TRANSPIRATION

● Transpiration in plants can take place by three ways:

○ Stomata
○ Through Lenticels
○ From Leaf Surface
● The transpiration pull helps water rising to the leaves against the force of gravity
● As the rate of transpiration increases, so does the rate of absorption
● is the loss of water in the form of water vapor from the leaves of plants through the stomata. It
is necessary because it is the mechanism by which water and the dissolved solutes are transported to
all parts of the plant.
● It is also unavoidable in the sense that the leaves must have gas exchange with the
environment in order to acquire carbon dioxide for photosynthesis.

Worksheet Experiments
A. Effect of Some Environmental Factors on Transpiration Rate
Plants Used:
1. Arrowhead
2. Coleus
3. Devil’s Ivy
4. English Ivy
Appliances Used:
1. Patometer: device used for measuring the rate of water uptake of a leafy
shoot which is almost equal to the water lost through transpiration
2. Fan - wind
3. Heater - heat
4. Lamp - light
Results:
- The environmental factors, wind, heat and light, all increased the
transpiration rate of the four potted plants for every environmental factor
tested.
- The wind increases the transpiration rate the most because it speeds up the
movement of water from the lead surface as it lessens the boundary layer of
water vapor as well, and speeds up the evaporation process.
- Plants originating from tropical areas are more likely to have higher
transpiration rates than those originating from humid areas.
- Arrowhead tested the highest transpiration rate, then Coleus, then English
Ivy, then Devil’s Ivy
B. Use of Cobalt Chloride Paper
Materials used:
1. Cobalt Chloride Paper (first experiment)
- useful indicator for the presence of water and moisture.
- It is blue when dry, pink when moist
- compound that changes color in response to humidity.
- As humidity increases, cobalt chloride changes color from sky blue to purple to pink
2. 4 Leaves & Vaseline - to show the distribution of stomata on leaves (second experiment)
● Leaf A - no vaseline
● Leaf B - vaseline on its upper and lower surfaces
● Leaf C - had vaseline on its upper surface only
● Leaf D -had vaseline on its lower surface only
Results:
- FIRST EXPERIMENT: the Cobalt Chloride paper at the bottom of the leaf turned
from blue to pink faster, while the Cobalt Chloride paper
- the top of the leaf remained blue. This shows that water leaves through the stomata,
since most of it is located on the bottom side or the lower epidermis of leaves.
- SECOND EXPERIMENT: Leaf A (no vaseline) was the driest, while Leaf B (with
vaseline both sides) did not change because it lost the least amount of water

C. Rise of Transpiration Stream (with photo documentation)

Materials Used:
1. a celery stem and a leafy stem of a bougainvillea
2. Colored dye was used to see the stream
3. Red dye solution: made by immersing a tablespoon of atsuete seeds in 100 mL. of water.
4. Distance travelled = lowest tip to the uppermost part where u see the dye
5. Weight of movement or water conduction that will translate into rate of transpiration =
distance traveled by the dye/time
CONCLUSION:
Celery Stem
- Herbaceous dicot stem
- there were streaks of dye along the stem when it was cut longitudinally
- When it was cut cross-sectionally, there were dots that indicated that water passed
through there
Bougainvilla/santan
- Woody dicot plant
- in both cuts, the stream was not seen
** in similar experiments, it was seen that monocot plants had a faster rate in movement.
This is due to their stomata being located on the lower and upper epidermis, while in dicots it
was only located in the lower epidermis
QUESTIONS
1. Why is the cutting stem always done underwater?
- reduces the risk of air pockets and allows the flowers to absorb water right away.
2. What are some environmental factors which influence the rate o transpiration?
- temperature, humidity, wind speed, light intensity
3. Advantages and disadvantages of the transpiration process in plants
- Advantages: It helps in the exchange of gases. It helps in sending out excessively absorbed
water by plants and the development of the plant body. It also helps in absorption and
distribution of water in plants. It provides coolness to the plant body. Osmotic balance of the
cell is maintained by the process of transpiration.
- Disadvantages: excess transpiration causes wilting in plants.
4. What strategies have evolved by which plants are able to reduce their
transpiration rates and thus conserve water?
- plants reduce water loss by closing their stomata, developing thick cuticles, or by possessing
leaf hairs to increase the boundary layer.
- Stomata are quick to respond to environmental cues to protect the plant from losing too much
water, but still allowing in enough carbon dioxide to drive photosynthesis.
5. What tissues did you find the dye along the stem?
- the dye went to the xylem, the hollow tubes along the stems.

LECTURE
- Water conduction: transport of water from the roots towards the leafs
- Transpiration: leaves release water within the plants through its stomates
1. Water with minerals are absorbed by the roots from the soils
2. Pressure builds up in the roots
3. Water is pushed upward to the stems
4. Water has to keep moving up in the stem (water has to move against the pull of gravity)
5. Factors that promote the continuous movement of water upwards along the xylem:
a. Adhesion forces between the water molecules and xylem (capillary action)
b. Cohesion forces present among the water molecules (capillary action)
6. Moves up to the leaves
7. Water goes out through the stomates (may open or close depending on conditions of plants)
8. Water moves from high concentration to low concentration
9. If the outside of the leaves is dry (not so much water molecules are present), then that will promote the
release of water in the form of water vapor --- TRANSPIRATION
10. Water will move out of the leaves through the stomates through the process of transpiration under the
principle of osmosis from where there is more water to where there is less. Water always would be
released in the form of water vapor
11. Factors that can keep the environment dry that can promote the plant to release water
a. Light intensity
b. Temperature
c. Wind - if air movement is a lot, it will disperse the air, water molecules and will lessen the
density of water molecules around the plant
FLOWERS, POLLEN, OVULE
- Flower is the reproductive organ of a plant
- It’s for sexual reproduction that involves union of gametes
- Since plants are rooted, agents such as bees, butterflies and birds transfer gametes from one flower to
another

Basic Parts of a flower

1. FLOWER: modified shoot with a compressed axis, bearing a series of floral leaves that have been
variously modified.
2. RECEPTACLE: point of attachment for the various modifications and is the expanded end of a flower
stalk on which the flower parts are borne.
3. SEPALS: (collective term: calyx) modified leaves which encase the rest of the developing flower. They
may be either green and leaflike, or composed of petal-like tissue.
4. PETALS: (collective term: corolla) modified leaves usually functioning as visually conspicuous
"signposts" which serve to attract specific pollinators.
5. PERIANTH: Calyx and corolla taken as one
6. STAMENS & POLLENS: (collective term is androecium). Stamens are composed of sac-like anthers
and filaments that are stalks that support the anthers.
7. STAMINAL TUBE: the erect tube the filaments form
8. ANTHERS: consist of 2 sacs, each of which contains two microsporangia.
***Meiosis occurs in numerous microspore mother cells in the microsporangia, each microspore mother
cell producing four microspores. Each microspore becomes a pollen grain or microgametophyte.
9. PISTIL AND CARPEL: (collectively called gynoecium)
10. PISTIL: composed of one or several carpels which fuse to form an essentially closed case that contains
the ovules.
11. Three Regions of Pistil (from base up): the ovary, style and stigma.
12. OVARY: where the ovules are found
13. STYE: stalked structure atop the ovary that elevates into a sticky knob which is the stigma.
** In the gumamela, the style is found inside the staminal tube while the five stigma project
from this tube.
14. LOCULES: chambers that the ovary is divided into; ovules: inside the locules
** Meiosis occurs in a megaspore mother cell in each ovule, producing four megaspore. Three
of these disintegrate, leaving a functional megaspore, which divides mitotically to produce the
embryo sac or megagametophyte.
Flowers/ Inflorescence Types and Characteristics
● Flowers can be born singly or in aggregations called inflorescence
● COMPLETE: four basic parts are present
● INCOMPLETE: at least one part is absent
● PERFECT: containing both male and female parts
● IMPERFECT: top containing just one sex
● STERILE: having no sexual parts
● DIOECIOUS: Female and male flowers are located on separate plants
● MONOECIOUS: Female and male flowers are located on the same plant
● POLYPETALOUS: petals of the flower are free from each other
● GAMOPETALOUS: petals of the flower are united forming a cup or tube with separate terminal lobes.
● RADIAL SYMMETRY: based on a wheel plan
● REGULAR/ACTINOMORPHIC SYMMETRY: the flower is divisible on more than one axis into two
equal halves that are mirror images of each other.
● BILATERAL SYMMETRY: distinctly divisible into right and left sides
● IRREGULAR/ZYGOMORPHIC SYMMETRY: divisible into mirror images on only one axis.
○ 4 types of irregular/zygomorphic symmetry flowers:
1. bilabiate
2. Caesalpinaceous
3. orchidaceous
4. Papilionaceous.
● SUPERIOR OVARY: the stamens, petals and sepals arise from a level below the base of the ovary; aka
HYPOGYNOUS FLOWER
● PERIGYNOUS FLOWER: the flower has superior ovary but the bases of the stamens, petals and sepals
develop as a floral cup around the pistil.
● EPIGYNOUS FLOWER: the ovary is inferior because the stamens, petals and sepals arise from a level
 that is above the base of the ovary.

- presence of all parts of the flower: complete/incomplete

- presence of reproductive parts of the flower: perfect/imperfect
- nature of petals: free or united
- symmetry: radial or bilateral symmetry
- position of ovary: superior, inferior, semi-inferior
- likely pollination vector

Types of Inflorescence

The Reproductive Parts of the Flower - The Stamen (x-sec of anther)

The Reproductive Parts of the Flower - The Pistil (x-sec of ovary)

Cross section of ovule

- Some pollens will not germinate in vitro, but will only germinate on compatible stigma due to their
complex germination requirements.
- It is scientifically proven that the flower is a highly modified shoot for the purpose of sexual
reproduction in the flowering plants. The flower represents the process of sexual reproduction which is
possible when partners are in love ( stamens representing the male and carpels for the female
counterpart.)

YOUTUBE VIDEO:
- STAMEN: male reproductive part
- CARPEL: female reproductive part

FRUITS
● The fertilization of the egg results in the embryonic plant.
● OVULE: stores food for the embryonic plant and becomes the seed
● OVARY: becomes mature and changes to the fruit.
● FRUITS: develop mechanisms to facilitate seed dispersal.
● PERICARP: very thick and can be differentiated into three layers
○ Exocarp (outer layer)
○ Mesocarp (inner layer)
○ Endocarp (inner layer)
● Fruits can be classified based on its origin
 ○ Simple fruits – is derived from a single ovary (consisting of one or several fused carpels) of
one flower (ex. Banana)
■ Fleshy fruits – characterized by a succulent fruit wall. These include:
1. Berry – a pulpy fruit throughout from one or more carpels that develops
few to many seeds
2. Hesperidum – a fruit from several carpels with inner pulp juice sacs or
vesicles enclosed in leathery rind.
3. Pepo – the pericarp is thick and the rind is hard.
4. Drupe - one-seeded fruit with the pericarp distinctly divided into thin
skin-like exocarp, thick fleshy mesocarp and hard, stony endocarp.
5. Pome – fleshy part of the fruit develops from the receptacle of the flower.
It is usually characterized by a papery pericarp.
■ Dry fruits – characterized by a dry pericarp at maturity. It can either be dehiscent or
indehiscent.
● Dehiscent fruits – fruit splits open along definite seams at maturity and may
contain several seeds. This includes:
1. Legume/ pod – has one carpel and splits along two seams.
2. Follicle – has one carpel and splits along one seam.
3. Capsule – fruit of two or more united carpels and splits in a variety
of ways.
4. Silique – fruit of two fused carpels that separate, leaving a
persistent wall between them
● Indehiscent fruits – do not open along definite seams or points when mature.
These usually contain only one or two seeds. Some types of indehiscent fruits
are:
1. Achene – one seed can be separated from the ovary wall except at
point of attachment to the inside of the pericarp.
2. Caryopsis/ Grain – one seeded the coat of which is completely fused
to the inner surface of the pericarp.
3. Samara – an achene-like fruit with wing-like outgrowth.
4. Nut – one seeded fruit similar to achene but with a very hard and
thick pericarp
○ Aggregate fruits – originates from one flower with many ovaries (ex. Sugarapple (“atis”)
○ Multiple fruits – several flowers of an inflorescence crowded together on one stem (ex.
Pineapple)
● Different types of placentation:
○ Axile – ovules are attached to a central axis in compartmentalized ovary. (Example: tomato)
○ Parietal – ovules are found along the walls of a uniloculate ovary. (Ex: Papaya)
○ Free- central – ovules are attached to a central axis of a uniloculate ovary. (Ex: Pepper)
○ Marginal – There is only one elongated placenta on one side of the ovary, as ovules are
attached at the fusion line of the carpel's margins (Ex. Beans)
○ Basal – The placenta is at the base (bottom) of the ovary (Ex. Coconut)
SEEDS
● develops from the ovule after fertilization
● A mature seed consists of a seed coat, an embryonic plant and a nutrient reserve.
● This nutrient reserve or food may be stored outside the embryo as endosperm (like in corn) or
be absorbed by the developing embryo into large fleshy cotyledons (like the bean).
● Two types of seeds:
○ Endospermous - albuminous seed
○ Exendospermous - exalbuminous seed
Parts of a seed
1. Bean seed
- Without endosperm at maturity
- The bean pod in which this seed was produced is the fruit of the bean plant.
- outer covering of the seed is the seed coat.
- HILUM: small elliptical scar along the concave edge of the seed which marks the
point of attachment of the young seed to the ovary.
- MICROPYLE: small hole at the end of the hilum
- RAPHE: a small groove extending to the chalaza, the point at which the integuments
were attached to the ovule.
- EMBRYO: structure found within the seed coat
- COTYLEDONS: two fleshy structures which constitute most of the volume of the seed
- EPICOTYL: tiny leaves
- HYPOCOTYL: little axis

-
2. Corn seed
- The external covering of a corn grain is actually the wall of the ovary, or the pericarp so that a
corn "seed" is actually a fruit also.
- ENDOSPERM: bulk of the interior tissue
- SCUTELLUM: cotyledon (not as developed as seeds)
- The radicle of the seed is covered by the coleorhiza while the epicotyl is covered by the
coleoptile.
3. Classification of seeds

4. Seed Dispersal Mechanism

- AUTOCHORY: when dispersal is attained using the plant's own means
- Autochory seed dispersal can either be caused by gravity (barochory), plant
squeezing (boleoautochory), and by trichomes (herpautochory).
- ALLOCHORY: when obtained through external means
Allochory can either be caused by abiotic or biotic vectors. It includes:
● Abiotic vectors
1. Wind – Anemochory
2. Water – Hydrochory
● Biotic vectors/ Zoochory
1. Anthropochory – humans
2. Ornithocory – birds
3. Chiropterochory – bats
4. Myrmemochiry – ants
5. Malacochory – snails