LESSON 2.

2: INTRODUCING THE DISCIPLINES WITHIN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES (LINGUISTIC/POLITICAL

Compare and contrast the various Social Science disciplines and their fields, main areas of inquiry, and methods.
(HUMSS_DIS11- IIIb-d-3)
Trace the historical foundations and social contexts that led to the development of each discipline. (HUMSS_DIS11-
IIId-4)
LINGUISTICS

Linguistics comes from the Latin word LINGUA means Language and ISTICS means knowledge/science. Linguistics
explores and attempts to explain our ability to use language. It is the scientific study of human language, from the
sounds and gestures of speech up to the organization of words, sentences, and meaning. Linguistics is also
concerned with the relationship between language and cognition, society, and history. Language is our most
fundamentally human capacity, yet represents the most intricate set of behavior patterns that human beings exhibit.
Language has both cognitive and social facets.

MAIN AREAS OF INQUIRY

Simply put, linguistics is the scientific study of language and its structure. It involves the description of languages, the
investigation of their origin, the inquiry of how children acquire language, and how individuals learn languages other
than their own. Linguistics also deals with the relationships between or among languages and with the manner
languages change over time.

Areas of inquiry under linguistics also include studying language as a thought process, looking for a theory that
accounts for the universal human capacity to produce and understand language, examining language within a
cultural context, and determining what one needs to know in order to speak fittingly in various settings (like the
workplace, among friends, or among family). Linguists may also study about "what happens when speakers from
different language and cultural backgrounds interact [and] how to help individuals learn another language, using what
they know about the learner's first language and about the language being acquired" (Eastman, 2009).

Focused on a particular language, linguistics seeks to explain how IS a language's knowledge system structured,
how it is acquired, how it is used in the assembly and understanding of messages, and how it changes over time.
The subject is also concerned with some questions about the nature of language: "What properties do all human
languages have in common? How do languages differ, and to what extent are the differences systematic, i.e. can we
find patterns in the differences? ...What is the nature of the cognitive processes that come into play when we produce
and understand language?”.

BRANCHES AND SUBFIELDS OF LINGUISTICS

Linguistic is a wider and universal concept of all the languages, therefore it has described in various branches. These
branches are further divided into MACRO and MICRO divisions.

Macro-linguistics and micro-linguistics are both fields of study of linguistics that focus on language and its form and
meaning and the changes that occur to that form and meaning due to other factors; macro-linguistics examines
language on a macro level, or from a more general perspective, while micro-linguistics examines language on a
micro level, or in a more specific and particular way.
Macro-linguistics analyzes language beyond its most basic functions and context—it focuses on the social, cultural
psychological and neurological factors and how they're connected to the language and its structure. Thus, there are
several subcategories of macro-linguistics, such as sociolinguistics (language and society), psycholinguistics
(language and psychology), neurolinguistics (language and neurology), computational linguistics (language and IT),
and others.

Unlike macro-linguistics, micro-linguistics studies language and its properties, structure, and functions specifically;
thus, syntax (the structure of sentences), morphology (the structure of words), phonology (the study of sounds and
speech), semantics (the meaning of words and phrases), and others are all subcategories of micro-linguistics.

Macro-linguistics studies language and the influences on language in general, while micro-linguistics studies
language and all of its properties, elements, and concepts in greater detail. Some argue that macro-linguistics
focuses more on society and the way it influences language, while micro-linguistics focuses more on language itself
and its elements.

A. MACRO LINGUISTICS is the major branch of linguistics which further divides into various branches:

Historical Linguistics/ Comparative Historical Linguistics/ Comparative Philology/ Philology is the study of the
development of language over time.
Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society.
Psycholinguistics is the study of how mind process and produces language.
Cognitive Linguistics/ cognitive Psychology is an approach to linguistics which stresses the interaction between
language and cognition forcing on language as an instrument for organizing, processing and conveying information.
(According to Longman Dictionary of language Teaching and Applied Lingusitics Fourth edition by Jack C Richards
and Richard Schmidt)
Computational linguistics is the study of language using techniques and concepts of computer science especially with
reference to the problems posed by fields of machine translation and artificial intelligence.
Applied linguistics is the study of language and linguistics in relation to practical problems, such as lexicography,
translation, speech pathology etc.
Discourse analysis is sometimes defined as the analysis of language beyond the sentence. It is the study of how
sentences in spoken and written language form larger meaningful units such as paragraphs, conversation, interview
etc.
B. MICRO LINGUISTICS

Micro branches are the branches related to internal structure of language. They belong to various parts of language
as syntax, semantics, pragmatics, phonology and morphology.

Syntax means structures. It deals the combination of units as words and meaningful elements are constructed. It
involves the description of rules about positioning the elements are constructed. It involves the description of rules
about positioning the elements in a sentence. Syntax is a major component of the grammar of a language.
Semantics deals with the level of meaning in language or investigate the meaning of language. It is the study of all
aspects of meaning in language.
Pragmatics was coined in the 1930s by philosopher C.W. Morris. It was developed as a subfield of linguistics in
1970s. Pragmatics is context dependent that deals with contextual aspects of meaning in particular situation in which
they are used.
Phonetics is the study of speech sounds. It studies the characteristics of human sound production especially those
sounds used in speech and provides methods for their description, classification and transportation.
Phonology is the study of specific sounds that make up words of speaking and listening. The study of how languages
organize the units of speech into systems.
Morphology is the study of word formation and inflexion. It is the branch of grammar which studies the structure or
forms of word.
Methods of Linguistics

There are numerous branches, subfields and approaches in studying linguistics but the methods used basically boil
down to just two: (a) description and (b) prescription.

1.Description

A linguist basically describes and expounds features of languages. It is done without making subjective judgments on
whether a particular features or usage is good or bad. Linguistic describes language without judging how people use
it.

Linguistic is predominantly descriptive. Linguist attempt to spell out the nature language, to describe how individuals
use it and to discover the underlying grammar that speakers consciously or unconsciously observe. Ideally, linguist
do not judge what speech is better or worse syntactically, correct or incorrect grammatically and do not try to
prescribe future language directions.

This method in dealing with language more closely resembles scientific methodology in other disciplines. Description
is similar to practice in other sciences- a zoologist looks at the animal kingdom without pronouncing subjective
judgments on whether a certain species is better or worse than another.

2.Prescription

However, some linguists try to prescribe rules of language, holding particular standard for all to follow. Prescription is
an attempt to endorse particular linguistic usages over others, often favoring a particular system or dialect.

Prescription often has the goal of establishing a 'linguistic standard,' which can aid communication over huge
geographical areas. Nonetheless, it may also be an attempt by speakers of one language or dialect to exert influence
over speakers of other languages or dialects, as in the case of 'linguistic imperialism.' Prescription may also be
exercised by censors who endeavor to exterminate words and structures that they deem to be destructive to culture.

Prescription is also practiced in the teaching of language, where some basic grammatical rules and lexical terms
need to be presented to a second-language speaker who is seeking to acquire the language. Ideally, prescription
must be linguistically founded. The rule of many languages, for instance, that subjects and verbs must agree can be
the basis of linguistically founded prescription. Speakers of standard languages do follow subject-verb agreement,
and thus if the intent is to properly teach those languages, this rule ought to be taught.

POLITICAL SCIENCE

Political Science may be defined as the study of the state and government. It is concerned with the history and theory
of government. It examines political processes and power struggle, writing these patterns as this change from
previous elections and the nature Of voters and political parties.

The word "political" comes from the Greek word polis, which means a "city-state," the only form of government known
to the ancient Greeks.The word ciencia, means knowledge or study. From the word polis comes other derivatives,
such as polites (citizen) and politikos (government offcial).
Political Science began as early as the 14th century B.C. when ARISTOTLE (384-322 BC) wrote POLITICS, the first
systematic work on political affairs. This book written about 335-332 B.C., earned for him the title of “FATHER OF
POLITICAL SCIENCE”.

As a branch of modern learning, political science has undergone three chronological and overlapping stages of
development. These stages in the study of political science are as follows:

1.Religious stage

The government, with the leaders and laws, was considered as divine or divinely-inspired. This stage began
during the prehistoric era (before recorded history) and continued as long as the Divine Right o Kings was supported
(18th century). It was difficult then to remove a bad ruler because he claimed that authority came from the gods, and
it was believed that only gods could dismiss a ruler, usually by natural death

2.Metaphysical stage

It is considered as a human institution and no longer a divine, but it was worshipped as a perfect institution. This
stage began with the ancient Greeks Aristotle and Plato who thought that the state was means to develop the highest
potential of the individual. By then Aristotle claimed that “Man is by nature a political animal” and that the state was
established for the greatest good of the greater number of citizens.

3. Modern stage

In this stage the state was still considered as a human institution but was deemed capable of being improved by
rulers and subjects according to certain principles and laws. This stage was ushered in by Niccolo Machiavelli, a
Renaissance writer of “THE PRINCE”, handbook for rulers in the art of government. Thus, Machiavelli is often
credited as the FATHER OF MODERN POLITICS

MAIN AREAS OF INQUIRY

Political science systematically studies governance by the application of empirical and generally scientific methods of
analysis. It is the systematic study of and reflection upon politics. By “politics” we mean that which typically defines
the processes by which people and institutions exercise and resist power. Political processes are employed to form
policies, influence individuals and institutions, and organize societies.

Main areas of inquiry include the various political theories and practices which are usually thought of as determinant
of the distribution of power and resources in society. It examines governments, public policies and political
processes, systems, and political behavior.

As a contemporary discipline, it deals with the state and its organs, as well as "all the societal, cultural, and
psychological factors that mutually influence the operation of government and the body politic" ("Political Science,
n.d.).

The stress on government and power differentiates political science from other social sciences. Nonetheless, political
scientists investigate not only how governments use politics nut also how politics influences the economy, how
ordinary individuals think and act in relation to politics, and how politics affects organizations outside of government.
They also seek to understand continuing patterns in politics instead of particular political events.

Fields in Political Science

1.Comparative Politics

Comparative politics centers on politics within countries, usually grouped into world regions, and evaluate similarities
and differences between or among countries. Political scientists, known as area specialists, examine a single country
or a culturally similar group of countries, such as the nations in Asia.

2.American Politics

This field basically studies the Congress of the United States, its judicial politics, constitutional law, the presidency,
and the state and local politics. It is also interested in the country's voting and elections and American political
history.

3 International Relations

International relations cover subjects like diplomacy, international politics, foreign policies, and international
organizations. It is the study of the international system, which comprises interactions between nations, international
organizations, and multinational corporations.

4.Political Theory

Political theory is concerned with the definition and meaning of essential concepts of political science like "state,
government, Jaw, liberty, equality justice, sovereignty, separation of powers, methods of representation, forms of
government, grounds of political obligation and various ideologies" ("The Scopes of political Science," n.d.).

5.Public Administration

Public administration is concerned with the role of the bureaucracy. It is the field geared toward practical applications
within political science and is thus regularly organized as a separate section that prepares students for careers in the
civil service.

Public administration examines government organizations and their relation to other parts of government. Political
scientists interested in this field study how these organizations work, and attempt to formulate methods of improving
them. For instance, concepts in this field have inspired many national, state, and local governments to adopt more-
competitive and less bureaucratic ways of providing services to people.

6.Public Policy

Public policy comprises the study of specific policy problems and governmental responses to them. Political scientists
involved in the study of public policy seek to develop solutions for problems of public concern.

Public policy inspects the passage and implementation of all forms of government policies, specifically those related
to health care, civil rights' defense, education, economic growth, urban renewal, regional development,

The field "overlaps comparative politics in the study of comparative public policy; with international relations in the
study of foreign policy and national security policy; and with political theory in considering ethics in policy making"
( "Political Science," n.d.).
7.Political Behavior

This field attempts to quantity and clarify the factors that define a person's political views, ideology, and levels of
political participation. It studies the manner people involve themselves in political processes and respond to political
activity.

Political behavior as an academic field emphasizes "the study of voting behavior, which can be affected by social
pressures; the effects of individual such as emotional attachments to parties or leaders; and the rational self-interests
of voters" ("Political Behavior," n.d.). This field is important especially to those who deal with planning of political
campaigns and designing of advertisements and party platforms.

Research Methods in Political Science

a. Quantitative Analysis

Quantitative research uses statistical methods like opinion surveys and aggregate-level analysis. 'Opinion surveys'
ask a representative sample of individuals a series of questions about their attitudes and behavior about politics, their
social status, and other different characteristics.

Some political scientists also use 'aggregate-level statistical analysis,' in which administrative entities such as
electoral districts, states, or countries compose the units of analysis. Such analysis can be employed to assess very
expansive theories like the correlation between a nation's level of prosperity and its level or brand of democracy.

b.Case Studies

There are forms of case study research that have little or no explicit methodology or theory, and that it is hard to
extrapolate their findings to other situations. But in 'comparative case study analysis’ researchers select that are alike
in some important aspects and different in others, and then try to explain the reasons for the similarities and
differences For instance, theories about the causes of revolution can be formed and checked by comparing the
details of a few crucial revolutions.

c. Other Methods

Admittedly, political science often adopts methods of' study and analysis used by other disciplines. These methods
include "computer simulations of political processes, experimentation with human subjects playing political roles, in-
depth interviewing, and textual analysis and criticism" ("Political Science," n.d.).

Other political scientists perform 'policy experiments,' which compare what happens when a policy is implemented in
one place but not another. Some employ 'Q methodology,' which consists of "profiling subjects in terms of their
reactions to a set of statements, then comparing these profiles using statistical techniques" (Dryzek, 2009).

PSYCHOLOGY

It is a common knowledge that psychologists analyze personality, give ou t advice, and help those who are
depressed, troubled or mentally ill. However, psychology is far more than those things. Psychology also attempts to
understand the mysteries of human nature, which include why people think, feel and act as they do.
In fact, some psychologists also study animal behavior, using then discoveries to identify laws of behavior that apply
to all organisms and to create theories about how people think and behave. Generally, findings from psychology can
help individuals understand themselves, relate better to others, and solve the problems that confront them.

Definition and Subjects of Inquiry

Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. The science of the mind and behavior, it
involves the study of all aspects of conscious and unconscious experience as well as thought. The term psychology
comes from two Greek words: 'psyche,' which means "breath, spirit, or soul," and 'logos,' 'the study of.'

The Microsoft Encarta (2009) also defines psychology as "the scientific study of behavior and the mind," but
proceeds with explaining the three elements in the definition. First, it emphasizes that psychology "is a scientific
enterprise that obtains knowledge through systematic and objective methods of observation and experimentation."
Second, it studies behavior, which denotes "any action or reaction that can be measured or observed—such as the
blink of an eye, an increase in heart rate, or the unruly violence that often erupts in a mob." Third, psychologists study
the mind, which stands for "both conscious and unconscious mental states. These states cannot actually be seen,
only inferred from observable behavior" (2009).

Subjects of inquiry include a massive range of phenomena: "learning and memory, sensation and perception,
motivation and emotion, thinking and language, personality and social behavior, intelligence, infancy and child
development, mental illness, and much more" (Kassin, 2009).

Psychologists also attempt to answer an extensive range of essential questions about human nature: "Are individuals
genetically predisposed at birth to develop certain traits or abilities? How accurate are people at remembering faces,
places, or conversations from the past? What motivates us to seek out friends and sexual partners? Why do so many
people become depressed and behave in ways that seem self-destructive? Do intelligence test scores predict
success in school, or later in a career? What causes prejudice, and why is it so widespread? Can the mind be used
to heal the body?" ("Psychology," n.d.).

Major Areas of Research in Psychology

In psychology, there are five major areas of research: biopsychology, clinical psychology, cognitive psychology,
developmental psychology, and social psychology.

1. Biopsychology

Biopsychology is a major area of research in psychology that studies how the brain and neurotransmitters affect our
behaviors, thoughts, and feelings, Alternative names are used for this field, including 'physiological psychology,'
'behavioral neuroscience,' and 'psychobiology.'

Biopsychology has various subfields, two of which are the evolutionary psychology and behavioral genetics.'
Biopsychologists in 'evolutionary psychology' theorize about the origins of human aggression, altruism, mate
selection, and other behaviors. Researchers in 'behavioral genetics' estimate the extent to which human
characteristics such as personality, intelligence, and mental illness are inherited. Many biopsychologists are also
involved in 'psychopharmacology,' which studies how drugs affect mental and behavioral functions.

2.Clinical Psychology

Clinical psychology focuses on the study, diagnosis, and treatment of mental illnesses and other emotional or
behavioral disorders. It uses interviews and tests to diagnose things like depression, anxiety disorders, psychosis,
and schizophrenia.
Clinical psychologists customarily cannot prescribe drugs, but they regularly work in collaboration with a patient's
physician. Drug treatment is often combined with 'psychotherapy,' a type of intervention that depends mainly on
verbal communication to treat emotional or behavioral problems. A form of psychotherapy, called 'psychoanalysis,'
centers on resolving internal, unconscious conflicts stemming from childhood and past experiences. Some other
forms, "such as cognitive and behavioral therapies, focus more on the person's current level of functioning and try to
help the individual change distressing thoughts, feelings, or behaviors" (Kassin, 2009).

Some clinical psychologists also study the normal human personality and the ways in which individuals differ from
one another. Others conduct various psychological tests, including intelligence tests and personality tests, things
which are commonly given to people in the workplace or in school to evaluate their interests, skills, and level of
functioning.

3.Cognitive Psychology

It studies internal mental processes, such as problem solving, memory' learning, and language. In other words,
cognitive psychology investigates how people think, perceive, communicate, remember and learn.

Cognitive psychology is the scientific study of how people acquire, process, and store and use information. Some say
that it is the study of intelligence and cognition. 'Cognition' denotes "the process of knowing and encompasses nearly
the entire range of conscious and unconscious mental processes: sensation and perception, conditioning and
learning, attention and consciousness, sleep and dreaming, memory and forgetting, reasoning and decision making,
imagining, problem solving, and language" ("Cognition," n.d.).

Some of the questions posed within cognitive psychology include: "How do people learn from experience? How and
where in the brain are visual images, facts, and personal memories stored? What causes forgetting? How do people
solve problems or make difficult life decisions? Does language limit the way people think? And to what extent are
people influenced by information outside of conscious awareness?" (Kassin, 2009). Some practical applications of
this field include how to improve memory, how to increase the ability for decision making, and how to boost students'
learning.

4.Developmental Psychology

Developmental psychology is the study of the psychological changes that individuals experience over the course of
their life span. It includes any psychological factor in the life of an individual, including personality, self-concept,
identity formation, motor skills, problem-solving ability, moral understanding, language acquisition, and emotions.

Developmental psychology centers on the changes that come with age. Developmental psychologists study the ways
in which humans mature and change over the life span, like by comparing people of different ages, and by tracking
individuals over time. Those who specialize in child development or 'child psychology' study the physical, intellectual,
and social development in fetuses, infants, children, and adolescents. Some examine the changes that occur
throughout adulthood while others specialize in the study of old age, even the process of dying.

Central also to the study of human development are the roles of nature (heredity) and nurture (culture). So some of
the questions posed within the field are whether or not humans are programmed by inborn biological dispositions,
and whether or not a person's fate is molded by culture, family, peers, and other social influences in his environment.

5. Social Psychology
Basically, social psychology studies the effect of social influences on human behavior. It uses scientific methods to
understand and explain how people's feeling, behavior, and thoughts are affected by the actual, imagined, or implied
presence of other people.

Social psychologists scientifically study how we think, feel, and behave in social situations. They investigate the ways
we influence, perceive, and interact with one another, The field asks questions like, "How do we form impressions of
others? How are people persuaded to change their attitudes or beliefs? What causes people to conform in group
situations? What leads someone to help or ignore a person in need? Under what circumstances do people obey or
resist orders?" ("Major Branches of Psychology," n.d.).

Social psychologists also look at group behavior, social perception, non. verbal behavior, aggression, prejudice, and
leadership. The study of social influence also includes topics such as conformity, obedience to authority, and the
principles of persuasion. Issues related to social perception are also dealt with like how people come to know and
evaluate one another, how people form group stereotypes, and the origins of prejudice. Other specific topics of
interest to social psychologists include physical attraction, love and intimacy, and altruism.

Methods of Research in Psychology

Psychologists have developed several ways to test their hypotheses and theories. They do the testing either in a (1)
laboratory setting or in (2) so called fields. The laboratory setting enables psychologists to control what happens to
their subjects and make watchful and accurate observations of behavior.

As indicated by the term field research, studies may also be conducted in real-world locations. For example, a
psychologist investigating the reliability of eyewitness testimony might stage phony crimes in the street and then ask
unsuspecting bystanders to identify the culprit from a set of photographs. But psychologists may also do 'field
research' or observe people in real-world locations (outside the laboratory), including offices, classrooms, hospitals,
dormitories, bars, and prison cells.

Either in field or laboratory settings, psychologists administers their research using a variety of methods. The
Microsoft Encarta list the following as the most common methods (2009):

1.Archival Studies

Archival studies are inspections of existing records of human activities. Under this, researchers usually scrutinize
birth certificates, old newspaper stories, medical records, crime reports, popular books, and even artwork.

In archival studies, researchers may also examine statistical trends of the past, such as crime rates, birth rates,
marriage and divorce rates, and employment rates. 'This method is specifically valuable for probing cultural or
historical trends.

2.Case Studies

Generally, case studies are conducted when researchers believe that a thorough look at one person will disclose
something important about people in general. Under this method, psychologists interview, test, observe, and
investigate the backgrounds of certain persons in detail.

When a person is exceptional in some way, or when a hypothesis can be verified only through rigorous, long-term
observation, the case study is a valuable method. In fact, it has played a noticeable role in the development of
psychology:
"Austrian physician Sigmund Freud based his theory of psychoanalysis on his experiences with troubled patients.
Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget first began to formulate a theory of intellectual development by questioning his own
children. Neuroscientists learn about how the human brain works by testing patients who have suffered brain
damage. Cognitive psychologists learn about human intelligence by studying child prodigies and other gifted
individuals. Social psychologists learn about group decision making by analyzing the policy decisions of government
and business groups" (Kassin, 2009).

3.Measuring Brain Activity

This method is valuable especially to biopsychologists who are interested in the relations between brain and
behavior. One of the ways to study the relationship between the brain and behavior is to record the activity of the
brain with machines while a subject engages in certain behaviors or activities.

4.Surveys

Surveys describe a definite population or group of people. They involve asking persons a series of questions about
their behaviors, thoughts, or opinions and can be administered directly (in person), over the phone, or through
internet-based communications.

Surveys basically study a specific group (e.g. working mothers, single fathers, or working students) and just select a
representative sample of the group, instead of interviewing them one by one, and generalize the findings to the larger
population.

Practically, surveys may be about almost any topic and are also used to learn about psychological states that cannot
be directly observed, such as in approximating the proportion of people who experience feelings of life satisfaction,
loneliness, and disgust. Surveys must be cautiously designed and administered to ensure their accuracy, as the
results can be affected and swayed at least by who the respondents are and how the questions are asked.

5.Naturalistic Observations

In this method, the researcher observes individuals as they behave in the real world. The researcher merely records
what happens and does not interfere in the situation. This is a good method in studying, for instance, the interactions
between prisoners and jail guards, parents and children, doctors and patients, police and citizens, and employers
and employees.

Naturalistic observation is also common among developmental psychologists as they study social play, parent-child
affections, and other aspects of child development. Using the method, the researchers keenly observe children at
home, in school, on the playground, and in other

6. Correlational Studies

Correlational studies are designed to find statistical connections, or correlations, between variables so that some
factors can be used to predict others. A 'correlation' is a statistical measure of the extent to which two variables are
related:

'A positive correlation exists when two variables increase or decrease together. For example, frustration and
aggression arc positively correlated, meaning that as frustration rises, so do acts of aggression. More of one means
more of the other. A negative correlation exists when increases in one variable are accompanied by decreases in the
other, and vice versa. For example, friendships and stress-induced illness are negatively correlated, meaning that the
more close friends a person has, the fewer stress-related illnesses the person suffers. More of one means less of the
other" (Kassin, 2009),
The method allows the researchers to use one variable in making predictions about another. "But researchers must
use caution when drawing conclusions from correlations. ... Regardless of how intuitive or accurate these
conclusions may be, correlation does not prove causation" ("Correlational Studies," n.d.)

7. Experiments

Psychologists conduct experiments to determine if one variable actually causes another. In an experiment, the
researcher manipulates one variable in a situation, keeping other aspects of the situation constant, and then
observes the effect of the manipulation on behavior. "The people whose behavior is being observed are the subjects
of the experiment. The factor that an experimenter varies (the proposed cause) is known as the independent
variable, and the behavior being measured (the proposed effect) is called the dependent variable" (Kassin, 2009). In
testing the hypothesis that frustration prompts aggression, for instance, frustration is the independent variable, and
aggression, the dependent one.

No single experiment can fully prove a hypothesis. An experiment's result must be replicated. 'Replication' stands for
the process of conducting a second, almost identical study to find out if the initial findings can be repeated, If so, then
psychologists determine if these findings can be generalized to other settings. 'Generalizability' denotes the extent to
which a result obtained under one set of conditions can also be achieved at another time, in another place, and in
other subjects.

SOCIOLOGY AND DEMOGRAPHY

Sociology is the systematic study of human society. Other academic disciplines within the social sciences, like most
of the disciples discussed above (e.g. economics, political science, anthropology, and psychology) are also
concerned with issues that fall within the scope of human society. Sociology, however, deals with the ways in which
social structures and institutions influence society. Relatedly, demography studies the composition of a particular
human population in a society.

Definition and Subjects of Inquiry

Sociology is the scientific study of human social relations or group life. It primarily deals with social interaction or the
responses of persons to each other. Social interaction is arguably the basic sociological concept as it is the
rudimentary component of all relationships and groups that compose human society.

Subjects of inquiry in sociology include the ways in which social structures and institutions (such as class, family,
community, and power) and social problems (such as crime and abuse) affect society.

There are sociologists who focus on the details of specific interactions as they happen in everyday life. They are
sometimes called 'microsociologists.' But there are also those who deal with the larger patterns of relations among
major social sectors, like the state and the economy, and even with international relations. They are sometimes
called 'macrosociologists.'

On the other hand, 'demography' is the interdisciplinary study of the size, growth, and distribution of human
populations. It examines statistics such as births, deaths, income, or the incidence of disease, which illustrate the
changing structure of human populations.

Main areas of inquiry include human population dynamics and human population change. It also involves the study of
the structure of populations and how populations change over time due to births, deaths, migration, and aging.
Demography is concerned with social characteristics of the population• Demographic data may include pertinent
matters such as:

(1) analysis of the population on the basis of age, parentage, physical condition, ethnicity, occupation, and civil
position, giving the size and density of each composite division; (2) changes in the population as a result Of birth'
marriage, and death; (3) statistics on migrations, their effects, and their relation to economic conditions; (4) statistics
of crime, illegitimacy, and suicide; (5) levels of education; and (6) economic and social statistics, especially those
relating to insurance" (Wrong, 2009).

Historically speaking, sociology developed jointly with demographic studies. In fact, demography is considered a
critical sub-field of sociology (as well as many other human and biological sciences). Our subsequent discussions
therefore center on sociology as demography is (merely) a subdivision of sociology, especially in most of the Western
world, and particularly in the

Fields of Sociology

The relatively recent emphasis on empirical investigations by social sciences has directed the attention of
sociologists away from the abstract visions of earlier scholars toward more fixated and concrete areas of social
reality. These areas turned out to be the subfields and specialties of sociology.

Most of the works of sociologists fall openly within one of the many subfields into which the sociology is now divided.
In addition, there are so-called interdisciplinary fields in sociology, that is, those that overlap or intersect with other
social sciences.

a.Subfields

We will discuss the subfields not in a very detailed fashion, as they are numerous, and their very names literally
suggest what is being studied in the subject. For example, the sociology of education simply means the sociological
study of the social institution called education.

In sociology, the oldest subfields are those that focus on social phenomena that have not formerly been adopted as
objects of study by other social sciences. These include marriage and the family, social inequality and social
stratification, ethnic relations, deviant behavior, urban communities, and complex or formal organizations. Of more
recent origin include the sociology of sex and gender roles and that which examines the social aspects of
gerontology (the scientific study of old age).

As human activities typically implicate social relations, another main source Of specialization within the discipline is
the study of the social structure of areas of various human activities. These sociological areas include sociologies of
religion, education, politics, law, the military, governmental bureaucracies, industry, occupations and professions, the
arts, science, language (or sociolinguistics), sports, medicine, and mass communications.

Some of these subfields, such as the sociology of sports, are relatively recent fields, whereas others, such as the
sociology of religion, have their origins in the earliest studies of sociology. Some subfields have attained short-lived
popularity, only to be later incorporated into a more widespread area. For instance, industrial sociology was a
booming field during the 1930s and 1940s, but later it was generally absorbed into the study of complex
organizations (though in Britain, it has remained a distinct area of sociology).

There is also the splitting of a known subfield into thinner subdivisions; the sociology of knowledge, for example, has
progressively been divided into separate sociologies of language, science, literature, art, and popular culture.
The subfields demography and criminology were separate areas of study long before the sociology as a discipline
was formally created. The two used to be associated principally with other disciplines. Though demography keeps
close links to economics in some countries, in most of the Western world, and particularly in the United States, it is
considered a subdivision of sociology. Criminology, on the other hand, has become more and more connected with
the sociological study of deviant behavior.

b.Interdisciplinary Fields

Arguably the most important interdisciplinary subfield of sociology is social psychology. This subfield draws
practitioners from both sociology and psychology.

Social psychologists concentrate on the impact of social norms, roles, institutions, and the structure of groups on
individual personality. Those trained in sociology have opened up studies of "interaction in small informal groups; the
distribution of beliefs and attitudes in a population; the formation of character and outlook under the influence of the
family, the school, the peer group, and other socializing agencies" ("Sociology," n.d.).

Another interdisciplinary subfield, the comparative historical sociology, was intensely influenced by the ideas of both
Marx and Weber. This subfield relates sociology and history as many historians are guided by concepts from
sociology and some sociologists conduct large-scale historical-comparative studies. "The once firm barriers between
history and sociology have crumbled, especially in such areas as social history, demographic change, economic and
political development, and the sociology of revolutions and protest movements" (Wrong, 2009).

Research Methods

Sociology utilizes almost all the methods of obtain' lg information used in the other social sciences and the
humanities. It makes use of a variety of techniques from advanced mathematical statistics to the interpretation of
texts. It also depends on primary statistical information commonly collected by governments, such significant
statistics reports and censuses, and various records such as of the frequency of crime, unemployment, and
immigration.

1.First hand or Direct Observation

Sociological research employs firsthand observations of some aspects of society. Sociologists acquire information,
for instance, through 'participant observation,' that is, by momentarily becoming, or acting as if, members of the group
being studied. They also obtain firsthand information by depending on knowledgeable informants from the group.

Direct observation is also applied to smaller-scale settings, such as classrooms, hospital wards, religious and political
meetings, and bars and casinos. The method is based on the principle that everyday life is the foundation of social
reality, underlying all statistical and conceptual abstractions. This principle has thus stimulated intensive
microsociological investigations using equipment like voice recorders and video-cameras (like CCTV) in natural
rather than artificial 'experimental' social situations.

Bear in mind though that sociology also extensively makes use of secondhand source materials. These commonly
include clinical records, life histories, and personal documents.

2.Quantitative Methods

The quantitative methods in sociology has become increasingly refined and adapted to computer technology.
Sociology's quantitative methods include the presentation of large amounts of descriptive statistical data, sampling
techniques, and using advanced mathematical models and computer simulations of social processes. Quantitative
analysis in the discipline has become prevalent recently as a way to divulge possible causal relations, such as in
research on status attainment and social mobility.

3.Survey Research

Survey research stands for the gathering and evaluation of responses of large samples of people to polls and
questionnaires structured to draw their opinions, attitudes, and sentiments about a certain topics.

Surveys are used in sociology for scholarly or scientific purposes in almost all its subfields. The method is especially
extensively used in the study of ethnic prejudice, voting behavior, responses to mass communications, and other
areas in which examining subjective attitudes is fitting.

Specifically in the practice of pre-election polling and market research, opinion surveys were first used in the 1930s.
Today, even in the Philippines, they are usual tools of politicians and of many organizations and business firms
concerned with mass public opinion.