ANATOMI DAN MORFOLOGI TUMBUHAN

(PLANT ANATOMY AND MORPHOLOGY)

BY:
DR. NOR NAFIZAH MOHD NOOR
5.0 Stem Anatomy
5.1 Primary structure of stem
5.2 Arrangement of tissues
 In Dicotyledonous stem
 Consist of 3 tissue systems: dermal, ground and
vascular with 3 distinct regions: The epidermis,
cortex and stele:
 Epidermis
The outermost layer of stem with various types of
trichomes & stomata, commonly consist of 1 layer
and has cuticle and cutinized walls
Fn: protection from mechanical injuries and control
transpiration rate
 Cortex
The ground tissue next to epidermis, the innermost of cortex
is the endodermis which consist of a single layer of cells
which surround the stele
Cortex situated between the epidermis and the endodermis:
2 regions: collenchyma zone and parenchyma zone
 Endodermis
The innermost layer of cortex sometimes known as starch
sheath in barrel-shaped
It has a band or strip which run completely around the cell on
radial walls and end walls = Casparian strip/band
 Stele
Situated inside the cortex consist of 3 region the pericycle,
the vascular bundle region and the pith

 Pericycle
The region between the vascular bundles and the cortex
generally composed of parenchyma and sclerenchyma
 Vascular bundles
Generally arranged in a broken ring, vascular bundle consist
of 3 parts: xylem, phloem seperated by cambium layer
xylem which is formed before the activity of the cambium has
begun to produce xylem and phloem cells is called primary xylem
which composed of 2 parts: protoxylem near to the stem centre
and metaxylem at themore pheripheral part
 Cambium
Lies between xylem and phloem, can gives rise to xylem and phloem
in secondary growth, firstly cambium confined to the bundles but
later become a continuous cylinder
 Pith ray
Pith ray seperated from each other by radial rows of parenchyma
 Pith
The centre of the stem which composed of thin-walled
parenchyma. The cells have distinct intercellular spaces
 In Monocotyledonous stem:
Similar to dicotyledon of having the epidermis, cortex
and stele
The structure and arrangement of bundles in
monocotyledon differ from dicotyledonous stem
The vascular bundles of monocot stem are usually
scattered throughout the stele including the pith so
there is no distinction between pith and pith ray,
sometimes the stele is free from vascular bundles as in
most grasses.
Distinctive and anatomical characteristic features
of the monocot stem
 1.The vascular bundles are many
 2.The stele is broken up into bundles. The vascular bundles
are lying scattered in the ground tissue of the axis
 3.Endodermis is not found, the cortex, pericycle and pith
are not differentiated because the presence of scattered
bundles throughout the axis
 4. The vbs are collateral and closed. The secondary growth
of usual type is lacking, but vestige of cambial activity in
bundles may present in the plant body
 5. Each vb remains surounded by well developed
sclerenchymatous sheath
 6. Vb commonly in oval shape
 7. Phloem is represented by seive tubes and companion cell
only, phloem parenchyma is not found
 8.Pith is not marked out
 9.Sclerenchymatous hypodermis is usually present
 10. Epidermal hairs usually not present
 Type of vascular bundles
 Vascular cambium consist of: xylem, phloem and cambium
of primary body
 There are few types of vascular bundles according to
arrangement of xylem and phloem in vascular bundles
 The main types are as follows
1. Radial
2. Cojoint
3. Concentric
1. Radial
Those in which the xylem and phloem lie radially side by side,
the most primitif type (eg. In roots of seed plant)
2. Cojoint
Those in which the two types of tissues are separated from one
another. Xylem and phloem together form a bundle. 2
subtypes available:
(eg; in Helianthus), when the cambium is absent =closed (eg.
In monocotyledons stems)
 2a. Collateral
The xylem and phloem lie together on the same radius in
the position that xylem lies inwards and phloem outwards.
Here the phloem occurs on one side of xylem strand. In
dicots stem, cambium present in between xylem and
phloem = open
2b. Bicollateral
In this bundle, phloem present on both sides of xylem, two
cambium strips also occur. Various elements are arranged
in the following sequence: outer phloem, outer cambium,
xylem, innercambium and inner phloem (eg: in
Cucurbitaceae). This an open bundle.

3. Concentric
Those in which one type of tissue surrounds or ensheaths the
other. If the xylem surrounds the phloem = amphivasal as
found in Dracaena, Yucca (monocots) and some dicots. If
the phloem surrounds the xylem = amphicribral as found
in many ferns, which are closed bundles.
5.3 Secondary Growth in Stem
 Resulting from the activity of vascular cambium which
increases the amount of vascular tissue in stems
 Vascular cambium of the stem arises from the procambium
between primary xylem & phloem, as well as from
parenchyma of the interfacicular regions which occur
between the vascular bundles (fasicicles)
 Cambium arising within vascular bundles = fascicular
cambium, that arising in the interfascicular region or pith
ray = interfascicular
 Characteristic of gymnosperms and woody dicotyledon
 In some herbacious dicotyledon and most monocotyledons
have no secondary thickening, the procambium strands
mature & develop into vascular tissue
 Secondary growth includes the formation of periderm from
the phelogen
 In woody stems production of secondary xylem and
phloem result in the formation of a cylinder of
secondary vascular tissues with ray extending radially
through the cylinder
 More secondary xylem than secondary phloem is
produced
 With secondary growth the primary phloem is pushed
outward and its thin-walled cells are destroyed, only
the thick-walled primary phloem fibers, if present
remain intact
5.3.1 Secondary growth in Dicot stem
 Secondary growth occurs in all gymnosperms and most
dicotyledons which develop from the lateral meristem
 Secondary growth result in radial growth and are responsible
for continuous increase in the width of stem
 Secondary tissues: the secondary vascular tissues-develop
from the cambium vascular, the cork and phelloderm
develop from phellogen/cork cambium
 The vascular bundles of dicot stem are collateral and open,
arranged in a ring, cambium cell divide  xylem & phloem,
pith ray divide  form a layer of cambium across the pith ray
= interfascicular cambium fascicular & interfascicular
cambium connect to each other to form cambium ring.
 The cambium ring divide continuously to form xylem
(inwards) and xylem (outwards) the vascular bundles
increase in sizestem enlargement=secondary thickening
and continues throughout the life of the plant
 The vascular cambia varies greatly in its activities
during different seasons of the year
 In some tropical trees the cambium is more or less
active all year around, although in tropical
climates with with dry and wet periods, cambial
activity can be seasonal
 In temperate region cambium is dormant for a
certain period of time throughout the year
 Dorman winter cambium is composed of thicker
walled cells as compare to actively dividing
cambial cells, as cambium become reactiveated,
the cambial cells exhibit both change in colour and
a slight swelling
5.3.11Annual ring
 Periodic activity of the vascular cambium which is
seasonally related in temperate zone produces
seasonal increment = growth rings or annual ring
 The growth or annual ring represented by the
secondary xylem in the stem
 Commonly termed as annual ring because in the
woody plants of the temperate regions and those
of tropical region where is an alternation of growth
and dormant period, each year represent the
growth of one year
 Characteristic of woody plants of temperate region
and weakly develop in tropical plant with
wet/moist and dry season alternately
 Unfavourable growing seasons produce narrow
rings and favourable season wide ones
 In the temperate where the cold season is pronounced,
cambium activity takes plece only during spring and
summer season thus giving rise the growth in diameter of
woody plant, the wood of one season is sharply distinct
from that of the next season
 |In summer and spring, the cambium is more active
(additional vessel are needed for sap transport) and form a
greater number of vessels with wider cavities, = spring
wood/early wood
 In winter and autumn, the cambium is less active (less
need of vessels), produce narrow pitted vessels, tracheids
and wood fibers = autumn wood/late wood
 Therefore, an annual ring consisis of: an inner layer of early
wood and the outer layer of late wood
 Both layers are sometimes clearly visible
 The determination of age of a tree by counting the annual
rings = dendrochronology
5.3.1.2 Sap wood and
heartwood
 As wood become older it gradually become nonfunctional
in conduction and storage and undergoes visible changes
which involved the loss of reserved foods and infiltration of
the wood by various substances (eg: oil, gum, resin and
tannins) that makes the colour darker and sometimes
aromatic this non conducting wood is called = heartwood
 Generally lighter, conducting wood is called sapwood
 Sapwood= is the part of the wood in the living tree that
contains living cells and reserved material. It may or may
not be entirely functional in water conducting.
 The propotion of sapwood to heartwood and the degree of
visible difference between them vary greatly from species to
species.
 In many wood tylose are formed in the vessel when they
become nonfunctional (fig.26.28)
right
26-28 Tylose
Tylose are balloonlike outgrowths of parenchyma cells that partially or
completely block the lumen of a vessel (a)transverse and (b) longitudinal
sections showing tylose in vessels of white oak (Quercus alba), as seen in a
light microscope.
 Useful links:
 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=28BSeH-
qO3U&feature=player_embedded#t=23
 http://bcs.whfreeman.com/thelifewire/content/chp35
/35020.html
 http://www.studentsguide.in/biology/morphology-
anatomy-flowering-plants/anatomy-of-
dicotyledonous-stem-sunflower-stem.html
 http://www-
plb.ucdavis.edu/labs/rost/tomato/Stems/secstem3.ht
ml
Softwood and hardwood
 Coniferous wood (gymnosperms) = softwood
 Dicot wood = hardwood
 Coniferous wood /Gymnosperms wood
are more homogeneous and less complex then dicot, they
contain no vessel, limited fibers and approximately 90% of
the wood is composed of tracheids with little parenchyma
Some parenchyma is associated with resin canals, long
intercellular spaces present in the longitudinal system of
cells and in some of the rays, resin canals are found in some
species: pine, spruce and larch
Most parenchyma cells are in the xylem ray
 Dicot wood
The main difference is the presence of vessel element which
are the primary water conducting cells. Dicot wood
contains greater variety of cell types in the longitudinal
system, larger xylem ray also contains fibers and
parenchyma.
Gymnosperm wood and Monocot wood
Gymnosperm wood
 Gymnosperms is simpler and more homogeneous than the
angiosperms, main distinction is the absence of vessel in
the gymnosperm (except I Gnetales) and their presence in
most angiosperms.
 The gymosperms woos also posssess a small amount of
parenchyma, particularly vertical parenchyma
 The vertical or longitudinal system
mostly composed of tracheids, the late wood tracheids
with relatively thick walls and pits with reduced border =
fiber-tracheids, but libriform fibers do not occur
 The tracheids of gymnosperms are interconnected by
circular or oval or bordered pit-pair in single, opposite or
alternate arrangement
 The rays of gymnosperms
are composed of parenchyma cells alone or parenchyma
cells and tracheid, ray tracheids are distinguished from ray
parenchyma cells mainly by their bordered pits and lack of
protoplast, ray tracheids possess lignified secondary walls
also living protoplasts in the sap wood
fn: to conduct water away from wood in the opposite
direction, the rays penetrate equally into the xylem &
phloem thus, suited for these function
Resin ducts
Seen in the vertical system or in both vertical and horizontal
system
 Secondary phloem
phloem structure is quite simple with sieve cells,
parenchyma cells and frequently fibers, companion cells
are absent
Phloem parenchyma cells occur in longitudinal strands,
they store reserve food, also resin, crystals and tannin
 Pinus stem: resemble the anatomy of the dicot in
many respect, it differs in having a large number of
resin duct filled with resin
 The resin ducts are distributed almost throughiut the
stem
 Secondary growth in pine stem takes place in exactly
the same way as in dicot stem
 Secondary wood of pine consist exclusively of
tracheids with numerous pits on their radial walls
 Do have distinct annual rings (consist of the autumn
wood and spring wood or early and late wood)
Monocot stem
 Usually there is no secondary growth, with closed
bundle system
 However it occurs in some monocot (eg: in Dracaena,
Yucca, Aloe, etc.)
 This secondary growth occurs by formation of the
cylinder of new bundles embedded in tissues of less
specialized nature, here the cambium layer is formed
from the meristematic parenchyma of the pericycle or
the innermost cortical cells.
Anomalous structure of stems
 Several dicot and monocot stems shows secondary
growth that deviated considerably from the normal
growth = abnormal or anomalus