BASIC

MOUNTAINEERING
COURSE NO.1
•INTRODUCTION

• Mountaineering is one sport that one can enjoy either with a team, a
group of friends, with a partner or even by his lonesome. It is good to
experience each one of them once in a while but before one should venture out
into the wilderness on his own, it is advised that he first join an organized climb
and learn the basic mountaineering skills for his safety and enjoyment. It is
advisable for an individual to join some mountaineering group where he could
learn and experience the basics extensively through the courses they offer. Just
be sure that the organization one will join offers such services.
• The organizer should have mastered the basic skills at the minimum and have
a good record of experiences before he leads a group. This is due to the fact
that still, mountaineering has dangerous aspects.
 CLIMB PREPARATION
❖In preparing for a climb, several factors have
to be taken into consideration by the
prospective climber. No backpacker-beginner
or expert-can ignore physical fitness in
preparing for a climb. A certain level of
fitness is required for a pleasant and safe
climb. In order to enjoy the scenery and the
company of fellow backpackers, one must be
fit to keep up with them. The lack of
preparation has made a lot of potentially great
climbs end in total disaster.
Physical Fitness:
•To help you in preparing for a climb, we
have listed down some guidelines:
•All participants of the climb must be
physically fit. The best type of fitness
program involves continuous endurance
training through aerobic sports such as
running, swimming, cycling and walking.
•Weight training is the perfect supplement
to an aerobic program. This will help you
develop your muscular strength and
endurance.
•Anyparticipant in a climb who gets sick before
the climb should forego his participation. A sick
climber becomes a liability to the group.

•An old adage says that the best exercise for

mountaineering is mountaineering. The hardiest
hikers and climber are those who spend a great
deal of their time hiking, backpacking and
climbing.

•Beingfit gives you the confidence to tackle

climbs, such that psyching up come almost
naturally.
 Planning a climb:
The success of an expedition depends largely upon the
amount of planning given to the activity. The different
components that make up a climb are discussed during the
pre-climb meeting, In preparing for a climb, a plan to climb
must first be submitted and approved by the officers of
the organization in order to be a designated as an official
climb.
A Climb Report Form (filled out with the necessary
details) is submitted to the Executive Cabinet at least
three (3) days before the pre-climb meeting. The
organizers of the climb should serve notice to the members
at least one week beforehand. Announcements should
include the objective, nature, requirements and itinerary of
the climb. These announcements are to be posted at the
organization's Bulletin Board.
 THE PRE-CLIMB MEET
Organizational regulations require that
all the participants of the climb conduct a
pre-climb meeting at least three (3) days
before the start of the climb. This is to
ensure that the participants have enough
time to prepare for the climb. The pre-
climb is a comprehensive study,
presentation and discussion of the essential
parts of conducting a climb. Its format
should include the following items:
 A. The objectives of the
climb
The objectives of the climb should be
determined beforehand since this will
determine the nature, requirements and
itinerary of the climb. Requirements for one
type of climb may be radically different from
that of another climb; therefore, all
preparations for the climb should be viewed
in light of the climb's objectives. For
example, if the objectives is to ascend Mt.
Guiting-Guiting's summit (in Romblon), then it
follows that this climb would require a strong
team, extra provisions and rock climbing
equipment.
B. The nature of the climb
Climbs can be classified into six(6) categories:
• Training Climbs: The primary purpose of these climbs
is to meet the training requirements of the Manuguit
Outdoors Club applicants. The organization provides
its applicants with a progressive training program,
which gradually prepares them for major ascents.

• Minor Climbs: Minor climbs are also known as fun

climbs. These climbs are conducted for their
recreational value. They are light and relaxing
backpacking trips to accessible places like Mt. Susong
Dalaga in Lipa, Batangas and Imelda Falls in Majayjay,
Laguna.
• Ex. Travel & Tour Climb- day hike or overnight
trekking.- Depending on the travel guidelines.
reference: pinoy mountaineer.
•Clean-up Climbs:

The primary objective of a clean-up is to help

preserve and maintain a highly impacted
mountain by bringing down trash(left on the
mountain), planting trees and maintaining trails.
These climbs are commonly held in Mt. Makiling,
Mt. Makulot and Mt. Arayat.

•Major Climbs:
major climbs are ascents on mountains whose
degree of difficulty is higher than those used on
training climbs. it usually takes several days to
complete these climbs. Mt. Banahaw, Mt. Kanlaon
and Mt. Halcon are good examples of these
climbs.
reference: pinoy mountaineer.
• Guideship Climbs:

Mountaineers provide groups with guided ascents. For a fee, select

members can organize a trek for groups interested in climbing a
certain mountain. A guideship climb can tackle mountains classified as
major or minor climbs.

• Exploratory Climbs:

These are climbs wherein the routes are established and are ascended
for the first time. An exploratory expedition requires great amount of
preparation and careful planning.
 C. Route planning

An ascent must be studied with the

aid of maps. The map usually gives
information regarding existing and
possible routes, communities within the
periphery of the mountain, distribution
of vegetation, approximate compass
bearings and an approximation of the
steepness of the terrain.
Ex. Mt. Batulao – reference: pinoy mountaineer.
 D. The itinerary of the climb
The value of having an itinerary is realized in
keeping up with schedules to avoid unnecessary
discomforts such as being forced to do late
treks or to set up camp in the dark.
Programming activities maximizes efficient use
of time. In multi-day ascents or exploratory
climbs, the itinerary is usually formulated
based on the study of the map which provides
an approximation of the distances to travel.
The amount of gear and provisions required is
determined by the established itinerary.
Sample itinerary
 E. Climb organization
The first step in organizing a climb is the selection of a
team leader, a scribe, a medic and a tailman.
• The Team Leader: The team leader is selected according
to his/her familiarity with the mountain and his/her
leadership potential. He /She is given an almost absolute
role in decision making on that climb. However, he/she
should also be open-minded enough to accept suggestion,
especially on decisions involving the safety of the party.
• The Medic: The medic should have a thorough knowledge
of first aid techniques.
• The Scribe: The scribe has the duty of documenting the
details of the climb.
• The Tailman: The tailman has the responsibility of
bringing up the rear.
 It is also a rule that a contact person must be
chosen before the climb. The contact person
should have a copy of the itinerary and is
responsible for activating a search and rescue
team (if he/she is not contacted within twenty-
four (24) hours of the estimated date/time of
arrival).
The second part of organization is subdividing
the big group into smaller groups of five to seven
members. This facilitates the sharing of shelter,
food preparation and increases the safety
factor. The small groups shall have a leader who
is responsible for the management of his/her
members.
 F. Budgeting
An essential part of climbing is
determining the approximate cost of
transportation, meals and other expenses.
Each member usually pays for his/her
transportation fare. A certain individual may
be assigned to prepare a certain meal during
the climb. The cost of all the meals is
summed up and payments are settled later
(usually in the post-climb meeting). Other
expenses like spare batteries, trail food, etc.
are for the account of the individual
mountaineer, unless discussed otherwise by
the group members.
 G. Meal planning

The amount of food to be carried on an expedition

is determined by the length of stay in the wild plus
extra rations in case of emergencies. The climber
must avoid buying his/her meal requirements at the
jump-off point because the presence of stores or
markets in the area is uncertain. Even if the climber
finds one, it's still uncertain that the store will have
what he's searching for.
It is better that the climber plans his/her meal
before the climb so he/she can avoid those stuffs.
Besides, what are pre-climb meets for? The type and
amount of food to be used and brought can be
determined by the following guidelines.
1. Budget
2. Quantity- Kilogram,
pcs etc.
3. Strategy for meal
arrangement to avoid
addle specially on
vegetable goods.
4. Food allergy or food
irritation.
5. Food based on
environment.- soup
etc.
6. Check- water source
and Gas or
equipment to use.
Cook set.
7. Waste or trash
management.
• Mealsshould be able to provide and replenish the energy
requirements of the climber. This means packing a lot of
carbohydrates with protein and fat rich food.

• Multi-dayascents require meals that will not spoil easily. Food can
be preserved through drying, pickling and salting. Food treated
with spices and vinegar usually lasts for days. There are also
meals which can't spoil quickly.

• Itis easier to plan and prepare meals for smaller groups. Large
groups require large and heavy cooking utensils.
• Mealsshould not be limited to pre-packaged food or
canned goods. The creative outdoorsman can come up with
a hundred different ways of preparing nutritious and
delicious meals in the wild.

Keep in mind however that the wise backpacker will

design menus which will use light ingredients. Canned
tomato sauce may be replaced by powdered tomato paste.
Soup mixes are lighter than their canned versions. By
using light ingredients, you will be able to lessen your load.

Trail meals are helpful in eliminating hunger and

exhaustion during trekking. It can even act as your main
meal if you fail to eat during meal time due to delayed
itineraries. Trail food should meet 3 requirements:
• Itshould not induce thirst, since it would induce the climber
to consume more water.

• Nutritious and must satisfy your body's energy

requirements. Sweets in general, meet these criteria but
may require some catabolic conversions before your body
can use it as a fuel.

• Easyto prepare and should require little or no cooking at all.

Time and fuel constraints must be considered.

Samples of trail food: Crackers, nuts, candies,

chocolates, fresh or dried fruits, corn flakes, pre-packed
gelatins, etc.
H. Permits and other requirements by
the local government .

• 1. Climb permits and guide fee- payment and

process/ online or by schedule.
• 2. Medical Certificate- checking of medical
background.
• 3. improper clothing- traditional, wearing of any
military camouflage is not advisable. (applicable in
the Philippine mountains).
TRAIL
MOVEMENT AND
POST-CLIMB
MEET
 A. Group Formation
During the trek, there are some conventions
followed regarding group formation. Some are listed
below:
• The lead man is always in front and is responsible for
pacing the group, while the tail man is responsible for
bringing up the rear.
• Line formation on narrow trails should be single file.
Overtaking should be avoided
• The ideal distance between two climbers is
approximately two(2) meters. This gap will give
climbers some space in which to negotiate the trail and
proceed along the group's pace.
Ex. Pacing on the trail ( single file)
1. Leadman- or follow to the trail guide
2. Middleman-medic/ scribe/ team leader.
3. Tailman or sweeper
B. Trail signals
•The signal for stopping is one long
whistle blasts - and to commence
trekking, two short whistle blasts.
•The lead and tail men are the only
persons who can give orders to stop or
proceed.
•The international mountaineering
distress signal is six(6) blasts to a
minute. To signal aid is on the way, give
(3) blasts to a minute.
C. Pacing

• Always start with a slow pace to slowly warm up your

muscles. Then gradually change your pace to the group's
desired pace.
• The pace of the group should be that of the slowest
member or the person who has the heaviest load.
• Do not allow anyone to lag behind.
• Should there be a need to stop, inform the lead or tail
man so that he or she can give the appropriate order to
stop.
• Maintain a steady rhythm while trekking. When
negotiating steep slopes, keep the rhythm (pace) by
shortening your strides. On level ground, maintain the
rhythm by taking longer strides.
D. Trail techniques
In negotiating the trail, some techniques must be kept in
mind in order to provide the safest and least difficult route to
the summit or objective. Some guidelines regarding moving on
the trail have also been mentioned here.
• The ridge line is most often followed in path finding. Avoid
water lines and gullies since water always takes the steepest
route down the mountain.
• When crossing rivers or streams, bend your knees and face in
a direction diagonal to the flow of the current to prevent the
strong ones from knocking you down. Unfasten your hipbelt and
sternum strap when crossing rivers and streams - whether a
log bridge, over rocks or through the water itself. This will
allow you to remove your backpack quickly in case you lose your
balance or fall into the water. Backpacks tend to float, forcing
you under the water.
• Donot step on obstacles for they might upset your balance.
Avoid dislodging rocks.

• Tomaintain balance and traction during descent, learn to dig

first with your heel or the side of your foot.

• When there is a need to hold on roots or vines, make sure first

that they are sturdy enough to carry your weight and that they
do not have any thorns.
E. Rests
The interval between different stops will
usually depend on the difficulty of the
terrain encountered. Some guidelines are
listed below:
•Treks on level ground - five (5) minutes
rest for every hour of hiking.
•Ascents - five (5) minutes rest for every
thirty (30) minutes of hiking; on steep
slopes - five (5) minutes rest for every
fifteen (15) minutes of hiking.
•Descents - five (5) minutes of rest for
every hour of hiking.
Ex. Rest on the trail
 During rest periods, do not sit or lie
down at once. Keep standing at least
thirty (30) seconds to allow your pulse
to slow down to normal levels before
sitting down. When resting, sip your
water if you are thirsty. Drinking too
much quickly will induce an abrupt
lowering of your body temperature.
Check your equipment before pack-up
time and heed the signal of the lead
man immediately.
F. Trail signs

It is unavoidable that there

will be times when you have to
communicate with other members
of your team or even other teams
during a climb through the use of
trail signs.
G. Trail Regulations
• Whentrailblazing, avoid the indiscriminate
cutting of vegetation. Keep trailblazing to a
minimum to preserve the natural state of the
wilderness. Inform the person behind you of
imminent obstacles or dangers along the path.

• Whenthe group is unsure of the proper path

toward the objective, several members should
scout for the right trail or path.

• Side
trails not in use should be closed to prevent
others from using them. This can be done by
blocking the path with sticks or branches.
•Tomake the path safer for hikers following
you, cut sharp thorns and poisonous plants
along the trail.

•Do not litter. Pocket all food wrappers.

•Smoking on the trail or during short rests is

strictly prohibited.

•Straps,flaps, belts and knots may come loose

during the trek. It is the duty of the person
behind you to inform you if you had dropped
anything on the trail.
•If you get lost, do not panic. Asses
your position and then take the
necessary steps to find the correct
route.
•In the event of an accident, keep the
casualty comfortable and relaxed.
Administer first-aid and transfer the
person to the nearest clinic or
hospital.
The Post-Climb Meet
An essential part of the climbing experience is the
climb's assessment. This is where the participants of
the climb give their impressions and personal
feedback on the climb. The team should meet within
five (5) days after the climb to review the strong and
weak points of the climb. All the participants of the
climb are required to attend the post-climb meeting
to share their assessments.

During the meeting, the team leader presides at

the meeting while the scribe takes down the notes.
For future reference, the scribe fills up the Climb
Report Form and submits it to the secretariat for
filling within two (2) days after the assessment. As a
rule, all group equipment should be returned during
the post-climb meeting.
THE BASIC CLIMBING
ESSENTIALS
Familiarity with the equipment used in
mountaineering is a requirement for any serious
outdoors man. Bringing the right equipment will spell
the difference between a comfortable night's rest and
a miserable, sometimes disastrous, night in the wild.
The number of equipment for mountaineering is so
varied today that selecting the appropriate item for
you becomes a chore. For this course, we will discuss
the items that should go into your backpack for your
stay in the wild. We will also discuss attire for trekking
and the proper care and maintenance of equipment.
Climbing equipment can be divided into two types -
personal equipment and group equipment.
You will find below the item's checklist for personal and
group use. They are as follows:
 Personal use:
1. Backpack
One of the basic pieces of equipment you, as a mountaineer will
bring on the trek is your backpack. An ideal backpack is large
enough to contain all the gear and provisions you will need for a
certain trip. Since backpacks come in several sizes, make sure
your backpack should also be sturdy enough to endure the stress
of rough handling and carrying heavy loads.
Today's backpacks come with several features that make
carrying loads over long distances more comfortable. One of
these features is the padded hipbelt. The hipbelt transfers the
weight of the pack from the shoulders to the hips, which
increases comfort and carrying capacity. It also prevents the pack
from swaying excessively. Padded shoulder straps lessen the
strain on your shoulders. A sternum strap will prevent the
shoulder straps from slipping off your shoulders. Quick-release
buckels and gadgets make it easy for you to adjust your pack.
 There are two types of backpacks used in
mountaineering. These are:
• The External Frame Pack: with
this type of backpack, the pack
is attached to an external
aluminum or plastic frame
shaped like you back and has a
structure similar to that of a
ladder. The shoulder straps are
attached to one of the upper
rings of the frame. Backbands
on the lower part of the frame
from a gap between your back
and the pack which helps provide
ventilation. The sack is usually
divided into two compartments
and usually comes with several
external pockets.
External frame packs are designed to
carry heavy and unbalanced loads, and
are ideal for treks with wide, well-
trodden trails. They may be
cumbersome during a trek along
narrow trails since they tend to get
entangled on vines and branches. On
steep ascents, the external pack
forces the body to stoop forward,
putting the weight flat on the back.
• The Internal Frame Pack: The frame of the pack is
incorporated into the sack. This frame, usually made of
aluminum bars or plastic, is contoured to conform to your
back's shape and is held in place by sleeves along the back of
the pack.

Internals are designed to hug the body more closely and

give the arms room to move. They provide good balance on
steep ascents and ease of movement when moving along
narrow trails. Fixtures like lumbar pads increase comfort
and compression straps help balance the load in the sack.
Since an internal pack is supported (usually) only by two
parallel stays (bars), you must balance your load with more
care than you would when using an external. An internal can
also be quite warm since it hugs your back. Internals also
feature a top loading design which can be bothersome when
unloading a gear.
Backpack Capacity.

1. Day pack- 10-15lit.

cap.- for trail-run,
training climb.

2. Day pack- 20-35lit.

cap.- for overnight
packing, minor climb
use.
 3. Tall pack- 50-75lit.
cap.- for major climb,
expedition and
exploration climb.

4. waterproof bags- 15-

30lit. cap.- use on wet
environment, falls, river,
beach and water sports.
Secondary bags.
• 1. Belt bags.- important
things
inside like money and mobile
phone.

• 2 Sling. bag- important

things
inside like money and mobile
phone.
Backpack loading diagram
Backpack loading check list.
Packing of equipment

• The maximum carrying load should not exceed one-third

(1/3 or 33%) of your body weight. All equipment which
may be affected or damaged by water should be
wrapped and sealed in durable plastic bags. Use a large
plastic bag as the inner lining for the backpack to
provide additional protection.
• Light items should be packed at the bottom and away
from the frame while heavy items should be placed
close to the frame. The goal is to have a balanced pack.
• Things which will be needed often or will require quick
access (e.g., rain gear, first-aid, Swiss Knife, trail food,
trail water, etc.) should be placed in the top
compartment or on the other side pockets for
accessibility. Flashlights should be stored with their
batteries taped at the ends to avoid energy drain.
2. Boots or Trekking shoes
Some trekkers consider their boots as
being their most essential piece of
personal equipment. A good pair of
boots is:

• Ankle-high to prevent sprains

• Cleated for traction
• Sturdy enough to withstand heavy use
and exposure to the elements.
There are two types of boots used in tropical
climates.
• The all-leather boot and the lightweight boot.
The all leather boot is usually sturdier, more
supportive and water repellant, but is warm and
heavy.
• The lightweight boot is lighter and cooler but
less water resistant and provides less ankle
support. A boot with a low impact sole is to be
preferred to a boot an aggressive sole. These
new soles provide good traction while helping
minimize your impact upon the trail and help
prevent erosion.
3. Head lamps

4. Clothing
The type and amount of clothing to bring on a trek depends on
the length of the trek and the conditions (like rain or cold) you
expect to encounter. Outdoor clothing should be able to provide
protection against the elements. Layering your clothing will also
lessen your clothing requirements and is more versatile in
handling different conditions. This matter is discussed further
in the BMC 1 lecture.
5. Dog Tag and Whistle
Your name tag /personal or climb ID. (with
your blood type) and whistle should always be
worn during a climb for emergency use. Any
kind of identification you can carry during a
climb is also helpful.
6. Earth Pad

7. First Aid Kit: + personal medicine

This kit contains essential supplies such as Triangular
or Elastic bandages, medication for fever, diarrhea,
allergies, skin irritation, other illnesses, Puritabs (for
water purification), alcohol, insect repellent,
disinfectant and a snakebite kit. This kit should always
be checked before every climb and is to be placed in a
waterproofed container.
8. Flash Light
9. Food
10. Folding knife

This is a small and compact knife which can

be folded into its handle for convenience
and protection. An example is the Swiss
Army Knife. It often has other accessories
such as a can opener, a saw, a screwdriver,
and other useful tools. The blade is used
for cutting rope, cooking, whittling and
other camp chores.
11. Fuels for the stove
12. Lighter and Matches

13. Mess Kit and Drinking cup

14. Note book and Pencil/ note pad
15. Plastic Bags and Trash Bags

16. Packed Lunch

17. Rain Gear/Poncho
18. Repair Kit
19. Rice and eggs
20. Rubber Bands / Garters
21. Sandals / Slippers
22. Sleeping Bag
The ideal tropical sleeping bag is light, compact
and quick drying but it is warm enough to provide
protection. Three-season sleeping bags are more
than adequate for tropical climbing.

Proper care:
• Wash your bag only when it's so dirty you can no
longer stand it. Each time you wash a bag, it loses
a little of its loft.
• To keep your bag cleaner between washings, try a
lightweight sleeping bag liner - either silk or
nylon; not cotton.
23. Spoon and Fork
24. Sun Protection
25. Survival Kit

The survival kit should be put into a compact and

waterproof container which can be carried by
the person during short hikes without a
backpack. The contents include the following:
waterproofed matches, a small knife, a plastic
tarp, a surgical rubber tube and emergency
rations. Survival kits are usually placed in a
pack's top compartment for easy access and
portability.
26. Toiletries
27. Trail Food
28. Trail Water +
Energy drink
26. Tying string
27. Wind Breaker
28. Water containers
Group Equipment:
The group equipment is divided among the members
of the group. Each is assigned a specific equipment to
bring. If a climber fails to participate in the climb
because he/she got sick, it is his/her responsibility to
bring his/her assigned group equipment and group food
to the meeting place before the climb.
1. Jungle Bolo
2. Map and Compass ( Cellphone ups)
3. Cookset
4. Flag- tarpaulin (group/club name)
5. Tent- shelter tarp
6. Rope
7. Stove
8. Groundsheet- sako
9. Trowel
Optional- Gear equipment
• 1. Camera/ Batteries/ charger
• 2. GPS Map tracker/ Mobile phone
• 3. Drone/ accessories
• 4. Trekking pole
• 5. Portable Solar power charger
• 6. Fishing kits
• 7. Emergency Food- canned goods.
• 8. emergency blanket.
• 9. action cam
• 10. Hammock
• 11. 2-way radio
• 12.shelter tarp
FOOD PRESERVATION
Food preservation and preparation are crucial in
mountaineering. There is no better reward to a long exhausted
day of trekking than the satisfaction of a delicious, well-prepared
and meal.
For preserving meat (like beef, pork and chicken), the meat
should first be cut into strips or cubes. Boil the strips or cubes in
a solution of one (1) cup vinegar and one (1) cup of water with two
(2) tablespoons of salt and one (1) tablespoon of pepper for every
kilogram of meat. Onions, garlic and other spices you wish to add
may be included.
Despite this method of preservation, the meat will not have a
sour or salty aftertaste therefore; this method can be used to
prepare the meat for any type of dish to be served in camp.
Dried and preserved food is relatively stable so further
treatment may not be necessary. Fish can be dried and salted
before packing.
One of the common precooked meals brought by
mountaineers during climbs is the ever popular, well loved and
indestructible pork adobo. The following is the usual recipe for it:
Pork Adobo
• Ingredients:
• 1 kilo of pork
• 1 cup of vinegar
• ¾ cup soy sauce
• ¼ tsp. Peppercorn
• 1 clove garlic
• Cooking oil
Procedure:
Mix all ingredients in one pan and allow it to boil.
Simmer over low fire until pork is tender. Remove
remaining sauce from the pan. Add a little cooking oil
and fry pork until it turns golden brown. Return sauce
to pan and simmer for two or more minutes. Remove
from fire and let cool before packing.
Basic Emergency Care in the
Wilderness
• Adventure through the wilderness is an exhilarating feeling for an
avid backpacker and most especially a mountaineer. Either to
escape the metro or to be one with nature, the thrill of going into
untamed territory tests a person's skill in coping up with his basic
resources.
• Certain medical conditions may arise on such events and knowing
how to handle them can make the difference of continuing to enjoy
the trek or become a full-blown emergency. This chapter deals with
such conditions that maybe encountered and dealt with
accordingly.
 THE FIRST AID KIT
•Equipping oneself with the basic medical aid kit
is the first step for a less precarious trip in the
backcountry. There are available emergency
first aid kits that are sold locally and abroad but
you can assemble a set of your own by just
knowing the essentials at a lesser cost. The list
rundowns the supplies and instruments that
you should have on hand.
• Bandage Scissors
• Oral Thermometer (preferably with own plastic case for preventing it to be
broken)
• Tweezers (for removing splinters)
• Safety pins
• Snakebite kit (scalpel and suction for the venom)
• Flashlight/penlight
• Syringe needle gauze 21
• Sterile gauze pads individually packed
• Roll of gauze bandage
• Band-aids
• Butterfly bandage or steri-strips (small bandage for facial/gaping cuts)
• Adhesive tape, 1 inch size recommended
• Elastic bandage 3 inch size
• Cotton tipped swabs
• Roll of absorbent cotton
• Hydrogen Peroxide
• Calamine Lotion
• Povidone-Iodine solution
• Rubbing (70% Isopropyl) Alcohol or Bar of plain soap

• Over the counter medicines that maybe useful. (OTC Meds)

• Aspirin or an Analgesic (i.e. Mefenamic acid*) or an Anti-inflammatory
(Ibuprofen**)
• Paracetamol tablets
• *Locally available such as Ponstan
• ** Sold as Alaxan
• N.B. Aspirin/Mefenamic/Ibuprofen should not be given to persons with
allergic reactions to these medicines. Asking before administration is a must.
• Individuals who have specific medications to carry should bring it along, i.e.
anti-asthmatic inhalers or anti-allergy meds, and inform their companions of
their health status.
• TIP:
• Do not minimize or forego portions of the kit. Doing so will undermine the
First Aid Kit's use and it will be to your disadvantage.
• Place the kit in a water repellant pack to prevent the materials from getting
soaked if such occasions arise.
• A Swiss Army Knife or any multi-purpose device that you bring along may
already have tweezers and scissors as well as a penlight. This can spare you a
few grams off your pack.
• VITAL SIGNS
• Proper taking of the pulse, temperature and breathing is easy but must be
done properly. Such vital signs monitor a person's condition along the trail
that guide the one administering the first aid of what to do.
• Areas that a pulse can be monitored: Should be taken for one full minute.
• Common Carotid (Neck)
• Radial (Wrist area)
• Femoral (Inguinal /Crouch area)
• Dorsalis Pedis (Top portion of foot)
NORMAL: Resting Pulse of an average Normal adult is between 60 to 100.
1.Clean the bulb of the thermometer.
2.Hold the thermometer at the stem and shake it until the mercurial reading is at least
down to 35C or 95F
3.Read the baseline temperature and place the mercurial bulb under the patient's
tongue. Instruct the patient to close his lips tightly.
4.Leave the thermometer for 3 minutes after which you remove it and get the
temperature reading.
5.Clean the bulb and stem of the thermometer before replacing it in its container.
6.NORMAL: Average range of a resting individual is between 36 to 37.5 C (96.8 to
99.5 F)
BREATHING:
1.Monitor the breathing by looking at the chest expansion of the patient.
2.Look for any signs of labored breathing such as:
3.Gasping for air through the mouth
4.Enlarging nostrils
5.Use of neck muscles for breathing
6.Asymmetry or unequal expansion of the right and left side of the chest
7.Monitor for a full minute:
NORMAL: Average range of a resting Respiratory rate is 24/min
• WHAT TO DO's:
• I. Open Wounds: (Scrapes/Scratches, Cuts/Lacerations, Puncture Wounds)
• Basic procedures for any of the above injuries are the following:
• Wash your hand or rub with alcohol before treating the wound.
• If there is bleeding, stop or control it. If it is continuous or severe, SEE
Management of severe bleeding.
• Remove as much as possible any dirt that is around and within the wound.
• If possible, wash the injured area with soap and water. Plain clean water
for washing off dirt will do.
• Sterilize or disinfect any instrument to be used for the care of the wound.
• Objectives of managing open wounds are to:
• Stop bleeding
• Prevent contamination and infection
• Seeking medical attention if wound is severe.
• a. SCRAPES AND SCRATCHES
• After doing the basic procedures.
• Pat the wound dry
• Place an antiseptic like povidone iodine on the wound.
• Large areas of wound or areas most likely to be reinjured or soiled should be
covered with sterile gauze and bandage.
• Minor scrapes can be left exposed to the air.
• Watch for any signs of infection
• b. CUTS (LACERATIONS)
• Primary concern is to stop the bleeding with the basic procedures in mind.
• When bleeding stops, wash the wound to remove the dirt or other foreign
materials in and around the wound. Pat the wound dry
• Do not remove foreign objects deeply inserted in the muscle or any deeper
tissue, this may cause serious bleeding.
• If no foreign object is imbedded, apply an antiseptic over the wound
• Cover the cut with sterile dressing and use a bandage around it. If cuts are
gaping, especially in the face area, apply steristrip or butterfly bandages to
appose the wounds. PICT
• c. PUNCTURE WOUND
• This results from a sharp, pointed object that pierces the skin and deeper
tissues. Nail, splinter, horn, or teeth/fang marks are samples of puncture
wounds.
• Assess the wound if any object had broken off and remained inside the
wound (deeper than the skin).
• Do not attempt to remove it since serious bleeding may ensue.
• Do not manipulate, poke or put medication into the wound.
• Cover the wound with sterile gauze and bandage it.
• Seek the nearest medical attention.
• For minor puncture wounds, objects lodged no deeper than the skin may
be carefully removed with tweezers.
• Press on the edge of the wound to encourage bleeding to wash out germs
inside the wound.
• Cover the wound with sterile gauze and bandage it.
• MANAGEMENT OF SEVERE BLEEDING:
• Continuous or profuse bleeding is a medical emergency that needs
prompt management and control. Bleeding can come from the veins or
arteries or both. Venous blood is characterized by a dark red color and
flows steadily while arterial blood is bright red and spurts from the
wound. Immediate treatment can be done by a.) Direct pressure to the
wound, b) application of pressure points or c) tourniquet.
• a. Direct Pressure: Picture
• The first and preferred choice to control bleeders. This is usually all that
is needed to prevent further lose of blood.
• Apply a thick clean gauze or soft clean cloth, i.e. a towel or handkerchief,
directly over the entire wound to act as a compress. In extreme
situations, bare hands or fingers can be used to compress the bleeder,
but be sure that it should be clean as possible. Keep the pressure steady
over the wound.
• Do not remove or disturb blood clots that have formed on the compress.
• Apply another pad over the initial compress if this gets soaked with
blood. Do not remove the initial compress. Apply a firmer pressure over
a wide area.
• Elevate the bleeding limb/portion above the victim's heart level. Do not
do these if a fracture is suspected.
• Once bleeding stops, apply a pressure bandage to hold the compress in
place.
• Placing the center of the gauze directly over the compress does this. Pull
it while wrapping both ends around the injury. Tie the knot over the
compress. PICTURE
• The ties should not be to tight that it cuts circulation. Check the pulse
distal to the wound or check the nailbeds if they become bluish in color.
Any change means it is too tight.
• Keep the limb elevated.
• b. Pressure Points:
• This should be used only if bleeding cannot be abated by direct pressure.
This requires pressure on the artery supplying blood to the wound
against an underlying bone and cuts off the arterial supply to that area
affected. This should be used with direct pressure and elevation.
• ARM:
• Hold victim's arm bone midway between the elbow and armpit. The
thumb should be on outside the victim's arm. The other fingers should be
on the inside of the arm. This places the arm bone in between the thumb
and 4 fingers.
• Squeeze the fingers firmly toward the thumb against the arm bone. This
compresses the arterial vessel. Do this until the bleeding stops.
• LEG:
• Position the patient by letting him lay on his back. Supine position.
• Press at the front center of the thigh, at the crease of the groin, by using
the heel of you hand.
• N.B. Pressure point technique is used no longer than necessary. If
bleeding recurs, it may be reapplied.
• c. Tourniquet:
• This is a measure that is used as a last resort for life-threatening situations
where the two above management are non-relieving. Weighing its use is
based on fact of either losing a limb or bleeding to death.
• of either losing a limb or bleeding to death.
• Requirements of a tourniquet:
• 2 or more inches wide.
• Length should be enough to wrap around the limb twice with ends for
tying.
• Procedure:
• Place the tourniquet just above the wound. Wrap it around twice.
• Do a half knot.
• Place a stick or straight object on top of the half knot.
• Tie then 2 full knots over the stick
• Turn the stick to tighten the tourniquet. This is done until bleeding stops.
• Secure the stick in order to hold its place by tying the loose ends of the
tourniquet to the stick..
• Do not remove tourniquet.
• Attach a note to victim's clothes or body as to what time the tourniquet
is place.
• Don't cover the tourniquet.
• II. Bruises
• The most common type of injury that is sustained from a fall or blow to
the body. Small blood vessels break beneath the skin that causes
discoloration and even hematoma.
• Assess if there are any broken bones. See Splinting:.
• If there are no suspected fractures, apply immediately a cold compress
on the affected area to minimize swelling, pain and hematoma
formation.
• Apply pressure on the affected area.
• Elevate the part or limb affected
• Stabilize or immobilize the joint as needed.
• III. Burns:
• Burns arising from camping stoves, fires or hot utensils and boiling water
are the most common causes one will encounter.
• Cool running water or cold water compress over the burned area is an
ideal immediate management which is applied for about 5 to 10 minutes.
This is to give pain relief over the site.
• Protect or cover the area with sterile gauze or clean bandage. In less
than ideal settings, a clean polyethylene bag wrapped around maybe
used.
• DO NOT apply any butter or grease to a burn area. Locals have the habit
of placing even toothpaste or powdered antibiotics to the burn site. Just
keep the area cleans and protected.
• If blisters form, (sign of second degree burn), do not puncture or remove
the skin covering. This helps keep the wound safe and free from
infection.
• N.B. Second degree burns that are more than 15% of the body surface
for an adult needs medical care immediately. Rough estimate is by using
the palm of the hand with the fingers to represent 1% of total body
surface that is burned. Injuries covering the face, groin, hands and feet or
has inhaled smoke that could have injured the lungs are also included for
prompt medical attention.
• IV. Blisters:
• Usually caused by excessive rubbing of skin over clothing or equipment
(i.e. boots).
• Minor, small, unopened blisters that will have no further irritation can be
managed by placing a sterile gauze pad and bandage over it. If it was
accidentally opened, wash the wound with clean water and cover it with a
sterile dressing.
• Puncturing large blisters that are prone to be broken is a last option
wherein just sterile dressing will likely fail. Puncture site should be at the
lower edge of the blister. A sterile needle is needed to puncture the
blister. Press the blister slowly until it flattens. Cover with sterile gauze
• Watch out for signs of infection such as redness or pus. This needs
prompt medical management.
• Blisters caused by burns should not be opened. Fluid imbalance may
occur if this is done especially if it covers a lot of area.
• V. Splinters:
• Wash the area and clean your hand.
• Sterilize a sewing needle (ideal is a syringe needle) and tweezers by
boiling for 5 minutes or holding it on an open flame.
• Splinters stuck inside the skin with a portion exposed can be pulled out
gently with the tweezers placed at the same angle as to which it
entered.
• Use the needle to loosen the skin around the splinter if it is not deeply
imbedded and remove it with the tweezers at the same angle as which it
entered.
• Once removed, clean it and cover it with sterile dressing.
• Watch for any signs of infection.
• VI. Foreign bodies in eye/ear.
• a. EYE:
• Foreign particles that are floating in the eyeball or inside the eyelid can
be removed with proper care. NEVER attempt to remove particles that
are piercing the eyeball. Trained medical personnel should handle such
cases. Protect the area and bring him/her down to the nearest medical
facility.
• Management for foreign bodies that are floating on the eye is as follows:
• Do not let the patient rub the eye.
• Wash your hands.
• Flush the eyes with warm water until particle is removed.
• If particle is still not washed-out and is attached to the inside of the upper
lid, ask the patient to look down.
• Hold the upper eyelid down. Place a cotton bud handle horizontally
across the outside of the lid. Flip the eyelid backward over the lid causing
the inner portion to be exposed with the foreign particle.
• Remove the particle with moistened corner of a cloth or handkerchief.
• If the particle is on the inside of the lower lid, gently pull down the lower
eyelid and carefully remove it with the handkerchief tip.
• If particle remains, cover the eye and seek medical attention.
b. EARS:
Insects may find the ear canal a tempting place to investigate and buzz over with
the result of getting stock and you in anxious haste.
1.Placing several drops of oil (cooking, baby) is warranted if the insect is alive
and buzzing all over. This will immobilize and kill it. N.B. Do not use oil on foreign
objects that may absorb it and make it more difficult for extraction.
2.Flushing with warm water may also be a next option for removing insects.
3.Attempts to remove clearly visible foreign objects may be tried. Do not poke or
proceed if the object is unyielding or goes in further. Seek medical attention.
VII. Nosebleed or Epistaxis
Epistaxis or nosebleeding occurs on certain situations such as high altitudes, hot
weather or even persons with high blood pressures.
1.Make the patient sit down and lean the head forward. Keep the mouth open.
2.Pinch the nose for 15 minutes. Release it slowly, if bleeding recurs, pinch it
again for 5 minutes. Check and continue this until it stops.
3.Place cold compress/cloth against the nose to help constrict the blood vessels.
4.Don't let the patient swallow the blood or blow his nose
• VIII. Insect Stings
• Stings from bees, wasps or hornets can cause local swelling, pain,
redness, and a burning or itching reaction to the bitten site. Mostly this is
non-life threatening unless the bitten patient is allergic to the venom.
Shock may ensue. Backpackers?known to be susceptible to such
reactions should bring their own medications and instruct their
companions on how to use it.
• Removing the stinger is by using a knife blade and scraping it off.
Tweezers should not be used since you may squeeze and push the venom
into the skin.
• Wash it with water.
• If available, wrap it with a cold compress.
• Calamine lotion, paste of baking soda and water may be used to relieve
discomfort.
• IX. Animal bites.
• Bites from wild animals carry the risk of bacterial or tetanus infection.
Animals infected with rabies may introduce this condition to the ailing
victim. Treatment should be sought if this occurs.
• Wash or pour water over the wound for around 5 to 10 minutes to
remove as much as possible the saliva and other foreign object
introduced with the bite.
• Bleeding should be managed by applying continuous pressure until it
stops and sterile dressing placed over the wound site.
• X. Venomous bites/Stings
• a. Scorpions
• Scorpions or "Alakdan" in the local dialect just like bee stings can cause
severe burning pain at the site of the sting. Signs and symptoms that
develop vary from the amount of venom introduced to the victim.
Adults rarely die from such stings* except that they are particularly
harmful to young children* or adult individuals who show signs of shock
or convulsions. Numbness or tingling sensation may be felt or even
difficulty in swallowing and breathing for extreme cases.
• Immediate treatment by maintaining an open airway and restore
breathing should be done.
• Simply clean the wound and the surrounding area with water or alcohol
• Keeping the bitten part lower than the level of the heart will help
minimize spreading the venom.
• Place ice compress on the bitten site is also advisable.
• Watch out for any signs of shock or allergic reactions.
• Secure him to the nearest medical center if symptoms progress
• Grade I to II scorpion envenomations such as local pain/and or numbness at
the site of envenomation or remote from the site of sting are treated
symptomatically with oral analgesics. They are observed for 3 to 4 hours to
note for any progression of the symptoms.*
• Grade III and IV such as blurring of vision, hypersalivation, trouble swallowing
or breathing, slurring of speech or even jerking of extremities needs
immediate medical attention to the nearest health center.*
• b. Snake bites:
• Bitten by a snake, entails one to immediately assess if the snake is a
poisonous or non-poisonous variety.
• Poisonous snakes have slitlike eyes, poison sacs or deep pits between the
nostrils and the eyes and sharp long fangs leave a distinctive 2 piercing fang
marks. In comparison with non-poisonous snakes that have rounded eyes and
no deep pits.
• Grading of envenomation by signs and symptoms is helpful in assessing
the current state of the patient.
• Immediate care for snake bites:
• Maintain an open airway and breathing if this is affected.
• Position the bitten part lower than the victim's heart.
• A light constricting band at bites on the arm or leg can be placed 2 to 4
inches above the bite toward the body. It should not be too tight that it
cuts circulation to the affected limb. Feel for the pulse on the distal
portion. A finger should be able to slip under the band. The wound
should ooze.
• Replace the band another 2 to 4 inches above from its previous position
if swelling reaches its initial position.
• Do not remove the band until the patient is safely brought to medical
care.
• Wash the bite area and immobilize the limb
• For Dry bites, cleaning the wound with vigilant monitoring up to 12
hours should be done to note for any changes or progression of
symptoms. Medical attention should be done as soon as possible.
• Loose (lymphatic) tourniquet, incision and suction are probably effective
if used within 30 minutes of envenomation but are not substitutes for
definitive care in the nearest medical facility.* Reference
• A Snake bite kit is helpful in this situation. A sterile knife should be used
to make a one-eight to one-fourth inch deep cut through each fang
marks. This should be in the direction of the length of the leg or arm, not
across. The incision should not be more than one-half inch long. Do not
make cross mark cuts. Incision should be done not any deeper than the
skin since muscle or tendon may be damaged.
• Suction cups are then used to draw out the venom on each fang mark.
Continue suctioning for 30 minutes. Suctioning the venom by mouth can
be used if free from cuts, sores or open wounds. Don't swallow the
venom. It must be spitted out. Rinse the mouth after finishing the
suctioning.
• Cover the wound with sterile dressing, keeping the victim calm. Do not
let the victim walk unless extremely necessary.
• Do not give alcohol or water if victim is nauseated, vomiting or
unconscious. If he/she has no difficulty in swallowing, sips of water is
permitted.
• Prompt medical care to the nearest facility is a must.
• Take note of the time of envenomation, vital signs of the patient during
the course of management.
• XI. Plant Irritations:
• Itching, redness of the skin or blister formation, and even headache or
fever can occur if such irritating plants touch the skin of a backpacker.
Plants like the poison ivy can have a very annoying effect.
• Remove the clothing and wash the area with soap and water.
• Apply rubbing alcohol to the affected site.
• Application of calamine lotion will help alleviate the itchiness.
• Wash the clothes used to remove unwanted irritants.
• XII. Heat and Cold induced conditions

• a. Hypothermia
• Body temperature is a function of the production and loss of heat.*
Hypothermia occurs if heat production fails to balance heat loss.
Hypothermia is defined as a core (Rectal) temperature less than 35C
(95F). It can be a.)Mild (32-35C) b.)Moderate (28-32C) or c.)Severe
(<28C). It can be characterized as acute (<6 hours duration) or Chronic
(> 6 hours). N.B. Oral temperature is normally 0.5C lower than the rectal
temp.* Ganong p232
• Mild hypothermia causes shivering, difficulty in doing complex motor
functions with noted cooling or vasoconstriction of the peripheral area
like the fingers and toes. Shivering can be stopped voluntarily.
• Moderate hypothermia causes loss of fine motor coordination, apathy "I
don't care attitude" or confusion, slurred speech, and violent
involuntary shivering. Shivering increases body temperature by 0.5 to
1C per hour.* Emer. Paradoxical undressing may happen which is a
person starts to take off his clothes even though he is feeling cold.
• Severe hypothermia can make a person shiver in violent waves wherein
the interval between shivers increases until it totally stops. This is a
telltale sign of a critical condition. The person cannot walk, muscle
rigidity develops, the skin is pale, pupils dilate. The pulse rate decreases
too.
• Cold, wet weather on high altitude with poor raingear and warming
clothes is a sure way to acquire hypothermia. Water dissipates heat away
for the body 25 times faster than air. Wet clothes increase the potential
for conductive heat loss to 5x normal.
• Mild-Moderate Hypothermia:
• Rules to live by:
• Reduce heat loss by
• Removing wet clothing and replace with dry ones
• Increase or add more layers of clothing; a large plastic bag covering his body
and extremities can help retain heat for the victim.
• Increase muscle/physical activity
• Keep the victim warm and dry in a shelter
• Adequate hydration and food intake
• Carbohydrates are a good source for energy. i.e. bread, rice, candies
• Hot liquids helps a lot in increasing the core temperature
• Never take in alcohol (a fallacy), caffeine or tobacco/nicotine. All of these may
 • aggravate heat loss.
• Add heat by:
• Fire or other heat source
• Body to body contact with dry clothing on.

• Severe Hypothermia
• Reduce heat loss by placing a hypothermia wrap. The patient should be dry. A
4" insulation covering the entire neck, body and extremity should be done
using blankets, sleeping bags, or clothing. A space blanket could be used.
• Give a dilute solution of warm water with sugar every 15 minutes. Severe
hypothermic victims' stomachs usually will not digest heavy, solid food.
• A full bladder increases the loss of core heat. Let the patient urinate but make
sure the insulating material will not get wet from the urine.
• N.B. Afterdrop - core temperature decreases or drops during
rewarming. Peripheral vessels in the arms and legs dilate causing cool
blood flow to the core. This is best avoided by just rewarming the core
and not the peripheral area (hands, feet)
• b. Heat Illnesses:
• Heat cramps are due to muscle fatigue combined with water and salt
depletion.*
• Heat exhaustion results from dehydration with inadequate fluid and
electrolyte replacement.* This may progress to heatstroke.
• Heat stroke is due to severe dehydration with failure of the body's
thermoregulation causing body temperatures above 40C (105-106F).
• Heat Cramps/Exhaustion:
• Patient may complain of headache, nausea or vomiting, dizziness,
weakness and fatigue and even disorientation.
• Find a cool shady place and keep victim there.
• Apply cool clothes. Give adequate ventilation and cool the patient using
a fan. Stop if he develops shivers. Do not over cool him.
• Instruct the victim to take in fluids if conscious. Intake of a mixture of 1
pint water with 1 teaspoon of salt every 30 minutes is advisable.
• Don't give patient alcohol beverages and cigarettes. Do not leave him
alone until he is stable.
• Heat Stroke:
• Patient may present with mental confusion or disorientation, incoherent
speech or even unconsciousness. Victim develops flushed, dry or warm
skin with extremely high body temperature.
• Immediately place him on a cool shady place.
• Remove most of his clothes. Apply cool compress if possible. Fan may
increase heat dissipation.
• Don't give fluids, alcohol to incoherent or unconscious victims. Don't
overcool him by causing shivers. Monitor the patient until he is stable.
Transporting to the nearest medical facility is warranted if condition
does not improve. Do not give medications for lowering fever, it is not
effective.
• XII. SPRAIN/STRAINS
• Sprain is an injury to the supporting ligaments of a joint while strains are
injuries that occur on the muscle or tendon. Sprain occurs commonly on
the ankle for backpackers when there is poor hold of the foot while
stepping on slippery surfaces. Strains usually occur at the lower back
during sudden lifting of the packs from a forward bending position at the
hip area.
• a. Sprains:
• Assess if the area affected is just a sprain or a broken bone. If there is
high suspicion of a fracture, treat it as a fracture. (See splinting)
• Ankle/Knee:
• If possible, place cold compress on the sprained area 15 to 30 minutes
intermittently. Do not apply warm compress for the first 24 hours since
this will aggravate the swelling or edema. Note for the amount of
swelling and or any signs of hematoma formation. Sudden enlargement
of the joint due to swelling and presence of a hematoma are signs of a
severe ankle sprain or a possible broken bone.
• Keep the affected part elevated to minimize further swelling.
• Bandage or support with a blanket the site. Loosen the bandage if
numbness or increased swelling is seen. The bandage is then to tight at
this point.
• If victim need to walk, minimize bearing weight on the affected foot,
secure a sturdy stick or wood that can be used as a crutch or cane.
General rule is placing the stick opposite the affected limb, this will serve
as a support during walking. When going downhill, the bad leg first
before the good one. Uphill is good leg first before the bad. Easier to
remember is by the saying "Good leg to heaven, Bad leg to hell!"
• Medical attention should be done as soon as possible.
• Wrist/Elbow/Shoulder:
• If possible, place cold compress on the sprained area 15 to 30 minutes
intermittently. Do not apply warm compress for the first 24 hours since
this will aggravate the swelling or edema.
• Just like in the ankle, elevate and bandage/support the area. A
supporting bandage can be used for the wrist
• Seek medical care as soon as possible.
• b. Strains:
• Victims may have a difficult time in moving the area, especially if it
occurred at the back. Rest it immediately. Apply cold compress if
possible. No warm compress for 24 hours.
• Look for medical assistance if pain or swelling is severe.
• N.B. Anti-inflammatory over the counter medications like "Alaxan",
which is a combination of Paracetamol/Ibuprofen, can be tried to help
alleviate the pain. DO NOT give it if the victim is known to have allergic
reaction to this medicine or to aspirin. Ibuprofen is usually the culprit for
such allergic reactions. DO NOT also give it if victim is known to have a
stomach ulcer. Oral intake of the medicine is contraindicated.
• XIV. Hematoma under toenail: Subungal hematoma (Patay na
Kuko)
• Injuries of the toes either by tripping on a rock or root or heavy object
falling over the boots can cause hematoma formation below the
nailbed. Prolonged walking causing contusion of the toe over the inner
portion of a poorly fitted shoe can also cause this. Options for this
condition is either letting it as is and place cold compress on the
nailbed affected or to evacuate the hematoma if there is severe pain.
• Draining the blood.
• Clean the nail and toe.
• Use a sterile needle and gently press the nail doing a screw-like
motion. Do this until you feel a 'give'. You have then reached the inner
end of the nail. Another option: If you have a straightened paper clip,
heat it up until it turns red. Apply the heated end to the nail and it will
bore through the nail with minimum pressure.
• Drain the blood by pressing on the sides of the nail.
• Apply povidone-iodine and cover it with a dressing.
• N.B. Consider delaying in doing the removal of the blood if you will still
go over a lot of mud or dirt trail that may soil or infect the toe. If
needed, make sure you always clean and apply a new dressing to the
punctured nail.
• XV. Leech management
• The "Limatik" or "Linta" in the common dialect is notorious for its
stealth like feature. It has a covert way of attaching to the skin and
sucking blood without ever knowing it until you bleed.This is very
common especially on the wet season, wet forest areas or after a rain in
the woods.
• DO NOT pull off the leech, its suckers may be left attached to the skin.
• Apply a hot material, knife or any metal object put over a flame, on the
leech. This will make it detach by itself. Application of rubbing alcohol
may also do the trick.
• Bleeding over the site of attachment will be noted. This is due to the
anti-clotting factor that the leech uses for to get the blood. Some
itchiness maybe noted. Wash it thoroughly.
•
• XVI. Diarrhea:
• There are many causes for diarrhea. Trying to deduce through the
victim's history would help in knowing the probable culprit. This may
range from food poisoning, intake of medications, emotional stress,
excessive alcohol beverage, viral or bacterial infection.
• Assess the victim if there are any signs of dehydration. The victim is
dehydrated if the mouth and tongue is dry, restless and irritable attitude
and very thirsty.
• Replace the same amount of fluid solution (1 liter clean water, 1
teaspoon salt and 1 tablespoon sugar) with the amount of loose stools.
• Vomiting may also be present. Let the patient sip the fluid solution
gently and slowly to avoid further vomiting.
• Loose stools that are blood tinged or bloody or even black in color
warrants immediate medical attention. These may be an internal
bleeding or an infectious type of diarrhea.
• IV. Techniques in bandaging, splinting, basic cardio-pulmonary
resuscitation. CPR:
• Practice makes perfect, is the key ingredient for proper use of medical
materials. With limited resources in the backcountry, you must make
use of this in the most efficient way.
• A. Circular Bandage: Placed over the sterile gauze covering the wound
to keep it in place and avoid further contamination.
• This is used on areas that have a relative uniform width, like in the
forearm or leg.
• Place the end of the gauze over the affected part. Make 2 to 3 turns
around the wound at the same spot. This serves as the anchor for the
bandage.
• If the site to be bandaged is large, make additional turns by overlapping
the bandage strip one from the other by around 3/4 the width of the
previous turn. This is done until all of the area to be protected is
covered.
• Secure the bandage by applying tape or safety pin. If it is not available,
tie a knot by rolling out the gauze for about 8 inches in length from the
underside of the arm/leg. By using the thumb or any finger, place it in
the middle of the rolled out gauze and pull the half section back under
the wrist to the opposite side. Then tie the knot with double gauze on
one side (the one with the loop), and single gauze on the other side
• B. Figure of eight bandage:
• Its use is for the ankle, wrist or hand that need stability and a little
mobility.
• Anchoring the bandage is first done at the distal (toe area). Make 1 to 2
circular turns around the same area.
• The bandage is then brought diagonally across the top portion of the
foot and around the ankle.
• The bandage is continued across the top of the foot and passing under
the arch.
• Follow the #2-3 procedure with each turn overlapping the previous one
by 3/4 of its width.
• Continue this until the foot, ankle and lower leg are completely covered.
Make sure the bandage is snugly in place. DO NOT cover toes in order to
assess if the bandage is too tight. Bluish discoloration of the toes is
indicative of a too constrictive bandage.
• Secure the bandage with clips or tape.
• C. Finger Bandaging:
• Suspected fracture or injury to the finger could be immobilized by using
the buddy taping.
• Appose the affected finger with the adjacent good finger.
• Use a tape or gauze to anchor the two together. Make sure the tape is
placed at the farthest/distal end as well as the portion near the base of
the fingers. This secures the fingers. Tape between this if needed.
• A cut tongue depressor or flat wood can by used to secure the palm side
of the finger for better stability.
• D. Triangular bandage:
• Can be used as a shoulder sling.
• A 40-inch square cloth cut diagonally from corner to corner makes two
equal triangular halves.
• One end is placed over the non-injured shoulder. This makes the base
and the other end is hanging down over the chest. The point should be
under the elbow of the injured shoulder/arm.
• Position the hand 4 inches above the level of the elbow
• Wrap the injured forearm/arm/elbow by lifting the lower end of the
bandage over the shoulder of the affected extremity. Tie the two ends
over the side or back of the neck.
• Fold the point forward and secure it with a pin on the outside portion.
• N.B. Fingers should not be included in the covering to assess if there are
any circulatory compromise.
• E. Splinting:
• Fractures of the arm and leg should be immobilized during transport.
This is to protect it from further harm during the travel to the nearest
medical facility.
• Lower extremity:
• If necessary, gently straighten the injured extremity. Stop if pain
increases during the procedure.
• Place paddings such as folded blankets between the victim's extremity.
• A board placed underneath is the most ideal way of immobilizing the
affected extremity. If not available. Using sturdy wood placed on both
sides of the extremity may be used. Length of the board/wood should
stretch from the heel to the buttock area. Secure it by tying it at the
following areas.
• Just above the ankle
• Just above and below the knee
• Above the thigh, near the groin.
• DO NOT tie directly over a broken area
• Another alternative is to tie the injured extremity to the uninjured
extremity with the ties at the same positions in securing one with a
splint.
• Watch for signs of circulatory compromise, bluish toenails, poor distal
pulses
• Upper extremity:
• This follows the same principle like in the lower extremity.
• Use a sturdy board or stick to immobilize the injured area. A rolled
blanket may be used.
• Tie it at both ends and in between, just below and above the elbow.
• Don't cover the fingers. Watch for any circulatory compromise.
• Neck:
• Suspected fractures on the neck is a possible life-threatening situation.
Any wrong movement of the neck can result to paralysis or death. Seek
medical assistance.
• If the victim's life is of immediate danger in the vicinity and needs to be
moved, immobilization of the neck is a MUST. Do this by placing a rolled
towel or blanket around the neck and tie it in place. The tie should not
interfere with the breathing. If a flat wide wood is available, place it
behind the neck and back. Secure the neck by tying the board to the
victim around the forehead and under the armpits.
• Lifting the head is done together with the shoulders and
upper trunk with no twisting motion (Log rolling technique).
The one giving the first aid should position himself at the
top of the victim's head. Place both palms of the hand at
the back of the shoulder with the forearms at the side of the
• head. Press the head to secure it by using the forearms.
Once it is secured, lift the head and neck together with the
shoulders.
• If there is difficulty in breathing, slightly tilt the head
backward to maintain an open airway.
• Place the victim in a secure location and seek for medical
assistance.
• Rigid boards or a make shift stretcher must be used for
transport of the victim.
• F. Cardio-Pulmonary Resuscitation (CPR)
• A life-saving procedure for victims not breathing and has no pulse. The
first priority in suspected arrest is that if the patient is breathing or not.
Remembering the "ABC" of CPR that stands for Airway, Breathing and
Circulation are the basic steps for CPR. First assess if the patient is
conscious or not. Then do the following if unconscious.
• Airway:
• Lay victim on his back on a firm surface, such as the ground.
• Check the mouth and airway if there are any foreign objects i.e.
dentures, that may block the air flow.
• Assess if there is a suspected neck injury.
• If this is suspected, gently tilt the head with the head-tilt/chin-lift
procedure. Place one palm of the rescuer on the forehead of the victim
with the other hand, using two fingers, under the chin. Simultaneously,
tilt the head back with the hand/finger in place. This is to clear the
airway.
• Breathing. If not breathing
• Keep the head tilted
• Feel and see if the patient is breathing. Placing an ear of the rescuer
near the nose of the victim such as the rescuer is facing towards the
chest will help him detect if there is breathing from the nose and lifting
of the chest. If there is none then continue the procedure.
• The hand that is placed on the victim's forehead is used to pinch the
nose using the thumb and index finger.
• The rescuer takes a deep breath in order to blow air into the victim's
open mouth (mouth to mouth). Make sure it is effective by noting a rise
from the chest with your mouth completely sealed during the blowing.
Inflate the lungs rapidly for 3-5 times. (Take deep breathes in between)
• Feel for the carotid pulse. If pulse is present, continue blowing air at the
rate of 12 per minute.
• Mouth to nose resuscitation may be warranted if the victim's mouth is
blocked for free air passage.
• Circulation: If pulse is absent
• Feel for the carotid pulse. If pulse is absent begin cardiac compression.
General rule:
• One rescuer: 15 compressions then 2 quick breaths.
• Two rescuers: 5 compressions then one breath

• Palpate with the index finger one of the victim's lowest ribs then slide
upward until the sternum or breastbone is felt meeting with the rib.
Keep the index finger there.
• Use the other hand's heel by putting it over the breastbone above the
index finger. This is where compression is done.
• Place the other hand over the other one pressed on the breastbone.
Keep your elbow straight, lean over the casualty and press down
vertically and release. Depress the sternum approximately 4-5 cm.
• This is done until spontaneous pulse returns.
• V. Dangerous Diseases:
• The table below lists the diseases to watch out for.
*Malaria prophylaxis is advised on locals that are endemic
with the disease. Locally available medications are Fansidar
(Pyrimethamine/Sulfadoxine) and Chloroquine. Consult a
physician on its proper use and precaution. Some individuals
may have adverse reactions to these meds i.e. rashes, tinnitus,
deafness.
• **It is advisable to secure a tetanus shot from your physician and
remembering when was the last booster shot. This would help the attending
physician in knowing the recommended form of tetanus immunization once
the situation arises.
• VI. Emergency Signals: Signaling for help.
• A. Ground Markers
• Using ground markers for aircraft to spot the signal is a good way to send your
message across. Make sure signaling the serious injury marker is used with
utmost importance. There is no room for false information. PICT.
• B. Smoke:
• Creating a camp fire and signaling using its smoke may be used to attract
attention. Windy or rainy situations limit the capability of this type of signal.
• C. Sun:
• A mirror or a heliograph (reflective surface with a hole in the center) can be
effective in seeking attention from flybys. Use the sun to reflect a bright beam
focused on the vehicle's cockpit. Move the reflected beam to and fro to catch
attention rather than focused on one place.
The Leave No Trace Principles of
outdoor ethics:
1. Plan Ahead and Prepare
2. Travel and Camp on Durable Surfaces
3. Dispose of Waste Properly
4. Leave What You Find
5. Minimize Campfire Impacts
6. Respect Wildlife
7. Be Considerate of Other Visitors
Plan Ahead and Prepare
• Know the regulations and special concerns for the
area you'll visit.
• Prepare for extreme weather, hazards, and
emergencies.
• Schedule your trip to avoid times of high use.
• Visit in small groups. Split larger parties into groups
of 4-6.
• Repackage food to minimize waste.
• Use a map and compass to eliminate the use of
marking paint, rock filling or flagging.
Travel and Camp on Durable Surfaces
• Durable surfaces include established trails and campsites,
rock, gravel, and dry grasses.
• Protect riparian areas by camping at least 200 feet from lakes
and streams.
• Good campsites are found, not made. Altering a site is not
necessary.
In popular areas:
• Concentrate use on existing trails and campsites.
• Walk single file in the middle of the trail, even when wet or
muddy.
• Keep campsites small. Focus activity in areas where vegetation
is absent.
In pristine areas:
• Disperse use to prevent the creation of campsites and trails.
• Avoid places where impacts are just beginning.
Dispose of Waste Properly
• Pack it in, pack it out. Inspect your campsite and rest
areas for trash or spilled foods. Pack out all trash, leftover
food, and litter.
• Deposit solid human waste in cat-holes dug 6 to 8 inches
deep at least 200 feet from water, camp, and trails. Cover
and cat-hole when finished.
• Pack out toilet paper and hygiene products.
• To wash yourself or your dishes, carry water 200 feet
away from streams or lakes or water source and use small
amounts of biodegradable soap. Scatter strained
dishwater.
Leave What You Find
•Preserve the past: examine, but do not touch,
cultural or historic structures and artifacts.
•Leave rocks, plants and other natural objects as
you find them.
•Avoid introducing or transporting non-native
species.
•Do not build structures, furniture, or dig
trenches.
Minimize Campfire Impacts
•Campfires can cause lasting impacts to the
backcountry. Use a lightweight stove for cooking
and enjoy a candle lantern for light.
•Where fires are permitted, use established fire
rings, fire pans, or mound fires.
•Keep fires small. Only use sticks from the ground
that can be broken by hand.
•Burn all wood and coals to ash, put out campfires
completely, and then scatter cool ashes.
Respect Wildlife
• Observe wildlife from a distance. Do not follow or
approach them.
• Never feed animals. Feeding wildlife damages their
health, alters natural behaviors, and exposes them to
predators and other dangers.
• Protect wildlife and your food by storing rations and trash
securely.
• Control pets at all times, or leave them at home.
• Avoid wildlife during sensitive times: mating, nesting,
raising young or cold season.
Be Considerate of Other Visitors
•Respect other visitors and protect the quality of
their experience.
•Be courteous. Yield to other users on the trail.
•Step to the downhill side of the trail when
encountering pack stock.
•Take breaks and camp away from trails and other
visitors.
•Let nature's sounds prevail. Avoid loud voices and
noises.
BASIC MOUNTAINEERING COURSE No.1

Be responsible mountaineer, and use your knowledge…