CHAPTER 18

Project Planning

18-1 Introduction
Successful execution of any photogrammetric project requires that thorough planning be done prior to
proceeding with the work. Planning, more than any other area of photogrammetric practice, must be
performed by knowledgeable and experienced persons who are familiar with all aspects of the subject.
The first and most important decision to be made in the planning process concerns the selection
of the products that will be prepared. In addition to selecting the products, their scales and accuracies
must be fixed. These decisions can only be made if the planner thoroughly understands what the
client’s needs are, so that the best overall products can be developed to meet those needs. The client
will also naturally be concerned with the anticipated costs of the items as well as the proposed
schedule for their delivery. Therefore, successful planning will probably require several meetings with
the client prior to commencing the work, and depending upon the nature and magnitude of the project,
continued meetings may be needed as production progresses.
A variety of products may be developed in a given photogrammetric project, including prints of
aerial photos, photo indexes, photomaps, mosaics, orthophotos, planimetric and topographic maps,
digital maps for GIS databases and other purposes, cross sections, digital elevation models, cadastral
maps, and others. In addition to the wide variation in products that could be developed for a given
project, there are normally other major considerations that will have definite bearing on procedures,
costs, and scheduling. These include the location of the project; its size, shape, topography, and
vegetation cover; the availability of existing ground control; etc. Thus, every project presents unique
problems to be considered in the planning stages.
Assuming that the photogrammetric products, and their scales and accuracies, have been agreed
upon with the client, the balance of the work of project planning can generally be summarized in the
following categories:

1. Planning the aerial photography1

2. Planning the ground control
3. Selecting instruments and procedures necessary to achieve the desired results
4. Estimating costs and delivery schedules

When planning has been completed for these categories, the photogrammetrist will normally prepare a
detailed proposal which outlines plans, specifications, an estimate of costs, and delivery schedules for
the project. The proposal often forms the basis of an agreement or contract for the performance of the
work.
Of the above four categories, this chapter concentrates primarily on planning of the aerial
photography. Planning of the ground control has been discussed in detail in Chap. 16, and instrument
and procedure selection has been discussed in earlier chapters where the various photogrammetric
products and instruments for producing them have been described. A brief discussion of the subjects
of cost estimating and scheduling is given in Sec. 18-12.
18-2 Importance of Flight Planning
Because the ultimate success of any photogrammetric project probably depends more upon good-
quality photography than on any other aspect, planning the aerial photography, also called flight
planning, is of major concern. If the photography is to satisfactorily serve its intended purposes, the
photographic mission must be carefully planned and faithfully executed according to the “flight plan.”
A flight plan generally consists of two items: a flight map, which shows where the photos are to be
taken; and specifications, which outline how to take them, including specific requirements such as
camera and film requirements, scale, flying height, end lap, side lap, and tilt and crab tolerances. A
flight plan which gives optimum specifications for a project can be prepared only after careful
consideration of all the many variables which influence aerial photography.
An aerial photographic mission is an expensive operation involving two or more crewpersons and
high-priced aircraft and equipment. In addition, periods of time that are acceptable for aerial
photography are quite limited in many areas by weather and ground cover conditions, which are
related to seasons of the year. Failure to obtain satisfactory photography on a flight mission not only
necessitates costly reflights, but also in all probability will cause long and expensive delays on the
project for which the photos were ordered. For these reasons flight planning is one of the most
important operations in the overall photogrammetric project.

18-3 Photographic End Lap and Side Lap

Before discussing the many aspects which enter into consideration in planning an aerial photographic
mission, it will be helpful to redefine the terms end lap and side lap. As discussed in Sec. 1-4, vertical
aerial photographic coverage of an area is normally taken as a series of overlapping flight strips. As
illustrated in Fig. 18-1, end lap is the overlapping of successive photos along a flight strip. Figure 18-
2 illustrates side lap, or the overlap of adjacent flight strips.

FIGURE 18-1 End lap, the overlapping of successive photos along a flight strip.
FIGURE 18-2 Side lap, the overlapping of adjacent flight strips.

I n Fig. 18-1, G represents the dimension of the square of ground covered by a single vertical
photograph (assuming level ground and a square camera focal-plane format), and B is the air base or
distance between exposure stations of a stereopair. The amount of end lap of a stereopair is commonly
given in percent. Expressed in terms of G and B, it is

(18-1)

I n Eq. (18-1), PE is percent end lap. If stereoscopic coverage of an area is required, the absolute
minimum end lap is 50 percent. However, to prevent gaps from occurring in the stereoscopic coverage
due to crab, tilt, flying height variations, and terrain variations, end laps greater than 50 percent are
used. Also, if the photos are to be used for photogrammetric control extension, images of some points
must appear on three successive photographs—a condition requiring greater than 50 percent end lap.
For these reasons aerial photography for mapping purposes is normally taken with about 60 percent
end lap.
Crab, as explained in Sec. 3-6, exists when the edges of the photos in the x direction are not
parallel with the direction of flight. It causes a reduction in stereoscopic coverage, as was indicated in
Fig. 3-7. Figures 18-3 through 18-5 illustrate reductions in end lap causing loss of stereoscopic
coverage due to tilt, flying height variation, and relief variations, respectively.

FIGURE 18-3 Failure to achieve stereoscopic coverage due to tilt.

FIGURE 18-4 Failure to achieve stereoscopic coverage due to flying height variations.

FIGURE 18-5 Failure to achieve stereoscopic coverage due to terrain variations.

Side lap is required in aerial photography to prevent gaps from occurring between flight strips as
a result of drift, crab, tilt, flying height variation, and terrain variations. Drift is the term applied to a
failure of the pilot to fly along planned flight lines. It is often caused by strong winds, but can also
result from a lack of definite features and objects shown on the flight map which can also be identified
from the air to guide the pilot during photography. Excessive drift is the most common cause for gaps
in photo coverage; when this occurs, reflights are necessary.
I n Fig. 18-2, again G represents the dimension of the square of ground coverage of a single
vertical photograph, and W is the spacing between adjacent flight lines. An expression for PS (percent
side lap) in terms of G and W

(18-2)

Mapping photography is normally taken with a side lap of about 30 percent. Besides helping to
prevent gaps in coverage, another advantage realized from using this large a percentage is the
elimination of the need to use the extreme edges of the photography, where the imagery is of poorer
quality. Photography for orthophoto or mosaic work is sometimes taken with greater than 30 percent
side lap since this reduces the sizes of the central portions of the photographs that must be used,
thereby lessening distortions of images due to tilt and relief. In certain cases, such as for very precise
photogrammetric control extension, the aerial photos may be taken with 60 percent side lap as well as
60 percent end lap to increase the redundancy in the bundle adjustment (see Chap. 17).

Example 18-1
The air base of a stereopair of vertical photos is 1400 m, and flying height above average ground is
2440 m. The camera has a focal length of 152.4 mm and a 23-cm format. What is the percent end lap?

Solution

2. Ground coverage dimension

3. Percent end lap, by Eq. (18-1), is

Example 18-2
I n Example 18-1, assume that the spacing between adjacent flight strips is 2500 m. What is the
percent side lap?

Solution By Eq. (18-2),

18-4 Purpose of the Photography

In planning aerial photographic missions, the first and foremost consideration is the purpose for which
the photography is being taken. Only with the purpose defined can optimum equipment and
procedures be selected. In general, aerial photographs are desired which have either good metric
qualities or high pictorial qualities. Photos having good metric qualities are needed for topographic
mapping or other purposes where precise quantitative photogrammetric measurements are required.
High pictorial qualities are required for qualitative analysis, such as for photographic interpretation or
for constructing orthophotos, photomaps, and aerial mosaics.
Photographs of good metric quality are obtained by using calibrated cameras and films having
fine-grained, high-resolution emulsions or digital sensors with a high pixel count. For topographic
mapping and other quantitative operations, photography is preferably taken with a wide- or super-
wide-angle (short-focal-length) camera so that a large base-height ratio (B/H′) is obtained. The B/H′
ratio, as described in Sec. 7-8, is the ratio of the air base of a pair of overlapping photographs to the
average flying height above ground. The larger the B/H′ ratio, the greater the intersection angles
(parallactic angles) between intersecting light rays to common points. In Figs. 18-6a and b, for
example, the air bases are equal, but the focal length and flying height in Fig. 18-6a are one-half those
in Fig. 18-6b. The photographic scales are therefore equal for both cases, but the B/H′ ratio of Fig. 18-
6a is double that of Fig. 18-6b, and parallactic angle ϕ1 to point A in Fig. 18-6a is nearly double the
corresponding angle ϕ2 in Fig. 18-6b.

FIGURE 18-6 Parallactic angles increase with increasing B/H′ ratios.

It can be shown that the errors in computed positions and elevations of points in a stereopair
increase with increasing flying heights, and decrease with increasing x parallax. Large B/H′ ratios
denote low flying heights and large x parallaxes, conditions favorable to higher accuracy. The photos
of Fig. 18-6a are therefore superior to those of Fig. 18-6b for mapping or quantitative analyses.
Photography of high pictorial quality does not necessarily require a calibrated camera, but the
camera must have a good-quality lens. In many cases, films having fast, large-grained emulsions or
digital cameras with high ISO speeds produce desirable effects. For some photo interpretation work,
normal color photography is useful. For other special applications, black-and-white infrared or color
infrared photos are desirable. Special effects can also be obtained by using filters in combination with
various types of films. Timber types, for example, can be delineated quite effectively by using a red
filter in combination with black-and-white infrared film. Similarly, digital image processing
techniques can be applied to enhance photos for many different interpretive applications.
For mosaic work, relief displacements, tilt displacements, and scale variations produce
objectionable degradations of pictorial quality. These may be minimized, however, by increasing
flying height, thereby decreasing the B/H′ ratio. Increased flying height, of course, reduces photo
scale; but compensation for this can be achieved by using a longer-focal-length camera. The photo of
Fig. 18-7a was exposed at one-half the flying height of the photo of Fig. 18-7b. The scales of the two
photos are equal, however, because focal length f2 of Fig. 18-7b is double f1 of Fig. 18-7a. The photo
o f Fig. 18-7b is more desirable for mosaic construction because its scale variations and image
distortions due to relief, tilt, and flying height variations are much less than those of the photo of Fig.
18-7a. On Fig. 18-7a, for example, relief displacement d1 is more than double the corresponding relief
displacement d2 of Fig. 18-7b.
FIGURE 18-7 Reduction in relief displacement is achieved by increasing flying height.

18-5 Photo Scale

Average photographic scale is one of the most important variables that must be selected in planning
aerial photography. It is generally fixed within certain limits by specific project requirements. For
topographic mapping, photo scale is usually dictated by the map’s required scale and/or horizontal and
vertical accuracy. On the other hand, in photo interpretation applications, or for orthophoto or mosaic
preparation, ensuring that the smallest ground objects of importance can be resolved on the photos
may be the governing consideration in selecting the photo scale.

Example 18-3
A particular project involves the use of aerial photography to study the centerline markings of
highways. The actual width of painted centerlines on the highways is 100 mm (4 in). A high-resolution
film (80 line pairs per millimeter) will be used. What minimum photo scale is required?

Solution With a resolution of 80 line pairs per millimeter (see Sec. 3-14), the smallest objects that
could reasonably be resolved with that film would be 1/80 mm = 0.0125 mm in size. Thus, the
minimum scale required would be roughly

In topographic mapping, the enlargement ratio from photo scale to the scale of the plotted map
must be considered. With older direct optical projection stereoplotters, where maps were drawn in real
time as the operator viewed and traced the stereomodel, the enlargement ratio was fixed within narrow
limits, with 5 being most common. Today these types of instruments are seldom used in practice.
Mechanical projection stereoplotters (see Chap. 12) have enlargement ratio capabilities which range
from less than 1 up to 10 or more, depending upon the particular instrument. However, the number of
these instruments in use today is also declining, and those being used are seldom employed for direct
map compilation anymore. Rather they are equipped with digitizers, and topographic information is
digitized and stored in files. From these digital files, maps are plotted using computers. Today,
analytical plotters and softcopy systems account for the majority of topographic mapping, and for
topographic mapping both of these systems are normally used to produce digital files.
In using computers to plot maps from digital files, virtually any enlargement ratio is possible. It
is important to note, however, that the digitized information contains errors, and these errors are
magnified by whatever enlargement ratio is used. Thus to ensure the integrity and accuracy of a map
compiled from digital data, the enlargement ratios that are actually utilized must be held within
reasonable limits. To ensure that their plotted maps meet required accuracy standards, many
organizations will not enlarge more than five to seven times over photo scale. Higher enlargement
ratios are sometimes used but this should be done with caution, and generally only when experience
with previous projects has shown through field checks that satisfactory accuracies have been obtained.

Example 18-4
A map must be compiled at a scale of 1:6000. If an enlargement ratio of 5 will be used in producing
this map, what is the required photo scale?

Solution Photo scale is one-fifth as large as map scale. Therefore,

Selection of optimum map scale depends upon the purpose of the map. It should be carefully
planned, because compilation at a larger scale than necessary is uneconomical, and compilation at too
small a scale reduces the usefulness of the map or may even render it unsatisfactory. The horizontal
accuracy (accuracy to which planimetric positions of points can be measured from a map) depends
directly upon the map’s scale. Assume, for example, that map positions of planimetric features can be
plotted correctly to within 1/30 in, a condition necessary to meet National Map Accuracy Standards
(see Sec. 16-1) for large-scale maps.2 Now if a particular cadastral map requires that points be
accurate to within ± 2.0 ft, required map scale is 1 in = 60 ft (1:720). Then for that situation, if an
enlargement ratio of 5 is employed, photo scale is fixed at 5 × 60 = 300 ft/in (1:3600). In another
example, if points only need to be accurate to within ± 20 ft on a topographic map for preliminary
planning, and again assuming the same accuracy of 1/30 in, then a scale of 1 in = 600 ft (1:7200) is all
that would be required, and minimum photo scale would be 5 × 7200, or 1:36,000.
As previously noted, vertical mapping accuracy is also an important factor to be considered in
planning aerial photography. In past photogrammetric practice, contours which portrayed topographic
relief were compiled directly from stereomodels, and thus the guidelines and standards for specifying
vertical accuracy in topographic mapping were commonly given in terms of contour interval. As noted
earlier in this text, however, for modern photogrammetry projects digital elevation models (DEMs)
are now generally compiled rather than contours. From the DEMs, triangulated irregular network
(TIN) models are constructed using computers, and then contours, cross sections, and profiles can be
generated automatically from the TIN models. But even though different procedures are now
employed to compile topographic information, contours are still the end product that is often used in
representing topographic relief. Thus, guidelines and standards that are based on contour interval are
still appropriate for quantifying vertical mapping accuracy. And as will be discussed later in this
section, as vertical mapping accuracy requirements increase (contour interval decreases), flying height
must decrease and photo scale must increase.
As with planimetric accuracy, the contour interval to be selected for a particular mapping project
depends upon the intended use of the maps. Assume, for example, that elevations can be interpolated
correctly from a map to within one-half the contour interval, a condition required for meeting
National Map Accuracy Standards. If elevations must be interpolated to within ±0.5 ft on a highway
design map, then a 1-ft contour interval is necessary. If elevations must be interpolated to ±10 ft on a
map prepared for studying the volume of water impounded in the reservoir of a large dam, then a 20-ft
contour interval is all that is required.
The recommended contour interval depends on not only the use to be made of the map but also
the type of terrain. If the map is being prepared for planning a sewer system for a city such as Las
Vegas, Nevada, which lies on relatively flat terrain, perhaps a 1-ft contour interval would be required.
On the other hand, if a topographic map of San Francisco is being prepared for the same purpose,
because of the large range of relief in that city, perhaps a 5- or 10-ft contour interval would be used.
In planning a topographic mapping project, contour interval and map scale must be selected so
that they are compatible. As map scale decreases, contour interval must increase; otherwise, the
contours would become too congested on the map. In large-scale mapping of average types of terrain,
the scale and contour interval relationships shown in Table 18-1 generally provide satisfactory
compatibility.

TABLE 18-1 Compatible Map Scales and Contour Intervals for Average Terrain

Relative accuracy capabilities in photogrammetric mapping, whether planimetric or vertical,

depend upon many variables, but the most important is flying height above ground. Others include the
quality of the stereoplotting instrument that is used and the experience and ability of its operator, the
camera and its calibration, the quality of the photography, the density and accuracy of the ground
control, and the nature of the terrain and its ground cover. A rule of thumb for quantifying vertical
accuracy capability, based on contour interval, employs a term called the C factor. The C factor is the
ratio of the flying height above ground of the photography (H′) to the contour interval that can be
reliably plotted using that photography, or in equation form

(18-3)

The units of H′ and CI (contour interval) of Eq. (18-3) are the same. The C factors that are employed
by photogrammetric mapping organizations are based upon their experiences, and this experience will
include field checks of map accuracies achieved on a variety of previous projects. To ensure that their
maps meet required accuracy standards, many organizations use a C factor of from about 1200 to
1500. Other organizations may push the value somewhat higher, but this must be done with extreme
caution.

Example 18-5
A topographic map having a scale of 200 ft/in with 5-ft contour interval is to be compiled from
contact-printed diapositives using a stereoplotter having a nominal 6-in (152-mm) principal distance.
Determine the required flying height for the photography if the maximum values to be employed for
the C factor and enlargement ratio are 1500 and 5, respectively.

Solution

1. Considering contour interval and C factor:

2. Considering map scale and enlargement ratio:

In this instance, the lower of the two flying heights (6000 ft) must be selected, and
therefore the enlargement ratio from photo scale to map scale governs over contour interval.

In some topographic mapping projects, particularly where there is little relief, it is impractical to
show elevations using contours because few, if any, may result. In these situations, a grid of spot
elevations can be read throughout the area to depict the relief. A rule of thumb relating accuracy of
spot elevations and flying height is that the ratio of flying height above ground to the accuracy with
which spot elevations can be reliably read is approximately 5000. Thus, if spot elevations are needed
to an accuracy of ±1/2 m, then the flying height above ground necessary to achieve those results would
be in the range of about 1/2 (5000), or roughly 2500 m. Again, in addition to flying height, the actual
accuracies that can be achieved also relate to the stereoplotting instrument, the operator’s ability, the
quality of the aerial photography, the density and accuracy of the ground control, and other factors.

18-6 Flying Height

Once the camera focal length and required average photo scale have been selected, required flying
height above average ground is automatically fixed in accordance with scale [see Eq. (6-3)].

Example 18-6
Aerial photography having an average scale of 1:6000 is required to be taken with a 152.4-mm-focal-
length camera over terrain whose average elevation is 425 m above mean sea level. What is required
flying height above mean sea level?

Solution By Eq. (6-3)

 Flying heights above average ground may vary from a hundred meters or so in the case of large-
scale helicopter photography, to several hundred kilometers if satellites are used to carry the camera.
Flying heights used in taking photos for topographic mapping normally vary between about 500 and
10,000 m. If one portion of the project area lies at a substantially higher or lower elevation than
another part, two different flying heights may be necessary to maintain uniform photo scale.
Ground coverage per photo for high-altitude photography is greater than that for low-altitude
photography. Fewer high-altitude photos are therefore required to cover a given area. Very high-
altitude coverage is more expensive to obtain than low-altitude photography because of the special
equipment required. Some of the problems encountered at high flying heights are the decreasing
available oxygen, decreasing pressure, and extreme cold. When flying heights exceed about 3000 m,
an oxygen supply system is necessary for the flight crew. At altitudes above 10,000 m, pure oxygen
under pressure is required. Also, the cabin must be pressurized, and heaters are required to protect the
crew against the cold. Most aerial photography is taken by using single- or twin-engine aircraft.
Supercharged single-engine aircraft can reach altitudes of about 6 km, and supercharged twin-engine
aircraft are capable of approaching 10 km. Higher altitudes require turbocharged or jet aircraft.
During photography the pilot maintains proper flying height by means of an altimeter or GPS
receiver. Since altimeters give elevations above mean sea level, the proper reading is the sum of
average ground elevation and required flying height above ground necessary to achieve proper photo
scale. Altimeters are barometric instruments, and consequently their readings are affected by varying
atmospheric pressure. They must be checked daily and adjusted to base airport air pressure. GPS
receivers, while essentially unaffected by barometric pressure, give elevations relative to the ellipsoid
(see Sec. 16-5); therefore a geoid model is required to relate these elevations to mean sea level.

18-7 Ground Coverage

Once average photographic scale and camera format dimensions have been selected, the ground
surface area covered by a single photograph may be readily calculated. In addition, if end lap and side
lap are known, the ground area covered by the stereoscopic neat model can be determined. The neat
model, as illustrated in Fig. 18-8, is the stereoscopic area between adjacent principal points and
extending out sideways in both directions to the middle of the side lap. The neat model has a width of
B and a breadth of W. Its coverage is important since it represents the approximate mapping area of
each stereopair.
FIGURE 18-8 The area covered by a stereoscopic neat model.

Example 18-7
Aerial photography is to be taken from a flying height of 6000 ft above average ground with a camera
having a 6-in (152.4-mm) focal length and a 9-in (23-cm) format. End lap will be 60 percent, and side
lap will be 30 percent. What is the ground area covered by a single photograph and by the stereoscopic
neat model?

Solution

1. By Eq. (6-1),

2. The dimension G of the square ground area covered by a single photo is

3. The area in acres covered on the ground by a single photo is

 4. At 60 percent end lap, B is 0.4G; and at 30 percent side lap, W is 0.7G. Therefore the
dimensions of the rectangular stereoscopic neat model are

And the area of the neat model is

While neat models guide the planning process for projects intended for stereoplotter mapping,
other applications may call for different ground coverage parameters. For example, if orthophotos are
the intended final product, it is beneficial to plan flights with equal end lap and side lap. The
advantage of increasing the side lap is that more ground is covered near the center of photos. This
reduces the amount of relief displacement and occlusion by buildings, and is therefore more useful in
urban areas than rural.

18-8 Weather Conditions

The weather, which in most locations is uncertain for any given day, is a very important consideration
in aerial photography. In most cases, an ideal day for aerial photography is one that is free from
clouds, although if the sky is less than 10 percent cloud-covered, the day may be considered
satisfactory. If clouds of greater than 10 percent coverage are present but are so high that they are
above the planned flying height, this may still be objectionable since large cloud shadows will be cast
on the ground, obscuring features. The number of satisfactory cloudless days varies with time of year
and locality. There are certain situations in which overcast weather can be favorable for aerial
photography. This is true, for example, when large-scale photos are being taken for topographic
mapping over built-up areas, forests, steep canyons, or other features which would cast troublesome
shadows on clear, sunny days.
A particular day can be cloudless and still be unsuitable for aerial photography due to
atmospheric haze, smog, dust, smoke, high winds, or air turbulence. Atmospheric haze scatters almost
entirely in the blue portion of the spectrum, and it can therefore be effectively eliminated from the
photographs by using a yellow filter in front of the camera lens. Smog, dust, and smoke scatter
throughout the entire spectrum and cannot be filtered out satisfactorily. Best days for photographing
over industrial areas which are susceptible to smog, dust, and smoke occur after heavy rains or during
moving cold fronts which clear the air. Windy, turbulent days can create excessive image motion and
cause difficulties in keeping the camera oriented for vertical photography, in staying on planned flight
lines, and in maintaining constant flying heights.
The decision to fly or not to fly is one that must be made daily. The flight crew should be capable
of interpreting weather conditions and of making sound decisions as to when satisfactory photography
can be obtained. If possible, the flight crew should be based near the project so that they can observe
the weather firsthand and quickly take advantage of satisfactory conditions.
18-9 Season of the Year
The season of the year is a limiting factor in aerial photography because it affects ground cover
conditions and the sun’s altitude. If photography is being taken for topographic mapping, the photos
should be taken when the deciduous trees are bare, so that the ground is not obscured by leaves. In
many places this occurs twice a year for short periods in the late fall and in early spring. Oak trees
tend to hold many of their leaves until spring, when the buds swell and cause the leaves to fall. In
areas with heavy oak cover, therefore, the most satisfactory period for aerial photography is that very
short period in the spring between budding and leafing out. Sometimes aerial photography is taken for
special forestry interpretation purposes, in which case it may be desirable for the trees to be in full
leaf. Normally, aerial photography is not taken when the ground is snow-covered. Heavy snow not
only obscures the ground but also causes difficulties in interpretation and in stereoviewing.
Occasionally, however, a light snow cover can be helpful by making the ground surface more readily
identifiable in tree-covered areas.
Another factor to be considered in planning aerial photography is the sun’s altitude. Low sun
angles produce long shadows, which can be objectionable because they obscure detail. Generally a sun
angle of about 30° is the minimum acceptable for aerial photography. During the winter months of
November through February, the sun never reaches a 30° altitude in some northern parts of the United
States due to the sun’s southerly declination. Aerial photography should therefore be avoided in those
areas during these months, if possible. Often, snow cover will prevent photography during these
periods anyway. For the other months, photography should be exposed during the middle portion of
the day after the sun rises above 30° and before it falls below that altitude. For certain purposes,
shadows may be desirable, since they aid in identifying objects. Shadows of trees, for example, help to
identify the species. Shadows may also be helpful in locating photo-identifiable features such as
fenceposts and power poles to serve as photo control points.

18-10 Flight Map

A flight map, as shown in Fig. 18-9, gives the project boundaries and flight lines the pilot must fly to
obtain the desired coverage. The flight map is prepared on some existing map which shows the project
area. United States Geological Survey quadrangle maps are frequently used. The flight map may also
be prepared on small-scale photographs of the area, if they are available. In executing the planned
photographic mission, the pilot finds two or more features on each flight line which can be identified
both on the flight map and on the ground. The aircraft is flown so that lines of flight pass over the
ground points. Alternatively, an airborne GPS receiver can be employed to guide the aircraft along
predefined flight lines.
FIGURE 18-9 Example of a flight plan. (Courtesy Ayres Associates, Inc.)

Rectangular project areas are most conveniently covered with flight lines oriented north and
south or east and west. As illustrated in Fig. 18-9, this is desirable because the pilot can take
advantage of section lines and roads running in the cardinal directions and fly parallel to them.
If the project area is irregular in shape or if it is long and narrow and skewed to cardinal
directions, it may not be economical to fly north and south or east and west. In planning coverage for
such irregular areas, it may be most economical to align flight lines parallel to project boundaries as
nearly as possible. Flight planning templates are useful for determining the best and most economical
photographic coverage for mapping, especially for small areas. These templates, which show blocks of
neat models, are prepared on transparent plastic sheets at scales that correspond to the scales of the
base maps upon which the flight plan is prepared. The templates are then simply superimposed on the
map over the project area and oriented in the position which yields best coverage with the fewest neat
models. Such a template is shown in Fig. 18-10. The crosses represent exposure stations, and these
may be individually marked on the flight map. This template method of flight planning is
exceptionally useful in planning exposure station locations when artificial targets are used (see Sec.
16-2).
FIGURE 18-10 Transparent template of neat models used for planning aerial photography.

Once the camera focal length, photo scale, end lap, and side lap have been selected, the flight
map can be prepared. The following example illustrates flight map preparation for a rectangular
project area.

Example 18-8
A project area is 10 mi (16 km) long in the east-west direction and 6.5 mi (10.5 km) wide in the north-
south direction (see Fig. 18-11). It is to be covered with vertical aerial photography having a scale of
1:12,000. End lap and side lap are to be 60 and 30 percent, respectively. A 6-in- (152.4-mm-) focal-
length camera with a 9-in- (23-cm-) square format is to be used. Prepare the flight map on a base map
whose scale is 1:24,000, and compute the total number of photographs necessary for the project.

FIGURE 18-11 Project area for Example 18-9.

Solution

1. Fly east-west to reduce the number of flight lines.

2. Dimension of square ground coverage per photograph [photo scale = 1:12,000 (1 in/1000 ft)] is

3. Lateral advance per strip (at 30 percent side lap) is

4. Number of flight lines. (Align the first and last lines with 0.3G (side-lap dimension) coverage
outside the north and south project boundary lines, as shown in Fig. 18-11. This ensures lateral
coverage outside of the project area.)

Distance of first and last flight lines inside their respective north and south project boundaries
(see Fig. 18-11) is

Number of spaces between flight lines:

Number of flight lines = number of spaces + 1 = 6

5. Adjust the percent side lap and flight line spacing.

Adjusted percent side lap for integral number of flight lines (include portion extended outside
north and south boundaries):

Adjusted spacing Wa between flight lines for integral number of flight lines:

6. Linear advance per photo (air base at 60 percent end lap):

7. Number of photos per strip (take two extra photos beyond the project boundary at both ends of
each strip to ensure complete stereoscopic coverage):
 8. Total number of photos:

9. Spacing of flight lines on the map:

Draw the flight lines at 3.09-in spacing on the map, with the first and last lines

[(0.5 – 31.2/100)9000 ft]/2000 ft/in = 0.84 in inside the project boundaries.

Computer programs are now available for preparing flight plans. Figure 18-12 illustrates a flight
plan for a highway corridor being prepared with the aid of a computer. Design variables including
camera focal length, photo scale, end lap, and side lap are input to the computer. Base maps upon
which the flight maps will be prepared can either be scanned into the computer from existing hard
copies, or they can be downloaded from existing databases of topographic maps. Coordinates of points
that delineate the boundaries of the area to be photographed must be input, and the coordinates of at
least two control points must also be entered and their locations identified within the map area. The
computer can then make all the same calculations that were demonstrated in Example 18-8 and
prepare flight maps with superimposed flight lines. In addition to software devoted soley to preparing
flight plans, there are various kinds of mapping software that allows users to easily develop their own
flight plans by superimposing lines and points over existing imagery. In the most modern aerial
photography and navigation systems, after designing the flight map, the computer determines the
coordinates of the ends of the flight lines. Then the aircraft’s navigation system, aided by an onboard
GPS receiver (see Secs. 16-6 through 16-8), automatically guides the aircraft along the desired flight
lines at the required altitude and exposes the photographs according to the given percent end lap.
FIGURE 18-12 Flight plan prepared on a computer. (Courtesy University of Florida)

18-11 Specifications
Most flight plans include a set of detailed specifications which outline the materials, equipment, and
procedures to be used on the project. These specifications include requirements and tolerances
pertaining to photographic scale (including camera focal length and flying height), end lap, side lap,
tilt, crab, and photographic quality. The following is a sample set of detailed specifications for aerial
photography (courtesy Ayres Associates, Inc.).

1. General. The engineer shall perform the necessary flying and photography to provide
photographic coverage of an area approximately 8 square miles in extent shown on the sketch
map attached hereto as exhibit A. The engineer may sublet this phase of the work to a qualified
and experienced aerial photographic firm. The city, however, retains the right to approve or
reject any or all such firms which the engineer may wish to engage.
2. Scale. Flight height above average ground shall be such that the negatives will have an average
scale of 1 in = 500 ft (1:6000). Negatives having a departure from the specified scale by more
than 5 percent because of tilt or abrupt changes in flying altitude must be corrected. The
photographs shall be suitable for the compilation of the topographic maps specified herein, and
the mapping flight height shall not vary from 3000 ft above mean terrain by more than 5
percent.
3. End lap and side lap. End lap shall be sufficient to provide full stereoscopic coverage of the
area to be mapped. End lap shall average 63 percent, plus or minus 5 percent. End lap of less
than 58 percent or more than 68 percent in one or more negatives shall be cause for rejection of
the negatives in which such deficiency or excess occurs; unless within a stereoscopic pair, end
lap exceeding 68 percent is necessary in areas of low elevation to attain the minimum 58
percent end lap in adjacent areas of high elevation. Wherever there is a change in direction of
the flight lines, vertical photography on the beginning of a forward section shall end-lap the
photography of a back section by 100 percent. Any negatives having side lap of less than 20
percent or more than 55 percent may be rejected.
4. Tilt. Negatives made with the optical axis of the aerial camera in a vertical position are desired.
 Tilt of any negative by more than 5°, an average tilt of more than 1° for the entire project, or
tilt between any two successive negatives exceeding 4° may be cause of rejection.
5. Crab. Crab in excess of 3° may be cause of rejection of the flight line of negatives or portions
thereof in which such crab occurs.
6. Quality. The photographs shall be clear and sharp in detail and of uniform average density.
They shall be free from clouds, cloud shadows, light streaks, static marks, or other blemishes
which would interfere with their intended use. All photography shall be taken when the area to
be mapped is free of snow, before foliation, and at such time as to ensure a minimum solar
angle of 30°, except upon written authorization to the contrary by the city.
7. Camera. For topographic and contour mapping, photographs shall be exposed with a distortion-
free 6-in- (152-mm-) focal-length precision aerial mapping camera equipped with a between-
the-lens element shutter to produce negatives 9 in × 9 in (23 cm × 23 cm). The engineer shall
furnish the city with a precision camera calibration report for the camera to be used.
8. Contact prints. The contact prints from the vertical negatives shall be printed on double-weight
semimatte paper of suitable contrast.
9. Photo index. Photo indices shall be prepared by directly photographing, on safety base film at a
convenient scale, the assembly of contact prints from all indexed and evaluated prints used.
The photo index shall carry a suitable title, scale, and north point.
10. Ownership of negatives. All negatives shall become the property of the city and shall be
delivered to the city upon completion of this contract, or may be stored indefinitely in the film
library of the engineer at no added charge.

18-12 Cost Estimating and Scheduling

Cost estimating is an area of critical concern in the operation of any photogrammetric business,
because if projects are let to contract that are underestimated, devastating financial results can ensue.
In general, the items that must be considered in a cost analysis include material, labor, and overhead.
In addition, a reasonable allowance for profit must be included.
Material costs are directly related to the quantity of each photogrammetric product to be
prepared, and the procedures for calculating these quantities are quite straightforward. Example 18-8
illustrated the method of estimating the total number of aerial photos needed to cover a project area.
Similar procedures are used to estimate other materials, and thus these costs can usually be estimated
with fair accuracy. Overhead costs, which consist of salaries of administrative personnel, office and
laboratory rental, electricity, water, heat, telephone, miscellaneous office supplies, etc., are also rather
straightforward to determine. Labor costs, which generally constitute the major expense on
photogrammetric projects, are considerably more difficult to estimate accurately, and this presents the
greatest challenge to the estimator.
Although estimates can be made of the number of hours needed to perform each task involved in
photogrammetric procedures, there are many unforeseen circumstances that can cause the actual time
expended to deviate significantly from the estimates. The most realistic approach to estimating labor,
therefore, is to rely on past experiences with projects of a similar nature. Obviously, it then becomes
very important to keep detailed records of the actual costs incurred on the individual items of all
projects. Because of significant variations of project complexities and rapidly changing cost factors,
past records alone cannot be relied upon completely, and a good deal of intuition and subjective
judgment is also necessary. This can normally be obtained only through years of experience.
In estimating, it is easy to omit small items, but enough of these over time can accumulate to
cause a significant loss of revenue. Therefore, care must be exercised to prevent these omissions, and
the use of checklists is a good way to handle this problem.
Once the total number of labor hours has been estimated for each phase of a project, schedules
for completion of the various operations can be planned on the basis of the number of instruments and
personnel available to do the work. In addition to these factors, however, another important
consideration is the amount of other work in progress and its status in relation to required completion
dates. To arrive at realistic schedules, additional time in excess of that actually needed to perform the
work must be added to account for uncontrollable circumstances. As an example, schedules for aerial
photography and ground control surveys must account for possible delays due to inclement weather.
Every reasonable attempt should be made to accommodate clients with stringent scheduling
needs. In some cases, to meet critical new scheduling requirements and still adhere to delivery dates
already agreed upon, it may be necessary to consider hiring additional staff and running more than one
work shift. Of course, the possibility of purchasing additional equipment also exists, but this should be
done with caution and only when anticipated quantities of continued future work can justify the
expenditures.

References
American Society of Photogrammetry: Manual of Photogrammetry, 5th ed., Bethesda, Md., 2004.
chap. 9.
Graham, L. C.: “Flight Planning for Stereo Radar Mapping,” Photogrammetric Engineering and
Remote Sensing, vol. 41, no. 9, 1975, p. 1131.
Hobbie, D.: “Orthophoto Project Planning,” Photogrammetric Engineering, vol. 40, no. 8, 1974, p.
967.
Lafferty, M. E.: “Accuracy/Costs with Analytics,” Photogrammetric Engineering, vol. 39, no. 5, 1973,
p. 507.
Moffitt, F. H.: “Photogrammetric Mapping Standards,” Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote
Sensing, vol. 45, no. 12, 1979, p. 1637.
Paterson, G. L.: “Photogrammetric Costing,” Photogrammetric Engineering, vol. 37, no. 12, 1971, p.
1267.
Ulliman, J. J.: “Cost of Aerial Photography,” Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing, vol.
41, no. 4, 1975, p. 491. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers: Photogrammetric Mapping, EM1110-1-
1000, Available at: http://spatialdata.sam.usace.army.mil/organizations/survey/2002.
Walker, P. M., and D. T. Trexler: “Low Sun-Angle Photography,” Photogrammetric Engineering and
Remote Sensing, vol. 43, no. 4, 1977, p. 493.
Wood, G.: “Photo and Flight Requirements for Orthophotography,” Photogrammetric Engineering,
vol. 38, no. 12, 1972, p. 1190.

Problems
18-1. The air base of a stereopair of vertical photos is 1400 m, and the flying height above average
ground is 3000 m. If the camera has a 152-mm focal length and a 23-cm square format, what is the
percent end lap?

18-2. Repeat Prob. 18-1, except that the focal length is 15,000 pixels and the format is 10,000 pixels
squared.
 18-3. Repeat Prob. 18-1, except that the air base is 4300 ft and flying height above average ground
is 6500 ft.

18-4. For Prob. 18-1, if adjacent flight lines are spaced at 2260 m, what is the percent side lap?

18-5. For Prob. 18-2, if adjacent flight lines are spaced at 1390 m, what is the percent side lap?

18-6. For Prob. 18-3, if adjacent flight lines are spaced at 6300 ft, what is the percent side lap?

18-7. An average photo scale of 1:20,000 is required of vertical photos. What air base is required to
achieve 60 percent end lap if the camera has a 6 in focal length and a 23-cm square format?

18-8. Repeat Prob. 18-7, except that required photo scale is 1:8000 and average end lap must be 55
percent.

18-9. Vertical photographs are to be exposed from 2300 m above average ground. If a B/H′ ratio of
0.60 is required, what should be the length of the air base? What will the percent end lap be for these
photos if the camera focal length is 152 mm and the format is 23 cm square?

18-10. Repeat Prob. 18-9, except that the photos were exposed from 4900 ft above ground and the
required B/H′ ratio is 0.65.

18-11. What is the B/H′ ratio for vertical photography exposed with 55 percent end lap using a
camera having a 152-mm focal length and a 9 in square format?

18-12. Repeat Prob. 18-11, except that end lap is 60 percent and camera focal length is 210 mm.

18-13. A project requires counting the number of people on a beach by using aerial photography.
Assuming a 2-ft-diameter circle as a reasonable size for a person when viewed from above, and
assuming a film with 80 line pairs per millimeter resolution will be used, what photo scale will be
required? If a 152-mm-focal-length camera will be used, what is the required flying height above the
beach?

18-14. A map with a scale of 1:8000 is to be compiled from vertical aerial photographs. The
enlargement ratio from photo scale to map scale will be 5, and a 152-mm-focal-length camera will be
used. What should be the flying height above average ground for the photography?

18-15. Repeat Prob. 18-14, except that a map with a scale of 1:6000 will be compiled and an
enlargement ratio of 7 will be applied.

18-16. A C factor of 1500 will be applied in compiling a map having a contour interval of 3 m. What
maximum flying height is acceptable, and what is corresponding photo scale if the camera has a 152-
mm focal length?

18-17. Repeat Prob. 18-16 except that the contour interval is 5 ft and a C factor of 1300 will be
applied.

18-18. An engineering design map is to be compiled from aerial photography. The map is to have a
scale of 1:2400 and a 2-m contour interval. The enlargement ratio from photo scale to map scale is 5,
and the C factor is 1500. If the camera focal length is 152 mm, what is the required flying height
above average ground, based upon required map scale? Based upon contour interval? Which condition
controls flying height?

18-19. Repeat Prob. 18-18, except that map scale is 500 ft/in, the contour interval is 10 ft, and the C
factor and enlargement ratio to be applied are 1500 and 7, respectively.

18-20. Vertical aerial photographs are taken from a flying height of 3500 m above average ground
using a camera with a 210-mm-focal-length lens and a 23-cm square format. End lap is 60 percent at
average terrain elevation. How many acres of ground are covered in a single photograph? In the neat
model? (Assume 30 percent side lap.)

18-21. For Prob. 18-20, if low, average, and high terrain is 500, 600, and 700 m, respectively, above
datum, what is the percent end lap at low terrain? At high terrain? What is the percent side lap at low
terrain? At high terrain?

18-22. A rectangular area 10 mi in the north-south direction by 40 mi in the east-west direction is to

be covered with aerial photography having a scale of 1:5000. End lap and side lap are to be 60 and 30
percent, respectively. A camera having a 23-cm square format is to be used. Compute the total number
of photographs in the project, assuming that the flight strips are flown in an east-west direction and
that the coverage of the first and last flight lines is 75 percent within the project boundary. Also add
two photos at the ends of each strip to ensure complete coverage.

18-23. If a flight map is to be prepared for Prob. 18-22 on a base map having a scale of 1:24,000,
what should be the spacing of flight lines on the map? What is the map distance between successive
exposures along a flight line?

18-24. A transparent template of neat models, similar to that shown in Fig. 18-10, is to be prepared to
overlay on a map having a scale of 1:12,000. What should be the dimensions of neat models on the
template if the camera format is 23 cm square, photo scale is 1:6000, end lap is 60 percent, and side
lap is 30 percent?

18-25. Repeat Prob. 18-24, except that map scale is 1:120,000 and photo scale is 1:24,000.

18-26. A rectangular project area 3 km in the north-south direction and 4 km in the east-west
direction is to be photographed at a scale of 1:4000. End lap and side lap are to be 60 and 30 percent,
respectively, and the camera format is 23 cm square. Compute the total number of photographs needed
to cover this area, assuming that flight lines will run east-west and that the first and last lines will be
flown so that the adjusted side lap will extend outside the project boundaries. Add two photos at the
ends of each strip to ensure complete coverage. Prepare a flight map showing the flight lines,
assuming the base map has a scale of 1:24,000.

_____________
1 Although a significant number of projects involve terrestrial or close-range photogrammetry, in this chapter aerial photogrammetry
is assumed.