PAGADIAN CAPITOL COLLEGE 2015

Criminological Research & Statistics

By: Dean John Dexter G. Sarcena, MSCrim

Meaning and nature of research 7. Research involves original work

1. The word research is composed of (literature, studies, and readings)
two syllables, re and search. Dictionary instead of a mere exercise of opinion.
define the former syllable as a prefix
8. Research involves from genuine
meaning again, anew or over again, and
the latter as a verb meaning to examine desire to know (probe) rather than a
desire to prove something.
closely and carefully.

2. There are two basic complementary

research approaches – quantitative and
qualitative.
Ethical consideration of research
3. There are two main goals of social
(criminological) research-pure (to 1. Veracity/ accurate analysis and
develop theory and expand knowledge reporting (obligation to tell the truth,
base) and applied (to develop solutions not to lie or deceive others).
for problems and relevant application
2. Privacy (obligation to maintain the
for criminological practice).
state or condition of limited access to
4. There are three possible reasons for person).
conducting criminological research a.
3. Anonymity and confidentiality
exploration (conducted when there is
(obligation to divulge information
little prior knowledge); description
discovered without the permission of
(yield to additional information only
the subject).
when there is a little prior knowledge
has been obtained) and; explanation 4. Fidelity (obligation to remain faithful
(when substantial knowledge is to one’s commitments, which includes
available, it attempts to explain the keeping promises and maintaining
facts already gathered). confidentiality)
5. research is simply a systematic, 5. informed consent (seeking
controlled, empirical and critical permission to the person/guardian).
investigation or refined technique of
thinking, employing specialized tools, 6. No harm (obligation not to inflict
instruments, and procedures in order to harm/endanger either physical or
obtain a more adequate solution of a psychological or socially).
problem than would possible under
7. Voluntary participation
ordinary means.
8. Avoiding deception (reveal real
6. Research process starts with a.
purpose of the research).
identifying the problem, b. formulation
of hypothesis, c. collects data or facts, Research methods
d. analyzes the critically, and e. reaches
decision based on actual evidence. Method of criminological research

1. Descriptive method (to describe

systematically a situation or area of
interest factually and accurately)

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2. Historical method (to reconstruct the 4. Historical research (investigating
past objectively and accurately, often in documents and other sources that
relation to the tenability of a contains facts that existed in the past;
hypothesis) “what was”)

3. Case and field method (to study 5. Evaluation research (to study
intensively the background, current processes and procedure for the
status, and environmental interactions improvement of a system).
of a given social unit)
Types of criminological research according to
4. correlation method (to investigate purpose
the extent to which variations in one
factor correlate with variations in one 1. Exploration (to develop an initial,
rough understanding of a phenomenon)
or more other factors based on
correlation coefficient) Methods: literature reviews,
interviews, case studies, key informants
5. Casual – comparative or “ex post
facto” method (to investigate possible 2. Description (precise measurement
cause-and-effect relationships by and reporting of the characteristics of
observing some existing consequences the population or phenomenon)
and looking back through the data for
plausible causal factor). Methods: census, surveys,
qualitative studies
6. Experimental method (to investigate
cause-and-effect relationship between 3. Explanation (why “is x the case?” or
two or more treatment conditions and “is x the relationship?”)
comparing the results to a control
Methods: experimental
groups not receiving the treatment;
“what will happen?”) Hypothesis (“wise guess”) null hypothesis;
alternative hypothesis (operational
Types of criminological research
hypothesis)
1. Action research (to develop new skills
Sources of information
or new approaches and to solve
problems with direct application to the 1. Related literature (books, magazine)
workplace or other applied setting) 2. Related reading (legal documents,
memos)
2. Survey (descriptive) research (to
3. related studies (journals, thesis, and
know of interest “what is”; typically
dissertation)
employs questionnaires and interviews
4. Key informants
to determine attitudes, opinion,
5. Artifacts
preferences, and perception of interest
6. Other materials evidences
to the researcher)
Writing the research report
a) close-ended questionnaire (pre
categorized by the researcher’s APA format makes use of parentitical
words) citation (old format use Latin citations-
b) open-ended questionnaire (in ibid; op. cit; or loccit and endnotes or
respondent’s words) footnotes)
3. Observational research (collecting Parts of a research paper (thesis)
direct information about human
behavior) A. preliminary pages
1. cover page

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2. approval sheet properties; each category is distinct,
3. abstract mutually exclusive, and exhaustive.
4. table of contents Ex. Gender, religious affiliation, college
5. list of tables
major, hair color, birth place,
nationality, tribe)
Chapter 1 - introduction
a) background of the study
 Ordinal (scores or observations are
b) conceptual framework ranked in order without distance
c) the problem and hyphothesis between individuals.
Chapter 2 - methods and procedures Ex. Age group when ranked, socio-
a) research design economic-status, level of conflict
b) population  Interval (with equal intervals between
c) data-gathering procedures numbers where there is no absolute
d) data gathering tools (includes the
absence of the attribute because zero is
description of the research
assigned and represents an arbitrary
instruments, validity and reliability of
point.
the instruments)
e) statistical tools Ex. Temperature, iq score
Chapter 3 - interpretation and analysis of  Ratio (this is in contrast to interval
findings where there exist an absolute absence
a) presentation of data of the attribute or rational zero.
b) analysis and interpretation Ex. Age, height, weight, length of time
c) drawing implications out of the
research findings
d) d corroboration from related sources of
information Common statistical tools
Chapter 4 - conclusions and recommendations
 For sample size, slovin’s; partern’s
B. appendices (references, forms/tools. Curriculum formula
vitae)  For reliability test, split-half method;
spearman-brown prophesy. Cronbach’s
coefficient alpha
 For the test of validity; standardized
Statistics tool; pass through the panel of experts;
used in other studies
Sampling refers to the method of choosing
Sources of measurement errors
subjects in a particularly study.
 Environmental factors
There are two basic approaches to sampling:
 Research factors
probability (systematic; randomized and non
 Instrumentation factors
probability sampling)
 Subject factors
a) Probability sampling (simple random,
Two categories of quantitative data analysis
stratified random, cluster, systematic-
intervals)  Descriptive statistics. These statistical
b) Non probability (convenience, quota, methods which summarize, organize,
purposive or judgmental, snow-ball) and describe data, providing an
Levels of measurement (a process that organized visual presentation of the
employs rules to assign numbers to data collected.
phenomenon) Ex. Measures of central tendencies
(mean, median, mode) and measures of
 Nominal (observations are collected or variability (range, interquartile range,
categorized or sorted based on defined variance, semi-quartile range, and
standard deviation)

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 Inferential statistics. These are a) The respondent who does not
statistical techniques used to estimate know the answer or has no
or predict a population parameter from opinion may try to guess the
a sample statistic. appropriate answer or even to
answer randomly. (for self
An understanding of the normal curve is administered questionnaire)
essential statistics and includes an b) The respondent may feel
understanding of symmetry, skewdness, and frustrated because the
standard scores. appropriate category for
Likert scale is a summative rating scale used to his/her answer either is not
ascertain opinion or attitudes; each item provided at all or is not
contains a range or scaled response on a provided insufficient detail. (for
particular question stemming from “strongly- self-administered
agree” to “strongly disagree” questionnaire)

Types of questionnaire Open-ended - response categories are not

specified; the respondents are free to answer as
1. Structured wording and order of they please.
questions are uniform for all
respondents. Example:
2. Unstructured wording and order of We would like to get your opinion regarding
questions can vary for different the effectiveness of the project in your
subjects; usually used for qualitative barangay.
studies like FGDs, case studies, etc.
1. What do you think are the strengths
Types of questions of the project? Why did you say so?
Closed-ended - respondents selects one or 2. How do you think can the project
more of the specific categories provided by the still be improved to meet its
researcher. objective?

Example: Advantages of open-ended questions

Do you practice family planning? a) These can be used when all the possible
answer categories are not known.
__yes __no b) These allow the respondent to answer
adequately
If yes, what methods did you use?
c) They can be used when there are too
__condom __ligation many potential answer categories to list
on the questionnaire.
__injectables __pills d) They allow more opportunity for
creativity and self-expression by the
__IUD __natural
respondent.
__others, specify________
Disadvantages of open-ended questions
Advantages of close ended questions
a) These may lead to the collection of
1. The answers are standard, and can be worthless and irrelevant information.
compared from person to person. b) Coding is often very difficult.
2. The answers are much easier to code c) Open-ended questions require a higher
3. Irrelevant responses are avoided educational level than do close-ended
questions
Disadvantages of close-ended questions

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d) Open-ended questions require much
more of the respondent’s time and
effort.

VARIABLES

Variable is a symbol to which numerals or

values are assigned.

 Dependent variable
 Independent variable
 Intervening variable

Categorizing variables

Independent

 Is presumed cause
 In experimental research, is that which
you manipulated before you took it

Dependent

 Is presumed effect

Intervening variables

 Is used to internal and label unobtrusive

psychological process that account for
the behavior
 They are useful, powerful and even
indispensable
 Understanding how it operates will help
accurately interpret data

Respondents of the study

 A section on the research proposal

discusses in detail the characteristics of
the respondents in the study.
 It also includes description of the
populations, geographical and
economic locations, as well the
rationale for including them in the
study.

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Sampling techniques 5. Strip sampling

 A sample reflects the characteristics of A. Divide the area into simple

the population narrow
 A basic concept in sampling is that what B. Select number of strips at
is called randomness which simply random either by complete
means the act of sampling is not randomization or with
purposive. some degree of
 Randomization seeks to insure that stratification.
every individual in the population has C. Consider only part of the
an equal chance of being included in strips as one narrow unit.
the sample.
6. Multistage sampling
Four factors n selecting size and population
A. Commonly used when no
1. homogeneity detailed or actual listing of
2. size of the population individuals
3. cost B. Sampling is dine in stages
4. precision C. The population elements
are grouped following a
General types of sampling hierarchy of individuals.
Probability sampling Non-probability sampling
1. Random sampling 1. Judgment sampling
A. Selecting representative
A. Selecting the individuals out
sample according to your
of N such that individuals
subjective judgment.
have equal chances of
B. Appropriate to make when
being selected.
you have made a judgment
B. Techniques suitable for
about an individual’s
homogeneous population.
potential as source of
2. Systematic random sampling information
2. Quota sampling
A. Sample is selected through A. A variation of judgment
simple random process. sampling
B. Succeeding samples are B. A defined quota must be
chosen in a pre-established filled, predetermined by
intervals certain extent of
3. Stratified sampling characteristics of the
population so that the
A. Divide samples in quota sample will be
homogeneous groups called representative of the
strata. population.
B. Draw sample from simple 3. Accidental sampling
random sampling. A. Simple technique whoever
happens to be there at the
4. Simple cluster sampling
time of data collection.
A. A one stage sampling B. Done on spot surveys.
technique where the
population is grouped by
cluster elements.

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Glossary of Research-Related Terms Cross-case analysis – an analysis that involves
an examination of more than one case, either a
Average - an ambiguous term generally variable-oriented or case-oriented analysis.
suggesting typical or normal – a central Cross-sectional study – a study based on
tendency. The mean, median, and mode are observation representing a single point in time.
example of mathematical averages. Data – these are systematic information that
Applied research – a research conducted for criminologists us to investigate research
the purpose of applying, or testing, theory and question.
evaluating its usefulness in solving problem. Dependent variable – a wimpy (unimportant)
Basic research – a research conducted for the variable, the variable that is a presumed effect.
purpose of theory development or refinement. Also referred to as the criterion variable, the
Case study - the in-depth examination of a effect, the outcome. Or the posttest.
single instance of some special phenomenon, Descriptive statistics – a data analysis
such as a juvenile gang. technique enabling the researcher to
Causal-comparative research – a research that meaningfully describe many scores with a small
attempts to determine the cause, or reason, for number of numerical indices.
existing differences in the behavior or status of Discrete variable – a variable whose attributes
groups of individuals. are separate from one another, or
Chi square – a non-parametric test of discontinuous, as in the case of gender and
significance appropriate when the data are in religious affiliation.
the form of frequency counts. Evaluation research – a research undertaken
Cohort study – a study in which some specific for the purpose of determining the impact of
subpopulation (cohort) is studied over time, some social intervention, such as a program
although data may be collected from different aimed at solving aq social problem.
members in each set of observations. Historical research – the systematic collection
Concept mapping – the graphical display of and evaluation of data related to past
concepts and their interrelations, useful in the occurrences in order to describe causes, effects,
formulation of theory. or trends of those events which may help o
Confidentiality – an act of concealing the explain present events and anticipate future
identity of a person’s response. events.
Conflict theory – a theoretical perspective that Hypothesis – a specified testable expectation
emphasizes the role of power and coercion in about empirical reality that follows from a more
producing social order. general proposition.
Contact theory – the theory that prejudice will Independent variable – the variable that is
be reduced through social interaction with presumed to cause.
those of different ethnicity but equal status. Informant – someone well versed in the social
Content analysis – the study of recorded phenomenon that you wish to study and who is
human communications, such as books and willing to tell you what he or she knows about
laws. it.
Correlational research – a research that Interview – a data-gathering technique in which
involves collecting data in order to determine a person asks questions of another.
whether and to what degree, a relationship Longitudinal study – a study designed involving
exist between two or more quantifiable the collection of data at different points in time.
variables. Mean – the arithmetic average of a set of
Criminology – the study of crime from scientific scores.
perspective. Median – that point in the distribution on and
Criminological research – a special branch of below 50% the scores.
sociology. It deals on the analysis of crimes and Meta-analysis - a statistical approach to
criminal behavior that scientific basis in order to summarizing the results of many studies which
the phenomena. have investigated basically the same problem.

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Non –parametric test – a test of significance Scientific method – the steps o n a research
appropriate when the data represent as ordinal process, including observation, hypothesis
or nominal scale, when the parametric testing, analysis of data, and generalization.
assumption has been greatly violated or when Split-half – a type of reliability that is based on
the natures of the distribution is not known. the internal consistency of a test and is
Null-hypothesis – a statement of no estimated by dividing a test into two equivalent
relationship/difference between variables. halves and correlating the scores on the two
Paradigm – those refer to a framework for halves.
observation and understanding. It is like putting Statistics – a numerical index describing the
a shape into something that we see. behavior of a sample or samples.
Parameter – numerical index describing ten Theory – a systematic explanation for the
behavior of population. observations that relate to a particular aspect of
Parametric test – a test of significant life.
appropriate when the data represent an Triangulation – the use of multiple methods,
interval or ration scale of measurement and data collection techniques/strategies, and/or
other assumptions have been met. data sources in order to get a more complete
Participatory action research – an approach to picture and to cross-check information.
social research in which the people being Units of analysis – the what or whom being
studied are given control over the purpose and studied. In criminological research, the most
procedures of the research. typical units of analysis are individual people.
Pilot study – a small study conducted prior to Validity – a term describing a measure that
the conducting of the actual study. accurately reflects the concept it is intended to
Population – the group to which the researcher measure.
would like the results of the study to be Variable - A concept that cam assume any one
generalized. of a range of values, e.g. aptitude, gender.
Primary source – a firsthand information such
as the testimony if an eyewitness, an original
document, a relic, or a description of study
written by a person who conducted.
Quantitative analysis – the numerical
representation and manipulations for the
purpose of the purpose of describing and
explaining he phenomena that those
observations reflect.
Qualitative analysis – the non-numerical
examination and interpretation of observations,
for the purpose of discovering underlying
meanings and patters of relationships
Reliability – the quality of measurement
method that suggest the dame data would have
been collected each time in repeated
observations of the same phenomenon.
Research – a systematic, controlled, empirical,
and critical investigation of hypothetical
propositions about the presumed relations
among natural phenomena.
Sample – a number of individuals selected from
a population for the study. Preferably in such a
way that they represent the larger group from
which they were selected.

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