore, the first step of designing the digital thread
was to create a process model of the digital thread itself, in which the physical process and the digital
process are mapped alongside.
Figure 2 visualises the process model of the digital thread. This step requires the OEM to interact
with the other stakeholders, as the AM physical and digital processes are substantially different
compared to a process based on traditional manufacturing. Figure 2 shows the results of these
interactions, using a modelling method similar to service blueprint [26]. How these interactions were
conducted are described in the methodology Section 4.3.
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Figure 2.
2. Process model of the digital thread for kayak AM production.

In this model, the new stakeholders that are involved in the AM kayak production are identified
and mapped. For For example,
example, the
the OEM
OEM needs
needs to
to provide
provide the CAD model selected by the users to the
local AM manufacturers. At the same time, the manufacturers must provide traceability of data such
as material consumption and source,
source, and
and power
power details
details for
for use
use by
by a CO22 consultancy firm to conduct
CO22 analysis.
analysis. Many
Many manufacturers
manufacturers may
may choose
choose to
to complete
complete any post-processing
post-processing required on their
products inhouse; however, this may
however, this may be outsourced, dependent on the specialisation required in the
process (e.g., specific powder coatings or heat treating), and this will require the transfer of data
regarding specification and tolerance data from the OEM together with existing measurements from
the manufacturer.
manufacturer.

2.2. Integrating the

2.2. Integrating the Digital
Digital Thread
Thread
The
The data
data generated
generatedthroughout
throughoutthe thephysical
physicalprocess
process is is
required
required by by
various parties
various along
parties alongwithwiththe
manufacturing
the manufacturing process flow.flow.
process However,
However,this reveals an issue
this reveals anwith
issuesuch
witha such
multi-party industrial
a multi-party system.
industrial
Not all data should be accessed by all parties; for example, user address
system. Not all data should be accessed by all parties; for example, user address and card payment and card payment data require
strict restrictions for both user security and data protection act compliance.
data require strict restrictions for both user security and data protection act compliance. Likewise, Likewise, the courier does
not
the require
courier access
does notto the manufacturing
require access to the options such as material
manufacturing options data thatasare
such selecteddata
material at the same
that are
stage. To solve this issue, the approach taken in collaboration with a professional
selected at the same stage. To solve this issue, the approach taken in collaboration with a professional product lifecycle
management
product lifecycle (PLM) company was
management to design
(PLM) companya digital
wasinfrastructure in which
to design a digital each party (or
infrastructure instakeholder)
which each
uses
party (or stakeholder) uses dedicated digital applications to interact bi-directionally with platform
dedicated digital applications to interact bi-directionally with a single collaborative PLM a single
through application
collaborative programming
PLM platform through interfaces
application (APIs). The motivation
programming for this
interfaces approach
(APIs). is to separate
The motivation for
the information contained in the PLM platform from the data processing
this approach is to separate the information contained in the PLM platform from the data processing that each party performs to
fulfil their tasks. In this way, each party can extract only the allowed information,
that each party performs to fulfil their tasks. In this way, each party can extract only the allowed process this data
through
information,its dedicated
process this applications,
data through and its
input this data
dedicated in the PLMand
applications, database. Thisdata
input this ensures
in the thePLM
use
of the most
database. Thiscurrent
ensuresdatatheatuse
eachof step
the mostof the physical
current dataprocess,
at each as parties
step of theworking
physical with downstream
process, as parties
processes cannot modify the data produced upstream. Additionally,
working with downstream processes cannot modify the data produced upstream. Additionally, this approach allows each party this
to select the
approach access
allows eachrights
partytotobeselect
allowed to other
the access parties
rights to be(e.g., only read,
allowed to otherread/write etc.).only
parties (e.g., Figureread,2
visualises this separation between the collaborative PLM database and
read/write etc.). Figure 2 visualises this separation between the collaborative PLM database and thethe digital applications used
by eachapplications
digital party. Whileused someby ofeach
theseparty.
applications
While some are commercial software used
of these applications are already
commercialby the parties
software
(e.g.,
used aalready
commercialby therobot simulation
parties software), some
(e.g., a commercial robotother applications
simulation neededsome
software), to beother
developed ad-hoc
applications
to demonstrate the digital thread.
needed to be developed ad-hoc to demonstrate the digital thread.
The
The following
following sections
sections will
will describe
describe in in more
more detail
detail these
these applications,
applications, in in particular:
particular:
•• AA web-based
web-based user
user interface
interface (UI)
(UI) allowing
allowing kayak
kayak customers
customers to
to configure
configure their
theirdesired
desiredkayaks,
kayaks,
•• aa CAD design automation framework, to pre-generate desired kayak configurations,
CAD design automation framework, to pre-generate desired kayak configurations,
• a cost and CO2 model to visualise the cost and CO2 impacts of the selected kayaks.
Systems 2020, 8, 43 7 of 17

Systems 2020, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 17

• a cost and CO2 model to visualise the cost and CO2 impacts of the selected kayaks.
The following sections will describe in more detail these applications, and how each step of the
The
AM physical following sections
process will describe
is supported by the in morethread.
digital detail these applications, and how each step of the
AM physical process is supported by the digital thread.
2.3. Web-Based User Interface (UI) to Support the Customer Perspective
2.3. Web-Based User Interface (UI) to Support the Customer Perspective
The customer perspective encompasses the user and purchaser (these may be separate parties,
The customer
e.g., when perspective
purchasing a product encompasses the user and
as a gift). Customers andpurchaser
purchasers (these
use amay be separate
web-based UI toparties,
input
e.g., when purchasing a product as a gift). Customers and purchasers use a web-based
their user data. User data is a broad term that encompasses shipping and payment details such as UI to input
their user data.
user address, User
card data is adelivery
numbers, broad term
type,that
andencompasses
customisationshipping and payment specific
and manufacturing details such
detail. asEach
user
address,
user order card
is numbers, delivery
also assigned type, order
a unique and customisation
number. Thisand manufacturing
is used at variousspecific detail.
stages in Each user
the process to
order is also assigned a unique order number. This is used at various stages in the
connect all order-specific data. In this case study, a UI was created using Vue.js and Firebase. A process to connect
all order-specific
snapshot of the data.
UI canIn be
thisseen
caseinstudy, a UI3.was
Figure created
Thus, usingapplication
a digital Vue.js and Firebase. A snapshot
was created of the
to effectively
UI can bethe
harvest seen in Figure 3.data
appropriate Thus, a digital
from application
the user to createwas created
a kayak to met
that effectively harvest
all their needs.the appropriate
Using the UI,
data from the user to create a kayak that met all their needs. Using the UI, the
the customer would go step by step to customise the kayak by selecting options from dropdown customer would go step
by step
menus. to customise the kayak by selecting options from dropdown menus.

Figure 3. Web-based user interface.

These options include:

•• Kayak base model,

•• user anthropometrics
user anthropometrics (height,
(height, weight,
weight, and
and waist
waist size),
size),
•• skeg,
skeg,
•• rudder,
rudder,
• hatch and Storage areas,
• hatch and Storage areas,
• material selection,
• material selection.
These options were identified after a workshop with the kayak OEM, focused around an exercise
using a Kano model [27], to identify “attractive”, “one-dimensional”, and “must-be” features for a
kayak. How the Kano-model was used in this research is explained in the methodology Sections 4.1
Systems 2020, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 17

and 4.2. Once the options have been selected, the customer would be able to see a preview of 8their
Systems 2020, 8, 43 of 17
custom kayak, along with the cost and the CO2 output associated with the manufacture of their
unique product.
These
If options were
the customer identified
is satisfied withafter
the akayak,
workshop with would
the order the kayak OEM, focused
be submitted to a around
database,anwhere
exerciseit
is assigned a randomly generated order number, meaning that all data from the order can be traceda
using a Kano model [27], to identify “attractive”, “one-dimensional”, and “must-be” features for
kayak.
to that How
unique thekey.
Kano-model was used in
This is important, this research
because some isof explained in the methodology
the customer’s Sectionsbut
data will be shared, 4.1
and 4.2. Once
ensuring the is
the data options
connectedhaveeven
beenthough
selected, the customer
certain elementswould
will bebehidden
able tofrom
see athe
preview of their
other parties.
custom kayak,this
Traditionally, along
stepwith the cost and
is followed by thethegeneration
CO2 output ofassociated
a CAD model with by
the amanufacture
designer, whoof their
will
unique product.
customise the kayak based on customer preferences. As this step would be particularly labour
If the the
intensive, customer
approachis satisfied
taken waswithtothe kayak,design
exploit the order would be(DA)
automation submitted to a database,
techniques where itall
to pre-generate is
assigned
the possiblea randomly generated order number, meaning that all data from the order can be traced to
kayak configurations.
that unique key. This is important, because some of the customer’s data will be shared, but ensuring
2.4. CAD-Based
the data Designeven
is connected Automation Framework
though certain elements will be hidden from the other parties. Traditionally,
this step is followed by the generation of a CAD model by a designer, who will customise the kayak
The design step in the physical process flow (Figure 2) takes the user’s data, which is then fed to
based on customer preferences. As this step would be particularly labour intensive, the approach taken
a Python-based journal code (Figure 4). This is a DA technique, which is based in a commercial CAD
was to exploit design automation (DA) techniques to pre-generate all the possible kayak configurations.
software package. A master CAD file is required to automatically be edited by this code, producing
a2.4.
personalised
CAD-Basedmodel.DesignThis will be created
Automation Framework and operated by the OEM (i.e., the local AM manufacturers
only receive a STEP file generated automatically by the OEM).
The master
The design step
CADinfile theisphysical process flow
key to allowing a DA(Figure 2) takes
approach the user’s
to CAD modeldata, which isThis
generation. thenrequired
fed to a
Python-based
specific journal
ratios and code (Figure
formula-based 4). This is a DA
measurements technique,
to be input to thewhich is based inand
dimensioning a commercial CAD
sketching phase
of the CAD generation. This, combined with correct constraining of the model, allowed specifica
software package. A master CAD file is required to automatically be edited by this code, producing
personalised(e.g.,
dimensions model. Thisand
length willwidth)
be created
to beand operated
input by the
as a single OEM (i.e.,
dimension, thethe
and local AM manufacturers
model would update
only
to receive
these new aspecifications
STEP file generated automatically
but maintain its overallbystructure
the OEM). and predefined shape.

Figure
Figure 4.
4. CAD
CAD Model
Model Generation
Generation Sequence.
Sequence.
Systems 2020, 8, 43 9 of 17

The master CAD file is key to allowing a DA approach to CAD model generation. This required
specific ratios and formula-based measurements to be input to the dimensioning and sketching phase
of the CAD generation. This, combined with correct constraining of the model, allowed specific
dimensions (e.g., length and width) to be input as a single dimension, and the model would update to
these new specifications but maintain its overall structure and predefined shape.
This type of CAD modelling is referred to as parameterising, and the model produced is known
as a master file, as when the python code is running, it selects the dimensions in the model that
require changing (e.g., the cockpit width must adjust in coordination with the user’s waist width)
and automatically cycles each through a predefined list; examples of this can be seen in Table 1.

Table 1. CAD model variable parameters example.

Dimensional Parameters Accessories

ID Length (mm) Width (mm) Cockpit Width (mm) Storage Hatch Layout Rudder
0 4500 480 400 1 Yes
1 4500 480 400 1 No
2 4500 480 400 2 Yes
3 4500 480 400 2 No
... ... ... ... ... ...
1500 4500 480 400 7 Yes
1501 4500 480 400 7 No
1502 4500 500 430 1 Yes
1503 4500 500 430 1 No
1504 4500 500 430 2 Yes
1505 4500 500 430 2 No
... ... ... ... ... ...
3195 5500 600 490 7 Yes
3196 5500 600 490 7 No

The code was created in a way that allowed each possible combination of both dimensional
changes and the addition or absence of any optional features to be created and saved with a specified
naming mechanism. This allowed thousands of CAD models to be created and stored logically without
any additional human interaction or additional hours being spent. The file type can also be specified,
which is important for the consistency of the digital thread and utilisation of other parties further
down the process flow. Pre-generating the individual versions also allow the designer the ability to
eliminate undesirable or unwanted instances, but this was not further explored in this study.

2.5. Pre-Manufacturing Processes and CO2 & Cost Model Generation

The design of this master CAD file must be verified through an iterative collaboration with
pre-manufacturing simulations, most likely outsourced to a specialised consultancy company
(for complex processes, multiple external consultancies may be used). This requires geometry data
output as a stereolithography (STL) file, alongside other specific requirement data, to be exchanged
between the OEM and consultancy parties. From a data management perspective, this enforces the
need to capture the changes and additions made in each step against the versions initiated. This stage of
the process also requires a CO2 model to provide meaningful feedback for increasingly environmentally
aware customers. Most likely, this model is developed by an external consultancy firm. In this case
study, this was developed in house for demonstration purposes, and integrated with the UI. A life cycle
assessment (LCA) approach was developed using open-source software, open LCA [28], considering
only the manufacturing elements of development (i.e., no waste considerations). Figure 5 illustrates
the overall logic of the developed LCA and cost models.
Systems 2020, 8, 43 10 of 17
Systems 2020, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 17

Figure 5. CO2 model visualisation.

Figure 5. CO2 model visualisation.
This model pieced together the various stages of manufacture that contributed to CO2 emissions.
This This
includes
modelmaterial
pieced granulate
together the production, transportation,
various stages of manufacture and that
electricity consumption.
contributed Figure 5
to CO2 emissions.
displays the role
This includes of a COgranulate
material 2 consultancy in this case,
production, and how the data
transportation, generated fits
and electricity back into theFigure
consumption. overall5
process.
displays To thegenerate
role of aa COlinear prediction expression
2 consultancy in this case,across the entire
and how the datarange of kayakfits
generated model
backvolumes,
into the
statistical analysisTo
overall process. software
generate was a used
lineartoprediction
develop a surrogate
expression linear
acrossregression
the entiremodel.
rangeThis was achieved
of kayak model
by sampling
volumes, the volumes
statistical analysis of several
softwarekayaks in the
was used to LCA study
develop and then populating
a surrogate the CO
linear regression 2 emission
model. This
values for intermittent kayak volumes through the model. Then the output
was achieved by sampling the volumes of several kayaks in the LCA study and then populating the of this model is fed back in
real-time
CO2 emission to thevalues
UI to display to the user.
for intermittent Thisvolumes
kayak information about
through thethemodel.
modelThenand user are utilised
the output in
of this
JavaScript
model is fed Object
back Notation
in real-time (JSON)
to theformat by the OEM
UI to display to thefor useThis
user. in populating
information a database
about thewhich
modelfeeds
and
the
userweb-based
are utilised UI.inAtJavaScript
this stage,Object
the purchaser
Notationwill confirm
(JSON) theirby
format order
the and
OEM thefor
STLusefile
inwill be sent toa
populating
the manufacturer.
database which feeds the web-based UI. At this stage, the purchaser will confirm their order and the
Depending
STL file on the
will be sent material
to the options selected by the user and ranging kayak volumes available,
manufacturer.
the CO emissions
Depending
2 varied between
on the material options41.60 and 128.51by
selected kg the
CO2user
equivalent according
and ranging kayak to the globalavailable,
volumes warming
potential (GWP) as determined
the CO2 emissions varied between within41.60
the LCA
and software.
128.51 kg CO2 equivalent according to the global
Similarly, a cost analysis was also
warming potential (GWP) as determined within the important to allow
LCAthe customer to be able to assess the trade-off
software.
between CO2 emissions
Similarly, and cost
a cost analysis of the
was also kayak (i.e.,
important the customer
to allow the customer may to bebewilling
able totoassess
choose theatrade-
more
sustainable
off betweenmaterial at greater
CO2 emissions andpersonal expense).
cost of the The the
kayak (i.e., costcustomer
model considers the manufacturing
may be willing costs
to choose a more
associated with the three critical stages of the AM process, which include pre-processing,
sustainable material at greater personal expense). The cost model considers the manufacturing costs printing,
and post-processing.
associated These
with the three costs stages
critical are based on the
of the AMtime and operator
process, which includecosts for each phase, as
pre-processing, well as
printing,
material costs for printing.
and post-processing. The pre-
These costs and post-processing
are based on the time andcosts remain
operator fixed
costs forfor allphase,
each kayakas volumes,
well as
while the printing cost varies depending on the volume of kayak and material
material costs for printing. The pre- and post-processing costs remain fixed for all kayak volumes, choice as selected by
the
whileuser.
the At this point,
printing the live
cost varies digital input
depending on theis volume
requiredofinkayak
a loop,and asmaterial
print time varies
choice depending
as selected by
the user. At this point, the live digital input is required in a loop, as print time varies depending on
Systems 2020, 8, 43 11 of 17
Systems 2020, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 17

on the
the kayak
kayak volume.
volume. TheThe
AMAM provider
provider cancan perform
perform simulationstotodetermine
simulations determinethetheprint
printtime
time for
for aa
corresponding geometry. For this case, this information was determined manually for
corresponding geometry. For this case, this information was determined manually for a select few a select few
kayak volumes
kayak volumes inin collaboration
collaboration with
with the
the AM
AM provider,
provider, but
but further
further work
work isis required
required to
to fully
fully integrate
integrate
such aspects digitally.
such aspects digitally.
Depending on
Depending onthe
thematerial
materialoptions,
options, ranging
ranging kayak
kayak volumes
volumes available,
available, andand delivery
delivery location,
location, the
the cost
cost varied
varied between
between €746.76
€746.76 andand €793.61.
€793.61.

2.6. Manufacturing,
2.6. Manufacturing, Post-Manufacturing,
Post-Manufacturing, and
and Delivery
Delivery
Another important
Another important step
step during
during pre-manufacturing
pre-manufacturing is is to
to conduct
conduct aa robot
robot simulation
simulation to
to define
define the
the
most effective robot path. In the demonstration of the digital thread, robot simulations
most effective robot path. In the demonstration of the digital thread, robot simulations have beenhave been
performed by
performed by accessing
accessing the
the CAD
CAD files
files through
through the
the collaborative
collaborative PLM
PLM (Figure
(Figure 6a).
6a).

(a) (b)
Remote pre-manufacturing
Figure 6. Remote
Figure pre-manufacturing and
and manufacturing
manufacturing of
of kayaks: (a)
(a) Simulation
Simulation of
of manufacturing
manufacturing
using ABB
using ABBRobot
RobotStudio ®; ®
Studio ; (b)
(b) manufacturing
manufacturing of kayak
of kayak (made(made of biocomposite
of biocomposite containing
containing 20%
20% wood-
wood-based
based fibre). fibre).

After simulations
After simulations areare performed
performed (checking
(checking thethe feasibility
feasibility of
of production),
production), the the manufacturing
manufacturing
phase is executed. To demonstrate the feasibility of the digital thread system
phase is executed. To demonstrate the feasibility of the digital thread system for remote for remote production,
production,
the manufacturing
the manufacturing was was performed
performed by by aa research
research institute
institute that
that possesses
possesses dedicated
dedicated equipment
equipment for
for
large scale AM (Figure 6b). The institute remotely accessed the STL files of the
large scale AM (Figure 6b). The institute remotely accessed the STL files of the kayak through thekayak through the
collaborative PLM
collaborative PLM interface.
interface. AA functional
functional AMAM kayak
kayak (composed
(composed of of aa biocomposite
biocomposite containing
containing 20%
20%
wood-based fibre)
wood-based fibre) was
was then
then manufactured.
manufactured.
In a real-life scenario,
In a real-life scenario, thethe completed
completed product
product will
will require
require delivery
delivery to to the
the user. Although the
user. Although the
concept of a local manufacturer facilitates user collection of products, this may not always
concept of a local manufacturer facilitates user collection of products, this may not always be feasible, be feasible,
and as
and as such,
such, aa courier
courier will
will be
be required.
required. This
This party
party requires
requires nono information
information about
about the
the manufacturing
manufacturing
process, only requiring specific user data such as address
process, only requiring specific user data such as address and name. and name.

3. Discussion
3. Discussion
The concept of the digital thread for AM is still evolving. Hence, the practices for designing and
The concept of the digital thread for AM is still evolving. Hence, the practices for designing and
integrating a digital thread for AM needs to be investigated through multiple use cases with industrial
integrating a digital thread for AM needs to be investigated through multiple use cases with
partners. One such example, presented by Mandolla et al. [29], uses blockchain to support a digital
industrial partners. One such example, presented by Mandolla et al. [29], uses blockchain to support
twin for AM in the aircraft industry, showing great potential concerning manufacturing infrastructure
a digital twin for AM in the aircraft industry, showing great potential concerning manufacturing
and product component history. Similarly, Lui et al. [30], develops a data management system for
infrastructure and product component history. Similarly, Lui et al. [30], develops a data management
metal AM. This effectively tackles the challenges associated with metal AM (e.g., process repeatability
system for metal AM. This effectively tackles the challenges associated with metal AM (e.g., process
etc.) to manage the various product lifecycle stages and support a more efficient application of metal
repeatability etc.) to manage the various product lifecycle stages and support a more efficient
AM. Given the range of challenges and novel proposals in the field as well as the rapidly changing
application of metal AM. Given the range of challenges and novel proposals in the field as well as the
nature of the technology, it is clear there is a lack of a widely accepted framework for the digital thread
rapidly changing nature of the technology, it is clear there is a lack of a widely accepted framework
for AM. There may indeed be no ideal one size fits all approach.
for the digital thread for AM. There may indeed be no ideal one size fits all approach.
Compared to previous studies, this research has put a stronger emphasis on the design aspects
of a digital thread. One of the key insights for this design focus is that while with AM the physical
infrastructure decreases compared to traditional manufacturing methods (e.g., less tooling
Systems 2020, 8, 43 12 of 17

Compared to previous studies, this research has put a stronger emphasis on the design aspects
of a digital thread. One of the key insights for this design focus is that while with AM the physical
infrastructure decreases compared to traditional manufacturing methods (e.g., less tooling equipment),
the digital infrastructure increases substantially in complexity. In this regard, the model of the physical
and digital flow developed in the early stages (Figure 2) shows this increase in digital complexity.
Additionally, the digital applications that needed to be developed in this case study (e.g., the web-based
UI and the DA framework) show how new stakeholders need to be involved in the AM digital flow in
a different way than before. The results of these studies suggest to decision- and policymakers how
the design of the digital interactions between the partners is decisive for the uptake of decentralised,
customised, and near net shape manufacturing.
This research underlines the importance of careful management of information within AM for
it to successfully integrate into the manufacturing industry [31]. This research has looked at these
aspects in collaboration with a professional PLM platform provider. The industrial implementation of
PLM platforms indicates its usefulness. However, examples of integrating a streamlined AM process
with a corresponding digital thread using PLM in literature are scarce [32]. Indeed, Hedberg et al. [33]
explore a novel PLM concept, observing that a key challenge of PLM relates to the setting in which
data is required (i.e., different users along the digital thread interact with the same data in different
ways, requiring different data formats, access rights, etc.). The accessibility and adaptability of such
platforms is a key step towards the industrialisation of AM. One key insight that emerges from the
study presented in this paper is the separation between the data to be shared and the processing of data
to perform each party’s task. In this way, each party can extract only the allowed information, process
this data through its dedicated applications, and input this data in the PLM database. This ensures the
use of the most current data at each step of the physical process.
There are limitations in this approach that need further attention in the future. Although the
development of a UI to support customisable AM products through DA is not novel, it is important to
remark that this was developed to link not only between the designer, manufacturer, and customer,
but also to placeholder consultancies that developed and integrated cost and CO2 models associated
with the AM process, enabling live feedback to be provided to the customer. The database behind
the UI stored all kayak design variants, while also providing appropriate movement and access to
information for the multiple parties associated with the process.
It is important to note that the digital thread that has been designed serves as a demonstration
of certain capabilities, with not all parts yet fully complete. One key limitation of this approach is
the requirement to redesign the digital thread for different AM applications with changing parties,
with this approach being very specific to the kayak manufacture case study. Future research work
will focus on the streamlined integration of the different digital tools with the collaborative platform.
This would allow better traceability and data security, as it follows industry standards.

4. Materials and Methods

The framework for Action Research [34], was used in the development of the digital thread
for the custom kayak case study. Action research describes a methodology in which researchers
implement a theory or solution within a real-life situation, while also iteratively receiving feedback and
improving performance. The research was conducted in close collaboration with an established kayak
manufacturer, who has already invested in pre-production of AM kayaks. An important stage in the
research was to identify design requirements and features for a kayak. This was achieved by conducting
a Kano-model-based [27], survey in conjunction with a focus group with the industrial partners.

4.1. Use of a Kano-Model-Based Survey to Identify Requirements and Features for Kayak Design
The Kano model distinguishes between three different categories of product requirements:
• Must-be: Customers will expect these requirements and they are essentially taken for granted,
resulting in extreme dissatisfaction if they are absent.
Systems 2020, 8, 43 13 of 17

• One-Dimensional: These result in satisfaction if present and dissatisfaction if they are not, with
Systems 2020, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 17
the level of customer satisfaction proportional to the amount to which the requirement is fulfilled.
•• Attractive:
Attractive:These
Theseattributes
attributesare
arenot
notexpected
expectedby
bythe
thecustomer,
customer,sosowhen
whenthey
theyare
arepresent,
present,they
theyare
are
said to delight the customer, but when they are not, there is no dissatisfaction.
said to delight the customer, but when they are not, there is no dissatisfaction.
An
Anonline
onlineKano
Kanosurvey
surveywas
wasdistributed
distributedtotoexperienced
experiencedsea seatouring
touringkayakers.
kayakers.The
Thesurvey
surveywas was
designed
designedaround
aroundaafive-point
five-pointscale,
scale,ininwhich
whichopinions
opinionsabout
aboutcustomisable
customisablefeatures
featureswere
wereinvestigated.
investigated.
AArange
rangeofofappropriate
appropriatefeatures
featureswas
wasidentified
identifiedthrough
throughaaliterature
literaturesurvey
surveyasaswell
wellasasconsultation
consultation
with
withexperienced
experiencedkayakers.
kayakers. Additionally,
Additionally,there
therewas
wasan anopen
openquestion
questionatatthe
theend
endininwhich
whichthe theuser
user
could enter any other kayak features
could enter any other kayak features that were not addressed within the survey. The total
addressed within the survey. The total number of number
ofresponses
responsesforforthe
thesurvey
surveywas
was3535 participants,
participants, and
and Figure
Figure 7 shows the results
results of
of the
thesurvey
surveyafter
after
applying
applyingthe thesatisfaction
satisfactionand
anddissatisfaction
dissatisfactionindexes
indexesasasdescribed
describedinin[27].
[27].The
Thecustomer
customersatisfaction
satisfaction
(CS)
(CS)coefficient
coefficientisisaauseful
usefulanalysis
analysistool
toolthat
thatidentifies
identifiesififsatisfaction
satisfactionwill
willbe
beimproved
improvedby byfulfilling
fulfillingaa
product
productrequirement,
requirement,ororififmeeting
meetingthisthisproduct
productrequirement
requirementonly onlyavoids
avoidsdissatisfaction.
dissatisfaction.

Figure7.7.Results
Figure Resultsofofthe
theKano-model-based
Kano-model-basedsurvey.
survey.

Thigh
Thighbraces
braceshave
haveaadissatisfaction
dissatisfactioncoefficient
coefficientofof0.79,
0.79,which
whichleads
leadstotogreater
greaterdissatisfaction
dissatisfactionifif
absent
absent than satisfaction if they are present. This means that thigh braces are a productfeature
than satisfaction if they are present. This means that thigh braces are a product featurefor
for
kayakers that most users will be expecting (must-be). The satisfaction coefficient for the
kayakers that most users will be expecting (must-be). The satisfaction coefficient for the presence presence of aof
skeg was
a skeg higher
was than
higher thethe
than dissatisfaction coefficient,
dissatisfaction meaning
coefficient, meaning thisthis
feature has has
feature more of a of
more tendency to beto
a tendency
an exciting or surprising feature. For internal storage, the satisfaction and dissatisfaction
be an exciting or surprising feature. For internal storage, the satisfaction and dissatisfaction coefficients
are similar, which
coefficients is inherently
are similar, which ischaracteristic of a one-dimensional
inherently characteristic feature. These
of a one-dimensional results
feature. reinforce
These results
the range of
reinforce theimportance that various
range of importance thatfeatures
varioushave to kayakers,
features indicating
have to kayakers, the suitability
indicating of kayakof
the suitability
manufacture to providing
kayak manufacture customisable
to providing productsproducts
customisable throughthrough
an AM platform.
an AM platform.

4.2.
4.2.Focus
FocusGroup
GrouptotoRefine
Refinethe
theRequirements
Requirementsand
andFeatures
Featuresfor
forKayak
KayakDesign
Design
The
TheKano-based
Kano-basedsurvey
surveywas
wasa asolid
solidfoundation forfor
foundation the suitability
the of of
suitability certain product
certain features
product forfor
features a
customisable kayak. However, certain product features, such as internal storage, were very
a customisable kayak. However, certain product features, such as internal storage, were very vague, vague,
and
andititwas
wasgoing
goingtotobe
beaachallenge
challengetototranslate
translatethis
thisdirectly
directlytotothe
themodelling
modellingphase.
phase.Therefore,
Therefore,aafocus
focus
group
group with the kayak manufacturer was conducted. In this focus group, the basis ofthe
with the kayak manufacturer was conducted. In this focus group, the basis of theKano
Kanomodel
model
was explained, and then an exercise was proposed in which the kayak experts were given post-it
notes. They could write down features and put them into the three categories following the Kano
model. The result of this workshop is shown in Table 2.
Systems 2020, 8, 43 14 of 17

was explained, and then an exercise was proposed in which the kayak experts were given post-it notes.
They could write down features and put them into the three categories following the Kano model.
The result of this workshop is shown in Table 2.

Table 2. Kayak Features.

Feature Category Configurable? Printed?

Deck lines Must-be No No
Footrest One-dimensional No No
Skeg One-dimensional No Yes
Rudder One-dimensional No Yes
Bulkheads One-dimensional No Yes
Handling lugs One-dimensional No No
Hatches Attractive Yes Yes
Deck recesses Attractive Yes Yes
Material choice Attractive Yes Yes
Kayak volume Attractive Yes Yes
Cockpit size Attractive Yes Yes
Thigh braces Attractive Yes Yes
Footrest position Attractive Yes No
Personalised backrest Attractive Yes No

One main result from the workshop was that any configurable features, that is, any features of the
kayak that could be tailored to suit the anthropometric measurements or personal preference of the
customer, would be attractive for the user. One-dimensional features were determined to be ones that
are simply there or not, and finally, must-be features are those that are essential. Additionally, it was
made apparent from the session which of the features could be 3D printed and which would be added
during the post-processing phase of production.
Given that it would only be appropriate for printable features to be modelled through CAD, the
session assisted with prioritising features for the kayak model. These features are shown with ‘Yes’
under the column ‘Printed’ in Table 2. Thereafter, an appropriate and verified customisation strategy
had been identified to take forward into the modelling phase.

4.3. Workshops for Designing the Digital Thread System

The digital thread system was designed after several workshops with industrial partners. At the
beginning of the study, a prototypical version of a digital thread [4], was presented to the industrial
partners in training sessions led by a professional company that offers a collaborative PLM software.
These training sessions defined the architecture of the digital thread and its associated digital
infrastructure (and are presented in Figure 2).
Once the final design had been created, a proof of concept trial was completed. This phase of
the project was to demonstrate that the company—Customer interaction tool that was developed
would be a commercially appropriate option. The application of the digital thread was demonstrated
through a test of the overall concept, by manufacturing a functional AM kayak (composed of a
biocomposite containing 20% wood-based fibre) remotely. This proof of concept displays the feasibility
of the approach developed, with multiple parties contributing to an AM process in a streamlined and
effective way.

5. Conclusions
This paper has presented a case study aiming at designing and integrating a digital thread system
for AM kayak production in which kayaks are customised and manufactured in the proximity of the
customer. In this context, the tracing of sources and decisions made are key to realising a sufficient
degree of quality in a customisation system (digital thread).
Systems 2020, 8, 43 15 of 17

Regarding the research question: how can a digital thread for AM kayak production be designed and
integrated? This study has shown that designing a digital thread system is a matter of implementing
a solution within a real-life situation as a proof-of-concept, in order to iteratively receive feedback
from a number of relevant stakeholders. For this reason, working with design tools such as a service
blueprint and the Kano model to perform a careful design and integration of the digital thread is a
decisive factor to promote customisation and near net shape manufacturing. Additionally, developing
a demonstration of a digital thread system on a real case was considered a crucial factor for iteratively
refining the digital thread itself. While the designed digital thread system is still at a demonstration
stage and can be considered as a proof-of-concept (as there is more elaborate knowledge needed within
all steps), the key take away is that building a customisation system similar to the one presented
represents a source of both benefits and risks for the manufacturer. The degree of complexity of the
digital infrastructure is unprecedented for small-scale manufacturers such as the kayak manufacturer
that participated in this research. For this reason, there is a need to capture and manage information
more carefully.

Author Contributions: Conceptualisation: E.B., K.M., and E.T.; methodology: E.B., K.M., and E.T.; formal analysis:
E.B., K.M., and E.T.; writing—Original draft preparation: E.B., K.M., and E.T.; writing—Review and editing: E.B.,
K.M., E.T., and M.P.; supervision: M.P., E.J., and J.R.M.; project administration: M.P. and E.J.; funding acquisition:
O.I. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by VINNOVA, the Swedish Energy Agency, and Formas through the strategic
innovation program Produktion2030, Reference number 2017-04776. The research was performed in the DISAM
project (Digitalization of Supply Chain in Swedish Additive Manufacturing).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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