Mothers and Infants and Communicative Musicality
Mothers and Infants and Communicative Musicality
Mothers and Infants and Communicative Musicality
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What is This?
STEPHEN N. MALLOCH
Macarthur Auditory Research Centre Sydney, University ofWestern Sydney Macarthur. Austra1ia
• ABSTRACT
Using music as a model, mother/infant vocalisations are examined using computer-
based acoustic analysis. Past research is summarised which demonstrates the
importance of both parties in the mother-infant dyad. Methods are then introduced
for analysing pulse, quality and narrative in mother/infant vocalisations. These
three elements comprise "communicative musicality": those attributes of human
communication, which are particularly exploited in music, that allow co-ordinated
companionship to arise. The analysis of pulse is based on spectrographic analysis,
and regular timing intervals are discovered that serve to co-ordinate the mother's
and infant's joint vocalisations. Quality consists of both the pitch-contour of the
vocalisations, and their timbre. Pitch plots are derived using software developed for
this project using a constant Q spectral transform. I examine how the infant and
mother structure their joint exploration of pitch space on the small and large scale.
Timbre is measured with a variety of acoustic measures - tristimulus values,
sharpness, roughness and width. It is found that the mother's voice changes its
quality in response to the infant's. Narrative combines pulse and quality - it allows
two persons to share a sense of passing time - and the musical companionship is
examined that is created between a mother and her baby as she chants a nursery
rhyme. It is concluded that communicative musicality is vital for companionable
parent/infant communication.
1
INTRODUCTION
A mother and her young baby are playfully interacting. We hear the mother speak
in shan bursts. talking in an inviting sing-song manner. and the baby occasionally
"answers back". It appears that communication is taking place. but communication
based in what? The baby cannot understand the meaning of the words the mother
is using. and the baby often answers in "gliding-type" sounds. The communication
must be "held" by means other than lexical meaning. grammar and syntax.
29
3
THE QUESTION
4
THE METHODS AND THE FINDINGS
When mothers and babies communicate effectively, it is clear that each is highly
"attuned" to the vocal and physical gestures of the other. This attunement is critical.
Without it, as can occur in an interpersonal disorder such as maternal post-natal
depression (Beebe and Lachmann, 1994; Bettes, 1988; Murray and Stein, 1989;
Murray et al., 1996; Papousek and Papousek, 1997), or sensory and motor disorders
of the infant (Burford and Trevarthen, 1997; Fraiberg, 1979; Hauge and Hallan
Tensberg, 1996; Preisler and Palmer, 1986; Trevarthen and Burford, 1995), both
parties will suffer. Failed attunernent has been demonstrated in perturbation
experiments, in which, for example, the mother is asked to keep a still face and to
remain silent in front of her infant for one minute. The baby protests (Tronick et al.,
1980; Murray and Trevarrhen, 1985). In another important test, communication by
video was used (Murray and Trevarthen, 1985). First, a mother and her two-month-
old infant were set up to interact by means of a video-sound link in which each was
photographed by a hidden camera and each saw the other as a video image in real
time. A recording of the mother's behaviour when she was communicating happily
with her infant "live" was replayed to the baby. The infant's immediate reaction to
the active but unresponsive replay of the mother was to make signs of protest, and
then to withdraw. This experiment demonstrates how vital it is that an infant receive
vocal and gestural responses that fit with its innate predisposition to interact with an
other. An infant seeks not just encouraging communicative forms of signal from its
mother - the signals must be appropriately timed and inflected (Nadel et al.,
1999).
The elements of the co-operative and co-dependent communicative interactions
between mother and infant combine to make-up what I have called
"Communicative Musicality". This term recognises that the mother and her infant
31
4.1.
Pulse is the regular succession of expressive "events" through time. An event in vocal
expression may be the beginning or end of a vocalisation, a louder moment, a turn
in the pitch-shape of the mother's voice. The most direct way to measure pulse is
through examination of a spectrograph of the mother/infant vocal interaction.
A spectrograph shows the beginning and end of the vocalisations, their general
pitch movement, and the amplitude of the vocalisations through time. Figure 1 is a
spectrographic analysis of Laura, a 6-week old infant, and her mother vocalising
together). The vocalisations are represented by their harmonic components. the
amplitudes of which are indicated by a grey-scale. calibrated as shown on the top-
left on the spectrograph. The mothers words are shown at the bottom of the
spectrograph. and the baby'svocalisationsare enclosed by rectangles.The vocalisations
are numbered below the spectrograph to allow other measures, which will be
introduced later in the paper, to be matched with the spectrograph. The infant's
vocalisarions are numbered in italics. There are three ten-second sections, each
overlapping the other by one or two seconds, as indicated. The pitch-level of C4
(middle-C) is shown by a broken horizontal line-,
(1) This recording was made in 1979, in Prof. Trevarthen'slaboratory at the University of Edinburgh,
during a project entitled "Co-operative understanding in infancy", funded by the Spencer
Foundation of Chicago. Mother and infant were seated in a room by themselves. The infant was
comfortably seated and strapped into a seat, so that its limb movements were free and it was able
to have eye contact with the mother. During the section shown in the spectrographic analysis, the
mother was instructed to freely chat and play with the infant, and to encourage the infant to smile.
The overall length of this "treatment" was around three minutes.
Simultaneous video, audio and still photographs were recorded. The mother and infant each had an
AKG C451E directional microphone pointing towards their mouth at a distance of around 30 cm.
The audio was recorded in stereo onto a Uher 4200 "Report" Stereo reel-to-reel tape-recorder,
using19cm/sec tape speed.
(2) The generation of spectrographsfor all mother/infant interactions discussed in this paper proceeded
asfollows: Theaudio recordingwas transferredto the hard disk of a DECpc 425i computer (CPUi486DX2
- 50MHz) using software and sound cards designed by Digital Audio Labs (The EdDitor vs. 2.31,
Waveform Editor and Catalogue Manager; The CardD sound card, sampling at 16 bits, at 44.1 kHz).
The sound file was converted from stereo to mono by averaging between the two channels -
separation between the two channels was not sufficient for any benefit to be gained from separate
spectrographic display. The sound file was then acquired by the Digital Signal Processing package
Hypersignal Workstation v2.02 (manufactured by Hyperception), where a Fast Fourier Transform
(FFT) was executed on the waveform file, and the resultant data on frequency displayed as a
spectrograph. The phase information was discarded.
The FFTparameterswere: Transform size: 4096; Overlap: 2048; Window: Hamming. These parameters
were chosen to provide optimum time and frequency resolution within the constraints of the software.
32
2 N Cl SPECTReX;RFFHIC fIft..YSIS
_
-:,-
1.53 1.53' 1.58 1.63 1.48
.'
...'
}- "!
U
Z . if!! ,
.
W .. I s
..
.r :
:::IN
WID
____.....
•
: u.._ _....I
__
2 3 4 : 5 6 7 8
1 sec. come on that's is that
A come on again then clever oh yes right
U
Z , '.. .i) i :. 1.w. ..
W ,,: I , ,,- I '-=. 1\ ....
:::J
C4 - C4
W I I I I
I I I I
I.L 8 : 9 : • 10 11 12 : 13:
1 sec.
B that well tell me tell me some orh come on
right some more then more then
.
}-
@-
U t .
-
Z r-':"';. - :
"'=--.
W
:::J
o _ j:: _ ----
W
C
13
I
I
I 14 15 16 17
.
I
I
I
C4
I.L I I
1 sec.
e come on ch ch
ch ch
ch
ch
egoo goo
33
(3) The periodicity of this bar-structure is further demonstrated from the results of performing a
4k FFTon the loudness data of this 30 second excerpt. The results show that the highest spike lies
at around 0.3 s -1, with a lesserspike around 0.6 s -1. This demonstrates periodicities of around
3.3 and 1.6 seconds. Given the non-exact nature of the bar structure, and that the bar-lines
sometimes lie between events, this result further strengthens our initial belief of a bar-structure of
approximately 1.53 seconds - evidence of a regularity that allows the mother and infant to
negotiate their tum-taking.
(4) Recorded under the same circumstances and conditions as described in note 1.
34
the length of mother's and infant's utterances, and is a subdivision of the longer time
units that can be discerned in this thirty second extract.
...
2. Cl SPECTROGRfFHIC Aft..YSIS
_
r
2.03 2.03 2.06"
..J r I
t-
Il
-Q:. -'- - -'
, il
_.J _ _ _ _ _ _
«:...;.''''
"--
"-'
1 sec.
chhh come on chhh aw tell
A
}-
U
Z
W
:J
(] C4
W
1.L
1 sec.
me a story come on come on a-ha come on xxx
B x =mouth-dick
,.
JI_ .pa....... 20 - 3D seconds
N
l!J 2.03 2.03 2.03 1.7 2.03
0 I
..J .
}-
u
z
W
:J
(] C4
I!-q-----
,",
W
1.L
1 sec.
x x are you still still sleepy a ha ha ha
sleepy
C
Figure 2. Sarah (12 weeks) vocelising with her mother.
35
(5) Although 3 times 0.68 is equal to 2.04, the units of 0.68 seconds are grouped into larger units
of 2.03 seconds due to the rounding of the length of this larger unit to two decimal places.
3&
•• ANALYSIS
Il3 -3.5lJI dBlCILDR II"", ....nned: 0 - 30 seconds
I 6.8 I I 4.5 3.3 I Father
o B
-.J
*1 * 1 * 1* 1* 1 1 *1 * *
, •
}-
U
Z ,.,.
W
:IN
C1Irc4
w...
!.J...'" ,Infant
N +---+----!--i---+----t--i---+---+--t-------t
3IBCS.
37
38
A
(data point.: 0.01&)
..
o
• very
good
F"
Ii:
• good
D
.
04
• • poor
o
F" overy
It
poor
D
C3
O.DO a.DD • . IXJ :a.0a 4.DD II.... 5.DD .... DO • • DD '.DO .La.DO
B
.... tc:h (dala points' 0.01.)
• very
o good
F"
Ii:
• good
D
·..
"4
o
• poor
""D '
o ve'"
poor
c:II
'.IXI SO.DO .L.... DO .&.a.DO .1.3.00 ..... 00 .&5.110 .1.5.011 .1.. ... 00 ..... DO .1.'.00
c
(data points: 0.01s)
.
o
• vllry
good
...
E good
D
"4
..• e- poor
.."'
a
overy
poor
D
C3
...... 00 l.a.DD ..'.DD aD.DD 8a.ao _.00 a:I.Da ".DD 1aS.00 a&.DO ..... DO
Figure 4. Pitch plot of Laura (6 weeks) and her mother, taken from data represented in Figure 1.
39
(6) The mother's utterance "Is that right?" (number 8), classified here as "inviting", might be
seen instead as "affirming". However, its upwards pitch movement aligns it with other "inviting"
utterances.
40
A • very
• ..
ie good
0 e a
F
E
'-
lID
IL. -
,- Q
,- &
w. ;- ••• D • good
...
.. D - G) • I rllI ...-:: Ii
C4 I.... 'T)
• •
..a iI
B - • .-
..• -..
.. t= poor ::r
.f
iil
A eD
0
•
•
lil
-
G 0
- •
:f- ...s
;,:'
::I
F overy lit
E !:
poor ...
D S
02
02 04 Q6 08
M
(7) The computer programs used to calculate these measures of timbre were all written at the
University of Edinburgh for the author's PhD, and later adapted for this project.
42
Q9
H: harmonics 5 - n
Q8
M: harmonics 2 - 4
Q7
Q6
o = infant
Q5
H
Q4
Q3
02
Q1
o Q1 02 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 Q9
M
* coming immediately after a vocalisation by the infant
Figure 7. Ttisiimulus values for utterances shown in Figures 1 and 4 (Laura, 6 weeks).
on the one graph, the y axis is dimensionless. We are interested in the movement of
the three measures relative to one another, within the context of the mother/infant
vocalisations,
In Figure 8, each unbroken horizontal bar represents the average value of that
quality (roughness, sharpness or width) for the duration of each vocalisation. To
differentiate the different measures on the graph, the unbroken bars are "patterned",
and are joined by thin broken lines. As in previous graphs, a rectangle placed around
the data shows that it is a representation of a vocalisation by the infant. The numbers
below the vocalisations correspond to the numbering found in Figures 1,4 and 7.
A particular trait of the mother that is shown by these graphs is the way in which
her voice quality changes after each of the vocalisations by the infant. After all three
sets of vocalisations by the infant, the timbral measures for the mother's voice drop
from the levels immediately prior to the infant's vocalisarions, This may indicate
(8) The one exceptionis the mother'svocalisation number 12. Here, there is a very slight rise in the
measure for width. The other two measures, however, fall.
43
-
roughness _
<: -
I ..
\
I.- "\'"
...
'.
IUUI.-------IIIII---------- 111I11101-------- -IIIIIIIIIPIll
width
!IUIIUU
IIPlllllllnnt!
,."'-'::
..... -----_._- ... .........
.. ...
....•... ... i
I
i
sharpness
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
seconds
o 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
roughness
-_ -
1111
.•..
.'
...•
----- -
---I1I11III11PIIIIII 1111111111111111I"-------11I11111111
width
sharpness -, -;
-
roughness
1-·------- -------------
------
I
IYUU_-------il1I1I1II1I1I1
111111I1111
width
that, by changing her voice quality. the mother signals to her infant that she has
heard her. These measures may also indicate that the mother wishes to make her
voice more similar to that of her infant. Referring back to Figure 7, we can see that
the mother's vocalisations that occur after the infant's (numbers 7. 12 and 16) lie in
the same horizontal region of the tristimulus space as all but one of the infant's
vocalisations, indicating a timbral similarity.
We have discussed the elements of pulse and quality. All these attributes of the
communicating mother/infant dyad combine to create the Narrative structure of
their companionship.
4.3.
Narratives of individual experience and of companionship are built from the units
of pulse and quality found in the jointly created gestures of vocalisations and bodily
movement. Narratives are the very essence of human companionship and
communication. Narratives allow two persons to share a sense of passing time. and
to create and share the emotional envelopes that evolve through this shared time.
They express innate motives for sharing emotion and experience with other persons
and for creating meaning in joint activity with others (Stern, 1993; Trevarthen,
1988; Trevarthen, 1998).
Figure 9 represents a mother saying a nursery rhyme with her 4 month old baby
girl 9. Mother and infant are in a naturalistic surrounding. but the mother is not
holding the baby so the infant is not being "bounced" in time with the rhyme. It is
obvious. from the infant's reactions. that this is a rhyme the baby has heard many
times before. The baby shows signs of pleasure. and smiles as soon as the mother
begins. For the first verse. the baby does not vocally join in. In the second. the mother
ceasesto articulate the words - rather. she saysa rhythm - "di dum. di dum. di dum".
This rhythm is represented in musical notation in the figure. Below the mother's
rhythm the vocalisations of the baby are also represented in musical notation, and the
time of each bar is indicated in seconds above the bar. (For reasons of visual clarity,
rests are omitted in the transcription where it does not create ambiguity.) In the
second verse of the rhyme. we can see that the baby is joining in with the mother in
a musical fashion. Her vocalisations are in time with the mother. Notice how the
baby's contribution shows musical variety, as well as consistency. In the first bar of
the second verse. the baby usesthe "up-beat" idea that is so prominent in this rhyme. In
the second and third bars, the baby vocaliseson the beat. In the third bar. the baby
appears to make use of the rest by introducing a new rhythmic idea in the form of
a triplet (the baby laughs in a triplet rhythm). In the third verse. the baby consistently
vocalises on the last beat of each bar. and provides the up-beat to the beginning of
the verse. which the mother omits. This is very different to what the baby did during
the second verse. It appears that the baby is changing her musical style from verse to
verse.
(9) Recorded under the same circumstances and conditionsas described in note 1.
45
...
CII
mother
mother 2.5 2.3 laughs
2.4
Figure 9. Musical notation representing the participation of mother and baby (4-month old) in a rhythm derived from the nursery rhyme Clap-a-c1ap-a-
handies (rests are omitted where this does not causeambiguity),
Mothers and Infants and communicative musicality
STEPHEN N. MALLOCH
In the third bar of the third verse, the baby makes what can be described as a
"musical joke". After vocalising precisely on the last beat of bars 1 and 2 of verse 3,
the baby still provides this beat in bar 3, but enters a semiquaver early. The baby
vocalises particularly vigorously at this point - it may be that the baby wants to
emphasise the fact that she is entering early. However, whether or not this is a
deliberate act on the part of the infant, that this "early" vocalisation is sensed and
appreciated by the mother is suggested by the mother's laughter immediately
following it. After this shared tour-de-force by both musical partners, the rhyme
loses energy, and other play takes over.
From this example, we can see that an infant at 4 months of age is quite capable
of entering into the "structure" of a musical game with an other, participating in a
musically logical way. Her vocalisations during her mother's rhyme show a true
musical feeling - they support the musical structure of the rhyme - they never
work against it.
In this last example, we have seen what can be described as a musical narrative
created through the companionable interaction of a mother and her infant. We have
also seen how timing is a vital element in mother/infant vocalisations, and how this
timing can be represented as a series of bars, or as a series of smaller time-units. We
have seen how mother and infant can use pitch imitation and complementation
during their vocal exchanges - how both appear to have a strong sense of the pitch
space that their joint vocalisations are covering, and how each relates to the other in
a musical manner. We have seen how the mother is intuitively aware of the timbre
of her voice, and how her modification of this timbre is an integral part of her vocal
communication with her infant. Lastly, we have seen how a mother and her infant
can jointly create a musical piece - both are musical partners within their
communicative space.
In his article in this issue, Bjorn Merker (l999) suggests that synchronous
chorusing and bodily gesture in our common ancestor with the chimpanzee,
coming about as a result of sexual selection, may be the vital evolutionary step
making the development of language possible. He suggests that the ability to
vocalise and gesture together in time may underlie language. Similarly, it is our
contention that the ability to act musically underlies and supports human
companionship; that the elements of communicative musicality are necessary for
joint human expressiveness to arise, and lie beneath, to a greater or lesser degree, all
human communication.
At the start of this paper, we introduced the concept of communicative musicality,
and we have emphasised the musicality of motherlinfant vocalisations. However, as
has been suggested above, this term is not to imply so much that mother/infant
communication is musical - rather that what we generally call music is one particular
drawing-together of the elements of pulse, quality, and narrative - elementsthat are
intrinsic to all human communication. The elements of communicative musicality are
the tools by which emotion is conveyed and thus companionship formed. What
47
5
CONCLUSION
F
E
C:S
B
A • • very
G
- good
F
... -- ....,.
E .-
--•-- - • good
D :i •
I II
.. ........ .• •--- .....- ... -
• •
C4
B
1- IlL
---• .,.. . ...-- •
- •
A --- • • poor
•• ii1
G ::I
i.
...
F
E Overy
poor
D ...
(10) I wish to dedicate this paper to Prof. Colwyn Trevarthen, without whose passion and drive
for understanding I would never have been inspired to enter the fascinating world of infant
communication.
I also wish to thank Dr. David Sharp for his work in computer programming, and Dr. Murray
Campbell for his advice on acoustic analysis. The research for this paper was conducted in the
Department of Psychology at the University of Edinburgh. and was funded by a grant from the
Leverhulme Foundation.
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53
54
55
Prenant appui sur la musique, nous analysons par ordinateur les elements
acoustiques des vocalisations entre mere et nourrisson. Aprils un rappel des
travaux qui ont eclaire Ie rOle de chacun des parten aires dans la dyade mere-
nourrisson, nous presentons les methodes sur lesquelles nous fondons I'analyse de
la pulsation rythmique, de la quallte et de la narration des vocalisations entre
la mere et son hebe. Ces trois elements constituent ce que nous qualifions de
"musicalite de communication" : les attributs de la communication humaine,
slngullerernent exploltes en musique, qui autorisent l'ernergence d'une camaraderie
coordonnee. L:analyse spectographique de la pulsation rythmique revele la
presenced'intervalles temporels regullersautorisant la coordination des vocalisations
communes de la mere et du nourrisson. La quallte se rapporte au contour de
hauteur des vocalisations et a leur timbre. Le trace des hauteurs est derive par un
logiciel developpe par transformation spectrale de la constante Q. Nous etudlons
comment Ie nourrissonet sa mere structurent, aux echelles macro et microscopiques,
leur exploration mutuelle de I'espacedes hauteurs. Le timbre est decrit par diverses
mesures acoustiques qui constituent les trois valeurs du stimulus : hauteur,
approximation et ampleur. II est a noter que la mere modifie la qualite de sa voix
en reponse a celie de I'enfant. La narration associe pulsation rythmique et quahte:
elle permet a deux individus de partager Ie sensde l'ecoulernent du temps, comme
Ie montre l'etude de la camaraderie musicale qui s'instaure entre une mere et son
bebe lorsqu'elle lui chante des comptines. Nous en deduisons que la musicalite est
vitale a I'attrait de la communication entre l'un des parents et le nourrisson.
Mit Musik als unserem Modell untersuchen wir auf der Basis computerunterstotzter
akustischer Analyse Mutter/Kleinkind·Vokalisationen. Wir geben zunachst eine
Zusammenfassung der bisherigen Forschung, welche die Wichtigkeit beider Teile
in der Mutter/Kind-Dyade zeigt. Unsere Methoden werden dann fOr die Analyse
von Puis, Qualitiit und Narration der Mutter/Kind-Dyade eingesetzt. Diese drei
Elemente bilden die "kommunikative Musikalitiit", namlich jene Attribute der
menschlichen Kommunikation, welche besonders in der Musik ausgenOtzt werden
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und die eine koordinierte Partnerschaft aufzubauen erlauben. Puis wird mittels
spektrographischer Analyse untersucht, und es werden regelrnalllge Zeitintervalle
entdeckt, welche der Koordination der StimmauBerungen von Mutter und Kind
dienen. Qualitat besteht sowohl aus der Tonhohenkontur der StimmauBerungen
als auch aus deren Klangfarbe. Tonhohenplots werden mittels einer von uns
entwickelten Software abgeleltet, welche eine konstante Q-Spektraltranstormation
verwendet. Wir untersuchen, wie das Kleinkind und die Mutter ihre gemeinsame
Erkundung des Tonraumes im kleinen und groBen strukturleren, Klangfarbe wird
beschrieben durch eine Mehrzahl akustischerMeBdaten: Tristimuluswerte, Scharfe,
Rauhigkeit und Weite. Wir finden, daB die Stimme der Mutter in Reaktion aut jene
des Kindes ihre Qualitat andert. Narration verbindet Puis und Qualitll.t: sie
ermOglicht zwei Personen einen gemeinsamen Sinn tur den Zeitablaut. Dies wird
durch die Untersuchung der musikalischen Partnerschaft iIIustriert, welche
zwischen einer Mutter und ihrem Baby beim Singen eines Kinderreims erzeugt
wird. Wir kommen zu dem SchluB, daB die kreative Musikalitat fur eine harmonische
Eltern/Kleinkind-Kommunikation grundlegend ist.
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