Fire Technology

 2019 The Author(s). This article is an open access publication

Manufactured in The United States
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10694-019-00834-8

A Review of Design Values Adopted

for Heat Release Rate Per Unit Area

Charlie Hopkin* , OFR Consultants, Jactin House, 24 Hood Street,

Manchester M4 6WX, UK; School of Mechanical, Aerospace and Civil
Engineering, The University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PL, UK
Michael Spearpoint, OFR Consultants, Jactin House, 24 Hood Street,
Manchester M4 6WX, UK
Danny Hopkin, OFR Consultants, Jactin House, 24 Hood Street, Manchester
M4 6WX, UK; Department of Civil and Structural Engineering, The
University of Sheffield, Sheffield S1 3JD, UK

Received: 21 October 2018/Accepted: 19 February 2019

Abstract. When conducting fire and smoke modelling it is important to adopt an

appropriate design fire. Calculations may adopt a design fire that is represented in
terms of a heat release rate per unit area (HRRPUA). This paper provides a histori-
cal review of recommended values that are predominantly used in the UK as well as
values from other jurisdictions where appropriate. It has been determined that many
of the HRRPUA values provided in UK guidance are derived from ten fire incidents
for industrial fires in the 1960s and 1970s, and five wood crib experiments undertaken
in the 1960s. The HRRPUA values originally calculated from these incidents and
experiments ranged from 86 kW/m2 to 650 kW/m2. The data was gradually adapted
in various forms to consider shops and retail buildings, offices, hotel rooms and resi-
dential buildings, where variations in recommended values have occurred over time
due to adjustments and calculations from various authors. In light of the observa-
tions, this paper provides updated recommended values from literature which relate
to specific occupancies and building types. These are summarised as a range of poten-
tial values, such as 270 kW/m2 to 1200 kW/m2 for shops and 150 kW/m2 to 650 kW/
m2 for offices, where designers will need to take care in considering the relevant
source material.

Keywords: Heat release rate per unit area, Design fire, Fire and smoke modelling

* Correspondence should be addressed to: Charlie Hopkin, E-mail: charlie.hopkin@postgrad.

manchester.ac.uk

1
 Fire Technology 2019

1. Introduction
Heat release rate per unit area (HRRPUA) is commonly used as a design input
for fire and smoke modelling. The heat release rate (HRR) of a fire may be calcu-
lated from the area of a fire using the following equation [1]:

Q_ ¼ Q_ 00 Afire ð1Þ

where Q_ is the total HRR (kW), Q_ 00 is the HRRPUA (kW/m2) and Afire is the
area of fire involvement (m2). This approach to determining HRR is typically
adopted in circumstances where the fire is fuel bed controlled (i.e. controlled by
the availability of fuel) and combustibles can burn freely without being limited
due to a lack of ventilation. Using this approach assumes a HRRPUA value for a
specific fuel type or fuel package (e.g. an item of furniture) and example values
can be found in the literature, including standard text books such as Drysdale [2]
and the SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering [3].
Alternatively, rather than using a specific fuel type or package, the HRR can be
calculated as a function of the occupancy type for which a representative
HRRPUA is applied and this value is then assumed for a specified area. The area
may be taken to be a proportion of the enclosure floor area, to represent a desig-
nated fire footprint, or could be taken as the area of the entire enclosure. The fire
footprint may represent the surface area of one or more fuel packages or could be
related to an expected area of fire involvement, for example for a fire which has
been limited by the actuation of a sprinkler system with an assumed sprinkler
head spacing arrangement. With respect to this interpretation of area of fire
involvement the Eurocode for actions on structures exposed to fire, EN 1991-1-2
[4], refers to Afire as ‘‘the maximum area of the fire which is the fire compartment
in case of uniformly distributed fire load but which may be smaller in case of a
localised fire’’ [4]. Whilst EN 1991-1-2 is a code dedicated to structural response in
fire, the content cited in Annex E relates to a generic description of enclosure fire
development, giving guidance on fuel and ventilation-controlled regimes in terms
of HRR and the relationship with time.
PD 7974-1:2003 [1] is a UK published document which provides guidance on
the initiation and development of fire within the enclosure of origin and provides
guideline values for various occupancies, reproduced in Table 1. The recom-
mended HRRPUA values given in PD 7974-1:2003 reference NFPA 92B and the
latest revision of UK guidance document CIBSE Guide E [5] also provides values
consistent with those given in NFPA 92B. Thus, in its caveat of suggested
HRRPUA values, PD 7974-1:2003 notes that ‘‘this information should be treated
with care, as it is predominantly of US origin and therefore may not always be
representative of UK occupancies’’.
The review herein results from discussions in the process of the revision of PD
7974-1 likely to be published in 2019, where uncertainty arose as to the origins
and appropriate application of HRRPUA values given in the previous 2003 edi-
tion. This review is separated out into six main categories based on the building/
A Review of Design Values Adopted for Heat Release

Table 1
PD 7974-1:2003 [1] suggested HRRPUA for fuel bed controlled fires

Occupancy HRRPUA (kW/m2)

Shops 550
Offices 290
Hotel rooms 250
Industrial excluding storage 90–620
Depending upon fuel and arrangement

occupancy type: industrial; shops and retail (mercantile); offices; hotel rooms; resi-
dential; and other types. These categories broadly align with those described in
PD 7974-1:2003, given in Table 1.
Following a review of the history of HRRPUA values of the six occupancy cat-
egories, conclusions and recommendations are made on what may represent rea-
sonable design values that can be incorporated into the revised edition of PD
7974-1, as well as discussion on what further work needs to be considered.

2. Determination of HRRPUA
In the determination of HRRPUA from experimental data, the area of fire
involvement ðAfire Þ could be derived in multiple ways, such as by using the area of
the fuel or the area of a burning enclosure, or by using less precise measures such
as the direct visual observations or by inspecting images (video/still photographs)
recorded during experiments. Experiments may include single or multiple burning
items, and the HRR (Q) _ is typically determined either by oxygen calorimetry or
an assessment of the mass of fuel consumed with respect to time, in the latter case
by adopting a representative value for the heat of combustion of the fuel. The
heat of combustion may be expressed either as a total or effective value, although
in some work it is not always clear which of these has been adopted. Either
approach produces a HRR curve where the HRR will typically fluctuate or
change over time. The raw mass loss or heat release measurements from experi-
ments may undergo some smoothing to reduce noise in the data, for example by
applying the Savitzky–Golay smoothing filter, as illustrated by Staggs [6] for cone
calorimeter mass data. Specific to HRR, Evans and Breden [7] note that such data
can be made ‘‘more attractive by smoothing techniques’’.
Values for HRRPUA are easily determined for fuels which burn in a relatively
steady-state manner from:

Q_
Q_ 00 ¼ ð2Þ
Afire

However, in reality most fuels do not burn with a steady-state HRRPUA, even if
the nominal area of burning remains constant. In such a case the HRRPUA can
be determined by:
 Fire Technology 2019

Q_
Q_ 00 ¼ ð3Þ
Afire

where Q_ is the average HRR over a defined period of burning (where Q_ 00 is refer-
red to herein as the ‘individual average HRRPUA’). The assumption of a fixed
burning area is applied in NFPA 271 [8], for example. Fuels such as liquid hydro-
carbons in pool configurations are often treated as though they burn at a steady-
state, but in practice the turbulent flames results in a HRR that fluctuates around
a mean value. Even this assumption may not account for the heat transfer effects
to and from the fuel container or the initial (albeit rapid) growth period. Further-
more, most containers do not have perfectly flat bases. These combined factors
result in the HRR not immediately reaching a maximum from zero or vice versa
in the form of a step-function.
Fuel packages that may consist of several materials are unlikely to burn with a
steady-state HRR but will typically involve growth and decay phases with an
associated change in the area of burning. The piece-wise HRRPUA can be calcu-
lated at defined time-steps and the overall HRRPUA given by:
Pt¼t1  Q_

t¼t
n Afire t
Q_ 00 ¼ ð4Þ
n
 
Q_
where is the HRRPUA at a given time-step t for the instantaneous HRR
Afire t
_ and instantaneous area (Afire ), and n is the number of time-steps. The calcula-
(Q)
tion can be carried out over the total duration (ttotal ) of burning or some specified
restricted timescale as appropriate. The determination of the total duration of
burning is also subject to interpretation as in practice a fire experiment may be
terminated before complete combustion has ceased. Within standard procedures,
tests may be terminated under stated conditions, for example NFPA 271 [8],
where specified durations have elapsed, or when the mass loss rate has dropped
below a defined criterion.
Those fuel packages that exhibit growth and decay phases will result in a peak
HRR. Experimentally the determination of a peak value will be affected by the
sampling frequency of the instruments and whether any smoothing of data is car-
ried out. Often the peak HRR is synonymous with the maximum HRR. However,
Mowrer and Williamson [9] note that composite products and materials exhibit
complex burning behaviour which may result in more than one peak in the HRR.
The peak HRRPUA can be determined by:
 _ 
Q
Q_ 00peak ¼ ð5Þ
Afire peak

This paper defines the maximum (Q_ 00max ) as the greatest HRRPUA for a given
curve in circumstances where there may be more than one peak. Where a curve
A Review of Design Values Adopted for Heat Release

Figure 1. Exemplar individual HRRPUA curves.

only has one peak, then the maximum and the peak are considered equivalent
within the context of the discussion in this paper.
With respect to the above methods of determining HRRPUA, exemplar individ-
ual HRRPUA curves are shown in Fig. 1.
When data is available for two or more separate experiments (under the same
experimental conditions) then a combined average HRRPUA (Q_ 00 ) can be calcu-
lated from the individual average HRRPUA values (Q_ 00 ). Similarly, a combined
average maximum HRRPUA (Q_ 00 max ) can be determined from individual maxi-
mum HRRPUA (Q_ 00max ) values. Clearly care is required when interpreting reported
HRRPUA values in terms of the calculation method and whether values are an
individual or combined, average or maximum HRRPUA. Specific to this paper,
PD 7974-1:2003 does not mention whether the HRRPUA values are intended to
represent average or maximum values.
 Fire Technology 2019

Finally, as discussed by Krasny et al. [10], when measuring the HRR of a burn-
ing item the presence of an enclosure can cause air vitiation effects, generate
unsymmetrical air flow patterns and enhance the burning rate due to radiation
feedback from the hot surfaces and upper gas layer. To overcome these enclosure
effects, standard test methods for measuring HRR are operated in an open config-
uration, allowing an unrestricted flow of air to the combustion zone. Thus, it is
possible that HRRPUA values cited in the literature do not include enclosure
effects, although these effects may be relevant to a design application. The New
Zealand verification method C/VM2 [11] includes an enhancement to the HRR at
flashover to account for radiation from the upper gas layer in its design proce-
dure.

3. Occupancy Types
3.1. Industrial
In 1977, Theobald [12] considered the growth and development of fire in indus-
trial buildings. This work summarised a series of ten fire incidents and five experi-
mental fires, reproduced in Table 2. These fire incidents and experimental fires
were taken from previous research undertaken by Theobald [13] and Heselden
et al. [14], respectively. The fire incidents included surveys of five storage build-
ings, one factory, two workshops and a hospital research unit, with enclosure
areas ranging from 170 m2 to over 10,000 m2. Building contents of the fire inci-
dents varied from packaged goods, cardboard, timber with three of the fire inci-
dents including mixed combustibles (Table 2). Silcock [15] outlined the surveying
method and fire reports, where several details were recorded by fire and rescue
service personnel following the incident, including the location, spread and the
extent of the fire.
To calculate HRRPUA related to each incident, Theobald [12] considered the
estimated mass of fuel consumed, and the estimated fire duration, relative to the
recorded fire damage area. This provided an estimated burning rate in kg/m2/s.
To calculate the equivalent burning rate in kW/m2, Theobald adopted a fixed heat
of combustion value of 13 MJ/kg, equivalent to that of wood.
PD 7974-1:2003 [1] references Theobald’s work, recommending a HRRPUA of
90 kW/m2 to 620 kW/m2 for fires occurring in industrial occupancies. These val-
ues approximately equate to the minimum and maximum values for the fire inci-
dents summarised by Theobald, and shown in Table 2. Thus, for industrial fires,
the work of Theobald is based on fire incidents and experiments undertaken in the
UK and the PD 7941-1:2003 caveat relating to the US origin of the information is
inaccurate.
The first edition of NFPA 92B [16], published in 1991, recommends a
HRRPUA of 260 kW/m2 for industrial fires, referring to Theobald’s work. While
NFPA 92B does not explicitly state why the 260 kW/m2 value is recommended for
industrial fires, it aligns with Incident 2 for the building containing vehicles, petrol
and paint given in Table 2. This value has been adopted in subsequent revisions
of NFPA 92B.
Table 2
Data for fire incidents and experimental fires. As summarised by Theobald [12]

Estimated burn-
ing rate per unit
Compartment Estimated total wood Fuel Fuel Estimated fuel Fire Estimated fire area of fire
area equivalent of fuel area height consumed area duration
Incident Building contents m2 kg m2 m kg m2 min kg/m2/s kW/m2

1 Crated furniture 170 140,000 113 3.3 450 32.0 30.0 0.008 100
2 Vehicles, petrol, paint 260 145 6 0.8 36 6.0 5.0 0.020 260
3 Stacked sawn timber 170 4500 43 1.5 730 9.0 45.0 0.030 390
4 Books, furniture 460 44,000 18 3.0 11,000 418.0 60.0 0.007 93
5a Stacked cardboard 90 16,500 55 1.8 5400 90.0 40.0 0.025 320
5b Stacked chipboard 300 220,000 193 2.4 1800 300.0 15.0 0.007 86
6 Cartons, electrical goods 2200 116,000 273 2.0 28,600 250.0 80.0 0.024 310
7a Cardboard cartons 1300 113,000 785 7.0 113,000 1300.0 30.0 0.048 620
A Review of Design Values Adopted for Heat Release

7b Cardboard reels 2500 2,540,000 624 7.0 510,000 2500.0 210.0 0.016 210
8 Packaged goods 10,200 7,200,000 4000 3.6 3,740,000 8360.0 180.0 0.041 540
9a Wood cribs 28.5 218 8.65 0.1 218 28.5 19.0 0.007 88
9b Wood cribs 28.5 436 8.65 0.2 436 28.5 20.0 0.013 165
9c Wood cribs 28.5 872 8.65 0.4 872 28.5 22.0 0.023 300
9d Wood cribs 28.5 1744 8.65 0.8 1744 28.5 28.0 0.036 480
9e Carboard cartons 28.5 408 8.65 1.5 408 28.5 6.7 0.036 480
 Fire Technology 2019

3.2. Shops and Retail (Mercantile)

In 1979, Morgan [17] provided a design summary of smoke control methods in
enclosed shopping complexes. In this document, Morgan discusses recommended
design fire HRR for fires originating in shops and mentions that statistical infor-
mation on shops is limited. However, Morgan specifies that for shops fitted with
sprinkler systems, fewer than 5% resulting in sprinkler actuation become greater
than 5 MW, subsequently stating that a 5 MW design fire ‘‘has become widely
accepted as a maximum fire [size] for design purposes in view of its low probabil-
ity of occurring’’. Morgan equates this to a fire of base dimensions of 3 m by 3 m
and a HRRPUA of 500 kW/m2. Although the aforementioned 9 m2 base would
result in a HRRPUA of 555 kW/m2 for a 5 MW fire, the specified dimensions are
considered to broadly align with a 10 m2 fire area with a 12 m perimeter [18, 19].
Morgan specifies that the selected HRRPUA is the ‘average’ of values obtained in
experimental sprinklered fires, but does not comment on whether this represents a
combined average (Q_ 00 ) or a combined average maximum (Q_ 00 max ) across the exper-
iments. Whilst Morgan does not specify how the fire area was determined, previ-
ous work by Hinkley [20] in 1971 on the control of smoke in enclosed shopping
centres notes ‘‘in the absence of other information, it is suggested that a fire
3 m 9 3 m should be taken’’. While not explicitly stated, this appears to align
with a typical spacing between sprinkler heads, with Hinkley [21] stating for a 3 m
by 3 m fire—‘‘this is considered reasonable if the fire is being controlled by sprin-
klers’’. Hinkley [21] also refers to circumstances where a fire is limited by sprin-
klers ‘‘so that its heat output is about 5 MW’’ and later that ‘‘experiments… have
shown that when sprinklers were operating its peak burning rate was about
½ MW/m2’’. The experiments involved the burning of 1.2 m wide by 2.4 m long
by 1.8 m high storage rack that were loaded with approximately 100 kg of com-
bustible materials, including polystyrene tiles, polyurethane foam, wood, wool and
cardboard on wooden slats.
In reviewing the origins of the 5 MW retail design fire, Law [22] discusses the
work of Hinkley. Law notes that in Hinkley’s experiments, an unsprinklered fire
results in a maximum HRRPUA of approximately 1000 kW/m2, a sprinklered
shielded fire 300 kW/m2 and a sprinklered unshielded fire 100 kW/m2. The 5 MW
fire is described as representative of a shielded sprinklered fire located in the
‘worst’ possible location, i.e. at the centre of a grid of four sprinkler heads spaced
3 m apart. This is described as a ‘typical’ sprinkler spacing, although Law notes
that the maximum spacing could be up to 3.6 m by 3 m (10.8 m2). Law suggests
that the sprinklers are assumed to stop fire spread beyond the 3 m by 3 m area
and remove half of the energy content by cooling the gases.
By referencing Morgan [17], NFPA 92B [16] in 1991 discussed an approximate
HRRPUA of 50 Btu/s/ft2 (568 kW/m2) for mercantile occupancies, for a design
fire size of approximately 5000 Btu/s (5275 kW). The 2012 edition of NFPA 92
[23] noted that this design fire size is based on a ‘‘statistical distribution of fire
sizes in shops in the United Kingdom that include sprinkler protection’’, where
less than 5% of fires exceeded 5275 kW and geometrically this fire has been
described as having an area of 3.1 m by 3.1 m (9.6 m2). NFPA 92B’s 568 kW/m2
A Review of Design Values Adopted for Heat Release

was subsequently referenced and simplified in PD 7974-1:2003 [1] to 550 kW/m2,

more closely aligning with Morgan’s comments regarding a 5 MW design fire and
9 m2 fire area. The precursor to PD 7974-1, Draft for Development DD 240-
1:1997 [24], recommended 500 kW/m2 for retail building use and similarly, Tech-
nical Memoranda TM19:1995 [25] recommended 500 kW/m2 for shops.
Expanding on Morgan’s guidance published in 1979, Morgan and Gardner [26]
authored BR 186 ‘Design principles for smoke ventilation in enclosed shopping
centres’. This design guidance did not provide a recommended value for
HRRPUA but refers to the 3 m by 3 m sprinkler-controlled fire which, as stated
in BR 186, became ‘‘the accepted basis in the UK for a smoke ventilation system
in a sprinklered shopping centre’’. Likewise, BR 258 [18] ‘Design approaches for
smoke control in atrium buildings’, published in 1994, refers to a 10 m2 sprin-
klered retail fire but does not state the equivalent HRR or HRRPUA.
In the above works on the 5 MW design fire, it is not always explicitly stated
whether the HRR and HRRPUA values given are referring to the total HRR or
the convective portion only. However, it may be inferred from several sources that
it is representative of the convective HRR only, where Morgan [17] refers to the
‘‘heat carried by the hot gases’’ when discussing fire size for the design of smoke
control systems, Hansell and Morgan [18] states a ‘‘convective heat flux’’ for
design fires associated with atria and Morgan and Gardner [26] adopt the ‘‘heat
flow rate’’ when calculating the smoke temperature for a 5 MW fire. Therefore,
the adoption of these values for the total HRR or HRRPUA would not directly
align with the intent of the original works. Subsequent to this, BR 368 [19], Mor-
gan et al.’s ‘Design methodologies for smoke and heat exhaust’, which builds
upon both BR 186 and BR 258, recommends a HRRPUA of 625 kW/m2 for
steady-state retail design fires where sprinkler protection is provided, and
1200 kW/m2 where there are no sprinklers. For the former, the commonly adop-
ted 5 MW fire is considered explicitly representative of convective HRR at 75%
of the total HRR, resulting in a total maximum HRR of 6250 kW for a fire area
of 10 m2. The latter 1200 kW/m2 unsprinklered value broadly aligns with a
1000 kW/m2 convective HRRPUA described by Law [22] for Hinkley’s original
experiments.

3.3. Offices
Law [27] discussed fire and smoke hazards in air-supported structures as part of a
paper first published in 1980. Within this, Law further summarised fire incidents
in industrial premises previously discussed by Theobald [12]. Law proposed that
values of 0.02 kg/m2/s and 290 kW/m2 for the mass burning rate per unit area
and HRRPUA, respectively, may be adopted when considering furniture fires in
offices and residential accommodation. While not explicitly stating how these val-
ues were derived, they approximately equate to the combined average mass burn-
ing rate per unit area and HRRPUA values from Theobald’s industrial fire
incidents (i.e. Incidents 1 to 8 in Table 2). The 290 kW/m2 HRRPUA recommen-
dation was subsequently referenced and adopted in NFPA 92B [16] when consid-
ering HRRPUA for use in smoke management design of offices. PD 7974-1:2003
 Fire Technology 2019

references NFPA 92B for its 290 kW/m2 recommended design value for offices
with the inaccurate caveat relating to the information being of US origin.
Separate to Law’s paper, Morgan and Hansell [28] considered the implications
of fire sizes and sprinkler effectiveness in offices. When proposing a method for
determining a HRR for office design fires, a HRRPUA of 260 kW/m2 was used.
This value was again derived from Theobald [12] and applying a fixed fire load
per unit area of 57 kg/m2. Morgan and Hansell stated that this fixed fuel load was
adopted from unpublished surveys carried out by Melinek from 1965 to 1967,
where it was determined that office fuel load was less than 57 kg/m2 in approxi-
mately 95% of cases. This fuel load per unit area corresponded to mass burning
rate per unit area of 0.0144 kg/m2/s for the ‘wood crib’ curve shown in Fig. 2 (re-
produced from Theobald [12]). However, instead of using the wood-equivalent
13 MJ/kg heat of combustion adopted by Theobald, Morgan and Hansell applied
an alternative value of 18 MJ/kg. Morgan and Hansell [28] also note that the
resulting HRRPUA is ‘‘close to the heat release rate per unit area of 290 kW/m2
for offices quoted by Law’’.
In their following work on calculating smoke flows in atria, Morgan and Han-
sell [29] discussed problems arising from their previous interpretation of Theobald
[12], where they assumed that a ‘wood crib’ curve (Fig. 2) would be representative
of fuel loads found in offices, expressing these values as ‘equivalent wood loads’.
In their previous calculation, Morgan and Hansell applied Theobald’s data for the
mass burning rate of fuel per unit area (or the burning rate per unit area of fire).
However, as noted by Law in her comments on the paper [30], the fuel area of the
wood crib experiments was one-third of the enclosure area and therefore was not
representative of the burning rate per unit area of the entire enclosure. In
response, Morgan and Hansell discussed uncertainties in the fire incidents as to
how the fuel was distributed within the space [31]. Theobald’s industrial fires data
was therefore replotted to consider the burning rate per unit area of available fuel

Figure 2. Fuel load density against burning rate per unit area of fire.
From Theobald [12].
A Review of Design Values Adopted for Heat Release

Figure 3. Fuel load density against burning rate per unit area of
available fuel. From Morgan and Hansell [29].

within the enclosure instead of the burning rate per unit area of fire damage (per
Table 2), to produce the new relationships shown in Fig. 3. Adopting a heat of
combustion of 13 MJ/kg for wood instead of the previously used 18 MJ/kg, again
for a design fire load of 57 kg/m2, Morgan and Hansell proposed a revised
HRRPUA of 230 kW/m2 for offices, with an equivalent mass burning rate of
0.0177 kg/m2/s. In comparison, if Morgan and Hansell’s original 18 MJ/kg heat
of combustion value was instead adopted, this would produce a HRRPUA of
approximately 320 kW/m2.
BR 368 [19] recommends a HRRPUA of 255 kW/m2 for open-plan offices and
also refers to a value of 270 kW/m2 for cellular offices. The 255 kW/m2 value
aligns closely with the 230 kW/m2 to 260 kW/m2 values calculated by Morgan
and Hansell. The latter 270 kW/m2 value relates to experiments undertaken by
Ghosh [32] and others, where the total HRR of the fire was measured in a
calorimeter with a 6 m by 6 m hood. The area of the fire was estimated from
visual observations and photographs. Ghosh noted that, following sprinkler actua-
tion, the HRRPUA reduced to 190 kW/m2 and also stated that in the experi-
ments, the maximum HRRPUA varied from 150 kW/m2 to 650 kW/m2.
BS 7346-4:2003 [33], a British Standard and code of practice on the ‘Functional
recommendations and calculation methods for smoke and heat exhaust ventilation
systems, employing steady-state design fires’ almost universally adopts the same
HRRPUA values as those given in BR 368 for all building types and circum-
stances. However, there is a single exception where BS 7346-4 recommends a
HRRPUA of 225 kW/m2 for an office fire with standard response sprinklers, con-
trary to BR 368 which recommends 255 kW/m2 irrespective of whether sprinklers
are included or not. It is suspected by the authors of this paper that the 225 kW/
m2 value given in BS 7346-4:2003 may have been the result of a typing error (i.e.
from 255 kW/m2 to 225 kW/m2).
 Fire Technology 2019

Figure 4. Relationship between total fire duration and fuel load

density. Adapted from Thomas and Theobald [42].

Previously DD 240-1:1997 [24] and TM19:1995 [25] suggested a HRRPUA for

offices of 250 kW/m2 and this value is currently adopted in EN 1991-1-2 [4]. These
all likely relate back to Morgan and Hansell’s 260 kW/m2 value.
Yuen and Chow [34] revisited Morgan and Hansell’s work on offices to propose
a new method of selecting design fires. To capture uncertainty associated with
HRRPUA, a uniform distribution was proposed which ranged from 90 kW/m2 to
360 kW/m2. To obtain these upper and lower bounds, the work of Theobald [12]
was again referenced. The same method of Morgan and Hansell was applied, with
an assumed fire load per unit area of 57 kg/m2, instead proposing limits from the
‘normal’ and ‘high’ ratios of fuel surface to fuel mass (shown in Fig. 2).
In separate work, Hietaniemi and Mikkola [35] collated information on a series
of office workstation experiments by Madrzykowski [36], Madrzykowski and Wat-
son [37], Kakegawa et al. [38], Ohlemiller et al. [39], where it was summarised that
the maximum HRRPUA for these experiments ranged from 820 kW/m2 to
1799 kW/m2 with an average maximum (Q_ 00 max ) of 1156 kW/m2. In some instan-
ces, the HRRPUA represented a value averaged across the area of an entire burn-
ing enclosure (for example a 6.3 m by 6.3 m room for Kakegawa et al. [38].), and
in others it related to the burning area of a single cubicle, or to the burning area
of single items only. Given the different experimental conditions of the sources of
data, the range of HRRPUA values for these fires is not necessarily representative
of the same calculation methods and application (e.g. a single item versus an
enclosure), resulting in potential inconsistencies across the dataset.

3.4. Hotel Rooms

Alongside their work on fires in offices, Hansell and Morgan [40] proposed fire
characteristics for hotel bedrooms, with a recommended HRRPUA of 249 kW/
m2. This was determined from a survey of fire loads in three bedrooms for a hotel
A Review of Design Values Adopted for Heat Release

near Heathrow Airport, referenced as a private communication, in combination

with work by Pettersson et al. [41] on the magnitude of fuel loads in hotels. To
determine the HRRPUA, Hansell and Morgan adopted a fuel load density of
357 MJ/m2 for the worst-case of the three surveyed hotel bedrooms, considered
equivalent to 19.2 kg/m2 for wood load fuel density assuming a heat of combus-
tion of 18.6 MJ/kg. This fuel load density aligned with the 85th percentile of fuel
loads observed by Pettersson et al. The time for the fuel to burn was derived from
the work of Thomas and Theobald [42] on the burning rates and durations of
fires, in an appendix to Theobald’s work on industrial fires [12], where it was pro-
posed that the following equation be adopted:

t ¼ 590f 0:3 ð6Þ

where t(s) is the total duration of burning and f is the fuel load density (kg/m2).
This relationship, reproduced in Fig. 4, was derived from the ten industrial fire
incidents discussed by Theobald. Using this relationship, a fuel load density of
19.2 kg/m2 results in a predicted burning duration of 1432 s (23.9 min), producing
a HRRPUA of 249 kW/m2 for 357 MJ/m2. Although not discussed by Hansell
and Morgan, applying the same method for the given hotel bedroom with the
lowest fuel load density (10.2 kg/m2, 190 MJ/m2) results in a HRRPUA of
160 kW/m2. In their subsequent revisiting of their work, discussed previously for
HRRPUA values of offices, Morgan and Hansell proposed an adjusted HRRPUA
for hotel bedrooms of 80 kW/m2 to be applied across the entire floor area of the
enclosure of fire origin [29].
In the above Thomas and Theobald method, fire duration is correlated with fire
load density, not total fire load. As such, the correlation is independent of the
enclosure size. The fire incidents considered by Theobald had enclosure areas
which ranged from 90 m2 to 10,200 m2, with fuel areas ranging from 6 m2 to
4000 m2. For larger enclosures, the total fire duration will be heavily influenced by
the time taken for the fire to spread to involve all fuel within the space. It is also
improbable that all fuel burned near simultaneously, i.e. a fire that develops to
flashover. Stern-Gottfried and Rein [43] note in their literature review of travelling
fires that characteristic burning time (i.e. burning time per m2 of fuel) can be in
the region of 19 min to 30 min, a time period much less than many of the fire
durations documented by Theobald and given in Fig. 4 (up to 210 min). It may
be that, in the context of the fires observed by Theobald, the total burning dura-
tion across the floor area was extended due to the occurrence of travelling fires.
There are therefore limitations in adopting the relationship given by Thomas and
Theobald outside of the context of the original industrial fire incidents.
Hansell and Morgan’s value of 249 kW/m2 is referenced in NFPA 92B [16] and
the most recent 2018 edition of NFPA 92 [44] for a recommended HRRPUA for
hotel rooms. This value was subsequently referenced and adopted in PD 7974-
1:2003 [1], with a recommended HRRPUA of 250 kW/m2, again making the inac-
curate caveat relating to the information being of US origin.
BR 368 [19] recommends a HRRPUA of 250 kW/m2 for hotel bedrooms where
sprinkler protection is provided and the fire area is limited to 2 m2, or alterna-
 Fire Technology 2019

tively 100 kW/m2 where there are no sprinklers and the fire area is assumed as the
entire bedroom enclosure. Although the exact origin of the 100 kW/m2 value is
not specified, it appears to broadly align with both Morgan and Hansell’s adjus-
ted 80 kW/m2 value and a design fire load of 81.6 MJ/m2 described by Pettersson
et al. [41], recommended to be applied to the total room floor area. Applying the
same method described by Morgan and Hansell [40] above for the Pettersson
et al. 81.6 MJ/m2 fuel results in an equivalent wood fuel load fuel density of
4.4 kg/m2. Assuming an 18.6 MJ/kg heat of combustion previously adopted by
Hansell and Morgan in turn produces a HRRPUA of 88 kW/m2.

3.5. Residential
For residential design, EN 1991-1-2 [4] recommends a HRRPUA of 250 kW/m2,
as did TM19:1995 [25]. In proposing a HRRPUA of 290 kW/m2 for offices, Law
[27] also noted that this value may be applied for residential occupancies. The
adoption of such values is illustrated by Holborn et al. [45] who analysed fire sizes
and fire growth rates using data from fire investigations, using a value of 250 kW/
m2 for residential fires, referencing both NFPA 92B [16] and DD 240-1:1997 [24].
Fang and Breese [46] undertook sixteen burnout experiments to investigate fires
in residential occupancies. These were performed in two rooms of 3.3 m wide,
3.3 m long and 2.4 m high, and 3.3 m wide, 4.9 m long and 2.4 m high, respec-
tively. Included in the rooms were household furniture, linings and interior fin-
ishes described as ‘‘typical of actual occupancies’’. Using the maximum HRR in
the enclosure combined with the total enclosure floor area, the maximum
HRRPUA ranged from 320 kW/m2 to 570 kW/m2 for the experiments. This work
is referenced in Klote and Milke’s ‘Principles of Smoke Management’ [47], where
they note that Fang and Breese determined a similar average maximum
HRRPUA for residential occupancies as Morgan’s 500 kW/m2 value for retail

Table 3
Fire load density and HRRPUA for different residential room types.
From Hietaniemi and Mikkola [35]

Room Fire load density HRRPUA

Living room a = 405 MJ/m2 a = 565 kW/m2

b = 96 MJ/m2 b = 134 kW/m2
Average = 460 MJ/m2 Average = 642 kW/m2
Bedroom a = 522 MJ/m2 a = 805 kW/m2
b = 233 MJ/m2 b = 191 kW/m2
Average = 656 MJ/m2 Average = 805 kW/m2
Kitchen a = 613 MJ/m2 a = 816 kW/m2
b = 89 MJ/m2 b = 194 kW/m2
Average = 665 MJ/m2 Average = 928 kW/m2
Whole apartment a = 467 MJ/m2 a = 624 kW/m2
b = 72 MJ/m2 b = 148 kW/m2
Average = 509 MJ/m2 Average = 710 kW/m2
A Review of Design Values Adopted for Heat Release

occupancies. However, the latter was determined across a limited floor area while
the former was representative across the complete enclosure floor area.
Hietaniemi and Mikkola [35] simulated a series of residential fires, adopting sta-
tistical distributions for mass and the heat of combustion of furniture items loca-
ted in hypothetical residential room layouts. Furniture items included sofas,
armchairs, coffee tables, televisions, etc. Using the results of the simulations,
Gumbel distributions were proposed which differed depending on the room of fire
origin. The distribution parameters (a, b) for these distributions, as well as the
average fire load density and equivalent HRRPUA, are given in Table 3.

3.6. Other Types

Early work by Klote and Milke [48] on the design of smoke management systems
does not provide specific advice for HRRPUA. Subsequently Klote et al. [49] refer
to BR 368 in the context of retail, office and library spaces, although they recom-
mend that a value of 230 kW/m2 be used for any space ‘‘where the major fuels
would be transient fuels’’ and 650 kW/m2 be considered for spaces with furniture
or other combustible materials but with no further substantiation. Thus, spaces
with furniture could potentially refer to both office and residential type occupan-
cies. Klote et al. note that this approach is ‘‘rough’’ and that more detailed analy-
sis can result in different design fires.
Fleischmann [50] provided ‘general’ recommended values for HRRPUA for use
in fire safety design. To determine these values, Fleischmann considered average
and maximum HRRPUA values recorded for polyurethane foam-fabric compos-
ites commonly found in upholstered furniture, from experiments undertaken by
Denize [51]. For these fires, the average HRRPUA (Q_ 00 ) ranged from 165 kW/m2
to 441 kW/m2, with the maximum HRRPUA ranging from 262 kW/m2 to
470 kW/m2. Also discussed were much larger HRRPUA values determined for
large-scale pool fires (maximum ranging from 498 kW/m2 to 4505 kW/m2) and
stacked commodities (245 kW/m2 to 3118 kW/m2). The latter was determined
from a summary by Babrauskas [52] provided in the second edition of the SFPE
Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, in turn taken from work by Alpert and
Ward [53] and Delichatsios [54].
Alpert and Ward [53] summarised a series of stacked commodity experiments
with the HRRPUA ranging from 35 Btu/ft2/s to 1500 Btu/ft2/s (400 kW/m2 to
17,000 kW/m2), although it was not explicitly stated whether these represent aver-
age or maximum values. Similarly, Delichatsios [54] discussed ‘small-scale’ experi-
ments of different palletised commodities, with each experiment covering a floor
area of approximately 6.3 m2. The maximum HRR from these experiments ranged
from 1.09 9 106 Btu/min to 7.06 9 106 Btu/min, resulting in HRRPUA values
ranging from 3000 kW/m2 to 20,000 kW/m2. The ‘Valorisation Project: Natural
Fire Safety Concept’ [55] recommends a HRRPUA of 1250 kW/m2 to 6000 kW/
m2 for stacked commodities, depending on the stacked height and content.
A series of trial building cases were simulated by Fleischmann [50] to consider
the sensitivity of varying HRRPUA in computational fluid dynamics software
Fire Dynamics Simulator (FDS). Using the context of experimental values and
 Fire Technology 2019

FDS simulations, Fleischmann concluded with a recommended range of

HRRPUA from 500 kW/m2 to 1000 kW/m2 for non-storage occupancies and
1000 kW/m2 to 2500 kW/m2 for storage occupancies. These recommended ranges
were adopted in C/VM2 [11], specifying that ‘‘a range is provided… to accommo-
date different HRR and mesh sizes’’.

4. Conclusions and Recommendations

This review has highlighted how many of the design values in provided UK guid-
ance for HRRPUA are ultimately derived from a small number of fire incidents
and experiments described by Theobald [12, 13] in the 1970s. These fire incidents
occurred in storage buildings, factories, workshops and a hospital research unit
and were considered in combination with experimental data for wood cribs. The
data was however subsequently adapted in various forms to consider shops and
retail buildings, offices, hotel rooms and residential buildings. Variations in recom-
mended values have occurred over time due to adjustments or differences in inter-
pretation from various authors, including Law [27] and Morgan and Hansell [28,
29, 40]. Following this, proposed values were adopted in PD 7974-1:2003 [1],
BS 7346-4:2003 [33], NFPA 92B [16] (and subsequent revisions [23, 44]), BR 368
[19] and CIBSE Guide E [5].
The review has attempted to highlight additional data available which relates
specifically to the discussed occupancies and building types, although in certain
instances they may still relate back to the work of Theobald. In the absence of
further information, it is proposed that the ranges given in Table 4 may be adop-
ted. These characterise the HRRPUA for either a specified average or maximum
HRR for a representative fire footprint, and the selection of an applicable
HRRPUA within these bounds will be dependent on the arrangement and quan-
tity of anticipated fuel load. It is intended that these values will be incorporated
into the revised edition of PD 7974-1. It is acknowledged that providing a range
of values is less convenient than the single fixed values given currently in
PD 7974-1:2003, in that fixed values can be more easily adopted and require lim-
ited consideration. Therefore, in adopting the revised values, designers will need to

Table 4
Identified HRRPUA ranges available from literature

Occupancy HRRPUA (kW/m2) References

Shops 270–1200 (maximum) Ghosh [32], Hinkley [20], Law [30]

and Morgan et al. [19]
Offices 150–650 (maximum) Ghosh [32]
Hotel rooms 250 (average) Hansell and Morgan [40]
Residential 320–570 (maximum) Fang and Breese [46]
Industrial 90–620 (average) Theobald [12]
Storage/stacked commodities 400–20,000 (maximum) Alpert and Ward [53] and Delichatsios [54]
A Review of Design Values Adopted for Heat Release

take greater care in considering the relevant source material in the context of the
design problem and fire safety objectives.
The range of values given in Table 4 provides an opportunity for HRRPUA to
be considered probabilistically, but distributions for such values would require
further research intended to be undertaken by the authors of this paper. In addi-
tion, it would be beneficial for the recommended HRRPUA design values to be
revisited in the context of modern building environments and their associated fuel
loads.

Compliance with Ethical Standards

Conflict of interest None.

Open Access
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