Chapter 4

Milk and Milk Products

Nuzhat Huma, Aysha Sameen, Muhammad Umair Sattar and

Qamar Abbas Syed*

Abstract
In this chapter, milk composition, physical properties, potential possible hazardous
substances present in milk and their control are reviewed. Some basic information
about different unit operations of milk processing (bactofugation, cream separation,
homogenization and heat exchangers) are also provided. The ways used for milk
collection, transportation and storage are discussed regarding Pakistan. The tests
used for the quality evaluation of raw milk are summarized in this chapter. It
provides the information how the shelf life of milk can be extended using different
heat processing techniques like pasteurization, long life milk, extended shelf life,
innovative steam injection. The brief information about the milk transformation
into various product (cream, butter, yoghurt, cheese and fermented milks) and
importance of fermented milk products is given in the later part of chapter. The
chapter ends with some conclusions and future trends.
Keywords: Milk composition, standardization, homogenization, bactofugation,
heat exchangers, unit operations, pasteurization, UHT, ISI, ESL, cheese, fermented
milk.
4.

*
Nuzhat Huma˧, Aysha Sameen, Muhammad Umair Sattar and Qamar Abbas Syed
National Institute of Food Science and Technology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan.
˧
Corresponding authors e-mail: [email protected]

Managing editors: Iqrar Ahmad Khan and Muhammad Farooq

Editors: Tahir Zahoor and Masood Sadiq Butt
University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan.
112 N. Huma, A. Sameen, M.U. Sattar and Q.A. Syed

4.1. Introduction
The livestock sector of Pakistan has an important role in the economic development
of the country. This sector is a good source of net cash for the country. Basically,
livestock sector provides the way of survival for the poor families to meet their
basic needs. Hence, livestock is a secure source of income for the farmers having
small land holdings which can reduce migration of the rural population. It can also
meet income variation due to failure of the crop sector. During the year 2013-14,
the share of livestock sector in Pakistan’s Agriculture was 55.9% and 11.8% was in
GDP as compared to last year which was 55.5 and 11.9 % respectively. There was
an increase of 2.7% in gross value as compared to last year. Gross value addition of
livestock was Rs. 756.3 billion in 2012-13 which increased to Rs. 776.5 billion in
2013-14 (GOP 2013-2014). The annual milk production and consumption of
Pakistan in 2013-2014 was highest for buffalo milk than other dairy animals (Table
4.1).

Table 4.1 Milk production and consumption in Pakistan (000 Tons)

Species 2011-12 2012-13 2013-14
Milk (gross production) 44,859 49,400 50,990
Cow 16,741 17,372 18,027
Buffalo 29,473 30,350 31,252
Sheep2 37 37 38
Goat 779 801 822
Camel2 829 840 851
Milk (Human consumption) 38,617 39,855 41,133
Cow 13,393 13,897 14,421
Buffalo 23,579 24,280 25,001
Sheep 37 37 38
Goat 779 801 822
Camel 829 840 851
Source: (GOP, 2013-2014)

Despite significant role of the dairy sector in Pakistan, it failed to attract the policy-
makers. Pakistan has very low milk yielding animals, inadequate feed and fodder
availability, low genetic potential of local breeds, poor health coverage and
inadequate artificial insemination services. Another problem of dairy industry is
lack of cold chain, due to which almost 20% of raw milk is lost in summer season.
Out of total produced, only 4 % raw milk is transformed into different dairy
products. The products include the traditional sweets, pasteurized milk, UHT milk,
butter and milk powders. Very small quantity is converted into cheese and other
fermented dairy products. The rest of the milk is circulated as raw, which is boiled
by the household before keeping in refrigerator. The share of processed milk can be
increased by the development of skilled manpower. A little attempt is being made
in this chapter to familiarize the dairy processing students with the technology of
few dairy products manufactured in the industry. Milk, the major product of
livestock plays a marvelous role in building a healthy nation by its composition.
4. Milk and Milk Products 113

Despite being among the top five the largest producers of milk in the world,
Pakistan still imports milk powder to meet the domestic demand in summer.

4.2. Milk Composition

Milk is a fresh and clean, lacteal secretion practically free from colostrum obtained
by the complete milking of healthy milch animals (USDA 2011). It contains 84-
88% water and 12-16% total solids (TS). The TS are composed of fat and solid not
fat (SNF). The milk fat comprises of true fat and associated fat. The SNF are
divided into lactose, nitrogenous substances, mineral components and many other
constituents. The nitrogenous compounds are divided in two groups as non-
protein-nitrogen (NPN) and true proteins.

4.2.1. Milk Fat

Fat obtained from milk of dairy animals varies from 2% to 10%. Milk lipids also
provide essential fatty acids particularly linoleic acid and fat soluble vitamins.
Dairy fat provides a specific flavour and enhance rheological properties of dairy
products and other foods in which they are used. Presence of wide range of fatty
acids in milk fat makes its flavour superior to that of other fats sources. In some
products, these fatty acids act as precursors of flavouring compounds for instance
methyl ketones and lactones (Cavaletto et al. 2008).
The fat is present in milk in the form of small globules which are evenly distributed
in the milk serum. The diameter of globule varies from 0.1 to 20 μm (average 3– 4
μm). There are about 15 billion fat globules per mL of milk. The emulsion is
stabilized by a very thin membrane only 5 – 10 nm thick (1 nm = 10–9 m) which
surrounds the globules and has a complicated composition (Fig. 4.1). The main
portion of milk fat is composed of triglycerides (97-98%), while the concentration
of mono- and diglycerides is only 2-3%. The other constituents present in milk fat
are free fatty acids, sterols, carotenoids and vitamins A, D, E, and K. The
membrane fat globule is composed of proteins, lipoproteins, phospholipid, nucleic
acid, cerebrosides, water, enzymes, and minerals (Walstra 2006).

Fig. 4.1 Composition of milk

fat globule (Dairy processing
handbook. Tetra Pak
Processing System. Lund,
Sweden)
114 N. Huma, A. Sameen, M.U. Sattar and Q.A. Syed

4.2.2. Protein
Proteins are polymers of amino acids and are essential part of our diet. Buffalo milk
contains higher protein (4%) content than the cow milk (3.5%). The protein
contents changes significantly during lactation, particularly in first few days after
calving. Milk proteins mainly consist of casein and whey. Casein represents about
80% of the total milk proteins and considered as a major protein and exists in
micellar form in milk. These micelles are somewhat dense aggregates of sub-
micelles. The sub-micelles have small regions of calcium phosphate to link
together, and give the micelles an open, porous structure. Casein are
phosphoprotein and contain 0.85% phosphorus on average. The phosphates impart
important characteristics to casein, especially the ability to bind calcium, heat
stability and making it a more nutritionally valuable protein. The four main
subgroups of casein include, αs1-casein, αs2-casein, κ-casein and β-casein. Caseins
are the proteins which are precipitated when the pH of milk is reduced to 4.6 at
20°C leaving behind the liquid called whey or serum. The protein of that liquid is
called the whey protein or serum proteins. The term whey protein (20% of total
proteins) is generally specified for the proteins left in whey during the cheese
making process. The major whey proteins are α-lactalbumin, β-lactoglobulin,
immunoglobulin, serum ferritin and bovine serum albumin. In addition to milk
serum proteins, whey protein also contains fragments of casein molecules in the
form of proteoses and peptones. Casein contain lower content of sulphur containg
amino acids (Cys, Met; 0.8%), whereas whey proteins do not contain phosphorus
and are relatively rich in these amino acids (1.7% sulfur). Both protein contains all
the essential amino acids and in adequate quantities (Fox and McSweeney 1998).

4.2.3. Lactose
Lactose is the 2nd major component of milk after water. Lactose is a disaccharide
consisting of glucose and galactose molecules. Lactose is a reducing sugar and
exist in 2 anomeric forms (α or β lactose). The β form is more soluble and sweet as
compared to α form (Goff and Hill 1993). Milk contains only trace amounts of
other carbohydrates. Milk contains 4 to 5%, of lactose but different factors affect
the level of lactose such as breed, infection of udder and lactation stage. In contrary
to protein and fat, the levels of lactose decrease with advancing lactation. Lactose
level in the milks of other mammals varies widely. Lactic acid bacteria produce
lactase enzyme which hydrolyze the lactose and convert it into its components that
are glucose and galactose. Lactose contributes to the nutritive value of milk.
Lactose also influences the texture of frozen dairy foods (especially ice cream).
Due to the Maillard reaction lactose can become involved in leading to browning
and the production of flavor compounds (Kailasapathy 2008).

4.2.4. Vitamins
Vitamins are heterogeneous group of organic compounds which are vital for life.
Milk provide both fat soluble (A, D, E, K) and water soluble (C and B complex)
vitamins. The fat-soluble vitamins tend to have predominately aromatic or aliphatic
4. Milk and Milk Products 115

character, whereas the water-soluble vitamins tend to have one or more polar or
ionizable groups (carboxyl, keto, hydroxyl, amino or phosphate).

4.2.5. Salts
Normally milk has salts of phosphates, citrates, chlorides, sulphates, carbonates and
bicarbonates of sodium, potassium, calcium and magnesium. Almost 20 different
elements are found in milk in trace amounts including Cu, Fe, Si, Zn and I. The
total mineral concentration is less than 1%. Salts are present in milk serum and in
casein micelles. Milk is a good source of potassium and calcium salts. The ash
content of milk varies from 0.7 to 0.9% but the relative concentrations of different
ions can differ noticeably (Fox and McSweeney 1998).

4.2.6. Enzymes
Enzymes are biocatalysts as they speed up the chemical reaction in the biological
systems. Milk contains 60 of indigenous (naturally-occurring) enzymes. Most
enzymes have no obvious role in milk. Some of these enzymes have
technologically significant from the viewpoints of deterioration of milk quality
(e.g., lipoprotein lipase, plasmin), indices of pasteurization (e.g., alkaline
phosphatase) indices of mastitis infection (catalase) and antimicrobial activity
(lysozyme and serum ferritin). Lipases are enzymes that are responsible for
degradation of fats. Lipoprotein lipase is the major lipase in milk, associated with
the casein micelle. During processing, agitation may result in fat degradation and
off-flavors by bringing the lipase into contact with the milk fat. Lipase can be
inactivated during pasteurization of milk. Most of the proteases are deactivated by
heat, while certain are not. Plasmin is the major protease in milk which hydrolyses
the β-casein into γ-casein. Protein degradation sometimes is undesirable that result
in bitter off-flavors. During cheese ripening, the degradation of casein is desirable
for the development and texture and flavor of cheese. Most heat-stable enzymes of
milk are lactoperoxidase. When combined with hydrogen peroxide and thiocyanate,
have antibacterial properties. It is suggested that the presence of lactoperoxidase in
raw milk inhibits the disease causing microorganisms (pathogens) present in milk
(Chandan et al. 2008).

4.3. Factors Effecting Milk Composition

There are various factors which influence the milk composition. Among those the
most dominant are the species (Table 4.2), breed, individuality, lactation period,
lactation stage, milking interval, health, feed, environment and season. Milk
composition varies considerably among breeders of dairy cattle. Jersey and
Guernsey breeds give milk of higher fat content than Shorthorns and Friesians
(Ayub et al. 2007).
116 N. Huma, A. Sameen, M.U. Sattar and Q.A. Syed

Table 4.2 Milk composition of different animals

Animals Water Proteins Casein Whey Fat Lactose Ash
(%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
Human 87.5 1.0 0.5 0.5 4.5 7.1 0.2
Buffalo 83-84 4.0 3.5 0.5 6-10 4.8 0.8
Cow 86-87 3.5 2.8 0.7 3.7 4.8 0.7
Goat 86.5 3.6 2.7 0.9 4.0 4.7 0.8
Sheep 82 4.6 3.9 0.7 7.2 4.8 0.8-0.9
Camel 86.5 3.6 2.7 0.9 4.0 5.0 0.5
Horse 88.8 2.5 1.3 1.2 1.9 6.2 0.5
Source: Jensen (1995)

4.4. Physical Properties of Milk

Density, viscosity, freezing point, color, pH, acidity, flavour and optical properties
are included in the physical propertied of milk.

4.4.1. Density
Density is determined by dividing the mass by volume. It is highly dependent on
the temperature, composition and air incorporation in milk. The density of a
product helps to estimate the number of solids and then to determine other physical
properties. Milk density may vary between 1.028 and 1.038 g/cm3. Buffalo milk fat
has a higher melting point, density, specific gravity and saponification value, but
lower refractive index (Tetra Pak, 2003)

4.4.2. Freezing Point

Dissolved components in milk affect its freezing point. It also reflects the
adulteration of water in milk. The freezing point of milk is -0.552oC (Ahmad et al.
2013)

4.4.3. Appearance
The suspended particles like fat, proteins, and minerals affect the opacity of milk.
Due to carotene content in milk fat, color varies from white to yellow. ß –carotene
and riboflavin in milk are responsible for the 'creamy' colour of milk and greenish
colour of whey respectively. The milk appears turbid and opaque when light
scattered by fat globules and casein micelles. Skim milk has slightly blue colour
because of scattering of the shorter wavelengths of visible light (blue) more than
the red due to casein micelles (Early 1998).

4.4.4. pH
The pH of milk should not be determined immediately after milking rather after
removal of dissolved gasses. pH of milk varies from 6.6 to 6.8. The milk from
mastitis animal and at the late stage of lactation has higher pH value (6.9 to 7.0)
4. Milk and Milk Products 117

(Early, 1998). During the preparation of cheeses and fermented milk pH is

determined to assure that lactic acid is being produced at the desired rate by added
microorganisms.

4.4.5. Titratable Acidity

Acidity is calculated in terms of titratable acidity. During determination, a
measured quantity of milk is titrated against alkali and noted the volume of alkali
required to bring the pH of sample from 6.6 to 8.4. The titratable acidity is
measured in percent of lactic acid in the milk sample. Its value varies from 0.11 to
0.15 in milk samples (Tetra Pak 2003).

4.5. Potentially Hazardous Substances in Milk and

Prevention Strategies
Sources of potentially hazardous substances may be feed, environment, animal and
workers. The antibiotics and antimicrobial drugs residues may remain in milk for
up to four days after administration. Anti-microbial drugs can also enter in milk via
medicated feed and improper use of intramuscular drugs. Consumption of mould-
infected feed can indirectly result in contamination of milk by mycotoxins.
Milk should not contain the contaminants at a level that affects the public health
safety at the time of consumption. Contamination by animal and environmental
sources during primary production of milk should be minimized. The microbial
load of milk should be as low as possible by using good practices during milking
and handling, keeping in mind the technological necessities for consequent
processing. Milking equipments should be designed, manufactured, installed,
maintained and used in such a way that they prevent contamination in milk.

4.6. Unit Operations in Milk Processing

In the transformation of milk into various products, several processes are common
called unit operations. A few of them are being discussed below

4.6.1. Bactofugation
Separation of microorganisms by using specially designed centrifuge machine is
called bactofugation. Mainly the bactofuge is used to get better keeping quality of
market milk to meet the supermarket demands for a few days longer shelf life. The
density of bacteria, especially heat-resistant spores is more than milk, therefore
separated by bactofugation and propose a suitable alternative of thermization,
pasteurization and sterilization (Faccia et al. 2013).

4.6.2. Cream Separator

Cream is separated from the milk by centrifugation due to lighter density than the
skim milk. The centrifuge machine used to separate the cream is called cream
118 N. Huma, A. Sameen, M.U. Sattar and Q.A. Syed

separator (Fig 4.2). The separation speed is increased with the increase in surface
area. The surface area is increased by various horizontal baffle plates (cones) in the
vessel of cream separator. The total capabilities of the container are multiplied by
the quantity of separation channels. It the baffle plates are inclined then the settled
particles will pass down due to the gravity and will be collected at the bottom.
In the outlet for cream, the cream discharge can be controlled by a valve from
paring disc. The fat percentage in cream corresponds to a given rate of discharge. If
the valve is opened slowly, more quantity of cream with less fat content will come
from the outlet for cream. To get the cream with 40 % fat contents from the milk
with 4 % fat, the discharge valve of the cream outlet must be adjusted to 2000 L/h
(according to the previous calculation). The pressure on the skim milk outlet, is set
by means of a regulating valve at a certain value, according to the separator and the
throughput (Tetra Pak 2003).

Fig. 4.2 Cream separator

(Dairy processing handbook.
Tetra Pak Processing System.
Lund, Sweden).

4.6.3. Standardization
Milk standardization means to adjust the fat and SNF contents of the raw milk
according to the product requirement. Standardization of milk is compulsory in the
production of uniform quality products such as cheese, yoghurt, condense milk and
ice cream. In Pakistan, milk is usually standardized at 0 to 4% fat for the drinking
purpose. The fat standardization depends upon the casein content of milk for the
cheese preparation. There is 0.7 casein to fat (C: F) ratio for Cheddar and 0.9 for
Mozzarella cheeses. Similarly, requirement for the fat content depend on the
products.
There are various ways to standardize milk fat and SNF.
1) First remove the whole fat from the milk in the form of cream via cream
separator then add this cream in the skim milk using Pearson’s square
method.
2) Add the skim milk to the whole milk to reduce the fat contents.
4. Milk and Milk Products 119

3) Skim portion of the whole milk and add the skim milk to the whole milk
for dilution.

4.6.4. Homogenization
Homogenization is the breakdown of larger fat globules (3.5 µm) into small (below
1 µm) and uniform to stops coalescence and creaming of the milk. Actually,
mechanical ways are used for the production of homogenized milk. The new
formed small fat globules are not covered with membrane; instead these are
covered with proteins from the plasma phase which link with the fat fractions by
polar bonding forces. While passing through the valve of the homogenizer the
casein micelles are activated, and predisposed to interaction with the lipid phase.

4.6.5. Heat Exchangers

Heat exchangers are the equipment used either for heating or cooling of milk and
other liquid products. There are three basic types of heat exchangers which are
commonly used in industry:
1) Plate heat exchanger
2) Tubular heat exchanger
3) Scraped-surface heat exchanger
4.6.5.1. Plate Heat Exchanger (PHE)
PHE (Fig 4.3) are composed of stainless steel plates fitted in frame, which are used
for individual treatment of the milk like preheating, cooling down and the original
heating. Heating media could be the hot water or steam while for cooling cool
water, water from ice and propyl glycol may be used. The plates have surface with
corrugations so that maximum heat can be applied. At the corners of the plates are
wholes which are used for entrance and exit of the liquid. Different ways of open
and close holes are used for liquid transfer from 1 channel to other. External
leakage and mixing internally is avoided by gaskets around the edges of plates.

Fig. 4.3 Plate Heat Exchanger (Dairy

processing handbook. Tetra Pak
Processing System. Lund, Sweden.
120 N. Huma, A. Sameen, M.U. Sattar and Q.A. Syed

4.6.5.2. Tubular Heat Exchanger (THE)

These are used for ultra-high temperature (UHT) treatment as well as for the
pasteurization of milk and juices. THE has no points for contact so the specific size
product can be handled in better way when compared to PHE. The size of particle
totally depends on the tube diameter. These can be used for longer period due to
easier cleaning during UHT. The multi tube THE works on the basic principle of
shell and tube, so the product flows through parallel set of tubes while heating
medium surrounds the tubes. Helical corrugations are used for efficient transfer of
heat on shell and tubes (Fig. 4.4). Direct product to product heat recovery can be
utilized in a multi tube with special design. The mono tube is an edition with only
one tube, which allows 50 mm diameter particles to pass from it. These multi or
mono tubes are applied where very high pressure and temperature are used. The
heat exchanger surface of a concentric THE, contains of tubes of different diameter
and are merged concentrically. This design gives an efficient heating or cooling as
there is medium for cooling or heating around the channel. The product channel is
available with different depth to meet the requirements for products with particles.
For the inspection of product and media concentric tube with tubes floating in it are
used. A concentric tube is especially suitable for the fluids having high viscosity
and low flowing ability.

Fig. 4.4 Tubular heat exchangers (Dairy processing handbook. Tetra Pak
Processing System. Lund, Sweden)

4.6.5.3. Scraped-Surface Heat Exchanger

These are used to heat and to cool the products of high viscosity. This type of heat
exchanger composed of a cylinder in which the product is pushed in direction to the
medium that surrounds the jacket from the lower side and forwarded to upper side
of the cylinder with the blades. For uniform transfer of heat to the product the
blades rotate in a continuous manner and move the product from the port on upper
4. Milk and Milk Products 121

side the product leave the cylinder. The flow of product and speed of rotor can be
adjusted according to the product properties and flow of product from cylinder.

4.7. Liquid Milk Processing

The quality of finished product always depends upon the raw milk quality which is
reflected by the milk handling, storage, transportation and collection.

4.7.1. Milk Collection and Transportation

The milk from the farm (or collection center) is brought to the dairy plant for
processing. Different methods are being adopted in Pakistan for milk collection.
Generally, the milk is collected in 50 L insulated can from the road side to 500-
1000 L milk chiller which is installed at the village collection centers by different
processing industries. With the increase in dairy farm size and availability of cold
chain milk is now collected from distant areas in cooling tanks.
The main objective of chilling is to reduce the microbial count. After collection
milk is transported to the industry without any delay. For this purpose, insulated
milk tanks with controlled temperature are used. The flow meter and pump is
attached with storage tank to measure the volume of the milk from the tanker.
Mostly deaerators are also attached with the tanker for removing air from the milk.
When the tank is empty, the pump is stopped to avoid the air to get mixed with the
milk. The bulk collection tanks are divided into 4 -5 chambers to avoid the
mechanical damage of milk in the tank. During its round, every chamber of tanker
is filled and taken to the plant or dairy. The raw milk either in the can or in the
insulated tankers are delivered to the dairy plant.

4.7.2. Reception at the Plant

The milk is transported either in churn having capacity of 30 to 50 liters or in larger
milk tanks. The temperature of churns should not exceed 4oC and should be
avoided by sun on road side. This objective can be obtained by building shed for
the churns along the road side and by the insulation of the churns. If there are no
roads to the dairy farms so the milk collection centers should be built to avoid extra
charges of cooling at farms. The centers are organized in accordance to the existing
condition. Chilled milk can be directly taken to the tanks along the road while the
unchilled milk is first taken to the collection centers for the cooling purpose. The
other way is to take milk from small farm to large. The churn collecting truck
follows a specific time table for collection on daily basis. Even after collecting the
churns should be protected to avoid the temperature fluctuation and other factors.
The churns from each farm are given specific codes for their identification and for
the payment of the milk to the farm. Milk from the diseased animals or
administered with antibiotics should not be supplied to the dairy because the milk is
unfit for making fermented and culture used products e.g. cheese and yogurt so
there should be proper measures to avoid this.
122 N. Huma, A. Sameen, M.U. Sattar and Q.A. Syed

4.7.3. Storage of Raw Milk in Silos

In industry, the raw milk is stored in large vertical silos having different capacity.
Usually silos of 50000 to 100000 L of capacity are used. Silos having smaller size
are installed inside the building while those having larger size located outside
because of reducing cost of the building. The outside silos are constructed of
double walls and there is insulation between the walls. The inner wall of the silo is
made of stainless steel and polishing is done while outer is of welded metal sheet.
There should be a system of even agitation in these large silos to avoid the
separation of cream due to the force of gravity. Higher agitation rate causes milk
aeration and disintegration of the fat globules. This disintegration causes the lipase
enzyme to attack the fat globule which is already present in milk. The temperature
of the milk is displayed on the silos. There are different level indicators like low
level, overflow and empty tank on the control panel of silos (Tetra Pak 2003).

4.7.4. Reception and Quality Evaluation of Raw Milk

The milk is received at the plant either in churns or in bulk tanks and stored in silos
after passing quality tests as given below.
4.7.4.1. Taste and Smell
Milk must be rejected if its taste and smell deviates strongly from the normal taste
and smell.
4.7.4.2. Cleaning and Sedimentation Test
The cleaning of tank and churns is properly inspected. If the milk residues are
evident then the quality will be affected. For sedimentation, a sample is taken by
pipette and then it is filtered if the sediments are on the filter then obviously there
will be deduction in quality.
4.7.4.3. Hygiene or Resazurin Tests
The hygienic quality of the milk can be measured by the bacterial count in milk.
Resazurin is a blue color dye, which by oxygen removal is chemically reduced and
its blue color disappears. In milk the addition of this dye shows change in color at
the specific rate according to metabolic activity of the bacteria present in milk.
4.7.4.4. Somatic Cell Count
Somatic cells are all cells in the body except germ cells. It is used as a measure for
detection of unhealthy milk. If number of somatic cells in the milk is over
400000/mL then it means that animal is affected by the udder disease (Tetra Pak
2003).
4.7.4.5. Bacteria Count
Bacterial count in the milk is used to determine the bacterial contamination. In this
technique bacteria are grown at 30°C in 0.001 mL of milk for 72 h and special
screen is used to count the bacteria.
4. Milk and Milk Products 123

4.7.4.6. Protein content

In most of the dairies farmers are being paid by the fat and protein contents of milk.
It is determined by the use of infrared rays and by the formal titration method.
4.7.4.7. Fat content
There are different methods for butter fat determination; however, Gerber method
is more frequently used for fat determination.
4.7.4.8. Freezing point
In various dairies milk freezing point is used to find out the adulteration of water in
milk. Normally milk has freezing point in the range of -0.54 to -0.59°C. Special
type of instrument is used to determine the freezing point if there is adulteration of
water then freezing point of milk will increase.

4.7.5. Thermization
The growth of psychrotrophs in the milk is prevented by the thermization process.
In this process the raw milk is given heat shocks (65°C for 15 sec) after that milk
should be kept at 4°C. Heat resistant lipases and proteinase are produced by
psychrotrophs bacteria and finally deteriorate milk and its products.

4.7.6. Milk Pasteurization

This process of heat treatment is used for inactivation of pathogenic and spoilage
microbes of the raw milk. The shelf-life of the milk can be improved further by
controlling the post-pasteurization contamination (PPC). PPC and survival of
thermoduric bacteria may cause spoilage of pasteurized milk. By using raw milk of
good quality and improving the processing environment PCC can be reduced.
Pasteurized milks are intended to use directly by the consumers. The products of
this group are
1) Whole milk
2) Skim milk
3) Standardized milk
4) Various types of cream
The two main forms of industrial pasteurisation are:
1) High temperature and short time (HTST) pasteurisation - in which the
product (milk) is heated at high temperature for short time at 72ºC for 15
seconds using plate heater exchanger
2) Batch pasteurisation or low temperature long time (LTLT)
pasteurization - Where the product is kept at a specific temperature for
longer time, e.g. 62°C – 65°C for 30-35 min.
124 N. Huma, A. Sameen, M.U. Sattar and Q.A. Syed

High temperature short time pasteurization

This pasteurization is carried out at industry level. The raw milk used could be
standardized, un-standardized or skim. It can be homogenized or un-homogenized.
The complete process is shown in Fig. 4.5. The milk comes to the plant through the
balance tank (1) and then pumped to PHE (16), to be pre-heated before passing
from the cream separator (5) which separates skim milk and cream. In the present
case, partial homogenizations are used and only cream is treated. The reason for the
choice of the present system is that it can be managed with small size homogenizer
(12) and consumption of power is less. So, the fat of the cream should be 18% for
this cream is diluted by using skim milk. The standardized milk is then pumped for
pasteurization to the heating section. The required holding time is given by a
separate holding tube. A booster pump (13) is used to create high pressure to avoid
the contamination of pasteurized product with untreated milk or heating or cooling
medium. If the temperature is dropped, then it is sensed by transmitter for
temperature. Flow diversion valve (15) is activated for back flow of milk to the
tank. Milk is passed to cooling section of heat exchanger after it is pasteurized and
is cooled by incoming milk which is not treated and after that it is passed to the
cooling section where ice water is used for cooling. After cooling the milk is
pumped to filling machine (Tetra Pak 2003).

Fig. 4.5 Pasteurization Line (Dairy processing handbook. Tetra Pak Processing
System. Lund, Sweden)

4.7.7. Extended Shelf Life Milk (ESL)

These are the products which are treated to reduce the microbial load more than
pasteurization and the packaging of these products is done under extreme hygienic
environment and these have longer shelf-life at refrigeration temperature (Rysstad
and Kolstad 2006). Extended shelf-life is absolute systematic approach which
includes processing followed by packaging and distribution systems. This
technology is the standardization of time-temperature history with respect to chilled
4. Milk and Milk Products 125

liquid milk. However, further technologies have come to reduce initial microbial
load. Although hygiene is the key point for ESL, for the production of ESL milk
different range of time-temperature are suggested. By high temperature short time
pasteurization not all the spore forming bacteria are destroyed e.g. micrococci and
streptococci. As it is described earlier that if we increase the temperature for
pasteurization from 72-90°C then few of the non-spore forming thermoduric
bacteria are destroyed but it has harmful effect on milk shelf-life. So, the range of
temperature is not for ESL milk. The temperature is used for more than 100oC for
very small time. A typical temperature-time combination is 125 to130°C for 2 to 4
seconds. This is termed as ultra-pasteurization. If the ESL milk is stored at 7°C or
less than its shelf life will be 15 to 25 days (De Jong 2008).
4.7.7.1. Market Trends-the Future of ESL Milk
In the recent years, the market trend for dairy products in developed and less
developed markets is increasing quickly and consumers can get benefits easily.
Low cost technology for storage and production in combination with high level of
refundable income has resulted in distribution and development of quality products
like soymilk, probiotic yogurt and exotic milk drinks. In future ESL milk will play
very important role in this sense. With this technology, we will able to compensate
the short shelf life of pasteurized milk with ESL and shelf life will increase up to
weeks and taste and flavor will like the pasteurized milk (De Jong 2008).

4.7.8. Long Life Milk

Use of heat to produce long life products is called the sterilization. In this process,
powerful heat treatment is applied for the destruction of heat resistant enzymes and
related microbes. These products have better quality and longer shelf-life at room
temperature. The advantages of long life milk are as following
• Capture larger markets
• Easy handling and storage without refrigeration.
• Economical distribution and get rid of return of unsold products.
If the raw milk is stored for longer time at low temperature, there are chances for
the proliferation of psychrotrophic bacteria and production of heat resistant
enzymes by them which are difficult to inactivate with heat application.
Organoleptic changes like rancidity, bitterness and gelation may occur during
storage.
There are three types of sterilization treatment of milk as listed below
• In-container sterilization
• Ultra High Temperature (UHT) treatment followed by aseptic packaging
• Innovative Steam Injection (ISI)
UHT and ISI are getting more popularity while the use of in container sterilization
is reducing due to change in colour and falvour produced during processing.
126 N. Huma, A. Sameen, M.U. Sattar and Q.A. Syed

4.7.8.1. UHT Treatment

During the production of UHT milk, first milk is standardized and preheated then it
is high heat treated, homogenized, cooled and then aseptically packed. This
treatment is only beneficial if the product is packed in aseptic conditions otherwise
there will be re-infection of the product. In short UHT is also called aseptic
processing. UHT treatment is a continuous type of processing and therefore can
only be used in products that can be pumped (Gedam et al. 2007). There may be
indirect heating and direct heating with steam injection and steam infusion to get
temperature 135 to 150 °C for few seconds. UHT process is a high speed and it
does not affect color and flavor of the milk.
Milk Suitable for UHT
High temperature is used in the UHT so the best quality milk should be used.
Protein is important in milk; it should show good heat stability. Alcohol test is a
quick method used for the determination of denaturation and heat stability of
proteins. In this test, equal volume of milk and ethyl alcohol are mixed, proteins
were no longer remains stable and milk flocculates. The milk that withstands more
concentration of ethyl alcohol shows better results during heat treatment. Milk that
withstands a 75% concentrated alcohol solution and donot precipitate, have less
problems during production and it has more shelf life.
Nutritional Aspects after UHT Treatment
Few changes observed in UHT treated milk during storage which are;
• Fractional whey proteins denaturation
• No changes in fat
• Minimal loss of vitamins
• Marginal changes in lactose
• Limited precipitation of mineral salts
Nutritional aspects are important while studying the quality of any processed food.
Various studies have been conducted to evaluate the consequences of thermal
treatment in milk.
Concentration of mineral salts; lactose and fat, do not change and their nutritional
value remains the same whereas negligible changes occur in the nutritional values
of vitamins and proteins. The main portion of milk protein comprises of casein it is
heat stable and is not affected by treatment. Whey proteins denaturation to some
extent but it does not mean that the nutritional value is lower in UHT milk than raw
milk. Although sterilized milk has a lower biological value (0.85), the nutritional
value reported for UHT milk (0.90) does not differ significantly from that of raw
milk (0.91).
Loss of lysine is same as in UHT and pasteurized milk which is in the range of 0.4
– 0.8%. The losses of vitamin A can be increased if the product is not fortified. The
thiamine losses are more in in-container sterilized milk (20 – 50%) as compared to
3% in UHT-treated milk. The destruction of vitamin A is higher than folic acid and
4. Milk and Milk Products 127

cobalamine (B12). The losses are higher in-container sterilization. The quality of
UHT milk and pasteurized milk is the same, while the nutritional value of in-
container sterilized milk is lower.
UHT Processing
Milk is first standardized with respect to fat and SNF content then forwarded for
further processing as given below.
1. Pre-Sterilization
Dairy plant is Pre-sterilization before the start of production which will reduce the
chances of re-contamination of freshly manufactured product.
The pre-sterilization consists of:
• Plant is sterilized with hot water; temperature of water should be equal to
temperature of product. Minimum contact time after attaining the desired
temperature should not be less than 30 minutes.
• Plant is cooled to the optimum temperature required for production.
2. Production
There are six different UHT processing systems
1) Direct UHT plant based on steam injection and tubular heat exchanger
2) Direct UHT plant based on steam injection and plate heat exchanger
3) Direct UHT plant based on steam infusion and tubular heat exchanger
4) Direct UHT plant based on steam infusion and plate heat exchanger
5) Indirect UHT plant based on plate heat exchangers
6) Indirect UHT plant based on tubular heat exchangers
Out of all these systems UHT with steam injection is mostly applied in the industry.
The milk is first standardized and stored at 4°C. The process of UHT starts from the
previously standardized milk. Firstly, the milk is heated at 80°C, and then the
product continues to pass through the ring nozzle of the steam injector (4). The
temperature of the steam is very high; the temperature of the product is raised to
about 140–150°C when it meets the product. Holding tubes (5) are used to hold the
product for required time for a few seconds at UHT temperature before it is quickly
cooled. Condenser-equipped with vacuum vessel (6) is used for flash cooling;
pump (7) is used to maintain vacuum. Control of vacuum is very critical so the
vapors escaped from the product should be equal to steam injected during the
process. Centrifugation pump (8) is used to send UHT treated product to the aseptic
filling machine.
4.7.8.2. Innovative Steam Injection (ISI)
ISI is a new and novel food preservation technique based on innovative steam
injection. ISI treatment is advanced form of UHT technique. The original ISI
technology is built on already existing UHT technology with some modifications. It
requires less time of contact with product with more temperature: less than 0.1 s at
128 N. Huma, A. Sameen, M.U. Sattar and Q.A. Syed

150–200°C. Flash cooling is done immediately after heating in a vacuum vessel.

ISI is a costly process its cost is 10% more than the already existing UHT plant.
By applying ISI technique, a large quantity of heat-resistant spores can be
destroyed or inactivated without affecting the functionality of main ingredients.
Disadvantage of this technique is that it causes the degradation of whey proteins
because of stress of heating. It affects the structure of whey proteins. To increase
the shelf life and persistent stability at room temperature, different enzymes must
be inactivated that are the bases for spoilage. Plasmin that is responsible for the
bitter taste in milk products is a heat-resistant enzyme. During the pasteurization
process, less temperature is used so plasmin does not become inactivated, but this is
not problematic in pasteurized milk because it is stored at refrigeration temperature
as compared to UHT, ISI that are stored at room temperature, the reason is that the
activity of plasmin enzyme is insignificant at lower temperature. To increase the
shelf life of the ISI milk that will be stable at room temperature, for months, an
additional step of preheating is done. This preheating inactivates the plasmin
enzyme. If this step is performed properly, the shelf life of ISI milk increased to 60
days at chilled conditions.

Fig. 4.6 Schematic overview of ISI heater (Adopted from De Jong, 2008)

4.8. Dairy Cream and Butter

4.8.1. Dairy Cream
Dairy cream is used in various forms for different products. Although its
association is with fresh fruits and desserts, it is also used as an ingredient in
different products like ice cream, soup, custard and cakes etc. it is the basic raw
material to produce butter oil and butter (Hoff Mann 2002). Cream is concentration
of milk lipids in skim milk and commercially its preparation is done by
centrifugation of whole milk. Classification of creams is made based on their fat
contents.
• Light coffee cream (<10%)
• Coffee cream (15–18%)
• Single or half cream (15–25%)
4. Milk and Milk Products 129

• Cream or full cream (30–40%)

• Double cream (45–50%)

4.8.2. Butter
Butter is made from churning of cream. Butter contains 80 % of fat, 6 – 18 % of
moisture, 1-2 % curd and 2-3 % salt (in salted butter). The cream used might be
sweet and sour. The liquid which comes out during butter production is called the
butter milk. Butter is the good source of fat soluble vitamins particularly vitamins
A and D. Color of butter varies with the carotenoid contents. Butter produced from
buffalo’s milk is white. Ideally, taste of good quality butter is likely to be fresh and
dense. The moisture contents are dispersed in fine drops so the butter looks dry.
Butter should be consistent, even and easily spreadable.
4.8.2.1. Butter Types
There are two types of butter
• Sweet/Fresh cream butter
• Sour/Cultured cream butter (from fermented cream)
• Both types of butter may be unsalted, salted and extra salted.
4.8.2.2. Comparison of Sour and Sweet Cream Butter
The yield of sour cream butter is higher than the sweet cream butter. They have rich
aroma and possess the smell of diacetyl. The shelf life of sour cream butter is
higher as the bacterial culture suppresses unwanted micro-organisms. One of the
draw back in cultured butter milk is the development of metallic taste due to
oxidation. The presence of copper and other heavy metals can increase this
tendency that results in low shelf stability of the butter. The pH of butter milk is
much lower from sour cream butter than obtained from sweet cream, making it
more difficult to dispose due to high BOD values. However, a slightly cooked
flavor is okay in the case of sweet butter.
4.8.2.3. Butter Making
Traditionally, a batch process was used to produce butter from matured cream.
Now a day, butter is manufactured according after the acidification and aroma
formation during churning of the sweet cream. The by-product of this processing
technique is the sweet buttermilk. The sweet buttermilk can be utilized as an
ingredient in many dairy industry applications.
i) Cream Separation
The cream is separated from raw milk for the butter manufacturing. Resultant
cream is then pasteurized at > 80°C for few seconds followed by cooling (20-25°C)
and inoculation with Streptococcus lactis, S. cremoris, Leuconostoc citrovorum and
L. dextranicum. These bacteria convert the milk sugars into lactic acid, hence
producing desired flavor and aroma attributes for cultured butter. Cream is then
kept at cold temperature to crystallize the globules of milkfat that ensures proper
churning and texture of produced butter. In the aging tank, the cream is subjected to
130 N. Huma, A. Sameen, M.U. Sattar and Q.A. Syed

a controlled cooling (12-15 hours) designed to give the fat crystalline structure. The
cream is pumped from the aging tank to the churn or butter maker through a plate
heat exchanger to bring it to the requisite temperature.
ii) Churning
During churning cream is agitated continuously to form butter granules which
become larger and coalesce. As a result, two fractions are produced; butter in the
form of semisolid mass and the liquid in the form of buttermilk.

Fig. 4.7 Schematic

overview of butter
manufacturing (Adopted
from Chandan et al.
2008)

iii) Draining and washing

In conventional churning, when the butter grains have reached a certain size
machine is stopped, and buttermilk is drained. While, in the continuous butter
making, the buttermilk is drained continuously. Butter is changed to a continuous
fat phase having a finely dispersed water phase. After churning, it is common
4. Milk and Milk Products 131

practice to wash the butter for the removal of residual buttermilk and milk solids,
which ultimately increase the shelf life keeping qualities of butter.
iv) Salting and Working
The flavor and shelf life characteristics of butter are also improved by the addition
of salt followed by working of the butter to obtain its consistency.
v) Packing and Storage
The butter is finally patted into shape, wrapped in waxed paper and then stored in a
cool place. The texture of butter became more firm due to butterfat crystallization
upon cooling.
Whipped butter is prepared by incorporating air or nitrogen gas into butter mass to
improve its spreading attributes at refrigeration temperatures.

4.9. Cheese
4.9.1. Introduction
Cheeses have been produced since ancient times in many cultures. Cheese is a
coagulated and concentrated form of milk solids. The basic solids mainly
comprised of protein (usually casein) and fat. The remaining liquid is whey and is
removed. Approximately 10 times concentration of casein and fat is done in
production of different types of cheese based on their texture. There are so many
factors which effect the cheese characteristics, so it is difficult to give one
definition of cheese which cover all the varieties (Farkye 2004; Murtaza et al.
2008).
Cheese can be categorized on the basis of moisture contents.
• Hard (low-moisture)
• Semi-hard
• Soft cheeses

4.9.2. Principal of Cheese Making

Good quality raw milk is needed to obtained high quality cheese. To produce
cheese rennet (Chymosin + pepsin), CaCl2 and starter are the basic raw materials.
In some cheese varieties, instead of rennet, acidulants (citric and lactic acids) are
used for the coagulation of milk. The cheese manufacture by this method is called
the “acid set cheese.”
Cheese manufacturing take place in two phases, the first phase is called the
enzymatic phase and the 2nd phase is known as the non-enzymatic phase. In the
first phase, the chymosin of rennet hydrolyses the K-casein present on the surface
of micelles at the 105-106 bond. After hydrolysis, the “hair” like part of K-casein
called gylcomacropeptide/caseinomacropeptides (fraction 106-169) are separated
and become the part of whey. During the 2nd phase, the casein micelles which after
132 N. Huma, A. Sameen, M.U. Sattar and Q.A. Syed

the hydrolysis of K-casein called paracasein joint together with the CaPO4 bond
and form the network of casein micells or curd. This cheese curd is latter change
into mature cheese. Cheese manufacturing period differs from 5-24 hours, its
ripening time varies from 2 weeks to 2 years depending on the desired hardness.

4.9.3. Cheese Making Process

In general, production of all varieties of cheese involves a similar protocol. Various
steps which are;
4.9.3.1. Selection of Milk
Different types of milk from different sources are used for the manufacturing of
cheese, while buffalo milk is more commonly used in the Pakistan. In USA and
Western Europe, cow milk was the main ingredient for cheese production, but now
researchers are moving towards buffalo, goats and sheep’s milk. Different factors
like compositions of milk, indigenous enzymes, and microbial load of milk
influence different features of the cheese.
4.9.3.2. Standardization of Milk Composition
Different types of pretreatments are given to the cheese milk to enhance its value
for cheese production like microfiltration, bactofugation, ultrafiltration,
pasteurization and homogenization with different objectives. Standardization of
milk for cheese manufacturing is compulsory for every type of cheese to get the
consistency in the final product. Casein to fat ratio is important in cheese making
for different varieties. Milk pH is an important factor in cheese making. Starter
culture is added to attain the desired pH of the milk. Decrease in pH produces the
favorable conditions for action of rennet and gel formation.
4.9.3.3. Milk Heat Treatment
Traditionally, raw milk was used for the preparation of cheese. The usage of raw
milk is not recommended for commercial cheese production due to presence of
unwanted dangerous bacteria, which may cause problems for health and in texture
and taste.
The pasteurization of milk for cheese manufacturing is becoming more common
primarily for community fitness and health aspects. Cheeses made from raw milk
contained higher number of non-starter bacteria compared to cheeses made from
pasteurized milk. Cheese made from pasteurized milk is superior as compare to raw
milk cheese in functionality but body and texture are similar. Rheological
characteristics of cheese made from milk heated to high temperature can be
improved with addition of 0.001% calcium chloride (Farkye, 2004).
4.9.3.4. Acidification
Acidification is generally considered as the basic operation in the preparation of
most cheese varieties. Appropriate acidification is the key step in the producing of
good quality cheese. It affects the several aspects of cheese manufacture which is
listed below (McSweeney 2007).
4. Milk and Milk Products 133

• Control and prevent the growth of spoilage and pathogenic organisms

• Affect the activity of coagulant during manufacturing and ripening
• Solubilizes colloidal calcium phosphate which effect the cheese texture
• Promotes synersis and hence determine cheese composition
• Influence activity of enzyme which ultimately effect the flavor and quality
As an alternative to biological acidification, direct acidification may also be used
by using an acid (lactic acid or HC1) or an acidogen (glucono-6- lactose). Direct
acidification is convenient than biological acidification and unlike starter it is not
subject to phage infection. It results in rapid and consistent make time, improved
moisture retention, precise pH control and the elimination of culture expense and
variability (Fox et al. 2000). However, the starter bacteria play very important role
in cheese ripening and develop a specific flavor in the cheese. Chemical
acidification is used in the cheese varieties where texture is more important than
flavor.
4.9.3.5. Coagulation
The necessary distinguishing step in production of all cheeses is coagulation of
casein protein system forming a gel which entraps the fat contents.
Coagulation may be done by;
• Proteolysis by selected proteinases (mainly rennet)
• Acidification up to pH 4.6
• Acidification up to pH 5.2 combined with heating up to 40°C
In coagulation by rennet two distinct stages are involved, a proteolysis stage in
which hydrolysis of κ-casein destabilize the casein micelle and yield para- κ-casein
micelles and a secondary stage or calcium mediated stage in which para casein
micelles undergo limited aggregation. The secondary stage needs temperature
above 20°C. Hydrolysis of κ-casein primarily involves cleavage of the peptide
bond, which is uniquely sensitive to hydrolysis by acid proteinases. This cleavage
yields a para- κ-casein common to all caseins and a glyco-macro peptide or casein
macro peptide.
Factors which effect the rennet coagulation include protein level, fat level,
pasteurization temperature, cooling and cold storage of milk, homogenization,
renneting temperature, pH, rennet concentration and calcium concentration (Fox
et al. 2000). Calcium has crucial influence in coagulation. An increment in calcium
enhances the event of coagulation even at a more level of κ-casein hydrolysis.
However, adding of exceptionally high concentration Ca (>0.11m) uniquely lessens
the rate of firming of renneted milk gels possibly because unreasonable Ca binding
may impede with gel development or κ-casein dissolvability may be decreased
CCP.
134 N. Huma, A. Sameen, M.U. Sattar and Q.A. Syed

4.9.3.6. Salting
Salting is carried out for the fresh curd manufacturing before ripening. There are
two methods of salting i.e. dry (mixing and rubbing on surface) and wet (brining).
Salt content influences the moisture content, microbial and enzymatic activities,
type of microorganism and ripening.
4.9.3.7. Ripening
The cheese could be fresh and ripened/mature curd. Fresh cheese is obtained by the
acid coagulation and very few rennet coagulated curds are consumed at the end of
production. The most are ripened for a period range from about 3 weeks to more
than 2 years. Generally, the length of ripening is inversely related to the moisture
content. Many types may be consumed at any of different stages of maturity,
depending on the taste preferences of consumers and economic aspects.
The biochemical changes during ripening are resulted by enzymes from one or
more of the following agents;
• The coagulant
• Indigenous milk enzymes that survive pasteurization
• Non-starter lactic acid bacteria
• Starter bacteria and their enzymes
• Secondary microorganisms and their enzymes
• Exogenous enzymes
The primary biochemical changes involve lipolysis, glycolysis and proteolysis,
followed by several catabolic changes to compounds produced in these primary
pathways such as deamination, decarboxylation and desulfurization of amino acid.

4.10. Yogurt and other Fermented Milks

Cultured and fermented dairy products include all milk products that involve lactic
acid fermentation such as yogurt or a combination of yeast and lactic acid
fermentation such as Kefir.
Cultured milk includes kefir, yogurt, buttermilk, koumiss and cultured cream.
When milk is inoculated with starter culture, lactose in milk is converted into lactic
acid therefore these products are termed as cultured milk products. In this
conversion process, acetic acid, acetaldehyde, diacetyl carbon dioxide and a range
of other substances are also produced which influence the taste and aroma of the
products. Packaging is essential to retain their sensory, physicochemical and quality
attributes during transportation and storage (Saint-Eve et al. 2008).

4.10.1. General Requirements for Cultured Milk Production

The low pH of fermented milk products ultimately increases the keeping quality of
the products by preventing the proliferation of putrefactive bacteria and other
detrimental organisms. The fermented products are more suitable for lactose
4. Milk and Milk Products 135

intolerance people (containing low level of lactose) as they are unable to digest
ordinary. Optimum growth conditions are offered to culture microbes to produce
cultured milk products. Any competing microbes are destroyed by heat treatment.
When optimum aroma and flavor have been achieved, temperature is decreased to
stop fermentation. If the fermentation continues for longer period, it will adversely
affect the texture and flavor. Appearance, flavor, aroma, texture and taste are key
features of cultured milks and these are influenced by pre-processing conditions.
Adequate heating and homogenization of the milk are used to increase the safety
and consistency of the products respectively. The process line for different cultured
products has many operation in common for example the pre-treatment of the milk
is same.

4.10.2. Types of Yogurt

Among the fermented dairy products, yogurt is the most popular worldwide. It is
the product of lactic acid fermentation in which Streptococcus thermophiles and
Lactobacillus delbrueckii ssp. Bulgaricus is used as a starter culture (Serra et al.
2009). Yogurt consumption is comparatively more in Asia, Central Europe and
Mediterranean. Yogurt is produced either in the form of a highly viscous liquid or
in gel form.
Yogurt can be classified in to the following categories
Set type yogurt: In this type of yogurt, milk is inoculated in tanks, packed in
container, incubated and cooled in the same package.
Stirred type yogurt: In this type yogurt milk is inoculation, incubation, cooling
and stirring is carried out in tanks before packing in container.
Drinking type yogurt: This is a popular stirred type of yogurt in which the
coagulum is broken down to a liquid and homogenized before being packed.
Frozen type: This type of yogurt is similar in consistency to ice.
Concentrated: This type is sometimes called strained yogurt, sometimes labneh or
labaneh and incubated in tanks, concentrated and cooled before being packed.

4.10.3. Factors Affecting the Quality of Yogurt

The high-quality yogurt is recognized by its proper texture, appearance,
consistency, viscosity, flavor, reduced synersis and longer shelf life. Various
processing conditions are required to achieve these quality attributes. Among these
are;
• Selection of milk
• Fat and SNF standardization
• Addition of stabilizer and sweetener
• Deaeration
• Homogenization
136 N. Huma, A. Sameen, M.U. Sattar and Q.A. Syed

• Heat treatment
• Choice of culture
• Preparation of coagulum
• Plant layout

4.10.4. Yogurt Making Process

i. Selection of Milk
Milk is the basic raw material for yogurt manufacturing. Milk must be of highest
quality because only good quality raw materials produce the good quality end
product. It must fulfill the standards for microbial quality. The milk must be free
from residues of sterilizing agents, CIP solutions, antibiotics and bacteriophages.
Therefore, milk for yogurt production must be procured from approved farms.
ii. Fat and SNF Standardization
Milk standardization criteria for fat and dry solid contents varies from country to
country. Fat contents in yogurt are in the range of 0.5-3.5 % however yogurt may
contain fat up to 10 %. According to FAO/WHO code of principles, yogurt can be
classified in the following categories:
• Yogurt Min. Milk fat 3 %
• Partially skimmed yogurt Max. Milk fat < 3 % Min. milk fat > 0.5 %
• Skimmed yogurt Max. Milk fat 0.5 %
SNF in yogurt ranged from 8.22-14 % according to the FAO/WHO code and
principles. The most common ways to standardize the DM content are
• Addition of concentrated milk
• By evaporation 10 – 20 % of the milk volume
• Addition of skim milk- or protein powder, usually 1 – 3 %
• Using UF retentate from skim milk
iii. Addition of Stabilizer and Sweetener
The most commonly used additives for yogurt preparation are stabilizers and
sweeteners.
a. Stabilizers
Stabilizers are hydrophilic colloids which can bind water, increase
viscosity and reduce synersis. Selection and dose of stabilizer depend on
the types of yoghurt and preliminary research conducted.
The suitable stabilizer and its optimum dosage is selected by
manufacturers after experimental trials and based on their price. The
product might acquire a rubbery, tricky persistence if inappropriate
stabilizer, or an excessive amount of stabilizer, is utilized. Effectively
produced, normal yogurt requires zero addition regarding stabilizers, has a
4. Milk and Milk Products 137

firm, fine gel with optimum viscosity. Stabilizers must be used in

pasteurized and whipped yogurt and can also be used in fruit yogurts.
Stabilizers (0. 1 – 0. 5 %) such as gelatin, pectin and starch along with
agar-agar are the normally applied ingredients.
b. Sugar or Sweetener
The monosaccharide (Glucose) and disaccharide (Sucrose) can be added
alone, or in conjunction with fruit addition. Artificial sweetener has no
nutritive value, but tastes very sweet, even in very small doses. So these
are used to satisfy the people with special dietary needs such as diabetics.
Sweeteners cannot be used as preservatives for sweetened condensed milk.
Addition of too much sugar before inoculation or incubation changes the
osmotic pressure of the milk and has an adverse effect on fermentation
conditions.
iv. Deaeration
Milk must be free from air contents as it has adverse effect on the quality of the
product. If air bubbles are present, the milk should be deaerated as part of the
subsequent processing to produce the good quality product.
The advantages received through deaeration are generally:
• Improved working conditions for the homogenizer
• Much less risk regarding fouling during heat treatment
• Improved stability along with optimum viscosity of the yogurt
• Deodorization i.e. Removal of volatile off-flavors
• Reduced fermentation time
v. Homogenization
The homogenization of milk suitable for cultured milk products is carried out to
stop creaming during the incubation and to assure uniform fat distribution.
Homogenization improves the stability, consistency and reduces synersis. As a
general recommendation, the milk should be homogenized at 20–25 MPa and 65–
70° C to obtain optimum physical properties in the product. vi. Heat treatment
For yogurt manufacturing, milk is subjected to heat treatment before being
inoculated with the starter culture to:
• Make the milk better substrate for the bacteria by improving its properties
• Ensure the production of firm coagulum
• Reduce the risk of synersis in the end product
Heating the milk at 90 – 95° C for five minutes gives good results as this
temperature-time combination denatures up to 80% of whey protein. Denaturation
of β-lactoglobulinis about 99% i.e. principal whey protein. Interaction of β-
lactoglobulin with κ-casein gives the yogurt a stable body and texture.
138 N. Huma, A. Sameen, M.U. Sattar and Q.A. Syed

vi. Cooling the Milk

The milk is cooled to inoculation temperature 40-45o C (Early 1998) after
pasteurization process. Alternatively, if set yogurt is to be produced, and the pre-
treatment capacity does not match the packing capacity, the milk is cooled to a
temperature below 10°C (preferably 5°C).
vii. Selection of Culture
Different cultures (pure and mix) are available either in liquid, frozen and freeze
dried form that satisfy specific viscosity and flavor requirements (Hosono 1986).
Some properties of finished product that can be achieved are:
• Optimum viscosity with less acetaldehyde content and a fairly high final
pH
• Low viscosity and medium acetaldehyde content, suitable for drinking
yogurt, etc.
viii. Culture Preparation
Maximum precision and hygiene is required as far as handling of starter culture for
yogurt manufacturing. The most common organisms are Streptococcus
thermophiles and Lactobacillus bulgaricus used in 1:1 ratio for yogurt production.
4.10.4.1. Stirred Yogurt
In stirred yogurt production, after standardization, homogenization and heating of
milk it is cooled to incubation temperature in an incubation tank. Simultaneously, a
pre-set volume of bulk starter or a DVS culture is added into the milk stream. After
the addition of starter cultures, mixing is carried out to ensure its uniform
distribution. The incubation tanks should be insulated to ensure that the temperature
remains constant during the incubation period. In typical production of stirred
yogurt the incubation period is 3 - 3.5 hours at 42 to 43°C, when the ordinary type
of bulk starter (2.5–3 % inoculums) is utilized and 4 - 5 hours when e.g. a freeze-
dried DVS culture (about 0.02 % Inoculum) is used.
i) Cooling the Coagulum
After achieving the pH value 4.2 to 4.6, the yogurt must be cooled to low
temperature i.e. 15 – 22o C. This will stop the production of more lactic acid in the
yogurt. To achieve the desired consistency, gentle mechanical treatment of
coagulum is required. Cooling takes place in a plate heat exchanger. The cooled
yogurt is pumped to buffer tanks before being routed to the filling machine(s).
ii) Flavoring
Yogurt is subjected to packing after cooling (15 – 22°C). Fruit and various
flavorings can be added to the yogurt before packaging when it is transferred from
the buffer tanks to the filling machines.
iii) Packing
For packaging, different types of filling machines are used. Yogurt is packed in
packages of variable size or volumes. In general, the total packing capacity should
4. Milk and Milk Products 139

match the capacity of the pasteurization plant, to obtain optimal running conditions
for the plant.
4.10.4.2. Set Yogurt
Stirred and set yogurt can be manufactured by using same production line. Pre-
treatment of yogurt milk is same as in case of stirred yogurt. When milk is cooled
down to incubation temperature, the calculated amount of starter is added into the
stream of milk. Major advantages of this system include flexibility in production
schedule and its high efficiency. Pre-treatment of the milk is same as in case of
stirred yogurt after that milk is cooled to low temperature preferably to 5°C and
pumped into tanks. Milk is inoculated with starter culture, stirred properly for
uniform distribution of culture and then subjected to in-line heat treatment to
achieve the incubation temperature before being packed. The flavor and fruit pulp
can be added in to milk stream prior to filling. After filling, packages are stacked
into the incubator for fermentation and subsequent cooling; either in combined
incubation/cooling chamber or in continuous cooling system.
4.10.4.3. Drinking Yogurt
In pakistan, drinking yogurt is called Lassi. It has low fat contents, less viscosity
and is consumed in many parts of the world. This type of yogurt is like stirred type
yogurt as far as its composition is concerned however its dry matter contents are
reduced by the addition of water. Drinking yogurt is produced in the ordinary way
with fermentation in tanks. Stabilizer should be used in the manufacturing of
drinking yogurt to prevent sedimentation problem in finished product. For this
purpose, pectin is most commonly used followed by homogenization prior to
cooling to get optimal stabilizing effect.

Fig. 4.8 Block diagram showing production steps for set, stirred and drinking
yoghurt (Dairy processing handbook. Tetra Pak Processing System, Lund, Sweden)
140 N. Huma, A. Sameen, M.U. Sattar and Q.A. Syed

4.10.5. Plant Design

Plant design and lay-out is very important as the coagulum formed during
fermentation is sensitive to mechanical damage. So, care full selections of valves,
pumps, coolers, pipes and other related equipment is required.
After standardization, homogenization, pasteurization and cooling to inoculation
temperature, further processing will depend on whether stirred, set, drink,
concentrated or frozen yogurt is to be produced. The flavor and texture of yogurt
depends on quality of raw material, plant design, milk and product treatment.

Fig. 4.9 Production of UHT milk base on steam injection and PHE (Dairy
processing handbook. Tetra Pak Processing System, Lund, Sweden)

4.10.6. Importance of Fermented Milk Products

Fermented products play key role in human nutrition since the ancient time. The
fermented milk products are classified into three categories
• Moderately sour type with pleasant aroma e.g. cultured milk.
• Sour and very high sour types e.g. curd, yogurt.
• Acid-cum alcohol in addition to lactic acid e.g. kumiss and kefir (Stanton
et al. 2001).
There are various therapeutic and functional properties of yogurt other than its
nutritional importance. Several studies provide evidences that consumption of
fermented dairy products (cheese, butter milk, and yogurt) can suppress the breast
cancer. The lactic acid bacteria exert anti-carcinogenic effect either by suppression
of initiated cancer or prevention of cancer initiation.
4. Milk and Milk Products 141

4.10.6.1. Immune System Stimulation

The immune system is the first defense line against microbial infection in our
bodies. Milk components such as calcium, certain vitamins, whey protein, calcium,
certain and trace elements are also capable of influencing immune system. The
consumption of yogurt increased the antibody production, T-cell production,
cytokine production and phagocytic activity (Gandhi et al. 2000).
4.10.6.2. Lowering of Serum Cholesterol
It has been reported that intake of large quantities of fermented milk products has
potential health benefits. Results of the previous studies reported the
hypocholesteraemic effect of yogurt (Panesar et al. 2006).
4.10.6.3. Alleviation of Constipation
Several studies have reported the beneficial effect of lactobacillus preparation and
fermented milks against constipation. Reported benefits include alleviation of
constipation using L. acidophilus NCDO1748, L. casei and Lactobacillus GG
(Panesar et al. 2009).
4.10.6.4. Antihypertensive Activity
L. helveticus (CP790) produce casein hydrolysate by the action of an extracellular
proteinase that has demonstrated effect against hypersensitivity in rats. Two
antihypertensive peptides have also been purified from sour milk fermented with L.
helveticusand Saccharomyces cerevisiae. It has been reported that consumption of
certain lactobacilli, or products made from them, may reduce blood pressure in
mildly hypertensive people (Maeno et al. 1996).
4.10.6.5. Antiallergenic Qualities
Intake of probiotics is strongly linked with prevention of allergic responses in
human beings such as food allergies. This is since probiotic bacteria help to
reinforce the barrier function of the intestinal wall, thereby possibly preventing the
absorption of some antigens (Kirjavainen et al. 2003).

4.11. Conclusion
Pakistan is the 5th largest milk producing country with 49 MT productions, but only
4 % is transformed into international and indigenous dairy products. Milk is
composed of proteins, fat, lactose and minerals. Milk is more nutritious for children
and adults and ideal growth medium for bacteria. The contamination of milk starts
just after milking and continues till processing depending upon handling of milk
during collection, transportation and processing. The several unit operations used in
milk processing include cream separation, bactofugation, standardization,
homogenization and heat exchanger. Heating of milk is the main unit operation
carried out at various process using plate and tubular heat exchanger. Milk used is
first analyzed for various quality parameters to check its suitability for processing,
then standardized for fat and solid not fat and stored in chillers before being
converted into pasteurized, extended shelf life, UHT, cream, butter, cheese and
142 N. Huma, A. Sameen, M.U. Sattar and Q.A. Syed

fermented milk products. To produce UHT milk, stored milk is first heated to 80-
90°C for whey protein denaturation and UHT is carried out by direct or indirect
heating. The flash cooling is done after direct heating with steam injection or
infusion. In case of indirect heating, preheating and UHT both are carried out in
PHE or THE. To produce butter, first cream is separated from milk, pasteurized,
cooled and inoculated with culture for ripening. After fermentation, it is churned
into butter and butter milk is separated from it. The butter can be salted or unsalted.
In the production of cheese, milk is first inoculated with starter culture for
acidification, and then CaCl2 and rennet are mixed in it. The coagulum produced by
the action of rennet is cut into cubes, stirred and scalded. When the pH of the curd
is 6.2, the whey is drained and curd can be textured, milled, salted, molded and
either pressed or not depending on the variety. This cheesed is packed and kept for
ripening from 15 days to 2 years. Yoghurt is the most famous fermented dairy
product mainly available in set and stirred form. Yoghurt is pasteurized at higher
temperature (90-95°C/5-10 min) and then cooled down to 42-45°C before
inoculation with Strep. thermophillus and Lb. bulgaricus. The inoculated milk is
then filled in cups in case of set and remained in the vat in case of stirred yoghurt.
After fermentation, the yoghurt is cooled down to 4-6°C and stored in case of set
yoghurt while in case of stirred yoghurt, it is stirred and other ingredient like spices,
fruits pulp and nuts are mixed in yoghurt, then packed and stored at refrigerated
temperatures.

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