FINAL TERM MODULE #1

Final Term Module #1

Prepared by:
Engr. Peter E. Bacaron
Reference: Engineering Electromagnetics 8th Edition
by: William H. Hayt Jr. and John A. Buck
 COULOMB’S LAW

Coulomb stated that the force between two very small objects separated in a vacuum or free space
by a distance, which is large compared to their size, is proportional to the charge on each and inversely proportional
to the square of the distance between them, or

where Q1 and Q2 are the positive or negative quantities of charge, R is the separation, and k is a
proportionality constant. If the International System of Units(SI) is used, Q is measured in coulombs (C), R is in
meters (m), and the force should be Newtons (N). This will be achieved if the constant of proportionality k is written
as

The new constant ε0 is called the permittivity of free space and has magnitude, measured in Farads per meter (F/m),

The quantity ε0 is not dimensionless, for Coulomb’s law shows that it has the label C 2/N ・ m2. We
will later define the farad and show that it has the dimensions C 2/N ・ m; we have anticipated this definition by using
the unit F/m in equation (1). Coulomb’s law is now

The coulomb is an extremely large unit of charge, for the smallest known quantity of charge is that
of the electron (negative) or proton (positive), given in SI units as 1.602 × 10-19 C; hence a negative charge of one
coulomb represents about 6 × 1018 electrons. Coulomb’s law shows that the force between two charges of one
coulomb each, separated by one meter, is 9 × 109 N, or about one million tons. The electron has a rest mass of 9.109
× 10-31 kg and has a radius of the order of magnitude of 3.8×10-15 m. This does not mean that the electron is spherical
in shape, but merely describes the size of the region in which a slowly moving electron has the greatest probability of
being found. All other known charged particles, including the proton, have larger masses and larger radii, and occupy
a probabilistic volume larger than does the electron.
 COULOMB’S LAW

In order to write the vector form of equation (2), we need the additional fact (furnished also by
Colonel Coulomb) that the force acts along the line joining the two charges

and is repulsive if the charges are alike in sign or attractive if they are of opposite sign. Let the vector
r1 locate Q1, whereas r2 locates Q2. Then the vector R12 = r2 - r1 represents the directed line segment from Q1 to Q2,
as shown in the figure. The vector F2 is the force on Q2 and is shown for the case where Q1 and Q2 have the same
sign. Note that if Q1 and Q2 have like signs,the vector force F2 on Q2 is in the same direction as the vector R12. The
vector form of Coulomb’s law is

where a12 = a unit vector in the direction of R12, or

EXAMPLE PROBLEM

1. We illustrate the use of the vector form of Coulomb’s law by locating a charge of Q1 = 3 × 10-4 C at
M(1, 2, 3) and a charge of Q2 = -10-4 C at N(2, 0, 5) in a vacuum. We desire the force exerted on Q2 by Q1.

Solution. We use equation (3) and (4) to obtain the vector force. The vector R12 is
R12 = r2 - r1 = (2 - 1)ax + (0 - 2)ay + (5 - 3)az = ax - 2ay + 2az leading to |R12| = 3,
and the unit vector, a12 = 1/3(ax - 2ay + 2az ). Thus,

The magnitude of the force is 30 N, and the direction is specified by the unit vector, which has been
left in parentheses to display the magnitude of the force. The force on Q2 may also be considered as three
component forces,
F2 = -10ax + 20ay - 20az
ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY

If we now consider one charge fixed in position, say Q1, and move a second charge slowly around, we
note that there exists everywhere a force on this second charge; in other words, this second charge is displaying the
existence of a force field that is associated with charge, Q1. Call this second charge a test charge Qt . The force on it
is given by Coulomb’s law,

Writing this force as a force per unit charge gives the electric field intensity, E1 arising from Q1:

E1 is interpreted as the vector force, arising from charge Q1, that acts on a unit positive test charge. More generally,
we write the defining expression:

in which E, a vector function, is the electric field intensity evaluated at the test charge location that arises from all
other charges in the vicinity—meaning the electric field arising from the test charge itself is not included in E. The
units of E would be in force per unit charge (newtons per coulomb). Again anticipating a new dimensional quantity,
the volt (V), having the label of joules per coulomb (J/C), or newton-meters per coulomb (N ・ m/C), we measure
electric field intensity in the practical units of volts per meter (V/m).
Now, we dispense with most of the subscripts in equation (6), reserving the right to use them again
any time there is a possibility of misunderstanding. The electric field of a single point charge becomes:

We remember that R is the magnitude of the vector R, the directed line segment from the point at which the point
charge Q is located to the point at which E is desired, and aR is a unit vector in the R direction.
EXAMPLE PROBLEMS

Two point charges of equal mass m, charge Q are suspended at a common point by two threads of
negligible mass and length l. Show that at equilibrium the inclination angle α of each thread to the vertical is given by
Q2 = 16π ε mgl2 sin2 α tan α
0

If α is very small, show that

Solution:
Consider the system of charges as shown in the figure below where Fe is the electric or coulomb force, T is the tension in each
thread, and mg is the weight of each charge. At A or B

T sin α= Fe
T cos α= mg

Hence,
Q2 cos α= I6π ε0 mgl2sin3 α
or
Q2 cos α= I6π ε0 mgl2 α tan α
as required. When α is very small
tan α ≈ α ≈ sin α
and so
Q2 = I6π ε0 mgl2 α3
Or
EXAMPLE PROBLEMS

In order to illustrate the application of of the equition above, we find E at P(1, 1, 1) caused by four identical 3-nC
charges located at P1(1, 1, 0), P2(-1, 1, 0), P3(-1,-1, 0), and P4(1,-1, 0), as shown in Figure below.

Solution. We find that r = ax + ay + az , r1 = ax + ay , and thus r - r1 = az . The magnitudes are: |r - r1| = 1, |r - r2| = ,
|r - r3| = 3, and |r - r4| = . Because Q/4π ε0 = 3 × 10-9/(4π × 8.854 × 10-12) = 26.96V ・ m, we may now
use the equation E(r) to obtain

or
ELECTRIC FLUX DENSITY

Electric flux density, measured in coulombs per square meter (sometimes described as “lines per
square meter,” for each line is due to one coulomb), is given the letter D, which was originally chosen because of the
alternate names of displacement flux density or displacement density. Electric flux density is more descriptive,
however, and we will use the term consistently. The electric flux density D is a vector field and is a member of the
“flux density” class of vector fields, as opposed to the “force fields” class, which includes the electric field intensity E.
The direction of D at a point is the direction of the flux lines at that point, and the magnitude is given by the number of
flux lines crossing a surface normal to the lines divided by the surface area.

Referring again to the figure abobe, the electric flux density is in the radial direction and has a value of

and at a radial distance r , where

If we now let the inner sphere become smaller and smaller, while still retaining a charge of Q, it becomes a point
charge in the limit, but the electric flux density at a point r meters from the point charge is still given by

(9)

for Q lines of flux are symmetrically directed outward from the point and pass through an imaginary spherical surface
of area 4πr2.
ELECTRIC FLUX DENSITY

The radial electric field intensity of a point charge in free space,would be,

In free space, therefore,

(10)

Although equation (10) is applicable only to a vacuum, it is not restricted solely to the field of a point charge. For a
general volume charge distribution in free space,

(11)

where this relationship was developed from the field of a single point charge. In a similar manner, equation (9) leads to

(12)

and equation (10) is therefore true for any free-space charge configuration; we will consider equation (10) as defining
D in free space.
As a preparation for the study of dielectrics later, it might be well to point out now that, for a point
charge embedded in an infinite ideal dielectric medium, Faraday’s results show that equation (9) is still applicable, and
thus so is equation (12). Equation (11) is not applicable, however, and so the relationship between D and E will be
slightly more complicated than (10). Because D is directly proportional to E in free space, it does not seem that it
should really be necessary to introduce a new symbol. We do so for a few reasons. First, D is associated with the flux
concept, which is an important new idea. Second, the D fields we obtain will be a little simpler than the corresponding
E fields, because ε0 does not appear.
 GAUSS’S LAW

At any point P, consider an incremental element of surface ΔS and let DS make an angle θ with ΔS, as shown in
Figure . The flux crossing ΔS is then the product of the normal component of DS and ΔS,

where we are able to apply the definition of the dot product. The total flux passing through the closed surface is
obtained by adding the differential contributions crossing each surface element ΔS,

The resultant integral is a closed surface integral, and since the surface element dS always involves the differentials of
two coordinates, such as dx dy, ρ dφ dρ, or r2 sin θ dθ dφ, the integral is a double integral. Usually only one integral
sign is used for brevity, and we will always place an S below the integral sign to indicate a surface integral, although
this is not actually necessary, as the differential dS is automatically the signal for a surface integral. One last
convention is to place a small circle on the integral sign itself to indicate that the integration is to be performed over a
closed surface. Such a surface is often called a gaussian surface. We then have the mathematical formulation of
Gauss’s law,

(13)

The charge enclosed might be several point charges, in which case

Q = ∑Qn

or a line charge,
 GAUSS’S LAW

or a surface charge,

or a volume charge distribution,

The last form is usually used, and we should agree now that it represents any or all of the other forms. With this
understanding, Gauss’s law may be written in terms of the charge distribution as

(14)

a mathematical statement meaning simply that the total electric flux through any closed surface is equal to the charge
enclosed.
EXAMPLE PROBLEM

To illustrate the application of Gauss’s law, let us check the results of Faraday’s experiment by placing a point charge
Q at the origin of a spherical coordinate system shown in the figure below and by choosing our closed surface as a
sphere of radius a.

Solution. We have, as before,

At the surface of the sphere,

The differential element of area on a spherical surface is, in spherical coordinates

Or

The integrand is

leading to the closed surface integral

EXAMPLE PROBLEM

where the limits on the integrals have been chosen so that the integration is carried over the entire surface of the sphere
once. Integrating gives

and we obtain a result showing that Q coulombs of electric flux are crossing the surface, as we should since the
enclosed charge is Q coulombs.
 PROBLEM SET 1

Show your solution in each problem. You may take a picture of your solution and compile it in one file in pdf form
and submit through our Viber Group. Upon submission the file must be saved in this format
“ surname_firstname_pset1.pdf “ . If found out that anybody will have the same picture/handwriting/solutions
submitted both of their scores will be marked zero. Submit your compilation on or before November 28, 2020.

1. A charge QA = -20μC is located at A(-6, 4, 7), and a charge QB = 50μC is at B(5, 8,-2) in free space. If distances are
given in meters, find:
(a) RAB;
(b) RAB.
(c) Determine the vector force exerted on QA by QB if ε0 = 10-9/(36π) F/m
(d) Determine the vector force exerted on QA by QB if ε0 = 8.854 × 10-12 F/m.
2. A charge of -0.3μC is located at A(25,-30, 15) (in cm), and a second charge of 0.5μC is at B(-10, 8, 12) cm. Find E
at:
(a) the origin;
(b) P(15, 20, 50) cm.
3. Given a 60-μC point charge located at the origin, find the total electric flux passing through:
(a) that portion of the sphere r = 26 cm bounded by 0 < θ < π/2 and 0 < φ < π/2
(b) the closed surface defined by ρ = 26 cm and z = ±26 cm;
(c) the plane z = 26 cm.
4. Calculate D in rectangular coordinates at point P(2,-3, 6) produced by:
(a) a point charge QA = 55 mC at Q(-2, 3,-6);
(b) a uniform line charge ρLB = 20 mC/m on the x axis;
(c) a uniform surface charge density ρSC = 120 μC/m2 on the plane z = -5 m.
5. Point charges Q1 = 5 μC and Q2 = - 4 μC are placed at (3, 2, 1) and (-4, 0, 6), respectively. Determine the force on
Q 1.
6. Point charges Q1 and Q2 are, respectively, located at (4,0, -3) and (2,0, 1). If Q2 = 4 nC, find Q1 such that
(a) The E at (5, 0, 6) has no z-component
(b) The force on a test charge at (5, 0, 6) has no x-component.
7. A point charge 100 pC is located at ( 4 , 1 , -3) while the x-axis carries charge 2 nC/m. If the plane z = 3 also carries charge 5
nC/m2, find E at (1, 1, 1).
8. Linex = 3, z = -1 carries charge 20 nC/m while plane x = -2 carries charge 4 nC/m2. Find the force on a point charge -5 mC
located at the origin.
 PROBLEM SET 1

9. Point charges are placed at the corners of a square of size 4 m as shown in Figure below . If Q = 15μ C, find D at (0,0, 6).

10. Charges + Q and + 3Q are separated by a distance 2 m. A third charge is located such that the electrostatic system

is in equilibrium. Find the location and the value of the third charge in terms of Q.
11. Line x = 3, z = -1 carries charge 20 nC/m while plane x = -2 carries charge 4 nC/m2. Find the force on a point charge -5 mC
located at the origin.
12. Determine the charge density due to each of the following electric flux densities:

13. Let E = xya x + x2a y, find

(a) Electric flux density D.
(b) The volume charge density ρv.
14. Plane x + 2y = 5 carries charge ρs = 6 nC/m2. Determine E at ( - 1 , 0, 1).
15. Three concentric spherical shells r = 1, r = 2, and r = 3 m, respectively, have charge distributions 2, - 4 , and 5 μC/m2
(a) Calculate the flux through r = 1.5 m and r = 2.5 m.
(b) Find D at r = 0.5, r = 2.5, and r = 3.5 m.