UNIT 1 - OPTICAL FIBRES AND THEIR PROPERITIES

1. State Snell’s Law.

The angle of incidence and refraction are related to each other and to the refractive indices of
between the medium the two media by the Snell’s law of refraction. It is given by,
𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 = 𝑛2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2
Where, n1 – refractive index of medium 1
n2 – refractive index of medium 2
θ1 – angle of incidence
θ2 – angle of refraction.

2. Define critical angle of incidence.

When the angle of refraction is 90o and the refracted ray emerges parallel to the interface
between the medium, the angle of incidence must be less than 90o. This is the limiting case of
refraction and the angle of incidence is known as critical angle θc.
𝑛1
The value of critical angle is, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐 =
𝑛2
Where, n1 – refractive index of medium 1 (core)
n2 – refractive index of medium 2 (cladding)

3. What is total internal refraction (TIR)?

When the angle of incidence is greater than critical angle, the condition for total internal
refraction is satisfied; that is the light is totally reflected back into the originating dielectric
medium with high efficiency.TIR is the mechanism by which light at a sufficiently shallow angle
(<90o-θc) is considered to propagate down an optical fiber with low loss.

4. Define acceptance angle and acceptance cone.

Acceptance angle (θa) is the maximum angle to the fiber core axis at which light may enter the
fiber in order to be propagated. It is also known as conical half angle.
The acceptance angle is given by, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑎 = √𝑛12 −𝑛22
Where, n1 – refractive index of medium 1 (core)
n2 – refractive index of medium 2 (cladding)
The acceptance cone of the fiber is described by rotating the acceptance angle around the fiber
core axis.

5. Define numerical aperture.

Numerical aperture (NA) is the light collecting efficiency of the fiber. It is the measure of amount
of light rays that can be accepted by the fiber. It is given by, = √𝑛12 −𝑛22 . It is also written as,
𝑁𝐴 = 𝑛1 √2∆
Where, n1 – refractive index of medium 1 (core)
n2 – refractive index of medium 2 (cladding)
Δ- relative refractive index difference of the fiber.

EI 6703 FIBRE OPTICS AND LASER INSTRUMENTS

 UNIT 1 - OPTICAL FIBRES AND THEIR PROPERITIES

6. Define cutoff wavelength of the fiber.

The cutoff wavelength is defined as the minimum wavelength that can be transmitted through
the fiber. The wavelengths greater than cutoff wavelengths are transmitted.
2𝜋𝑎(𝑁. 𝐴)
𝜆𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑜𝑓𝑓 =
𝑉
Where, V – V number of fiber
N.A – numerical aperture of fiber
a – radius of core.

7. Differentiate meridional rays and skew rays

Meridional rays Skew rays

Meridional rays travels in a path that is Skew rays travels in a helical type path along
confined to a single plane containing the fiber the fiber. These rays are not confined to a
core axis. single plane.

Meridional rays Skew rays

It is easy to track these rays It is difficult to track skew rays.

8. What are step index and graded index fibers?

Step index fiber: It is a fiber in which the refractive index of the core is uniform throughout the
length of the fiber and undergoes an abrupt change (like step function) at the cladding
boundary. The RI of the cladding is slightly less than that of the core.
𝑛1 , 𝑟 < 𝑎 (𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒)
The RI profile is given by, 𝑛(𝑟) = {
𝑛2 , 𝑟 ≥ 𝑎 (𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔)
Where, n1 -- RI of core;
n2 -- RI of cladding and
a – radius of core.
Graded Index Fiber: Graded Index Fiber is a fiber in which the core refractive index is made to
vary as a function of radial distance from the center of the fiber. The RI is maximum at the axis
of the core and it decreases from core to cladding.
1
𝑛 (1 − 2∆(𝑟⁄𝑎)∝ ) ⁄2 , 𝑟 < 𝑎 (𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒)
The RI profile is given by, 𝑛(𝑟) = { 1 1
𝑛1 (1 − 2∆) ⁄2 , 𝑟 ≥ 𝑎 (𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔)
Where, n1 -- RI of core;
n2 -- RI of cladding
a – radius of core
Δ- relative refractive index difference of the fiber and
α – characteristic RI profile parameter.

EI 6703 FIBRE OPTICS AND LASER INSTRUMENTS

 UNIT 1 - OPTICAL FIBRES AND THEIR PROPERITIES

9. What is optical attenuation?

The loss of power of the light ray as it travels down the optical fiber from the transmitter end to
receiver end is called optical attenuation. It is also known as transmission loss and is expressed
𝑃
in decibels per unit length (dB/km) as, 𝛼𝑑𝐵 𝐿 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( 𝑖 )
𝑃𝑜
Where, L- fiber length
αdB – attenuation per unit length in dB
Pi – input optical power
Po – output optical power.

10. Define Rayleigh scattering

Rayleigh scattering is a category of linear scattering which cause the transfer of some or all of
the optical power contained within one propagating mode into an another mode linearly. There
is no change of frequency on scattering. Rayleigh scattering results from inhomogeneties such
as refractive index fluctuations and arises from density and compositional variations. The
8𝜋3 8 2
Rayleigh scattering formula is given by, 𝛾𝑅 = 3𝜆4
𝑛 𝑝 𝛽𝑐 𝐾𝑇𝐹
Where, 𝛾𝑅 - Rayleigh scattering coefficient
λ – optical wavelength
n – refractive index of the medium
P – average photoelastic coefficient
Βc – isothermal compressibility at fivtive temperature TF
K – Boltzman’s constant.

11. Define intermodal and intramodal dispersion.

The propagation delay differences between the different spectral components of the
transmitted signal causes broadening of each transmitted mode is called intermodal dispersion.
Pulse broadening resulting from the propagation delay differences between modes within a
multimode fiber is called intramodal dispersion.

12. Define ISI.

INTERSYMBOL INTERFERENCE (ISI) is the phenomenon of broadening of pulses, overlapping of
pulses with its neighbors and eventually becoming indistinguishable at the receiver end.

13. What is Fresnal reflection?

The phenomenon of small portion of light reflecting back into the transmitting fiber thereby
causing attenuation at the joint, even when the two jointed fiber ends are smooth,
perpendicular to the fiber axis and the fiber axes are perfectly aligned is known as Fresnal
reflection.

EI 6703 FIBRE OPTICS AND LASER INSTRUMENTS

 UNIT 1 - OPTICAL FIBRES AND THEIR PROPERITIES

14. What is fiber termination?

The process of preparing the fiber, epoxying it to the connector, crimping the cable to the
connector, cleaving and polishing the fiber ends to a smoothness that enhances light
transmission is called fiber termination.

15. Differentiate fiber splices and fiber connectors.

Fiber Splices Fiber Connectors

A permanent or semi permanent connection Fiber connectors are temporary joints
between two individual optical fibers is known between two optical fibers.
as Fiber splice.
The main two types of splicing are fusion The fiber connectors use either butt-joint
splicing and mechanical splicing. alignment mechanism or by expanded beam
mechanism.
Splices offer lower attenuation and lower back Connectors offer lower coupling loss.
reflection.
Splices are used outside the building to Connectors are used to join optical cables
connect optical fibers. within the buildings.

16. What is the role of optical source in fiber optics system?

An optical source is the first active component of an optical fiber link. It converts electrical signal
into light signal that is injected into the fiber. The light output must be directional, linearly
related to input current and its wavelength must match the minimum attenuation and minimum
dispersion wavelength of the fiber cable.

17. What is the role of optical detector in fiber optics system?

An optical detector is an essential component which determines the overall system
performance. It converts received optical signal into an electrical signal. The detector must be
highly sensitive, highly fidel, posses short response time and introduce minimum noise.

EI 6703 FIBRE OPTICS AND LASER INSTRUMENTS