CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

A. Background
Literary works are creations that are communicatively conveyed about the author's intent
for aesthetic purposes. These works often tell a story, in both third and first-person perspectives,
with a plot and through the use of various literary devices linked to their time.
Literary work as a form and result of a creative work is essentially a medium that utilizes
language to express human life. Therefore, a literary work, in general, contains problems that
surround human life. The emergence of literature was born with the background of a basic
human urge to reveal his existence.
Usually literature is divided according to geographical region or language. So, what is
included in the literary category is story novels/ short stories (written / spoken), poetry, rhymes,
plays/ dramas, paintings/ calligraphy.
Drama is no stranger to our ears. Drama is a means for the maker to convey moral
messages or views on various things to the audience and society. Drama is one of the most
popular literatures until now. Even in this era there has been a very rapid development in the
field of theater. For example soap operas, feature films, and other shows that depict the lives of
living things.
Apart from that, drama has also become a great place for business. In this case, the
organizer or actor will benefit financially and become famous, but before that, an organizer or
actor must be a professional person in order to continue to develop.
Based on the above reviews, we as a group made this paper to help readers who want to
get to know the world of drama. Apart from the definition and function of drama, this paper also
contains notes on the elements of drama.

B. The Problem Formulations

1. What are the definitions of drama?
2. What are the functions of drama?
3. What are the elements of drama?

C. The Objectives
1. To know the meaning of drama.
2. To know the function of drama.
3. To find out the elements contained in drama.
 CHAPTER II
DISCUSSION

A. Definitions of Drama
Aristotle’s definitions sum up these and other numerous definitions of drama by different
scholars. He defines drama simply as an imitation of an action. He links it to the mimetic
impulse in human beings like children playing father and mother in a childhood play. This
means that imitation is part of life. Human beings have the desire to imitate others, situations or
events.
However, Betolt Brecht insists that drama is not just an imitation of action, but a tool for
the demonstration of social conditions. It is not just an entertainment but an instrument of
political and social change.
Drama as a literary genre is realized in performance, which is why Robert Di Yanni
(quoted in Dukore) describes it as “staged art” (867). As a literary form, it is designed for the
theatre because characters are assigned roles and they act out their roles as the action is enacted
on stage. These characters can be human beings, dead or spiritual beings, animals, or abstract
qualities. Drama is an adaptation, recreation and reflection of reality on stage. Generally, the
word, dramatist is used for any artist who is involved in any dramatic composition either in
writing or in performance.
Abrams (1988, p.45) states that drama is the literary form designed for performance in the
theater, in which actors take roles of the characters, perform the indicated action, and utter the
written dialogue. Fleming (2006) states that drama is inevitably learner centered because it can
only operate through active cooperation.
Then, according to De Luca (1997, p.224) drama is a word of Greek origin dran meaning
"action" and referring to a performance on the stage in which actors act out the events and
characters of a story.
Reaske (1966, p.30) cites that drama is a work of literature or a composition which
describes life and human activity by means of presenting various actions of- and dialogues
between- a group of characters. Anggraeni (2008, p.3) claims that drama is the development of
character and situation through speech & action.
Based on the definition above, the writer can conclude that a drama is an art form that
explores human conflict and tension. It generally takes the form of a story presented to an
audience through dialogue and action. The story is conveyed using the elements of the theatre
such as actress, costumes, props, scenery, lighting, music, and sound.
B. Functions of Drama
Drama is said to have originated from ritual. It is an important branch of literature and the
most concrete of all art forms. It is devoid of the distant intimacy of the novel, the abstract
message of fine arts, the incomplete message of music or the cryptic and esoteric language of
poetry. It presents a story realistically through the actors to the audience. Drama is therefore
used to entertain, inform and educate people.
You can see that it is the most effective tool for mass mobilization by the government and
private agencies. For instance, most campaigns against AIDS, DRUG ABUSE, CHILD ABUSE
and so on, are presented in form of drama to educate, enlighten while at the same time entertain
the people. Of all the creative artists, the dramatist is in the best position to mirror his society
and to effect social reforms. This is because his work has a unique characteristic of presenting
events in a vivid, picturesque and realistic manner. This helps to imprint social conditions
realistically in the minds of the audience. Its message is therefore immediate. The rich and the
poor, the young and the old, the literate and the illiterate enjoy and assimilate the message of
drama once it is presented in the appropriate language as the actors live out the story (message)
on stage.
In most traditional societies, drama forms part of the communal rites. In Africa,
reenactment of some feats like hunting, warfare, and other events, are usually part of bigger
festivals. Some of these events are presented in form of drama to entertain the audience. In
Greece also, drama formed part of a bigger festival. Greek drama is acclaimed to be the earliest
recorded form of drama (5th century B.C). It is said to have originated from the Dionysian
religious rites, and also remained a communal rite during the classical period. The dramatists of
this age gave insight into the philosophy and religious beliefs of the ancient Greece. These early
Greek plays treated life’s basic problems with utmost honesty and attacked socials ills using
legendary and mythological themes. This helped to ensure sanity and equilibrium in the society.
In the Medieval period, drama was used to elucidate the message of the gospel through the
re-enactment of the biblical stories during mass. It was later expanded to include the
dramatization of the lives of the saints and other notable stories of the bible that did not form
part of the Sunday’s lessons. It was therefore used for the spiritual and moral growth of the
people.
You see that dramatists can use their works to help to shape the future of the societies.
They can do this not only by reflecting the ugly sides of the societies but also by promoting the
positive aspects of the people’s way of life that are worth emulating or cultivating. They also
help to ensure the continuity of their tradition and culture by reflecting them in their plays. Each
dramatist, therefore, tries from his perspective to use his art to enlighten his audience on the
 goodness, imbalances and shortcomings of his society. Apart from their thematic concerns, each
dramatist, in his own style of relaying his message, tries to highlight his cultural background
through the use of myths, legends, music, songs, dances, proverbs, riddles, and other local
expressions. In this way, dramatists all over the world are regarded as the conscience of their
societies, and custodians of their moral and cultural values.

C. Elements of Drama
1. Audience
The fact of a live audience also has an important impact on the way plays are created.
The essential feature of an audience involves the fact that they have, at a single instant, a
common experience; they have assembled for the explicit purpose of seeing a play. Drama
not only plays before a live audience of real people who respond directly and immediately to
it, but drama is also conceived by the author with the expectation of a specific response.
Authors calculate for the effect of a community of watchers rather than for the silent
response. With this in mind, most plays written deal with topics that are timely.

2. Theme
Barnet (1991, p.1281) says that theme is underlying or unifying idea (stated or
implied) in a work, a conception of human experience suggested by the concrete details of
the work. While, Birkerts (1992, p.846) states that a theme is briefly, the understanding that
the author seeks to communicate through the work. According to Rothlein and Meinbach
(1991, p.144) the theme of story ties together the plot, character, and setting. It is a feeling,
an idea, a meaning that the author wants to convey about life, values, beliefs, society, or
human behavior. The writer concludes that a theme is a central statement, focus, and point
of a story.

3. Plot
Lukens (1990, p.69) asserts that plot is the sequence of events showing characters in
action. This sequence is not accidental but is chosen by the author as the best way of telling
his or her story. If the writer has chosen well, the plot will produce conflict, tension, and
action that will arouse and hold our interest. Barnet (1991, p.1279) asserts that usually plot
introduces the characters and th settings (this is the exposition), then introduces a conflict,
and then resolves the conflict in the denouement.
Furthermore, Birkerts (1992, p.842-843) states about plot as follows: there is a set up,
or exposition, wherein the characters and their situations are introduced. This is followed by
 the rising action, which poses and then intensifies the complications, building toward a
climax. Finally there comes a resolution, also called the falling action, which shows the
consequences. The resolution tells us how things turned out. Sometimes an author will
attach a further explanation so that the reader does not mistake the meaning of the outcome.
This is the denouement.
As stated earlier, a good plot should have a beginning, middle, and an end. Oscar
Broccket explains further that the beginning contains the exposition or the setting forth of
information about earlier events, the identity of characters and the present situation. Another
aspect of the beginning is the point of attack which is the moment at which the main story
starts as a potential conflict is identified. This is more obvious in classical plays usually, is
focused early on the potential conflict or a question and its resolution leads to the end of the
play. Such plays start with the inciting incident. This incident is usually an occurrence that
sets the main action in motion.

4. Character
Lukens (1990, p.37) claims characters development in literature makes its own
contribution to these ends. In addition, Roberts and Jacobs (1989, p.143) state that character
in literature generally, and in fiction specifically, is an extended verbal representation of a
human being, the inner self that determines thought, speech, and behavior. So that characters
are, of course, as vital as the plot. These are different types of characters.
a. Round Character
According to Birkerts (1992, p.23) cites that round characters are fully developed
characters in a story. They exhibit complexity in behavior and motivation. They
emerge from the background and give the impression of living and moving in time.
Besides, Roberts and Jacobs (1989, p.1647) say that round characters are usually the
major figures in a work and endowed by the author with many individual and
dynamic traits. In addition, Robert and Jacobs (1989, p.145) assert that round
characters have many individual and unpredictable human traits, and because they
undergo change or growth as a result of their experiences, they may be considered
dynamic.
b. Flat Character
As contrasted with the round characters, the flat characters are less-well developed
characters in a story. Roberts and Jacobs (1989, p.1640) cite that flat character is a
character, usually minor, who is not individualized and rounded, but who is
relatively undeveloped, static, and unchanging. The role of a flat character is not to
 be the center of interest, but rather to be useful and structural, a part of the scene and
the background. Writers make use of flat characters not because they lack the
inclination to develop a full roster of rounded individuals. Usually it is a matter of
artistic need. Roundness and dynamism stand out better if they are contrasted to
flatness (Birkerts, 1992, p.23).

5. Characterization
The act of changing voice, body language, movement, gesture etc when in role is
called characterization. All people are different. The actor must use their skills to portray a
character consistently throughout their performance. When creating characters you need to
consider the following:
a. Voice: Does your character have an accent? What is the tone of their voice like? How
quickly do they speak? Do they have any vocal mannerisms that are particular to them?
b. Body language: This is what your character’s movements and way of using their body
says about them. A character who is very nervous and stressed may fidget a lot or have
their shoulders hunched up tight to indicate tension.
c. Facial expression: Does your character move their face a lot? What does their facial
expression say about their character? Do they have a very expressive face or do they try
not to give much of themselves away?
d. Hot-seating: (being questioned in character) is an excellent way of ensuring that you
understand the role you are playing.
e. Improvisation: in role is also very useful in rehearsal as it ensures that you can act as that
character ‘off the text’. It helps you to understand how they would react in a range of
circumstances.

6. Thought
Birkerts (1992, p.24) claims that thought is the power of saying whatever can be said
and should be said at each moment of the plot. Thought, often referred to as theme, and
refers to the demonstration of virtues in the drama. This includes ideas such as good versus
evil, the triumph of righteousness or the role of fate in people's lives.

7. Dialogue
Dialogue is a discussion between two or more people. In literary works, it refers to a
composition in a conversational form. In the novel it is incorporated in the story, that is, as
the story progresses, the novelist gives two or more characters the opportunity to discuss or
 comment on certain issues and the story continues in prose form. However, in drama, the
entire story is presented in dialogue. This explains why some people find it difficult to read
plays because you see the name of a character, then, what the character says, the name of
another character and the response as seen below: In addition to that, you must read the
stage direction for you to understand the story, the motivation of the characters, the place
where the action is taking place and other information provided about the environment and
the personality of the characters.
Dialogue is a highly specialized form of conversation that is designed to suit various
contexts and modes of drama. It is not exactly like everyday conversation where we adjust
style to suit the occasion and the personalities we are discussing with. In doing this,
unconsciously, we use particular facial expressions, bodily gestures, vocal inflections.
Sometimes, we pause or rephrase our feelings and ideas, as we adjust to circumstances
to suit our thoughts and the thoughts of those we are talking to. It is not possible to
reproduce it like that in drama. The playwright imagines these feelings and ideas, put them
together in a more condensed form. This is because of the limitations of dramatic
performance. The dialogue is designed in a way that it must be heard and understood by the
audience. As a result, the continuity of the dialogue should be marked out clearly at every
point.

8. Diction
According to Anggraeni (2008, p.17) says that diction is the technical correctness of a
drama. Diction insists that actors should speak and react appropriately to their character's
position or station. For instance, an actor should portray a noble character with fine,
dramatic language. Diction or language is also used to depart information, reveal characters,
characterize direct attention, reveal themes and ideas, establish mood or tone, and establish
tempo or rhythm appropriate to character.

9. Sounds
This includes the music and singing in a play, as well as the chorus (a group of actors
who commented on the action) in Aristotle's day. Aristotle insisted that a play's music
should support the emotional elements of the play and add to emphasis to the overall
performance. Ressler (2013, p.5) cites that sounds or music in drama also can help to
establish mood, characterize, pleasurable, and lend variety.

10. Dramatic conventions

 A convention is a technique employed regularly in the drama so that the audience
come to attach specific meaning to it. When a technique is used repeatedly in a drama the
audience recognize its significance. They buy into it as an established way of telling the
story. There are a range of dramatic conventions that you can explore to make your drama
interesting and engage the audience:
• Slow motion
• Soliloquy (a solo speech by an actor that gives an insight into what they are thinking)
• Adding narration
• Use of an ‘aside’ (when a character directly addresses the audience to comment
within a scene)
• Breaking into song (as in Musical theatre)
• using a chorus to comment upon the action
• splitting the stage so that different spaces represent different locations
• Using placards (signs) to give additional information to the audience
• Split role or multi-role
• Using music to underscore the drama

11. Dramatic Action

In simple terms, action is the process of doing something or the performance itself. If
somebody slaps you and you retaliate, there is an action. The series of events that constitute
the plot in any literary work is referred to as action It includes what the characters say, do,
think and in some cases, fail to do. Action involves activity. This activity becomes more
pronounced in drama where the action is presented in concrete form as the actors present the
story to the audience for entertainment and education.
In drama, especially during performance, you see the characters moving around to
perform certain tasks, talk to one another, laugh, cry, fight, shoot or do anything according
to the needs of the moment. All these are dramatic actions. In the novel, you read the story
as is told by the novelist and see the action in your imagination but in drama the dramatist
presents the action through what the characters do or say. In fact it involves all the activities
of all the characters in the play.
Drama is the only genre of literature in which the story is presented in dialogue from
the beginning to the end. However, dialogue alone does not constitute dramatic action. What
makes it drama is the action that is involved. Dramatic action includes facial expression,
gestures and movements.
 So, what makes dialogue dramatic is the presence of action. It is only through action
that the playwright can portray the human situations he chooses to dramatize. It is the action
that propels the plot and helps to advance the theme. In simple terms drama is a story told in
action by actors who impersonate the characters in the story on a stage. Types of dramatic
action are physical action, reported action, and mental action.

12. Genres
Just a there are various types of novels, i.e., western, romance, science fiction, there are
different genres of plays. While it is difficult at times to place many latter day plays into a
specific genre, seeing the attributes will enable the reader to understand the particular play
better.

13. Using symbols

A symbol is something which stands for, or represents something else. Symbols are
often used in drama to deepen its meaning and remind the audience of the themes or issues it
is discussing. A prop often has a particular significance that an audience will instantly
recognize when used symbolically in the work. What might the following things symbolize
or represent?
 A white coat represents medicine, science, authority
 A dove represents peace and tranquillity
 A torn wedding photograph represents divorce or separation
 A lamb represents new life, spring, innocence or sacrifice
 CHAPTER III
CLOSING

A. Conclusion
Drama is a form of play that tells stories through conversations and characters. However,
understanding or dialogue itself can also be viewed as action. Drama in our society has two
meanings, namely drama in the broad sense and drama in the narrow sense. In a broad sense,
drama is any form of spectacle that contains a story that is shown in front of a large crowd. In a
narrow sense, drama is a story of human life in society that is projected onto a stage, presented
in the form of dialogue and a script based on a script supported by stage settings, lighting,
music, make-up and husana. In other words, drama in a broad sense includes traditional theater
and modern theater, while drama in the sense refers to modern drama only.
Drama is used to entertain, inform and educate people. You see that dramatists can use
their works to help to shape the future of the societies. They can do this not only by reflecting
the ugly sides of the societies but also by promoting the positive aspects of the people’s way of
life that are worth emulating or cultivating. They also help to ensure the continuity of their
tradition and culture by reflecting them in their plays. Each dramatist, therefore, tries from his
perspective to use his art to enlighten his audience on the goodness, imbalances and
shortcomings of his society. The elements of drama are audience, theme, plot, thought,
character, characterization, dialogue, symbols, diction, sounds, dramatic conventions, genre,
dramatic action.

B. Suggestion
1. The campus or school should add extracurricular activities in the field of drama, so that
students can receive guidance and be more able to express their talents.
2. Schools should hold drama performances, so that students are more mature in developing
their dramatic artistic talents.
 REFERENCES

Iwuchukwu Onyeka.(2008).Elements of Drama.Nigeria: National Open University of Nigeria.

Crown, Brian (1983). Studying Drama. Ikeja: Longman.

Dukore, B. F. (1974). Dramatic Theory and Criticism: Greek to Grotowsky. New York: Holt
Reinhart and Winston.

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