2021 02 Battery Raw Materials Report Final
2021 02 Battery Raw Materials Report Final
2021 02 Battery Raw Materials Report Final
Transport & Environment
Published: March 2021
In-house analysis by Transport & Environment
Authors: Lucien Mathieu ( Sections 1-5) a
nd Cecilia Mattea (Section 6)
Modelling: Lucien Mathieu
Expert group: Julia Poliscanova, Alex Keynes, Thomas Earl
Editeur responsable: William Todts, Executive Director
© 2021 European Federation for Transport and Environment AISBL
To cite this study
Transport & Environment (2021), From dirty oil to clean batteries
Further information
Lucien MATHIEU
Transport & E-mobility Analyst
Transport & Environment
[email protected]
Mobile: +32 (0)4 83 08 48 91
Square de Meeûs, 18 – 2nd floor | B-1050 | Brussels | Belgium
www.transportenvironment.org | @transenv | fb: Transport & Environment
Acknowledgements
The authors kindly acknowledge the external peer reviewers James Frith (Bloomberg NEF, Head of
Energy Storage) and Hans Eric Melin (Founder of Circular Economy Storage). The findings and views
put forward in this publication are the sole responsibility of the authors listed above. The same
applies to any potential factual errors or methodology flaws.
A study by 2
Executive Summary
In light of the urgency to decarbonise the transport sector, batteries offer the best route to a carbon
free road transport system and are the key technology underpinning the transition of road vehicles
to zero emissions, freeing the sector from its dependency on fossil-fuels. With battery electric
vehicles (BEV) expected to replace conventional cars in Europe, the demand in battery cells and
battery raw materials like lithium, nickel and cobalt is set to grow in the coming years. But how can
the demand for battery materials be met sustainably? And how does a battery-based road transport
system compare to the current fossil driven road mobility? In this report T&E analyses forecasted
supply and demand of battery cells and associated raw materials in Europe, looking at how
recycling can reduce the need for battery primary materials. The report highlights the superiority of
the battery-based mobility system - whether on raw material demand, energy efficiency or cost -
compared to the current oil-based system.
Enough “made in EU” batteries for the electric vehicle market
With electric vehicle (EV) sales surging, the total demand for batteries in Europe is expected to
reach close to 300 GWh in 2025, more than 700 GWh in 2030 and more than 1,300 GWh in 20351.
While there was, until 2020, a shortage of batteries produced in Europe to equip all the electric
vehicles placed on the market, supply could match demand as soon as 2021 at around 90 GWh if
planned production comes on time.
There are 22 battery gigafactories planned to be set up in the next decade in the EU, with total
production capacity going from 460 GWh in 2025 (enough for around 8 million battery electric cars)
to 730 GWh in 2030, which is enough for the expected EV market. This shows that policies aimed at
boosting the EV market also bring the supply chain and investments into domestic manufacturing.
If the production is to ramp up on schedule, the battery supply could even surpass the European
demand in the mid-2020s with both supply and demand expected to be on par at around 700 GWh
in 2030.
1
includes demand for BEVs and PHEVs cars and covers light and heavy duty vehicles as well as
stationary storage
A study by 3
More (batteries) with less (materials)
With European production increasing, so will the demand for raw materials over the next decade.
However, with battery technology evolving, less raw material will be needed to produce each
kWh of an EV battery. From 2020 to 2030, the average amount of lithium required for a kWh of EV
battery drops by half (from 0.10 kg/kWh to 0.05 kg/kWh), the amount of cobalt drops by more than
three quarters, with battery chemistries moving towards a lower cobalt content (from 0.13 kg/kWh
A study by 4
to 0.03 kg/kWh). For nickel the decrease is less pronounced - around a fifth - with new battery
chemistries moving towards a higher nickel content (from 0.48 kg/kWh to 0.39 kg/kWh).
Reducing primary demand through recycling
Unlike today’s fossil fuel powered cars, electric car batteries are part of a circular economy loop
where battery materials can be reused and recovered to produce more batteries. Recycling of
battery materials is crucial to reduce the pressure on primary demand for virgin materials and
ultimately limit the impacts raw material extraction can have on the environment and on
communities.
If the current recovery rates proposed in the new EU draft battery regulation are increased to
current best practice, i.e. 90% for lithium (from 70%) and 98% for cobalt and nickel (from 95%), the
amount of lithium in each EV battery that cannot be used again for battery production (i.e. that is
lost in the recycling process) is divided by three, while the amount that can’t be recovered for
cobalt, nickel and copper is divided by 2.5.
When taking into account the amount of EV battery recycling, the growing raw material needs are
mitigated even further. Under the Commission’s proposed target, in 2030, 5% of lithium, 17% of
cobalt and 4% of nickel required for EV battery production can be obtained from recycled European
EV batteries. In 2035, this increases to 22% of lithium and nickel, and 65% of cobalt as more cars
come to the end of life. Thanks to higher recycling targets, in 2035, the supply from recycled
batteries reduces further the need for primary materials by 6% for lithium, 2% for cobalt, and 1% for
nickel.
A study by 5
Recycling of electric vehicles starts to have a strong impact from 2030, while the recycling of
portable electronics (not captured here), could already reduce the demand for primary materials in
the 2020s.
Lithium, cobalt, nickel are available in sufficient quantities to enable a rapid, worldwide adoption of
electric vehicles. Looking at Europe, if the current European reserves for raw materials were
converted in BEV batteries, this would account for the equivalent of the lithium for 200 million BEVs
produced in 2030 (or 20 million with no recycling), the nickel for 17 billion BEVs (or 300 million with
no recycling) and the cobalt for 500 million BEVs (or 10 million with no recycling).
Oil vs. batteries: double standards?
While ramping up battery materials on time has its challenges, these pale in comparison to the
environmental, raw material supply, and energy cost weaknesses of the current fossil-based road
transport system. While internal combustion engine (ICE) cars emit toxic fumes and CO₂ causing
catastrophic global warming as they drive, BEVs do not burn fuel at the tailpipe and battery
A study by 6
On the energy efficiency side, over its lifetime the BEV will require 58% less energy than a petrol car
over its lifetime. With regards to CO₂ emissions, the average European BEV emits 64% less CO₂ than
a conventional ICE when comparing CO₂ lifecycle emissions (see T&E EV LCA tool). In economic
A study by 7
Recommendations
For Europe to finally move away from burning fossil fuels in cars, it must accelerate the
replacement of conventional cars with BEVs by setting an EU-wide phase-out date for the sale of
new cars with internal combustion engines no later than 2035. Policies to use cars more efficiently,
especially shared mobility and less private car use in cities, will reduce raw materials demand.
Whilst the new EU battery regulation takes an important step towards ensuring that EV batteries
meet the highest environmental and social standards, more should be done:
A study by 8
A study by 9
Table of contents
Abbreviations 11
1. Introduction 13
7. Conclusion 64
Annex 66
A study by 10
Abbreviations
BEV Battery Electric Vehicle
EV Electric Vehicle (In this report, this stands for battery electric vehicles and plug-in hybrid
electric vehicles).
A study by 11
1. Introduction
Emissions from the transport sector are the European Union’s biggest climate problem and have been
the only sector with increasing CO₂ emissions. In the EU, emissions from light duty vehicles (cars and
vans) account for 14% of total emissions of CO₂ and more than half of CO₂ emissions from transport2.
To meet the European Green Deal objective of reaching climate neutrality by 2050 and to reach the
newly agreed 2030 GHG reduction target of -55% compared to 1990 levels, the EU needs to undergo a
rapid transformation of its road transport system towards electric cars.
Batteries are the key technology underpinning the transition of road vehicles to zero emissions and
freeing the sector from its dependency on fossil-fuels. With the European electric vehicle (EV) market
growing, demand for battery production will also grow. And as battery production ramps up in
Europe, so will the need for strategic raw materials present in batteries such as cobalt, lithium and
nickel. The EU will import some of these raw materials and this new technology also poses some
challenges but with the right policies and regulation in place the EU can make the most out of the
numerous benefits of the transition to e-mobility. To achieve this, the European Battery Alliance was
established in 2017 and is now at the heart of the European strategy to create its own competitive and
sustainable li-ion battery value chain.
Nonetheless, there are still today some questions and myths around the environmental credentials of
batteries and the reliability of a car mobility system entirely based on battery electric vehicles. This
report will assess and investigate some of these questions related to batteries, in particular regarding
the supposedly high requirements for raw materials to keep track with the EV growth and the
interrogations around the supply of battery cells and associated raw materials in Europe3. The impact
and benefits of a mobility system based on batteries is rarely put into perspective with the current
oil-based system which we attempt to do here to underline the current double standard approach.
Therefore this paper aims to provide a comparison on a system level the resource needs of fuel
powered vs battery powered cars to answer the underlying question: which one has less of an impact.
The first section is the introduction, the second section analyses what are the implications of the
uptake of EVs for the supply and demand of batteries in Europe in terms of battery cells, while section
three looks into the supply and demand for battery raw materials. The fourth section compares the
impact of an electric car running on renewables with a conventional fossil fuelled car along four
different perspectives: demand for raw materials, energy demand, investment needs, and CO₂
2
UNFCCC 2018 reporting
3
Myths about the lifecycle CO₂ emissions of BEV compared to their ICE counterparts have been addressed
by T&E in the past. Link
A study by 12
emissions. Section five presents the overall conclusion on our dependency towards battery raw
materials and crude oil. Finally, in section six, lays out T&E recommendations on how ambitious policy
can help foster a successful European battery industry.
4
Cars are retired on average after close to 15 years. Transport & Environment (2018), How to decarbonise
European transport by 2050. Link
5
Placed on the market.
6
In this paper, we assume that the vehicles sold in the EU are produced in Europe. Some electric cars are
likely to be imported and others exported but the effect of this is expected to be limited as carmakers
typically manufacture the cars close to the market given that import tariffs apply and that the supply
chains challenges and drawbacks of exporting cars across the globe are important. As a result we assume
that the effects of the exports and the imports cancel each other.
A study by 13
Figure 1: Forecasted battery demand in Europe
Road transport altogether accounts for a demand in li-ion batteries of 240 GWh in 2025, 620 GWh in
2030 and 1,170 GWh in 2035. Beyond 2035, the demand for batteries from light duty vehicles would
increase at a slower rate as the new sales of cars and vans are fully electric and eventually stagnate
around 1,400 GWh.
In the 2020s, the demand for batteries for cars stagnates at around three quarters (72%) of the total
battery demand for new batteries in vehicles and storage. For vans the share of the battery demand
increases from 3% of the total in 2020 to 8% from 2026. Heavy duty commercial vehicles account for
A study by 14
3% of the demand in 2020, increasing to 4% and only taking-off in the 2030s with 10% of the total in
2035.
7
Production plants produce more than a gigawatt-hours of cell annually.
A study by 15
A study by 16
8
Electrive, 18/02/2021, Italvolt to set up 45 GWh cell production in Italy. Link
9
Northvolt, 19/02/2021, Northvolt expands operations in Poland to establish Europe’s largest factory for
energy storage solutions. Link
10
Motorpassion, 18/02/2021, ¡Es oficial! Valencia tendrá una gigafactoría de baterías para coches eléctricos
gracias a una macroalianza, con Ford incluido. Link
11
European Investment Bank (2020), EIB reaffirms commitment to a European battery industry to boost
green recovery. Link
12
A number of projects were not included given they have not been fully confirmed, namely a Panasonic
factory in Norway, a BYD European factory and the Customcells factory in Germany, in partnership with
Porsche.
13
Electrek, 24 November 2020, Tesla’s first full battery cell factory will produce up to 250 GWh — roughly
the current world capacity. Link
A study by 17
Figure 3: Battery cell production capacity in Europe, per country
Currently there is a shortage of batteries produced in Europe to equip all the electric vehicles placed
on the European market. In 2020, T&E estimates the supply delivered to the market to be around 49
GWh (also confirmed by the EIB14) while the calculated demand is 54 GWh (40 GWh for passenger cars
alone). In 2021, T&E models that both supply and demand should be on par at 91-92 GWh, assuming
the planned European production ramps up on schedule. From this year, the supply overtakes the
demand and reaches a maximum excess of around 200 GWh in 2026. From 2026 to 2030, this gap
decreases and closes in 2030, where the calculated excess supply compared to the demand for
European production is close to 30 GWh (730 GWh production capacity).
14
EIB (2020, May 19), EIB reaffirms commitment to a European battery industry to boost green recovery Link
A study by 18
Figure 4: Battery cell supply and demand in Europe
Given the uncertainties in such prospective analyses and the complexity of the large industrial
projects considered here, it is possible that some of the planned European production is delayed by
several years. This would push some of the production planned in the mid-2020s towards 2030 and
put the supply closer in line with the demand. If the electrification of various transport and power
sectors would move faster than expected, this could also easily absorb the potential excess in battery
production. Furthermore, any excess in production of batteries in Europe could be exported as
batteries or as electric vehicles to other markets and battery production plants could also be
functioning at a capacity which is not 100%. Finally, this analysis also shows that, if battery producers
deliver on their ambition, there is room to accelerate the EV sales beyond the T&E scenario and
increase the car CO2 emission standards further in the mid-2020s.
A study by 19
15
Speech by Vice-President Šefčovič at the European Conference on Batteries. Link
A study by 20
Firstly, based on several sources (including BNEF and Ricardo16), T&E elaborated a scenario for Li-ion
battery chemistry mix which will be used to power the electric vehicles. The dominant chemistry
today is NMC622, accounting for 36% of the batteries on the market, which would be overtaken by
NMC811 in 2025 (41% of batteries) and then by NMC9.5.5 in 2030 (37% of batteries), as per Figure 5
below. The naming convention for battery chemistries is based on the first letter of the key materials
included in the cathode, along with their proportions. For example the cathode of NMC622 batteries is
made of nickel, manganese and cobalt in the proportions 6-2-2 (i.e. three times more nickel than
manganese or cobalt). As we approach 2030, it is expected that batteries will move from Li-ion to
advanced chemistries (see info box on p.26), which leads to much higher uncertainties with regards to
the battery mix, especially after 2030.
Figure 5: Average battery sales composition
Thanks to an increase in battery energy density (from slightly more than 200 Wh/kg in 2020 to around
350 Wh/kg in 2030), each of the battery chemistries presented above will require less material for a
given kWh over the years. By taking this into account, T&E calculates that the amount of lithium
16
Ricardo, Link. BNEF, Link
A study by 21
required for a given kWh of battery decreases from 0.10 kg/kWh in 2020 to 0.05 kg/kWh in 2030 (see
Figure 6, see more in Annex)17. For cobalt the decrease is even more significant with battery
chemistries moving towards lower contents of cobalt: from 0.13 kg/kWh in 2020 to 0.03 kg/kWh in
2030. For nickel the decrease is less pronounced as NMC batteries move towards higher nickel
content: from 0.48 kg/kWh in 2020 to 0.39 kg/kWh in 2030.
Figure 6: Average battery cell composition (kg/kWh)
From hereon, the rest of the section will focus on three key raw materials: nickel, cobalt and lithium,
due to their prominence both in battery technology and importance from a policy and strategic
sourcing point of view.
17
Excluding waste during manufacturing, formation cycle loss and inactive active material (material in the
cathode that is not in electrical contact with the current collector).
A study by 22
By combining the results above, T&E modelled the total volumetric demand in key battery cell raw
materials (nickel, lithium, cobalt and manganese) and calculated the raw material demand for these
metals. The demand for materials from the planned European production will significantly increase
(see Figure 7):
● from 5 kt of lithium in 2020 to 36 kt in 2030;
● from 7 kt of cobalt in 2030 to 21 kt in 2030;
● from 26 kt of nickel in 2025 to 276 kt in 2030
Figure 7: Total demand in key battery cell raw materials without recycling (in kt)
There are important uncertainties underlying the evolution of raw material demand for battery cells,
with the evolution of the battery chemistries playing an important role. In particular, it is very
challenging to foresee and model any breakthroughs in battery cell chemistries.
The current analysis is based on incremental evolution of current known battery chemistries and does
not take into account the potential penetration of advanced battery chemistries because of the
A study by 23
inherent uncertainties. As a result, the output presented here for the 2030-2035 timeframe should be
considered for indicative purposes only. More information on future more advanced battery
chemistries can be found in the info box below.
18
D. Bresser et al. (2018), “Perspectives of automotive battery R&D in China, Germany, Japan, and the USA”, J.
Power Sources, vol. 382, pp. 176–178.
19
European Commission (2020). Solid-state-lithium-ion-batteries for electric vehicles. Link
20
The solid-polymer-electrolyte batteries will be at the stage of ‘market introduction with competitive
performance indicators’ from 2025 (TRL: 7-8).
A study by 24
formation and the growth of lithium dendrites21, which is today one of the biggest challenges with
solid state batteries. By enabling these lithium anodes, solid state batteries are able to achieve
much higher densities. Cathode materials could be composed of traditional NMC and NCA cathode
materials but are expected to shift to next generation cathodes like sulphur22.
Solid state batteries could be expected from the second half of the 2020s23, and would have reduced
costs and very high energy densities: around 350-500 Wh/kg (vs. around 200-250 Wh/kg currently),
800-1,200 Wh/L and 1,000 cycles before reaching end-of-life. BloombergNEF expects that these cells
could be manufactured at 40% of the cost of current lithium-ion batteries, when produced at scale24
. Although there are still considerable R&D challenges, solid state batteries are on the roadmaps of
most major Li-ion battery producers and OEMs (with many aiming to get into the market with solid
state battery EVs between 2022 and 2025, see more in Annex).
Metal-air chemistries
Finally the last of the currently foreseen steps in the battery technology breakthroughs are
lithium-air (Li-air) -or other metal-air- batteries with a more uncertain time frame (possibly from the
early 2030s) with an energy density of 500-700 Wh/kg25.
21
Dendrites are crystals that develop with a typical multi-branching tree-like form (e.g. snowflakes). With
lithium anodes, dendrites penetrate the separator between the anode and the cathode causing short
circuits, which may result in fire and maybe even explosion.
22
Sulfur makes an unsuitable cathode in liquid electrolyte applications because it is soluble in most liquid
electrolytes, dramatically decreasing the battery's lifetime.
23
European Commission (2020), Solid-state-lithium-ion-batteries for electric vehicles. Link
24
BloombergNEF (2020), Battery Pack Prices Cited Below $100/kWh for the First Time in 2020, While Market
Average Sits at $ 137/kWh. Link
25
PushEVs (2020, June 10), CATL Energy Density Development Roadmap. Link
A study by 25
Higher recycling targets
Recycling waste batteries keeps raw materials in use for longer periods, by recovering valuable
materials, using them for new products and preventing losses. This is especially the case for critical
metals used in batteries, notably cobalt and lithium. The European Commission’s new proposed
regulation on batteries has specific recycling targets for lithium-ion batteries which are: 90% for
cobalt, nickel and copper in 2025, then 95% in 2030; and 35% for lithium in 2025 and 70% in 2030, see
infobox below.
26
Taken from Commission draft proposals from December 2020, yet to to be agreed in co-decision to
become final law.
27
Recycling efficiency is the ratio between the weight of recycling input and recycling output.
A study by 26
For lithium, a 2019 study looking into recycling for mobile phones28 has shown that the efficiency of
the processes varies from 76% to 95% of lithium being recovered, with most recovery ranges reaching
at least 90%. Thanks to better disassembly methods, the recovery rates from battery recycling can
greatly improve. Indeed, the direct recycling method performs much better on lithium recovery than
the other processes (pyrometallurgy and hydrometallurgy), see below Figure 8 from the
aforementioned paper. Such technological and industrial progress makes a 90% recycling target for
lithium in EV batteries a much more adequate target than the current 70% target proposed29. For
cobalt, the same paper states that extraction yields were in the range of 97–99%.
In China, the official guidance for companies to receive government funding and support (not binding
legislation) asks companies to recover 98% of cobalt and nickel and 85% of lithium30. Despite it not
(yet) being binding, companies who do not fulfil the requirements will not receive the government
support they otherwise would, neither on state level nor on provincial level. According to expert Hans
Eric Melin most recyclers are already complying.
Figure 8: Comparison of different recycling methods 31
However, the impact assessment does not consider any higher targets than the ones proposed in by
the Commission in December 2020 and does not justify why the proposed rates are chosen.
28
D. Quintero-Almanza et al., (2019), A Critical Review of Lithium-Ion Battery Recycling Processes from a
Circular Economy Perspective. Link
29
Nature, Recycle spent batteries. Nat Energy 4, 253 (2019). Link
30
Chinese official guidance for government funding and support. Link
31
G. Harper et al., (2019). Recycling lithium-ion batteries from electric vehicles. Link
A study by 27
In the analysis below, and given the evidence to date, the T&E scenario for recycling will be 90% for
lithium and 98% for cobalt and nickel (see recommendations for more). It should be noted that
battery chemistries in particular of Li-ion may change comparatively fast therefore specific recovery
targets should be prioritised before and above the recycled content requirements. But it is important
that only high-quality recycling should be accounted for material recovery targets (no down-cycling),
in order to ensure that these recycled battery materials are able to feed back into the battery value
chain.
Cost-effectiveness of recycling: Higher recycling targets might not be fully economically viable in the
early phase (e.g. with current lithium recycling) but they will drive the market and investment into the
European recycling industry. As investments are made and technology improves and scales, then
higher targets will be economically viable. Furthermore, it’s the value of the metals that is driving the
recovery rate, which means that the actual recovery rates are likely to be higher than the targets from
the regulation given the recycling will have to be fulfilled at a high level already.
Battery casing and periphery: I n order to cover the remaining materials, not covered by the specific
recycling targets, there is a target of overall battery recycling of 65% by 2025, rising to 70% by 2030
based on weight. Due to the high economic value of the aluminum and copper in the outer casing and
periphery of EV batteries, the recycling of these materials is likely to be driven by the market to a large
extent. It should be noted that recycling of outer casing and periphery account for about 30% (due to
aluminium recycling) of the entire credits of Global Warming Potential (GWP) from battery recycling
according to the European Commission.
Environmental benefits from recycling: Due to the high relevance of the active materials (e.g. cobalt)
specific targets for the recovery of these materials are considered to be necessary. The impact
assessment shows that setting targets for material recovery rates for specific materials (Co, Ni, Li, Cu,
Pb) leads to higher environmental benefits. According to the European Commission Impact
Assessment, there would be an overall CO₂ reduction of 4.3% (all emissions from battery production,
includes the upstream) from a small increase in the recycling target: from 80% for cobalt, nickel and
copper and 10% for lithium (baseline scenario) to what is proposed by the European Commission32.
Similar results are found for the depletion of abiotic resources and human toxicity potential.
T&E analysis on recycling focuses on three of the key battery materials which are regulated with
specific material-recovery targets: lithium, cobalt and nickel. Copper is also partly covered as well
because of a similar recovery target.
About 150 000 (in 2020) to 620 000 metric tons (in 2030) of CO₂-eq are avoided every year compared to the
32
baseline.
A study by 28
Impact on the reduction of battery materials demand
Thanks to recycling, a significant share of the battery raw materials can be recovered as secondary
material and be used again in the value chain, thus reducing the overall material demand for primary
materials. Figure 9 below presents an overview of how much lithium, cobalt and nickel is consumed
for an average BEV battery, both in 2020 and 2030. First, the material requirements per battery
production are calculated, then compared with the amount of battery material which is not recycled -
and which can be considered as ‘lost’ (or ‘consumed’) in the process - under two recycling scenarios;
current targets proposed by the European Commission (EC) and T&E recycling targets. Calculations
are based on the above assumptions for the material content of battery cells for a 60 kWh battery.
For vehicles produced with the average 2020 batteries, recycling the battery reduces the amount of
key battery cell material (lithium, cobalt and nickel) lost by 92% under the targets of the European
Commission and 97% under the T&E targets. In other words, compared to a scenario with no
recycling, there is a loss of 8% of the materials necessary under the European Commission target,
while it drops to 3% under the T&E target. Thus, increasing the ambition from the EC recycling
target to the T&E recycling targets reduces by two thirds the quantity of lithium, nickel and
cobalt lost. For batteries produced in 2030, the same relative benefits of the T&E recycling targets
over the current EC recycling targets can be found, however, the volumes of metal lost are lower
thanks to improvements in battery chemistries (see Table 1 and Figure 9 for more details).
A study by 29
Figure 9: Comparison of metal-weight consumption in different scenarios
This means that in the long run, when ICEs are fully phased out and the high volumes of EoL batteries
go to recycling, the T&E recycling targets would reduce by a factor of three the amount of primary
lithium required to make new batteries and by 2.5 the amount of nickel and cobalt compared to
the current European Commission proposed targets.
No recycling EC recycling target T&E recycling target
Minerals
Lithium 5.9 kg 3.1 kg 1.8 kg 0.9 kg 0.6 kg 0.3 kg
Cobalt 7.7 kg 1.7 kg 0.4 kg 0.09 kg 0.2 kg 0.03 kg
A study by 30
Nickel 28.9 kg 23.5 kg 1.4 kg 1.2 kg 0.6 kg 0.5 kg
Table 1: Key metal ‘lost’ per average BEV battery
Securing raw material though recycling
Batteries which are available for recycling mainly come from EV batteries that have reached their end
of life in the vehicle (or end of second life in secondary application) but they can also originate from:
batteries from production scrap, from test batteries/EVs, off-spec products, non-sold batteries
(return-to-vendor) vehicles, road accidents and any type of battery replacements. As a result, EV
batteries that go to recycling can have the material composition of batteries that are produced in the
same year, or can be much older. Therefore, flows of EV batteries that go back to recycling companies
will stay small in the next decade as the EV batteries will last more than a decade on average in their
first use for transport (for the vast majority) while second-life applications and battery re-use will
further increase the lifetime of a battery until the moment the battery reaches the final recycling
stage. However, because of production scrap and earlier replacements, materials used to produce
batteries are expected to find their way back to the recycling stage after slightly more than 10 years on
average.
According to Circular Energy Storage, in 2030, only 16% of the global 170 GWh end-of-life batteries (i.e.
27 GWh) will be available for European recyclers33, which is only 4% of the overall European battery
demand in 2030. Given the low volume of EVs sold before 2020, the availability of EV batteries for
recycling will only start to increase to more significant levels towards the early 2030s when the EV
batteries from early EVs reach the recycling stage. When modelling the recycling capacity beyond
2030, T&E calculates that European recyclers could provide materials for up to 16% of new cells
manufactured in 2035, or around 220 GWh. The supply from other sources of batteries like portable
electronics - which are not taken into account here - will also contribute to the secondary supply of
recycled content, especially in the 2020s when the supply from EV batteries is still relatively low.
T&E calculates that the amount of recycled material from EV batteries will increase sharply in the
2030s: supply of recycled lithium would increase from around 2,000t in 2030 to 12,000t in 2035
(contained lithium, not LCE or lithium carbonate equivalent); supply from recycled cobalt from 4,000t
in 2025 to 16,000t in 2035 and supply from nickel from 11,000t in 2030 to 94,000t in 2035 (see Figure
10). In the T&E scenario, the total amount of recycled lithium, cobalt and nickel increases by 6%
compared to the European Commission targets.
This supply from recycling reduces the pressure on the primary demand for raw materials and the
need to provide supply from mining activities. In 2030, 5% for lithium, 17% for cobalt and 4% for nickel
33
‘PV-magazine, December 16, 2020. Europe’s battery recycling quotas are blunt and a decade too late’ Link
A study by 31
required for new EV battery production can be obtained from recycled European EV batteries (based
on the European Commission material recovery rates). In 2035, recycling could provide at least 22% of
the lithium and nickel and 65% of the cobalt necessary for European EV battery production (28% for
lithium, 22% for cobalt and 67% for nickel under the T&E scenario). These calculations conservatively
assume that 2035 EV batteries are still based on the liquid electrolyte batteries (mainly high density
NMC) and do not take into account the likely uptake of more advanced battery chemistries. In other
words, if recycling was not taken into account, other supply sources would need to ramp-up, including
primary sources from mining and secondary supply from other regions. For example, in 2035, the
supply of cobalt would have to triple in the absence of recycling (+28% nickel and +39% lithium).
Figure 10: Impact of recycling on reducing primary material demand
A study by 32
Figure 11: Demand of Li, Ni and Co, including supply from recycling
The supply of recycled materials from portable electronics is not part of the scope of this analysis. If
we were to take this secondary supply into account, this would provide secondary metals much
sooner and result in lower net demand from primary sources as a consequence of higher supply from
recycling (due to shorter useful life of these cells). Nonetheless, supply from (recycled) portable
batteries is much smaller than from EV batteries (at least by a factor 10), and cannot replace recycled
EV batteries.
The European Commission also proposed targets for recycled content of 12% for cobalt and 4% for
lithium and nickel34, although that target does not specify the origin of the recycled content35.
34
It this report, it was assumed that when taking into account the various sources of end-of-life EV batteries
available to recycling (e.g. production scrap, degraded battery etc..) and averaging the effects, the amount
of EV batteries available for recycling in battery in a given year is equal to the volume placed on the market
11 years prior to that year.
35
Recycled batteries from portable electronics can be used to reach the recycled content target. As
reported by article from PV-magazine, even in 2030, most batteries available for recycling will come from
portable electronics and EVs will contribute only 26% of volume.
A study by 33
However, because the battery market is a fast growing and highly innovative one and there are
inherent uncertainties on the type of batteries produced in the future (especially from 2030), high
recycling targets should be preferred over more uncertain and redundant recycling content targets.
For example, LFP batteries have recently made an come-back as they are becoming increasingly
popular for cheaper mid-sized EVs although they have inferior energy densities. If this trend continues,
and because LFP batteries do not contain cobalt, then cobalt recycled content targets become useless
for LFP batteries (and very easy to reach for the remaining batteries that use cobalt). On the other
hand, as high-lithium content solid state batteries take over the market, the target for lithium recycled
content could become more challenging.
36
Transport & Environment (2019), Batteries on wheels: the role of battery electric cars in the EU power
system and beyond. Link
37
Belgian-based global materials technology and recycling group Umicore received its first loan of €125mn
from the EIB to finance the construction of the greenfield production facility for cathode materials in Nysa,
Poland.
A study by 34
Future perspectives
Now that battery production is setting up shop across Europe and that the EV market is rapidly
reaching good maturity levels, several new companies are also taking position and investing in battery
recycling. According to Circular Energy Storage, more than ten companies have concrete plans to start
recycling lithium-ion batteries with many planning to set up large scale facilities. To name a few:
● Battery manufacturer Northvolt is aiming for 25,000t (2022)38;
● RS Bruce Metals (UK) will set up a "full scale commercial plant";
● Duesenfeld plans to scale up significantly;
● Umicore aims for a ten fold capacity increase most probably around 2022-2023 (from 7,000
tonnes to 70,000 t per year);
● Accurec, has received funding for the planning and development of technology for a plant
recycling 25,000 t annually;
● Fortum is opening a mechanical processing plant in Ikaalinen, Finland (3,000 tonnes of used
batteries)39.
It is also possible that Asian battery producers that are established in Europe could start offering their
own recycling solutions, something that Samsung SDI already has done as they are part owners of
Sungeel which operates pre-processing close to Samsung's own European factory in Hungary. This
indicates that there could be significant competition for battery recycling on the European market
which would contribute to producing price-competitive battery recycled material by driving
economies of scale, increasing the utilisation of the recycling facilities and the efficiency of the
processes.
According to Circular Economy Storage, the Chinese recycling capacity was at 707,000t per year in
2020, or 23 times more than Europe’s recycling capacity. China's largest player, Brunp, a subsidiary of
battery manufacturer CATL, has a capacity of 120,000t, or 17 times more than the European largest
recycler Umicore.
38
Northvolt and the Norwegian aluminium producer Norsk Hydro announce the formation of a joint
venture to enable the recycling of battery materials and aluminium for EVs.
39
Electrive, 27 January 2021, Fortum expands recycling business in Finland. Link
A study by 35
as possible. Even when done under the highest environmental standards, mining has an impact on the
surrounding ecosystem and environment and can have social impacts as well. In this section T&E
assesses the origin of battery raw materials used in Europe and then provides an overview of
European supply and reserves of key battery materials.
European dependence on foreign materials
The European Commission defines Critical Raw Materials as those are economically important and
have a high supply risk40. Out of those used in lithium-ion batteries, the Commision has identified
cobalt, lithium and natural graphite, see Table 2 below where nickel was added given the scale of the
expected nickel demand (see previous section 3.1).
Raw material Main global producers EU sourcing countries EU import reliance
Nickel Indonesia (30%), Philippines Exports: 11.8 kt vs. Imports Above 50%42
(16%), Russia (10%), New 4.9 kt in 2019 41
Caledonia (8%), Australia USA (32%), Australia (21%),
(7%), Canada (7%) Canada (20%), Russia (14%)
Table 2: EU sourcing of key battery raw materials.
What this shows is that at present Europe depends almost entirely on external imports for raw
materials. Some of these materials are almost exclusively supplied from a single country, notably
lithium which is almost entirely sourced from Chile. It is also essential that the extraction of primary
40
European Commission (2020), Critical Raw Materials Resilience. Link
41
TrendEconomy, Annual International Trade Statistics by Country. Link
42
Di Persio et al. (2020), Information gap analysis for decision makers to move EU towards a Circular
Economy for the lithium-ion battery value chain. Link
A study by 36
materials does not come at the cost of the environment or of local communities; these
recommendations are further detailed in section 6.
Overview of European production and reserves
Currently - similarly to oil - most of Europe’s battery raw material comes from outside the Union. The
EU has however expressed the ambition of achieving “strategic autonomy” on critical raw materials43
by looking more into the availability of raw material within its borders. The table below shows the
global and European production (excluding Russia), reserves and resources for lithium, nickel and
cobalt. It is based on the United States Geological Survey44 unless specified otherwise. Mineral
reserves are mineral deposits which are legally, economically, and technically feasible to extract.
Global Europe
43
European Commission (2020), Critical Raw Materials Resilience (Communication). L ink
44
U.S. Geological Survey (2020), Mineral commodity summaries 2020: U.S. Geological Survey. Link
45
Portugal, 2019e
46
Portugal
47
Germany (2.5 million tons), Czech Republic (1.3 million), Serbia (1 million), Spain (300,000), Portugal
(250,000), Austria and Finland (50,000)
48
25,000 (terrestrial) and 120,000 (manganese nodules and crusts on the ocean floors)
49
All sourced from Finland (2016 data). In Finland, cobalt is currently produced in four mines, Talvivaara
(see Box 9), Kylylahti, Kevitsa and Hitura, where it is a by-product of nickel or copper. See section 3 JRC
(2018), Cobalt: demand-supply balances in the transition to electric mobility. Link
50
Mainly in Finland, but also Sweden and Spain. Ibid
51
Ibid. M
ainly Spain and Sweden, while there are unconfirmed amounts in Cyprus, Slovakia, Austria, Czech
Republic, Germany, Italy and Poland. Important resources are also be found in Turkey
52
Up to 300,000 according to the Nickel Institute (Nickel Institute, January 2020, Is there enough nickel?
Reserves, resources and recycling. Link)
53
Mainly Finland, Greece and Spain but also Norway and Poland. Euromines, Production by mineral. Link
54
Mainly France (New Caledonia), Finland, Greece and Sweden but also Poland, Spain and Norway. Source:
Gavin M. Mudd and Simon M. Jowitt (2014), A Detailed Assessment of Global Nickel Resource Trends and
Endowments. Link
A study by 37
Lithium: T he EU aspires to become ‘almost self-sufficient’ on lithium by 2025 and targets 80% of
Europe’s lithium demand being supplied from European sources by 202555, which T&E calculates
would amount to around 15 kt of lithium produced annually. L ithium production in Europe is
currently concentrated in Portugal.
Cobalt: European reserves for cobalt are much lower than for lithium and nickel. According to the
Joint Research Centre, resources are available in Spain and Sweden, while there are unconfirmed
amounts in Cyprus, Slovakia, Austria, Czech Republic, Germany, Italy and Poland. New supply is
subject to developments in nickel and copper markets as some 90% of cobalt is produced as a
by-product of these minerals, which creates an additional challenge for the supply of the raw material.
Nickel: In Europe, nickel ore is mined in Finland, Greece, France (New Caledonia) and, on a smaller
scale, in Albania, Macedonia, Serbia and Spain.
Europe has 7% of the world’s lithium resources and 19% of the world’s nickel resources but only
0.04% of the world’s cobalt resources. To put this in perspective, these resources are enough to cover
13 times the lithium demand over the period 2020-2035, 0.26 times the cobalt demand and 8 of the
nickel demand over the same period (when recycling is not fully scaled up). If reserves rather than
resources are taken into consideration, Europe’s lithium current reserves would cover 15%, and 8%
for cobalt. On a global scale there are enough lithium resources to cover 200 times the EU needs for
2020-2035, 650 times for cobalt and 40 times for nickel. For global reserves, it would cover around 40
times the needs in lithium, and around 30 times for cobalt and nickel.
To put this in terms of the number of BEVs (based on a BEV produced in 2030), the current European
reserves amount for the following number (for comparison there are around 280 million cars on the
road in the EU).
Number of BEVs (in million) No recycling EC recycling T&E recycling
55
European Commission (2020), Critical Raw Materials Resilience. Link
A study by 38
In short, thanks to secondary supply of materials from recycling, there is no structural longer-term risk
for material availability as geological supply is sufficient for several billions of BEVs. Also, as the BEV
fleet on the road gets older, the recycling market will also ramp up driven by both the market and the
economics.
Section 6, presents examples of mining practices in Europe which can serve as a benchmark to
minimise the impact of mining in Europe as well as how EU public and private players have the means
to implement the highest environmental and social standards for domestic mining.
56
U.S. Geological Survey (2020), Mineral commodity summaries 2020: U.S. Geological Survey. Link
57
International Copper Study Group
58
Copper Alliance, Copper Demand & Long-Term Availability. Link
59
Copper Alliance, Europe’s demand for copper is increasingly met by recycling. Link
60
International Copper Association, 2.3 Million Tonne Energy Storage Boost for Copper. Link
A study by 39
61
Based on average real world fuel consumption of most sold cars in the EU from Spritmonitor (produced
after 2019). Diesel: 6L/100km, Gasoline: 7.5L/100km and BEV: 17.5 kWh/km. For more see Transport &
Environment (2020), How clean are electric cars. Tool, report
62
Lithium, cobalt, nickel, manganese are cathode materials, graphite is found in the anode and aluminum
and copper are mainly found in the current collectors and cell casing/housing (some aluminum in the
cathode for NCA batteries). Not included: electrolyte, binder, separator and the battery pack and module
casing as well as iron and steel
63
NCA+ is also sometimes referred to as NCA90
A study by 40
A study by 41
Figure 12: Lifetime consumption of resources BEVs vs. ICEs (in 2020)
The lifetime fuel consumption of the diesel and petrol cars would be equivalent to a tower of oil
barrels stacked end-to-end, which is 70m high for diesel and 90m high for petrol (approximately the
height of a 25 story building). If compared with a cube made up of the metals in the battery cells, the
cube would be around 38 cm wide (more or less the volume of a microwave). If recycling is taken into
account, the cube of metals which are ‘lost’ goes down to 25 cm (approximately the diameter of a
football).
This visual comparison can be helpful to give an order of the scale of the amount of resources which
are needed, but to fully assess the impact of the extraction of such resources, several additional
factors should be taken into account: the environmental conditions of the extraction of each resource
as well as the scarcity of such resources.
64
Targets: by 20% in 2020 (compared to 1990) and at least 32.5% (compared to projections of the expected
energy use in 2030). Link
A study by 42
65
In 2020, the total primary energy consumption should amount to no more than 1 312 Mtoe in the EU27
and final energy consumption to no more than 959 Mtoe in 2020. In 2018, primary energy consumption in
the EU was 4.9% above the efficiency target for 2020. The EU energy efficiency target for 2030 aims at a
primary energy consumption of no more than 1 128 Mtoe and a final energy consumption of no more than
846 Mtoe. Euractiv, European Commission
66
EU28 total primary energy consumption in 2017 was 1,674.9 Mt oil equivalent, which is 4% higher than its
lowest point in 2014 (1,613.4 Mtoe, the lowest point reached in the 21st century). The transport sector in
the EU28 amounts to 327 Mtoe in 2017. Source: EEA and Eurostat
67
Includes upstream processes as oil production, refining, transport
A study by 43
Figure 13: Lifetime consumption of energy BEVs vs. ICEs (in MJ, in 2020)
The assumptions taken here for the petrol and diesel cars are conservative given that they do not
include biofuels that are blended into petrol and diesel fuels today, which demand much more energy
to produce than oil-based fuels68. The diesel engine is more efficient that the petrol car69, but because
of the higher energy content of diesel fuel over petrol fuel, the diesel car consumes 10% less than the
petrol equivalent over its lifetime (assuming the two vehicles drive the same distance over their
lifetime).
It can be noted here that the energy required to produce the solar PV and wind turbines necessary to
power the BEV only accounts for 7% of the total lifecycle energy of BEVs.
68
The energy return on energy invested (EROEI) is between 0.8 and 1.6 for ethanol and biodiesel. Using for
example the mid value of 1.2, this means that you need to invest one unit of energy to get 1.2 units of
energy out (i.e. only 17% of the energy will be delivered from that fuel to society). For comparison the
EROIE of oil is 18, i.e. 94% of the energy from that fuel is delivered to society. Link
69
20% less fuel consumption per km based on our assumptions for top vehicles sold in the EU
A study by 44
4.3 CO₂ emissions: BEV emit almost 3 times less
In 2020, T&E produced a comprehensive lifecycle analysis of CO₂ emissions from electric cars and
compared it with diesel and petrol cars for 2020 and 2030 and for different car sizes. The online tool
70
BEV cars require 0.85 MJ/km on average or 37% of fossil fuel cars, FCEV cars need to convert hydrogen
into electricity which results in a lower efficiency (1.48 MJ/km or 64% of fossil fuel cars) and PHEV cars have
an average energy efficiency closer to fossil fuel cars (1.81 MJ/km).
71
ICCT (2020), Fact sheet: Real-world usage of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles. Link
72
Transport & Environment (2020), Electrofuels? Yes, we can … if we’re efficient. Link
A study by 45
Figure 14: Lifecycle analysis for CO₂ emissions of electric cars
Transport & Environment (2020), How clean are electric cars? T&E’s analysis of electric car lifecycle CO₂
73
emissions. Link
A study by 46
T&E will update its LCA analysis in the first half of 2021 and add PHEVs to this comparison in the light
of the growing evidence produced in 2020. Vehicle energy consumption and electricity carbon
intensity data will also be updated.
74
BloombergNEF (2020), Battery Pack Prices Cited Below $100/kWh for the First Time in 2020, While Market
Average Sits at $ 137/kWh. Link
75
Frith, James (2020, December, 17) Tweet
76
Ewing, Jack (Sept. 8, 2019), Volkswagen Hopes Fresh Logo Signals an Emission-Free Future. Link
A study by 47
Figure 15: Lifetime cost comparison for energy and battery, BEVs vs. ICEs
77
Mark Matousek, Mark (2019, September 10), Volkswagen has reportedly reached a big milestone in battery
costs that would heat up its competition with Tesla. Link
78
Average EU27 household electricity price: 0.2126 €/kWh (Eurostat). Average EU27 fuel price: 1.262 €/L for
gasoline and 1.124 €/L for diesel (including all taxes). Average fuel prices during the second half of 2020 are
used in order to exclude crude oil price fluctuations from the first half of 2020 from the scope. Source:
Weekly Oil Bulletin
A study by 48
79
For more details on T&E’s TCO calculations, see T&E (2020), Why Uber should go electric. Link
80
Mark Lewis (2019), Wells, wires and wheels - EROCI and the tough road ahead for oil. Link. Mark Lewis is
Global Head of Sustainability Research at BNP Paribas Asset Management
81
Long-term break-even price: $9-10/barrel for gasoline and $17-19/ barrel for diesel
82
The price of Brent crude oil, the international benchmark. EIA expects Brent crude oil prices to average
$53/b in both 2021 and 2022. EIA (2021), Short term energy outlook. L ink
A study by 49
83
Or 37% of the final consumption in energy use (Eurostat Balance Sheets)
84
Oil demand for EU transport: from around 320 Mtoe today to 293-272 Mtoe.
85
Cambridge Econometrics (2020), Oil Dependency in the EU. Link
A study by 50
No tracking or transparency
The oil supply chain suffers from a complete lack of tracking and transparency, especially on the type
of crude oil used in the petroleum products that Europe imports. Because of this it is very difficult to
have a clear idea of what type of oil enters Europe overall, where exactly it has been extracted and
how. This information would be particularly important to know for the dirtiest types of oil like tar
sands oil (Commission study assumes that on average tar sands are 23% worse than conventional
crude oil)86.
86
Transport & Environment (2013), Tar sands and the Fuel Quality Directive - what is it all about?. Link
87
Energy demand from passenger cars in 2010 at 173,396 ktoe in 2010 according to Ricardo (2016),
Exploration of EU road vehicle fuel consumption and disaggregation, Final Report for the European
Commission, DG Climate Action Link. Assumed to increase by 3% from 2010 to 2018 (i.e. same evolution as
the whole of road transport total energy consumption: from 298.6 Mtoe in 2010 to 306.7 Mtoe in 2018). Oil
share in road transport energy demand at 94%. Source: Eurostat Energy Balance Sheet, road transport
(FC_TRA_ROAD_E)
A study by 51
A study by 52
Figure 16: Cost of material needs for battery key cathode metals vs. oil
A study by 53
6. Policy recommendations
The following section outlines how Europe can shift to a sustainable zero-emission mobility system
and the path that the EU should take to create the most sustainable battery value chain, from
sourcing all the way to recycling by meeting the highest environmental and social standards.
A study by 54
centuries been associated with environmental and social concerns and is not singular to the metals
needed for battery technology.
Technology should be complemented by policy choices, both at supranational and at local level, to
make our mobility system sustainable at all levels. Policy choices have a role to play in shaping the
future of transportation especially in environments such as cities with the overarching objective being
reducing the demand for cars through a systemic approach to mobility.
There are many solutions that can successfully contribute to reducing the number of vehicles on the
road88. Whilst car and ride sharing plays an important role, cities must first adopt a holistic approach
to their mobility systems, with smart investments in existing public transport and infrastructure, as
well investing in active and micro-mobility (i.e. bike and e-scooter sharing) ultimately reducing the
overall number of private vehicles in cities. Privately owned diesel and petrol cars should be banned
from EU city centres by 2025.
There are no silver bullets but lowering the energy and material demand in the transport sector by
promoting public transport, shared vehicle use, modal shift, logistics efficiency and reducing air travel
can help to reduce the scale of the challenge.
88
Transport & Environment (2019). Less (cars) is more: how to go from new to sustainable mobility. Link
A study by 55
raw materials extraction whether for EVs or not - as part of the upcoming legislation on mandatory
due diligence in the supply chain the European Commission is due to propose in the first half of 202189.
The European Commission in its proposed regulation has asked for the implementation of mandatory
due diligence standards based on the OECD’s Due Diligence Guidance for Responsible Supply Chains
of lithium, nickel, cobalt, natural graphite and of chemical compounds necessary for the
manufacturing of the active materials of batteries. This will apply to the global supply chains of
batteries placed on the EU market, and so will have a global impact.
With mining often being the most sensitive part of the supply chain, through making said guidelines
mandatory for companies placing batteries on the EU market, policy makers would be able to enforce
the establishment of strong management systems. Those in turn would create a system of
transparency, information collection, and records of supply chain due diligence processes, findings
and resulting decisions with relevant information related to mine of origin, production, transport,
trade, export and the identities of any suppliers of minerals. Regular auditing of the supply chain
would allow for early identification of potential red flags such as human rights abuses or money
laundering for example, providing businesses the opportunity to act on them prematurely.
Companies that place batteries on the market are furthermore asked to apply due diligence
procedures to the whole supply chain: that includes mines, but also refineries and assembly plants.
89
https://ec.europa.eu/info/law/better-regulation/have-your-say/initiatives/12548-Sustainable-corporate-go
vernance
90
Cobalt can be a by-product of copper mining, as it is in the DRC copper belt. Link
91
https://old.danwatch.dk/undersogelseskapitel/impacts-of-copper-mining-on-people-and-nature/
A study by 56
International instruments
Whilst the Commission proposal recognises92 the impact that mining and other battery-related
processes such as recycling have on the environment, on workers and on communities, it only
acknowledges a limited number93 of internationally recognised instruments that are designed to
protect the most vulnerable. For example, the inclusion of ILO Convention 169 on the right of
Indigenous Peoples to Free, Prior, and Informed consent - although already included in other
instruments listed in Annex X including the Tripartite Declaration of Principles concerning MNEs and
Social Policy - should be clearly stated given its importance to the rights of mining-affected
communities. Improvements should also be made to strengthen environmental protection. With one
in every three allegations94 related to raw material extraction linked to water (pollution or access to),
Annex X should address this issue by including adequate steps such as IRMA’s Water Management
requirements, listed under the standard’s environmental responsibility practices95.
In addition to above-mentioned instruments, specifically at mine-level, T&E believes stronger
environmental protection for global mining practices is required. The Initiative for Responsible Mining
Assurance (IRMA)’s Principle 4: Environmental Responsibility, sets out a comprehensive overview of
what responsible mining - and beyond - should look like at the industrial-scale, providing a list that
can be used as a benchmark from waste and materials management all the way to biodiversity
protection.
Artisanal and Small scale Mining
Furthermore, the Commission does not individually address Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining (ASM), a
sector that represents 20%96 of cobalt extraction in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), for
instance. T&E believes a separate strategy on ASM is needed, through involving miners and ensuring
local communities also benefit through trade and development policies aimed at formalising the
sector, establishing cooperatives and improving health and safety conditions. Through its EU-Africa
Partnership and EU development policy for instance, Europe should provide formal support to turn
current pilots into pan-industry practice and fund large-scale formalisation activities that span across
mines and many years, etc. Europe should also include clauses in all its trade agreements on
92
https://ec.europa.eu/environment/waste/batteries/pdf/Annexes-Proposal_for_a_Regulation_on_batteries
_and_waste_batteries.pdf
93
This refers to the list of international instruments listed in Annex X point 3 of the proposed regulation on
batteries.
94
Business & Human Rights Resource Centre (2021), Transition Minerals Tracker. Link
95
https://responsiblemining.net/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/Chapter_4.2_Water_Management.pdf
96
Amnesty International (2016). Is my phone powered by child labour?. Link
A study by 57
compliance with the OECD guidelines for the import of raw materials. In Congo specifically, but not
exclusively, the EU could provide support to develop domestic refining capacity so that they can
export the processed higher value material to Europe directly, instead of going via China. This will not
only aid development and jobs, but will also shorten supply chains and thus slash transport emissions
associated with battery production.
Voluntary schemes and independent auditing
T&E wishes to see regular third-party auditing of recognised voluntary schemes by EU institutions to
ensure continued enforcement throughout. This independent auditing should also be applied to
companies that are participating in existing - albeit recognised - voluntary supply chain certification
schemes as such schemes may not automatically meet compliance criteria. In the case of the biofuels
industry for instance, it was found that the standards presented by the voluntary schemes as a basis
for their recognition were not always applied in practice and that they were not ultimately verified by
the authorities97.
Furthermore, policy makers should mandate on all companies adhering to voluntary schemes an
annual due diligence public report including a supply chain risk assessment as it is required by the
Due Diligence Guidance for Responsible Supply Chains. This should be specifically mandated as some
voluntary schemes do not always ask of their members such a requirement.
It should be noted that no similar requirements for due diligence and traceability exist for oil supply as
details on how oil has been extracted and whether environmental and social safeguards have been
respected do not need to be provided and verified by a third party. Oil should as well be covered as
soon as possible by similar requirements.
Transport & Environment (September 2, 2016), Sustainable’ biofuels certification challenged by EU
97
auditors. Link
A study by 58
A study by 59
For example, according to a research paper published by the European Federation of Geologists, one
of the ten active mines in Finland deploys “a unique and energy-efficient way to extract metals with
about 40% less greenhouse gas emissions and 20% less energy consumption than the average for
nickel production.”98. Or, another example is the first zero carbon lithium extraction project in
Germany99 - Vulcan’s “Zero Carbon Lithium” - which uses a closed-loop geothermal extraction system.
This could be replicated around the Union on similar lithium, cobalt or nickel domestic sources of
supply. Ultimately, domestic mining fully empowers EU public and private players with the means to
fully minimise the impact of mining and respect the highest environmental and social standards.
6.2.3 Recycling
As outlined previously in the infobox in section 3.2.1, the European Commission has proposed new
specific recycling targets for lithium-ion batteries. The proposal asks for specific rates to be recovered
for cobalt, nickel, lithium and copper as well as requiring new batteries to have, for the first time, a
minimum recycled content as of 2030.
If Europe is to become a leading player in the battery value chain, recycling is an important piece of
the puzzle. It must be prioritised ahead of new mining as it will be crucial to offset supply risks, price
fluctuations and environmental and social concerns. At present, however, Europe has very limited
recycling capacity100, with many batteries being sent to China.
Recycling is central to Europe’s battery success story and it can only happen with the appropriate
regulatory ambition, accompanied by smart business investments.
The currently proposed targets mandate a recycling efficiency (ratio between the weight of recycling
input and recycling output)101 for lithium-ion batteries of 65% by 2025, and of 70% by 2030 based on
weight. Moreover, the proposal asks for specific material recovery rates for cobalt, nickel, lithium and
copper, which T&E recommends to increase further in order to reduce the imports from virgin raw
materials.
98
Dehaine, Q. et al., (2020), Battery minerals from Finland: Improving the supply chain for the EU battery
industry using a geometallurgical approach. Link
99
InnoEnergy (21 July, 2020), World’s first zero carbon lithium extraction project to start in Germany. Link
100
Transport & Environment (2019), Batteries on wheels: the role of battery electric cars in the EU power
system and beyond. Link
101
Recycling efficiency is the ratio between the weight of recycling input and recycling output.
A study by 60
102
IEA, May 2020, Clean energy progress after the Covid-19 crisis will need reliable supplies of critical
minerals. Link
103
S&P Global (2020), Pandemic expected to push exploration budgets 29% lower in 2020. Link
A study by 61
diversify sources of supply or localise supply chains and coming at a time of rapidly acceleration of the
demand for battery raw materials with the surge of electric car sales.
On top of minimizing the environmental impact of every step of the battery value chain, EU public and
private actors should also focus on making the overall industry more resilient and less dependent in a
more unstable post-COVID-19 world. OEMs will need to take a stronger foot in the battery supply
chains in order to reach the rapid growth and have strategic security for the supply over the short and
medium term. Moving more upstream in the value chain and increasing vertical integration - a
practice which is widely adopted in China and South Korea - is key for the industry to create more
resilience to supply variations and price volatility, which will become increasingly relevant and
necessary in the future. This will also be helpful and even necessary for OEMs to rapidly clean up their
supply chains by increasing their control and imposing higher environmental and social standards104.
Redirecting the current focus on global mining with Asian refining of cathode materials to build a
European supply chain would further reduce the shipping of materials as well as political risk, and
create more jobs in the EU.
Finally, these considerations for vertical integration are also very relevant for the most downstream
part - the recycling of batteries - as it would allow the industry to create synergies between the
upstream and downstream parts and strive for battery circular economy.
104
Given that the EU due diligence requirements are likely to be applicable 12 months after the regulation
has entered into force, if OEMs rely on imported batteries, the due diligence requirements fall upon them
and could pose some challenges to OEMs if foreign battery suppliers are not able to fulfill the requirements
in time. In this situation, vertical integration where OEMs and/or battery producers control parts of the
upstream battery production could also help as they can provide the relevant information more easily.
105
European Commission, 26 January 2021, State aid: Commission approves €2.9 billion public support by
twelve Member States for a second pan-European research and innovation project along the entire battery
value chain. Link
A study by 62
batteries for EVs with some of the main players of the value chain, especially in the area of R&D and
system integration (EU OEMs). In order to develop and strengthen capacity for future battery
technologies, and to ensure Europe leads on next generation battery technology, the EU should -by
2025- set a goal to manufacture 10 GWh of advanced batteries with double the current energy density
and half the current cost per kWh. This should be done by giving funding to 5-7-year-long consortia
that106:
1. Build on the most promising advanced battery technologies and partner scientists with
engineers from the outset to design pilot lines and start manufacturing small batches of
advanced material.
2. As exemplified by Northvolt and Volkswagen, consortia should include at least one tier 1
supplier or premium car manufacturer that commits to buying the batteries once they meet
the promised performance requirements. There is no path to success without such offtake
commitment. We do not currently recommend mandating the use of these products, but the
upcoming battery, car and other regulations will create opportunities to create more
favourable market conditions for advanced batteries.
3. Where EU funding is given to support EU car or battery manufacturers to produce batteries,
they should commit at least 20% funding of that to advanced battery production within the
same capital investment cycle.
4. Consortia must be required to commit to manufacturing in Europe for the first phase until
production scales up to at least 10 GWh. This should be a precondition of getting EU financing,
will create European high tech and engineering jobs and secure a future industrial base.
It is key that strong collaboration between industry, non-profit (or research) and innovation actors is
ensured and fits into coordinated strategies and programmes between Member States at European
level while developing a skilled workforce with strong battery competences across the whole value
chain.
106
Transport & Environment (2020), How Europe can win the battery race. Link
A study by 63
4. Apply supply chain due diligence with strong environmental and social criteria to the fossil
fuel industry.
7. Conclusion
Industrial processes linked to battery manufacturing have their toll on the environment but if we put
into perspective the battery industry with the fossil fuel one, one cannot deny that - as pointed out in
the media107 recently - the two industries have been suffering from double standards. The oil industry
has benefited for years from lax environmental standards, has fuelled wars and corruption and that,
ultimately, once the fuel is burned, it is forever gone and causes long-lasting devastating effects in
terms of climate change and air pollution.
Nevertheless it is imperative that the new EU battery regulation ensures that the processes used all
along the battery value chain meet the highest environmental and social standards. By doing so it will
guarantee no harmful chemicals end up in nature, make sure all batteries are recycled at the highest
possible rate, with all processes along the battery value chain powered by clean energy. Such
standards should soon enough be replicated in all supply chains and raw materials sourcing across
the economy, with battery materials being the blueprint.
With batteries, the EU has the unique opportunity to move away from external raw material
dependencies from other countries like it was for decades in the fossil fuel industry. This however can
only be achieved if Europe invests in recycling and reuse potential, in improved chemistries that use
less material and utilises smartly its available resources.
107
The Guardian (13 December, 2020), Electric cars are not perfect, but they are a good start. Link
A study by 64
Annex
Assumptions
Passenger car energy efficiency (T&E LCA):
● Fuel consumption ICEs: 6 L/100km diesel, 7.5L/100km gasoline
● BEV energy efficiency: 0.175 kWh/km
Battery cell demand:
● Total car sales: from 2022 onwards, car sales in the EU+UK are at 2019 level (15.2 million)
● Average battery size:
○ BEV: from 50 kWh in 2020 to 60 kWh in 2030
○ PHEV: from 12 kWh in 2020 to 15 kWh in 2030
● Share of battery electric car new registrations: 21% in 2025, 54% in 2030, 100% in 2035
● Share of battery electric van new registrations: 20% in 2025, 50% in 2030, 100% in 2035
● Share of battery electric truck new registrations (>3.5t): 7% in 2025, 17% in 2030, 68% in 2035
Material requirements per kWh in 2020:
Figure 17: Material requirements per kWh in 2020
Battery cell energy density (Wh/kg):
Figure 18: NMW battery cell energy densities
A study by 65
Figure 19: Li-ion battery production capacity in Europe, by origin of producer (GWh)
A study by 66
Joint Research Center, JRC (2017), EU Competitiveness in Advanced Li-ion Batteries for E-Mobility and
108
in 2025 around 200 GWh is needed to comply with the target, which is 44% of the total production
demand. If combined with a higher CO2 reduction target for vans as well (20% BEVs), then the cars
and vans targets can be reached with half of the planned production capacity. In 2030, an increased
target of -65% CO2 reduction would account for 525 GWh of battery, or 72% of the total production
capacity (around 80% of total capacity when including vans at 50% BEV sales in 2030, corresponding
to a 60% CO2 reduction).
A study by 68
Figure 20: Car CO2 reduction targets vs. battery production capacity
A study by 69
Socio-economic perspectives
In September 2020, European Commission added lithium to its list of critical raw materials109 ,
underlined that mobilising Europe’s domestic potential better is an essential part of the EU becoming
more resilient and developing open strategic autonomy and highlights that geographical distribution
of raw materials in Europe and the development of battery production provides interesting
opportunities which could address some of the socio-economic challenges of the energy transition.
Indeed as Figure X below shows, many EU battery raw material resources lie in regions that are heavily
dependent on coal or carbon-intensive industries and where battery factories are planned. Many
mining wastes are rich in critical raw materials and could be revisited to create new economic activity
on existing or former coal-mining sites while improving the environment.
Figure 21: Battery raw material mines, battery factories and coal mines
The European Commission also underlines that the Just Transition Mechanism and the InvestEU fund
should be used to help to alleviate the socio-economic impact of the transition to climate neutrality in
109
Communication from the Commission on Critical Raw Materials Resilience (2020). Link
A study by 70
these regions by supporting their economic diversification through circular economy investments.
To strengthen this ambition to secure the supply of key raw materials, the European Commission has
launched the European Raw Material Alliance in September 2020 which includes 150 companies as
well as NGOs, associations and governments110. This alliance is set up on the same model and
following the success of the European Battery Alliance in order to mobilise industrial and innovation
actors and to help to help build out capacities and investment cases along the entire value chain, from
extraction to processing and recycling.
European Battery Innovation - Member State breakdown
Following the success of the European Battery Alliance, the Commission has approved a second
Important Project of Common European Interest (“IPCEI”) to support research and innovation in the
battery value chain, called “European Battery Innovation”111. The twelve Member States will provide
up to €2.9 billion in funding in the coming years. In the table below the total number of projects
selected is broken down per country. Italy is the leading country for the number of projects (21),
Germany comes second (20), Austria third (8), Finland fourth (5) and Slovakia fifth (4).
Speech by Vice-President Šefčovič at the launch of the European Raw Materials Alliance. Link
110
European Commission, 26 January 2021, State aid: Commission approves €2.9 billion public support by
111
twelve Member States for a second pan-European research and innovation project along the entire battery
value chain. Link
A study by 71
Figure 22: Number of projects under the 2nd IPCEI 'European Battery Innovation'
Solid state battery activities and perspectives in the EU
The largest interest in solid state batteries has been displayed by OEMs. According to a recent
European Commission report, the final market-uptake could strongly depend on strategy decisions of
OEMs. OEMs could launch solid state batteries as optional batteries in form of a premium option,
which would also allow for low manufacturing volumes in the beginning. Many OEMs are aiming to get
into the market with solid state batteries between 2022 and 2025.
● Volkswagen has invested in QuantumScape and aims to bring the first EVs with solid state
batteries on the market in 2025
● BMW and Ford have invested in Solid Power. BMW aims to bring first EVs with solid state
battery on the market in 2026
● Daimler is cooperating with Hydro-Quebec
● PSA Group participates in the ASTRABAT project on solid state, together with Umicore
and Leclanché)
● Toyota is developing a joint venture on solid state with Panasonic (prime Planet Energy),
focusing on
A study by 72
112
McKinsey (2020), How the European Union could achieve net-zero emissions at net-zero cost. Link
A study by 73
ten years to set up supply chains to support a switch to 100% EV sales, from mining the raw materials
for batteries to assembling EVs.
Efficiency of battery BEVs vs. FCEVs113
Figure 23: Energy efficiency comparison of different drivetrains
TCO comparison of BEV with ICE and HEV
113
Transport & Environment (2020), Electrofuels? Yes, we can … if we’re efficient. Link
A study by 74
Figure 24: TCO comparison: BEV vs. diesel and HEV114
114
Transport & Environment (2020), Why Uber should go electric. L ink
A study by 75