Econometrics in R

Grant V. Farnsworth∗
June 26, 2006

∗ This paper was originally written as part of a teaching assistantship and has subsequently become a personal reference.

I learned most of this stuff by trial and error, so it may contain inefficiencies, inaccuracies, or incomplete explanations. If
you find something here suboptimal or have suggestions, please let me know. Until at least 2008 I can be contacted at
[email protected].
Contents
1 Introductory Comments 3
1.1 What is R? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 How is R Better Than Other Packages? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Obtaining R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 Using R Interactively and Writing Scripts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.5 Getting Help . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

2 Working with Data 5

2.1 Basic Data Manipulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2 Caveat: Math Operations and the Recycling Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.3 Important Data Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.3.1 Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.3.2 Arrays, Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.3.3 Dataframes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.3.4 Lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.3.5 S3 Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.3.6 S4 Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.4 Working with Dates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.5 Merging Dataframes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.6 Opening a Data File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.7 Working With Very Large Data Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.8 Issuing System Commands—Directory Listing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.9 Reading Data From the Clipboard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.10 Editing Data Directly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

3 Cross Sectional Regression 12

3.1 Ordinary Least Squares . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.2 Extracting Statistics from the Regression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.3 Heteroskedasticity and Friends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.3.1 Breusch-Pagan Test for Heteroskedasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.3.2 Heteroskedasticity (Autocorrelation) Robust Covariance Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.4 Linear Hypothesis Testing (Wald and F) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.5 Weighted and Generalized Least Squares . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.6 Models With Factors/Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

4 Special Regressions 15
4.1 Fixed/Random Effects Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.1.1 Fixed Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4.1.2 Random Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.2 Qualitative Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.2.1 Logit/Probit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.2.2 Multinomial Logit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.2.3 Ordered Logit/Probit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.3 Tobit and Censored Regression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.4 Quantile Regression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.5 Robust Regression - M Estimators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.6 Nonlinear Least Squares . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.7 Two Stage Least Squares on a Single Structural Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.8 Systems of Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.8.1 Seemingly Unrelated Regression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.8.2 Two Stage Least Squares on a System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

2
5 Time Series Regression 19
5.1 Differences and Lags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
5.2 Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
5.2.1 Canned AR and MA filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
5.2.2 Manual Filtration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
5.2.3 Hodrick Prescott Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
5.2.4 Kalman Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
5.3 ARIMA/ARFIMA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
5.4 ARCH/GARCH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
5.4.1 Basic GARCH–garch() . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
5.4.2 Advanced GARCH–garchFit() . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
5.4.3 Miscellaneous GARCH–Ox G@RCH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
5.5 Correlograms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
5.6 Predicted Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
5.7 Time Series Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
5.7.1 Durbin-Watson Test for Autocorrelation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
5.7.2 Box-Pierce and Breusch-Godfrey Tests for Autocorrelation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
5.7.3 Dickey-Fuller Test for Unit Root . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
5.8 Vector Autoregressions (VAR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

6 Plotting 26
6.1 Plotting Empirical Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
6.2 Contour Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
6.3 Adding Legends and Stuff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
6.4 Adding Arrows, Text, and Markers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
6.5 Multiple Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
6.6 Saving Plots—png, jpg, eps, pdf, xfig . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
6.7 Adding Greek Letters and Math Symbols to Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

7 Statistics 30
7.1 Working with Common Statistical Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
7.2 P-Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
7.3 Sampling from Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

8 Math in R 32
8.1 Matrix Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
8.1.1 Matrix Algebra and Inversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
8.1.2 Factorizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
8.2 Numerical Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
8.3 Numerical Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

9 Programming 34
9.1 Writing Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
9.2 Looping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
9.3 Avoiding Loops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
9.3.1 Applying a Function to an Array (or a Cross Section of it) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
9.3.2 Replicating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
9.4 Conditionals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
9.4.1 Binary Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
9.5 The Ternary Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
9.6 Outputting Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
9.7 Pausing/Getting Input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
9.8 Timing Blocks of Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
9.9 Calling C functions from R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
9.9.1 How to Write the C Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

3
 9.9.2 How to Use the Compiled Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
9.10 Calling R Functions from C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

10 Changing Configurations 40
10.1 Default Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
10.1.1 Significant Digits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
10.1.2 What to do with NAs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
10.1.3 How to Handle Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
10.1.4 Suppressing Warnings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

11 Saving Your Work 41

11.1 Saving the Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
11.2 Saving the Session Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
11.3 Saving as LATEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

12 Conclusion 42

13 Appendix: Code Examples 43

13.1 Monte Carlo Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
13.2 The Haar Wavelet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
13.3 Maximum Likelihood Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
13.4 Extracting Info From a Large File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
13.5 Contour Plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

14 Appendix: Other References 45

1 Introductory Comments
1.1 What is R?
R is an implementation of the object-oriented mathematical programming language S. It is developed by
statisticians around the world and is free software, released under the GNU General Public License. Syn-
tactically and functionally it is very similar (if not identical) to S+, the popular statistics package.

1.2 How is R Better Than Other Packages?

R is much more more flexible than most software used by econometricians because it is a modern mathe-
matical programming language, not just a program that does regressions and tests. This means our analysis
need not be restricted to the functions included in the default package. There is an extensive and constantly
expanding collection of libraries online for use in many disciplines. As researchers develop new algorithms
and processes, the corresponding libraries get posted on the R website. In this sense R is always at the
forefront of statistical knowledge. Because of the ease and flexibility of programming in R it is easy to
extend.
The S language is the de facto standard for statistical science. Reading the statistical literature, we find
that examples and even pseudo-code are written in R-compatible syntax. Since most users have a statistical
background, the jargon used by R experts sometimes differs from what an econometrician (especially a
beginning econometrician) may expect. A primary purpose of this document is to eliminate this language
barrier and allow the econometrician to tap into the work of these innovative statisticians.
Code written for R can be run on many computational platforms with or without a graphical user
interface, and R comes standard with some of the most flexible and powerful graphics routines available
anywhere.
And of course, R is completely free for any use.

1.3 Obtaining R
The R installation program can be downloaded free of charge from http://www.r-project.org. Because
R is a programming language and not just an econometrics program, most of the functions we will be
interested in are available through libraries (sometimes called packages) obtained from the R website. To
obtain a library that does not come with the standard installation follow the CRAN link on the above
website. Under contrib you will find is a list of compressed libraries ready for download. Click on the one
you need and save it somewhere you can find it later. If you are using a gui, start R and click install package
from local directory under the package menu. Then select the file that you downloaded. Now the package
will be available for use in the future. If you are using R under linux, install new libraries by issuing the
following command at the command prompt: “R CMD INSTALL packagename”
Alternately you can download and install packages at once from inside R by issuing a command like

> install.packages(c("car","systemfit"),repo="http://cran.stat.ucla.edu",dep=TRUE)

which installs the car and systemfit libraries. The repo parameter is usually auto-configured, so there is
normally no need to specify it. The dependencies or dep parameter indicates that R should download
packages that these depend on as well, and is recommended. Note: you must have administrator (or root)
privileges to your computer to install the program and packages.

5
 Contributed Packages Mentioned in this Paper and Why
(* indicates package is included by default)
adapt Multivariate numerical integration
car Regression tests and robust standard errors
dse1 State space models, Kalman filtration, and Vector ARMA
fSeries Garch models with nontrivial mean equations
fracdiff Fractionally integrated ARIMA models
foreign* Loading and saving data from other programs
graphics* Contour graphs and arrows for plots
Hmisc LATEX export
lattice An alternate type of contour plot
lmtest Breusch-Pagan and Breusch-Godfrey tests
MASS* Robust regression, ordered logit/probit
Matrix Matrix norms and other matrix algebra stuff
MCMCpack Inverse gamma distribution
MNP Multinomial probit via MCMC
nlme* Nonlinear fixed and random effects models
nls* Nonlinear least squares
nnet Multinomial logit/probit
quantreg Quantile Regressions
R.matlab Read matlab data files
sandwich (and zoo) Heteroskedasticity and autocorrelation robust covariance
sem Two stage least squares
survival* Tobit and censored regression
systemfit SUR and 2SLS on systems of equations
ts* Time series manipulation functions
tseries Garch, ARIMA, and other time series functions
xtable Alternative LATEX export
zoo required in order to have the sandwich package

From time to time we can get updates of the installed packages by running update.packages().

1.4 Using R Interactively and Writing Scripts

We can interact directly with R through its command prompt. Under windows the prompt and what we
type are in red and the output it returns is blue–although you can control the font colors though “GUI
preferences” in the edit menu. Pressing the up arrow will generally cycle through commands from the
history. Notice that R is case sensitive and that every function call has parentheses at the end. Instead of
issuing commands directly we can load script files that we have previously written, which may include new
function definitions.
Script files generally have the extension “.R”. These files contain commands as you would enter them at
the prompt, and they are recommended for any project of more than a few lines. In order to load a script
file named “mcmc.R” we would use the command
> source("mcmc.R")
One way to run R is to have a script file open in an external text editor and run periodically from the R
window. Commands executed from a script file may not print as much output to the screen as they do when
run interactively. If we want interactive-level verbosity, we can use the echo argument
> source("mcmc.R",echo=TRUE)
If no path is specified to the script file, R assumes that the file is located in the current working directory.
The working directory can be viewed or changed via R commands
> getwd()
[1] "/home/gvfarns/r"

6
> setwd("/home/gvfarns")
> getwd()
[1] "/home/gvfarns"
or under windows using the menu item change working directory. Also note that when using older versions
of R under windows the slashes must be replaced with double backslashes.
> getwd()
[1] "C:\\Program Files\\R\\rw1051\\bin"
> setwd("C:\\Program Files\\R\\scripts")
> getwd()
[1] "C:\\Program Files\\R\\scripts"
We can also run R in batch (noninteractive) mode under linux by issuing the command:“R CMD BATCH
scriptname.R” The output will be saved in a file named scriptname.Rout. Batch mode is also available under
windows using Rcmd.exe instead of Rgui.exe.
Since every command we will use is a function that is stored in one of the libraries, we will often have
to load libraries before working. Many of the common functions are in the library base, which is loaded by
default. For access to any other function, however, we have to load the appropriate library.

> library(foreign)

will load the library that contains the functions for reading and writing data that is formatted for other
programs, such as SAS and Stata. Alternately (under windows), we can pull down the package menu and
select library

1.5 Getting Help

There are several methods of obtaining help in R
> ?qt
> help(qt)
> help.start()
> help.search("covariance")
Preceding the command with a question mark or giving it as an argument to help() gives a description of its
usage and functionality. The help.start() function brings up a menu of help options and help.search()
searches the help files for the word or phrase given as an argument. Many times, though, the best help
available can be found by a search online. Remember as you search that the syntax and functionality of R
is almost identical to that of the proprietary statistical package S+.
The help tools above only search through the R functions that belong to packages on your computer. A
large percentage of R questions I hear are of the form “Does R have a function to do. . . ” Users do not know
if functionality exists because the corresponding package is not installed on their computer. To search the
R website for functions and references, use
> RSiteSearch("Kalman Filter")
The results from the search should appear in your web browser.

2 Working with Data

2.1 Basic Data Manipulation
R allows you to create many types of data storage objects, such as numbers, vectors, matrices, strings,
and dataframes. The command ls() gives a list of all data objects currently available. The command rm()
removes the data object given it as an argument. We can determine the type of an object using the command
typeof() or its class type (which is often more informative) using class().

7
 Entering the name of the object typically echos its data to the screen. In fact, a function is just another
data member in R. We can see the function’s code by typing its name without parenthesis.
The command for creating and/or assigning a value to a data object is the less-than sign followed by the
minus sign.

> g <- 7.5

creates a numeric object called g, which contains the value 7.5. True vectors in R (as opposed to one
dimensional matrices) are treated as COLUMN vectors, when the distinction needs to be made.

> f <- c(7.5,6,5)

> F <- t(f)

uses the c() (concatenate) command to create a vector with values 7.5, 6, and 5. c() is a generic function
that can be used on multiple types of data. The t() command transposes f to create a 1x2 matrix—because
“vectors” are always column vectors. The two data objects f and F are separate because of the case sensitivity
of R. The command cbind() concatenates the objects given it side by side: into an array if they are vectors,
and into a single dataframe if they are columns of named data.

> dat <- cbind(c(7.5,6,5),c(1,2,3))

Similarly, rbind() concatenates objects by rows—one above the other—and assumes that vectors given it
are ROW vectors (see 2.3.1).
Elements in vectors and similar data types are indexed using square brackets. R uses one-based indexing.

> f
[1] 7.5 6.0 5.0
> f[2]
[1] 6

Notice that for multidimensional data types, such as matrices and dataframes, leaving an index blank refers
to the whole column or row corresponding to that index. Thus if foo is a 4x5 array of numbers,

> foo

will print the whole array to the screen,

> foo[1,]

will print the first row,

> foo[,3]

will print the third column, etc. We can get summary statistics on the data in goo using the summary() and
we can determine its dimensionality using the NROW(), and NCOL() commands. More generally, we can use
the dim() command to know the dimensions of many R objects.
If we wish to extract or print only certain rows or columns, we can use the concatenation operator.

> oddfoo <- foo[,c(1,3,5)]

makes a 4x3 array out of columns 1,3, and 5 of foo and saves it in oddfoo. By prepending the subtraction
operator, we can remove certain columns

> nooddfoo <- foo[,-c(1,3,5)]

makes a 4x2 array out of columns 2 and 4 of foo (i.e., it removes columns 1,3, and 5). We can also use
comparison operators to extract certain columns or rows.

> smallfoo <- foo[foo[,1]<1,]

8
compares each entry in the first column of foo to one and inserts the row corresponding to each match into
smallfoo. We can also reorder data. If wealth is a dataframe with columns year, gdp, and gnp, we could
sort the data by year using order() or extract a period of years using the colon operator
> wealth <- wealth[order(wealth$year),]
> firstten <- wealth[1:10,]
> eighty <- wealth[wealth$year==1980,]
This sorts by year and puts the first ten years of data in firstten. All rows from year 1980 are stored in
eighty (notice the double equals sign).
Using double instead of single brackets for indexing changes the behavior slightly. Basically it doesn’t
allow referencing multiple objects using a vector of indices, as the single bracket case does. For example,
> w[[1:10]]
does not return a vector of the first ten elements of w, as it would in the single bracket case. Also, it strips
off attributes and types. If the variable is a list, indexing it with single brackets yields a list containing the
data, double brackets return the (vector of) data itself. Most often, when getting data out of lists, double
brackets are wanted, otherwise single brackets are more common.
Occasionally we have data in the incorrect form (i.e., as a dataframe when we would prefer to have a
matrix). In this case we can use the as. functionality. If all the values in goo are numeric, we could put
them into a matrix named mgoo with the command
> mgoo <- as.matrix(goo)
Other data manipulation operations can be found in the standard R manual and online. There are a lot
of them.

2.2 Caveat: Math Operations and the Recycling Rule

Mathematical operations such as addition and multiplication operate elementwise by default. The matrix
algebra operations are generally surrounded by % (see section 8). The danger here happens when one tries
to do math using certain objects of different sizes. Instead of halting and issuing an error as one might
expect, R uses a recycling rule to decide how to do the math—that is, it repeats the values in the smaller
data object. For example,
> a<-c(1,3,5,7)
> b<-c(2,8)
> a+b
[1] 3 11 7 15
Only if the dimensions are not multiples of each other does R return a warning (although it still does the
computation)
> a<-c(2,4,16,7)
> b<-c(2,8,9)
> a+b
[1] 4 12 25 9
Warning message:
longer object length
is not a multiple of shorter object length in: a + b
At first the recycling rule may seem like a dumb idea (and it can cause error if the programmer is
not careful) but this is what makes operations like scalar addition and scalar multiplication of vectors and
matrices (as well as vector-to-matrix addition) possible. One just needs to be careful about dimensionality
when doing elementwise math in R.
Notice that although R recycles vectors when added to other vectors or data types, it does not recycle
when adding, for example, two matrices. Adding matrices or arrays of different dimensions to each other
produces an error.

9
2.3 Important Data Types
2.3.1 Vectors
The most fundamental numeric data type in R is an unnamed vector. A scalar is, in fact, a 1-vector. Vectors
are more abstract than one dimensional matrices because they do not contain information about whether
they are row or column vectors—although when the distinction must be made, R usually assumes that
vectors are columns.
The vector abstraction away from rows/columns is a common source of confusion in R by people familiar
with matrix oriented languages, such as matlab. The confusion associated with this abstraction can be shown
by an example
a<-c(1,2,3)
b<-c(4,6,8)
Now we can make a matrix by stacking vertically or horizontally and R assumes that the vectors are either
rows or columns, respectively.
> cbind(a,b)
a b
[1,] 1 4
[2,] 2 6
[3,] 3 8
> rbind(a,b)
[,1] [,2] [,3]
a 1 2 3
b 4 6 8
One function assumed that these were column vectors and the other that they were row vectors. The take
home lesson is that a vector is not a one dimensional matrix, so don’t expect them to work as they do in a
linear algebra world. To convert a vector to a 1xN matrix for use in linear algebra-type operations (column
vector) us as.matrix().
Note that t() returns a matrix, so that the object t(t(a)) is not the same as a.

2.3.2 Arrays, Matrices

In R, homogeneous (all elements are of the same type) multivariate data may be stored as an array or a
matrix. A matrix is a two-dimensional object, whereas an array may be of many dimensions. These data
types may or may not have special attributes giving names to columns or rows (although one cannot reference
a column using the $ operator as with dataframes) but can hold only numeric data. Note that one cannot
make a matrix, array, or vector of two different types of data (numeric and character, for example). Either
they will be coerced into the same type or an error will occur.

2.3.3 Dataframes
Most econometric data will be in the form of a dataframe. A dataframe is a collection of vectors (we think
of them as columns) containing data, which need not all be of the same type, but each column must have
the same number of elements. Each column has a title by which the whole vector may be addressed. If goo
is a 3x4 data frame with titles age, gender, education, and salary, then we can print the salary column
with the command
> goo$salary
or view the names of the columns in goo
> names(goo)
Most mathematical operations affect multidimensional data elementwise (unlike some mathematical lan-
guages, such as matlab). From the previous example,

10
> salarysq <- (goo$salary)^2

creates a dataframe with one column entitled salary with entries equal to the square of the corresponding
entries in goo$salary. Output from actions can also be saved in the original variable, for example,

> salarysq <- sqrt(salarysq)

replaces each of the entries in salarysq with its square root.

> goo$lnsalary <- log(salarysq)

adds a column named lnsalary to goo, containing the log of the salary.

2.3.4 Lists
A list is more general than a dataframe. It is essentially a bunch of data objects bound together, optionally
with a name given to each. These data objects may be scalars, strings, dataframes, or any other type.
Functions that return many elements of data (like summary()) generally bind the returned data together as
a list, since functions return only one data object. As with dataframes, we can see what objects are in a
list (by name if they have them) using the names() command and refer to them either by name (if existent)
using the $ symbol or by number using brackets. Remember that referencing a member of a list is
generally done using double, not single, brackets (see section 2.1). Sometimes we would like to
simplify a list into a vector. For example, the function strsplit() returns a list containing substrings of
its argument. In order to make them into a vector of strings, we must change the list to a vector using
unlist(). Lists sometimes get annoying, so unlist() is a surprisingly useful function.

2.3.5 S3 Classes
Many functions return an object containing many types of data, like a list, but would like R to know
something about what type of object it is. A list with an associated “class” attribute designating what type
of list it is is an S3 class. If the class is passed as an argument, R will first search for an appropriately
named function. For example, lm() produces output that should mean something to R. When we print an
lm object, a method written especially for fitted objects should be called instead of the standard routine.

> print(x)

calls print() if x is an arbitrary data type, but if it is of class lm, print.lm() is called instead.
S3 lists are quite simple to use. The are really just lists with an extra attribute. We can create them
either using the class() function or just adding the class attribute after creation of a list.

> h <- list(a=rnorm(3),b="This shouldn’t print")

> class(h) <- "myclass"
> print.myclass<-function(x){cat("A is:",x$a,"\n")}
> print(h)
A is: -0.710968 -1.611896 0.6219214

If we were to call print() without assigning the class, we would get a different result.

2.3.6 S4 Classes
S4 classes are a recent addition to R. They generically hold data and functions, just like S3 classes, but
have some technical advantages, which transcend the scope of this document. For our purposes, the most
important difference between an S3 and S4 class is that attributes of the latter are referenced using @ instead
of $ and it can only be created using the new() command.
> g <- garchFit(~arma(0,1),~garch(2,3),y)
> fitvalues <- g@fit

11
2.4 Working with Dates
The standard way of storing dates internally in R is as an object of class Date. This allows for such things as
subtraction of one date from another yielding the number of days between them. To convert data to dates,
we use as.Date(). This function takes as input a character string and a format. If the given vector of dates
is stored as a numeric format (like 20050627) it should be converted to a string using as.character() first.
The format argument informs the code what part of the string corresponds to what part of the date. Four
digit year is %Y, two digit year is %y, numeric month is %m, alphabetic (abbreviated) month is %b, alphabetic
(full) month is %B, day is %d. For other codes, see the help files on strptime. For example, if d is a vector
of dates formatted like ”2005-Jun-27”, we could use

> g<-as.Date(d,format="%Y-%b-%d")

Internally, Date objects are numeric quantities, so they don’t take up very much memory.
We can perform the reverse operation of as.Date()—formatting or extracting parts of a Date object—
using format(). For example, given a column of numbers like 20040421, we can extract a character string
representing the year using

> year<-format(as.Date(as.character(v$DATE),format="%Y%m%d"),format="%Y")

2.5 Merging Dataframes

If we have two dataframes covering the same time or observations but not completely aligned, we can merge
the two dataframes using merge(). Either we can specify which column to use for aligning the data, or
merge() will try to identify column names in common between the two.
For example, if B is a data frame of bond data prices over a certain period of time and had a column named
date containing the dates of the observations and E was a similar dataframe of equity prices over about the
same time period, we could merge them into one dataframe (with NA inserted wherever an observation exists
in one but not the other dataset) using

> OUT<-merge(B,E)

If the date column was named date in B but day in E, the command would instead be

> OUT<-merge(B,E,by.x="date",by.y="day")

2.6 Opening a Data File

R is able to read data from many formats. The most common format is a text file with data separated into
columns and with a header above each column describing the data. If blah.dat is a text file of this type
and is located on the windows desktop we could read it using the command

> mydata <- read.table("C:/WINDOWS/Desktop/blah.dat",header=TRUE)

Now mydata is a dataframe with named columns, ready for analysis. Note that R assumes that there are
no labels on the columns, and gives them default values, if you omit the header=TRUE argument. Now let’s
suppose that instead of blah.dat we have blah.dta, a stata file.

> library(foreign)
> mydata <- read.dta("C:/WINDOWS/Desktop/blah.dta")

Stata files automatically have headers.

Another data format we may read is .csv comma-delimited files (such as those exported by spreadsheets).
These files are very similar to those mentioned above, but use punctuation to delimit columns and rows.
Instead of read.table(), we use read.csv(). Fixed width files can be read using read.fwf().
Matlab (.mat) files can be read using readMat() from the R.matlab package. The function writeMat()
from the same package writes matlab data files.

12
2.7 Working With Very Large Data Files
R objects can be as big as our computer will allow. If, however, the objects we are loading are so big that
they exhaust the system RAM, they are swapped to disk. This means that extremely large objects can
slow everything down tremendously. The read.table() family of routines assume that we are not working
with very large data sets and so are not careful to conserve on memory. They load everything at once and
probably make at least one copy of it. A better way to work with huge datasets is to read the file a line (or
group of lines) at a time. We do this using connections. A connection is an R object that points to a file
or other input/output stream. Each time we read from a connection the location in the file from which we
read moves forward.
Before we can use a connection, we must create it using file() if our data source is a file or url() for an
online source (there are other types of connections too). Then we use open() to open it. Now we can read
one or many lines of text using readLines(), read fields of data using scan(), or write data using cat() or
one of the write.table() family of routines. When we are done we close using close().
Reading fields of data from a huge file is a very common task, so we give it special attention. The most
important argument to scan() is what, which specifies what type of data to read in. If the file contains
columns of data, what should be a list, with each member of the list representing a column of data. For
example, if the file contains a name followed by a comma separator and an age, we could read a single line
using
> a <- scan(f,what=list(name="",age=0),sep=",",nlines=1)
where f is an open connection. Now a is a list with fields name and age. Example 13.4 shows how to read
from a large data file. Notice that reading one line at a time is not the fastest way to do things. R can
comfortably read 100, 1000, or more lines at a time. Increasing how many lines are read per iteration could
speed up large reads considerably. With large files, we could read lines 1000 at a time, transform them, and
then write 1000 at a time to another open connection, thereby keep system memory free.
If all of the data is of the same type and belong in the same object (a 2000x2000 numeric matrix, for
example) we can use scan() without including the nlines argument and get tremendously faster reads. The
resulting vector would need only to be converted to type matrix.

2.8 Issuing System Commands—Directory Listing

Sometimes we want to issue a command to the operating system from inside of R. For example, under unix
we may want to get a list of the files in the current directory that begin with the letter x. We could execute
this command using
> system("ls x*")
xaa xab xac xad xae
If we want to save the output of the command as an R object, we use the keyword intern
> files <- system("ls x*",intern=T)

2.9 Reading Data From the Clipboard

When importing from other applications, such as spreadsheets and database managers, the quickest way to
get the data is to highlight it in the other application, copy it to the desktop clipboard, and then read the
data from the clipboard. R treats the clipboard like a file, so we use the standard read.table() command
> indata <- read.table("clipboard")

2.10 Editing Data Directly

R has a built-in spreadsheet-like interface for editing data. It’s not very advanced, but it works in a pinch.
Suppose a is a dataframe, we can edit it in place using
> data.entry(a)

13
Any changes we make (including changing the type of data contained in a column) will be reflected in a
immediately. If we want to save the changed data to a different variable, we could have used

> b <- de(a)

Notice that both de() and data.entry() return a variable of type list. If what we wanted was a dataframe,
for example, we need to convert it back after editing.
The function edit() works like de() but for many different data types. In practice, it calls either de()
or the system default text editor (which is set using options()).
A similar useful function is fix(), which edits an R object in place. fix() operates on any kind of data:
dataframes are opened with de() and functions are opened with a text editor. This can be useful for quick
edits either to data or code.

3 Cross Sectional Regression

3.1 Ordinary Least Squares
Let’s consider the simplest case. Suppose we have a data frame called byu containing columns for age,
salary, and exper. We want to regress various forms of age and exper on salary. A simple linear
regression might be

> lm(byu$salary ~ byu$age + byu$exper)

or alternately:
> lm(salary ~ age + exper,data=byu)

as a third alternative, we could “attach” the dataframe, which makes its columns available as regular variables

> attach(byu)
> lm(salary ~ age + exper)

Notice the syntax of the model argument (using the tilde). The above command would correspond to
the linear model
salary = β0 + β1 age + β2 exper +  (1)
Using lm() results in an abbreviated summary being sent to the screen, giving only the β coefficient
estimates. For more exhaustive analysis, we can save the results in as a data member or “fitted model”

> result <- lm(salary ~ age + exper + age*exper,data=byu)

> summary(result)
> myresid <- result$resid
> vcov(result)

The summary() command, run on raw data, such as byu$age, gives statistics, such as the mean and
median (these are also available through their own functions, mean and median). When run on an ols
object, summary gives important statistics about the regression, such as p-values and the R2 .
The residuals and several other pieces of data can also be extracted from result, for use in other computa-
tions. The variance-covariance matrix (of the beta coefficients) is accessible through the vcov() command.
Notice that more complex formulae are allowed, including interaction terms (specified by multiplying
two data members) and functions such as log() and sqrt(). Unfortunately, in order to include a power
term, such as age squared, we must either first compute the values, then run the regression, or use the I()
operator, which forces computation of its argument before evaluation of the formula

> salary$agesq <- (salary$age)^2

> result <- lm(salary ~ age + agesq + log(exper) + age*log(exper),data=byu)

or

14
> result <- lm(salary ~ age + I(age^2) + log(exper) + age*log(exper),data=byu)
In order to run a regression without an intercept, we simply specify the intercept explicitly, traditionally
with a zero.

> result <- lm(smokes ~ 0 + male + female ,data=smokerdata)

3.2 Extracting Statistics from the Regression

The most important statistics and parameters of a regression are stored in the lm object or the summary
object. Consider the smoking example above
> output <- summary(result)
> SSR <- deviance(result)
> LL <- logLik(result)
> DegreesOfFreedom <- result$df
> Yhat <- result$fitted.values
> Coef <- result$coefficients
> Resid <- result$residuals
> s <- output$sigma
> RSquared <- output$r.squared
> CovMatrix <- s^2*output$cov
> aic <- AIC(result)
Where SSR is the residual sum of squares, LL is the log likelihood statistic, Yhat is the vector of fitted
values, Resid is the vector of residuals, s is the estimated standard deviation of the errors (assuming
homoskedasticity), CovMatrix is the variance-covariance matrix of the coefficients (also available via vcov()),
aic is the Akaike information criterion and other statistics are as named.
Note that the AIC criterion is define by R as

AIC = −2 log L(p) + 2p

where p is the number of estimated parameters and L(p) is the likelihood. Some econometricians prefer to
call AIC/N the information criterion. To obtain the Bayesian Information Criterion (or Schwartz Bayesian
Criterion) we use AIC but specify a different “penalty” parameter as follows
> sbc <- AIC(result,k=log(NROW(smokerdata)))
which means
AIC = −2 log L(p) + p log(N )

3.3 Heteroskedasticity and Friends

3.3.1 Breusch-Pagan Test for Heteroskedasticity
In order to test for the presence of heteroskedasticity, we can use the Breusch-Pagan test from the lmtest
package. Alternately we can use the the ncv.test() function from the car package. They work pretty much
the same way. After running the regression, we call the bptest() function with the fitted regression.
> unrestricted <- lm(z~x)
> bptest(unrestricted)

Breusch-Pagan test

data: unrestricted
BP = 44.5465, df = 1, p-value = 2.484e-11
This performs the “studentized” version of the test. In order to be consistent with some other software
(including ncv.test()) we can specify studentize=FALSE.

15
3.3.2 Heteroskedasticity (Autocorrelation) Robust Covariance Matrix
In the presence of heteroskedasticity, the ols estimates remain unbiased, but the ols estimates of the variance
of the beta coefficients are no longer correct. In order to compute the heteroskedasticity consistent covariance
matrix1 we use the hccm() function (from the car library) instead of vcov(). The diagonal entries are
variances and off diagonals are covariance terms.
This functionality is also available via the vcovHC() command in the sandwich package. Also in that
package is the heteroskedasticity and autocorrelation robust Newey-West estimator, available in the function
vcovHAC() or the function NeweyWest().

3.4 Linear Hypothesis Testing (Wald and F)

The car package provides a function that automatically performs linear hypothesis tests. It does either an
F or a Wald test using either the regular or adjusted covariance matrix, depending on our specifications. In
order to test hypotheses, we must construct a hypothesis matrix and a right hand side vector. For example,
if we have a model with five parameters, including the intercept and we want to test against

H0 : β0 = 0, β3 + β4 = 1

The hypothesis matrix and right hand side vector would be

   
1 0 0 0 0 0
β=
0 0 1 1 0 1

and we could implement this as follows

> unrestricted <- lm(y~x1+x2+x3+x4)

> rhs <- c(0,1)
> hm <- rbind(c(1,0,0,0,0),c(0,0,1,1,0))
> linear.hypothesis(unrestricted,hm,rhs)

Notice that if unrestricted is an lm object, an F test is performed by default, if it is a glm object, a

Wald χ2 test is done instead. The type of test can be modified through the type argument.
Also, if we want to perform the test using heteroskedasticity or autocorrelation robust standard errors,
we can either specify white.adjust=TRUE to use white standard errors, or we can supply our own covariance
matrix using the vcov parameter. For example, if we had wished to use the Newey-West corrected covariance
matrix above, we could have specified

> linear.hypothesis(unrestricted,hm,rhs,vcov=NeweyWest(unrestricted))

See the section on heteroskedasticity robust covariance matrices for information about the NeweyWest() func-
tion. We should remember that the specification white.adjust=TRUE corrects for heteroskedasticity using an
improvement to the white estimator. To use the classic white estimator, we can specify white.adjust="hc0".

3.5 Weighted and Generalized Least Squares

You can do weighted least squares by passing a vector containing the weights to lm().

> result <- lm(smokes ~ 0 + male + female ,data=smokerdata,weights=myweights)

Generalized least squares is available through the lm.gls() command in the MASS library. It takes a
formula, weighting matrix, and (optionally) a dataframe from which to get the data as arguments.
The glm() command provides access to a plethora of other advanced linear regression methods. See the
help file for more details.
1 obtaining the White standard errors, or rather, their squares.

16
3.6 Models With Factors/Groups
There is a separate datatype for qualitative factors in R. When a variable included in a regression is of type
factor, the requisite dummy variables are automatically created. For example, if we wanted to regress the
adoption of personal computers (pc) on the number of employees in the firm (emple) and include a dummy
for each state (where state is a vector of two letter abbreviations), we could simply run the regression
> summary(lm(pc~emple+state))

Call:
lm(formula = pc ~ emple + state)

Residuals:
Min 1Q Median 3Q Max
-1.7543 -0.5505 0.3512 0.4272 0.5904

Coefficients:
Estimate Std. Error t value Pr(>|t|)
(Intercept) 5.572e-01 6.769e-02 8.232 <2e-16 ***
emple 1.459e-04 1.083e-05 13.475 <2e-16 ***
stateAL -4.774e-03 7.382e-02 -0.065 0.948
stateAR 2.249e-02 8.004e-02 0.281 0.779
stateAZ -7.023e-02 7.580e-02 -0.926 0.354
stateDE 1.521e-01 1.107e-01 1.375 0.169

...

stateFL -4.573e-02 7.136e-02 -0.641 0.522

stateWY 1.200e-01 1.041e-01 1.153 0.249
---
Signif. codes: 0 ‘***’ 0.001 ‘**’ 0.01 ‘*’ 0.05 ‘.’ 0.1 ‘ ’ 1

Residual standard error: 0.4877 on 9948 degrees of freedom

Multiple R-Squared: 0.02451, Adjusted R-squared: 0.01951
F-statistic: 4.902 on 51 and 9948 DF, p-value: < 2.2e-16
The three dots indicate that some of the coefficients have been removed for the sake of brevity.
In order to convert data (either of type string or numeric) to a factor, simply use the factor() command.
It can even be used inside the regression. For example, if we wanted to do the same regression, but by a
numeric code specifying an area, we could use the command
> myout <- lm(pc~emple+factor(naics6))
which converts naics6 into a factor, generates the appropriate dummies, and runs a standard regression.

4 Special Regressions
4.1 Fixed/Random Effects Models
Warning: The definitions of fixed and random effects models are not standardized across disciplines. I
describe fixed and random effects estimation as these terms are generally used by econometricians. The
terms “fixed” and “random” have historical roots and are econometrically misleading.
Within the context of economics, fixed and random effects estimators are panel data models that account
for cross sectional variation in the intercept. Letting i denote the cross sectional index (or the one by which
data is grouped) and t the time index (or the index that varies within a group), a standard fixed effects
model can be written
yit = α + ui + βXit + it . (2)

17
Essentially, each individual has a different time-invariant intercept (α + ui ). Usually we are interested in β
but not any of the ui . A random effects model has the same mean equation, but imposes the additional
restriction that the individual specific effect is uncorrelated with the explanatory variables Xit . That is,
E[ui Xit ] = 0. Econometrically this is a more restrictive version of the fixed effects estimator (which allows
for arbitrary correlation between the “effect” and exogenous variables). One should not let the unfortunate
nomenclature confuse the relationship between these models.

4.1.1 Fixed Effects

A simple way to do a fixed effects estimation, particularly if the cross sectional dimension is not large, is to
include a dummy for each individual—that is, make the cross sectional index a factor. If index identifies
the individuals in the sample, then

> lm(y~factor(index)+x)

will do a fixed effects estimation and will report the correct standard errors on β. Unfortunately, in cases
where there are many individuals in the sample and we are not interested in the value of their fixed effects,
the lm() results are awkward to deal with and the estimation of a large number of ui coefficients could
render the problem numerically intractable.
A more common way to estimate fixed effects models is to remove the fixed effect by time demeaning
each variable (the so called within estimator). Then equation (2) becomes

(yit − ȳi ) = α + β(Xit − X̄i ) + ζit . (3)

Most econometric packages (for example, stata’s xtreg) use this method when doing fixed effects estimation.
Using R, one can manually time demean the independent and dependent variables. If d is a dataframe
containing year, firm, profit, and predictor and we wish to time demean each firm’s profit and predictor,
we could run something like

> g<-d
> for (i in unique(d$firm)){
+ timemean<-mean(d[d$firm==i,])
+ g$profit[d$firm==i]<-d$profit[d$firm==i]-timemean["profit"]
+ g$predictor[d$firm==i]<-d$predictor[d$firm==i]-timemean["predictor"]
+ }
> output<-lm(profit~predictor,data=g)

Notice that the standard errors reported by this regression will be biased downward. The σ̂ 2 reported by
lm() is computed using
SSR
σ̂ 2 =
NT − K
whereas the true standard errors in this fixed effects regression are
SSR
σ̂ 2 =
N (T − 1) − K

For small T this can be an important correction.

Another, generally less popular, way to do fixed effects estimation is to use the first differences estimator

(yit − yi(t−1) ) = α + β(Xit − Xi(t−1) ) + ζit .

which can be computed by hand in a manner similar to the within estimator.

18
4.1.2 Random Effects
The package nlme contains functions for doing random effects regression (but not fixed effects—the docu-
mentation refers to the statistics interpretation of the term “fixed effect”) in a linear or nonlinear framework.
Suppose we had a linear model with a random effect on the sic3 code.

ldsal = (α + αi ) + βlempit + γldnptit + it

We could fit this model using

> lme(ldsal~lemp+ldnpt,random=~1|sic3)
In general the random effects will be after the vertical bar in the random parameter of the model. Placing
a 1 between the tilde and vertical bar indicates that the random effect is an intercept term. If we wanted a
random effect on one of the exogenous variables as well as the intercept, we could put that variable in the
same place as the 1. For example
> lme(ldsal~lemp+ldnpt,random=~1+lemp|sic3)
corresponds to
ldsal = (α + αi ) + (β + βi )lempit + γldnptit + it
For nonlinear random effects models, use nlme() instead of lme().

4.2 Qualitative Response

4.2.1 Logit/Probit
There are several ways to do logit and probit regressions in R. The simplest way may be to use the glm()
command with the family option.
> h <- glm(c~y, family=binomial(link="logit"))
or replace logit with probit for a probit regression. The glm() function produces an object similar to the
lm() function, so it can be analyzed using the summary() command. In order to extract the log likelihood
statistic, use the logLik() command.
> logLik(h)
‘log Lik.’ -337.2659 (df=1)

4.2.2 Multinomial Logit

There is a function for performing a multinomial logit estimation in the nnet library called multinom(). To
use it, simply transform our dependent variable to a vector of factors (including all cases) and use syntax
like a normal regression. If our factors are stored as vectors of dummy variables, we can use the properties
of decimal numbers to create unique factors for all combinations. Suppose my factors are pc, inetacc, and
iapp, then
> g <- pc*1 + inetacc*10 + iapp*100
> multinom(factor(g)~pc.subsidy+inet.subsidy+iapp.subsidy+emple+msamissing)
and we get a multinomial logit using all combinations of factors.
Multinomial probit models are characteristically ill conditioned. A method that uses markov chain monte
carlo simulations, mnp(), is available in the MNP library.

4.2.3 Ordered Logit/Probit

The MASS library has a function to perform ordered logit or probit regressions, called polr(). If Sat is an
ordered factor vector, then
> house.plr <- polr(Sat ~ Infl + Type + Cont, method="probit")

19
4.3 Tobit and Censored Regression
In order to estimate a model in which the values of some of the data have been censored, we use the survival
library. The function survreg() performs this type of regression, and takes as its dependent variable a Surv
object. The best way to see how to do this type of regression is by example. Suppose we want to regress y
on x and z, but a number of y observations were censored on the left and set to zero.
result <- survreg(Surv(y,y>0,type=’left’) ~ x + z, dist=’gaussian’)
The second argument to the Surv() function specifies whether each observation has been censored or not
(one indicating that it was observed and zero that it was censored). The third argument indicates on which
side the data was censored. Since it was the lower tail of this distribution that got censored, we specify left.
The dist option passed to the survreg is necessary in order to get a classical Tobit model.

4.4 Quantile Regression

Ordinary least squares regression methods produce an estimate of the expectation of the dependent variable
conditional on the independent. Fitted values, then, are an estimate of the conditional mean. If instead of
the conditional mean we want an estimate of the expected conditional median or some other quantile, we
use the rq() command from the quantreg package. The syntax is essentially the same as lm() except that
we can specify the parameter tau, which is the quantile we want (it is between 0 and 1). By default, tau=.5,
which corresponds to a median regression—another name for least absolute deviation regression.

4.5 Robust Regression - M Estimators

For some datasets, outliers influence the least squares regression line more than we would like them to. One
solution is to use a minimization approach using something besides the sum of squared residuals (which
corresponds to minimizing the L2 norm) as our objective function. Common choices are the sum of absolute
deviations (L1 ) and the Huber method, which is something of a mix between the L1 and L2 methods. R
implements this robust regression functionality through the rlm() command in the MASS library. The
syntax is the same as that of the lm() command except that it allows the choice of objective function to
minimize. That choice is specified by the psi parameter. Possible implemented choices are psi.huber,
psi.hampel, and psi.bisquare.
In order to specify a custom psi function, we write a function that returns ψ(x)/x if deriv=0 and ψ 0 (x)
for deriv=1. This function than then be passed to rlm() using the psi parameter.

4.6 Nonlinear Least Squares

Sometimes the economic model just isn’t linear. R has the capability of solving for the coefficients a gener-
alized least squares model that can be expressed
Y = F (X; β) +  (4)
Notice that the error term must be additive in the functional form. If it is not, transform the model equation
so that it is. The R function for nonlinear least squares is nls() and has a syntax similar to lm(). Consider
the following nonlinear example.

Y = (5)
1 + eβ1 X1 +β2 X2
log(Y ) = − log(1 + eβ1 X1 +β2 X2 ) + log() (6)
The second equation is the transformed version that we will use for the estimation. nls() takes the formula
as its first argument and also requires starting estimates for the parameters. The entire formula should be
specified, including the parameters. R looks at the starting values to see which parameters it will estimate.
> result <- nls(log(Y)~-log(1+exp(a*X1+b*X2)),start=list(a=1,b=1),data=mydata)
stores estimates of a and b in an nls object called result. Estimates can be viewed using the summary()
command. In the most recent versions of R, the nls() command is part of the base package, but in older
versions, we may have to load the nls library.

20
4.7 Two Stage Least Squares on a Single Structural Equation
For single equation two stage least squares, the easiest function is probably tsls() from the sem library.
If we want to find the effect of education on wage while controlling for marital status but think educ is
endogenous, we could use motheduc and fatheduc as instruments by running

> library(sem)
> outputof2sls <- tsls(lwage~educ+married,~married+motheduc+fatheduc)

The first argument is the structural equation we want to estimate and the second is a tilde followed by all
the instruments and exogenous variables from the structural equation—everything we need for the Z matrix
in the 2SLS estimator β̃ = (X 0 Z(Z 0 Z)−1 Z 0 X)−1 X 0 Z(Z 0 Z)−1 Z 0 y.
The resulting output can be analyzed using summary() and other ols analysis functions. Note that since
this command produces a two stage least squares object, the summary statistics, including standard errors,
will be correct. Recall that if we were to do this using an actual two stage approach, the resulting standard
errors would be bogus.

4.8 Systems of Equations

The commands for working with systems of equations (including instrumental variables, two stage least
squares, seemingly unrelated regression and variations) are contained in the systemfit library. In general
these functions take as an argument a list of regression models. Note that in R an equation model (which
must include the tilde) is just another data type. Thus we could create a list of equation models and a
corresponding list of labels using the normal assignment operator

> demand <- q ~ p + d

> supply <- q ~ p + f + a
> system <- list(demand,supply)
> labels <- list("demand","supply")

4.8.1 Seemingly Unrelated Regression

Once we have the system and labels set up, we can use systemfit() with the SUR option to specify that the
system describes a seemingly unrelated regression.

> resultsur <- systemfit("SUR",system,labels)

4.8.2 Two Stage Least Squares on a System

Instruments can be used as well in order to do a two stage least squares on the above system. We create a
model object (with no left side) to specify the instruments that we will use and specify the 2SLS option

> inst <- ~ d + f + a

> result2sls <- systemfit("2SLS",system,labels,inst)

There are also routines for three stage least squares, weighted two stage least squares, and a host of others.

5 Time Series Regression

R has a special datatype, ts, for use in time series regressions. Vectors, arrays, and dataframes can be coerced
into this type using the ts() command for use in time series functions.

> datats <- ts(data)

Most time-series related functions automatically coerce the data into ts format, so this command is often
not necessary.

21
5.1 Differences and Lags
We can compute differences of a time series object using the diff() operator, which takes as optional
arguments which difference to use and how much lag should be used in computing that difference. For
example, to take the first difference with a lag of two, so that wt = vt − vt−3 we would use

> w <- diff(v,lag=2,difference=1)

By default, diff() returns the simple first difference of its argument.

There are two general ways of generating lagged data. If we want to lag the data directly (without
necessarily converting to a time series object), one way to do it is to omit the first few observations using
the minus operator for indices. We can then remove the last few rows of un-lagged data in order to achieve
conformity. The commands

> lagy <- y[-NROW(y)]

> ysmall <- y[-1]

produce a once lagged version of y relative to ysmall. This way of generating lags can get awkward if we
are trying combinations of lags in regressions because for each lagged version of the variable, conformability
requires that we have a corresponding version of the original data that has the first few observations removed.
Another way to lag data is to convert it to a time series object and use the lag() function. It is very
important to remember that this function does not actually change the data, it changes an attribute of a time
series object that indicates where the series starts. This allows for more flexibility with time series functions,
but it can cause confusion for general functions such as lm() that do not understand time series attributes.
Notice that lag() only works usefully on time series objects. For example, the code snippet

> d <- a - lag(a,-1)

creates a vector of zeros named d if a is a normal vector, but returns a ts object with the first difference of
the series if a is a ts object. There is no warning issued if lag() is used on regular data, so care should be
exercised.
In order to use lagged data in a regression, we can use time series functions to generate a dataframe with
various lags of the data and NA characters stuck in the requisite leading and trailing positions. In order
to do this, we use the ts.union() function. Suppose X and Y are vectors of ordinary data and we want to
include a three times lagged version of X in the regression, then

> y <- ts(Y)

> x <- ts(X)
> x3 <- lag(x,-3)
> d <- ts.union(y,x,x3)

converts the vectors to ts data and forms a multivariate time series object with columns yt , xt , and xt−3 .
Again, remember that data must be converted to time series format before lagging or binding together with
the union operator in order to get the desired offset. The ts.union() function automatically decides on
a title for each column, must as the data.frame() command does. We can also do the lagging inside the
union and assign our own titles

> y <- ts(Y)

> x <- ts(X)
> d <- ts.union(y,x,x1=lag(xt,-1),x2=lag(xt,-2),x3=lag(xt,-3))

It is critical to note that the lag operator works in the opposite direction of what one might
expect: positive lag values result in leads and negative lag values result in lags.
When the resulting multivariate time series object is converted to a data frame (as it is read by ls() for
example), the offset will be preserved. Then

> lm(y~x3,data=d)

22
will then regress yt on xt−3 .
Also note that by default observations that have a missing value (NA) are omitted. This is what we want.
If the default setting has somehow been changed, we should include the argument na.action=na.omit in
the lm() call. In order to get the right omission behavior, it is generally necessary to bind all the data we
want to use (dependent and independent variables) together in a single union.
In summary, in order to use time series data, convert all data to type ts, lag it appropriately (using the
strange convention that positive lags are leads), and bind it all together using ts.union(). Then proceed
with the regressions and other operations.

5.2 Filters
5.2.1 Canned AR and MA filters
One can pass data through filters constructed by polynomials in the lag operator using the filter() com-
mand. It handles two main types of filters: moving average or “convolution” filters and autoregressive or
“recursive” filters. Convolution filters have the form

y = (a0 + a1 L + . . . + ap Lp )x

while recursive filters solve

y = (a1 L + a2 L2 + . . . + ap Lp )y + x
In both cases, x is the input to the filter and y the output. If x is a vector of innovations, the convolution
filter generates a moving average series and the recursive filter generates an autoregressive series. Notice
that there is no a0 term in the recursive filter (it would not make sense theoretically). The recursive filter
can equivalently be thought of as solving

y = (1 − a1 L − a2 L2 − . . . − ap Lp )−1 x

When we use the filter() command, we supply the {an } vector as follows
> y <- filter(x,c(1,.2,-.35,.1),method="convolution",sides=1)

The data vector x may be a time series object or a regular vector of data, and the output y will be a ts
object. It is necessary to specify sides=1 for a convolution filter, otherwise the software tries to center the
filter (in positive and negative lags), which is not usually what the econometrician wants. The recursive
filter ignores the sides keyword. Notice that (except for data loss near the beginning of the series) we can
recover the data from y above using a recursive filter

> X<-filter(y,c(-.2,.35,-.1),method="recursive")

5.2.2 Manual Filtration

If the filter() command does not work for our application—or we just prefer doing things ourselves—we
can manually generate the lags and compute the result. We could imitate the convolution filter above with

> x <- ts(x)

> y <- x+.2*lag(x,-1)-.35*lag(x,-2)+.1*lag(x,-3)

The autoregressive filter would require a for loop to reproduce. Remember that the lag method of
filtering will only work if x is a ts object.

5.2.3 Hodrick Prescott Filter

Data may be passed through the Hodrick-Prescott filter a couple of ways, neither of which require the data
to be a time series vector. First, we can filter manually using the function defined below (included without
prompts so it may be copied and pasted into R)

23
hpfilter <- function(x,lambda=1600){
eye <- diag(length(x))
result <- solve(eye+lambda*crossprod(diff(eye,lag=1,d=2)),x)
return(result)
}
where lambda is the standard tuning parameter, often set to 1600 for macroeconomic data. Passing a series
to this function will return the smoothed series.
This filter is also a special case of the smooth.spline() function in which the parameter tt all.knots=TRUE
has been passed. Unfortunately, the tuning parameter for the smooth.spline() function, spar is different
from the lambda above and we have not figured out how to convert from spar to lambda. If the reader
knows how to use smooth.spline() to do HP filtration, please let me know.

5.2.4 Kalman Filter

R has multiple functions for smoothing, filtering, and evaluating the likelihood of a state space model using
the Kalman filter. The most frequently mentioned is the KalmanLike family of functions, but they work
only for univariate state space models (that is, models in which there is only one variable in the observations
equation). For this reason, the methods in the dse1 package (SS.l() and others) and sspir package are often
preferred. Because of their greater simplicity, I describe the functions in the sspir package.
First we use a function to generate a state space model object, then we can Kalman filter it and optionally
smooth the filtered results.. The function for generating the state space object is SS(). Recall that a state
space model can be written

yt = Ft0 θt + vt
θt = Gt θt−1 + wt

where
vt ∼ N (0, Vt ), wt ∼ N (0, Wt ).
θt is the unobserved state vector, and yt is the observed data vector. For Kalman filtering, the initial value
of θ is drawn from N (m0 , C0 ).
Because of the possibly time varying nature of this general model, the coefficient matrices must be given
as functions. One caveat to remember is that the input Fmat is the transpose of Ft . After writing functions to
input Ft , Gt , Vt , Wt and generating the input variables φ (a vector of parameters to be used by the functions
that generate Ft , Gt , Vt , and Wt ), m0 , and C0 , we run SS() to create the state space model. Then we
run kfilter() on the model object to filter and obtain the log likelihood—it returns a copy of the model
with estimated parameters included. If we want to run the Kalman smoother, we take the output model of
kfilter() and run smoother() on it.
The functions in package dse1 appear more flexible but more complicated to initialize.

5.3 ARIMA/ARFIMA
The arima() command from the ts() library can fit time series data using an autoregressive integrated
moving average model.

∆d yt = µ + γ1 ∆d yt−1 + ... + γp ∆d yt−p + t + θ1 t−1 + ... + θq t−q (7)

where
∆yt = yt − yt−1 (8)
The parameters p, d, and q specify the order of the arima model. These values are passed as a vector
c(p,d,q) to arima(). Notice that the model used by R makes no assumption about the sign of the θ terms,
so the sign of the corresponding coefficients may differ from those of other software packages (such as S+).
> ar1 <- arima(y,order=c(1,0,0))
> ma1 <- arima(y,order=c(0,0,1))

24
Data-members ar1 and ma1 contain estimated coefficients obtained by fitting y with an AR(1) and MA(1)
model, respectively. They also contain the log likelihood statistic and estimated standard errors.
If we are modeling a simple autoregressive model, we could also use the ar() command, from the ts
package, which either takes as an argument the order of the model or picks a reasonable default order.

> ar3 <- ar(y,order.max=3)

fits an AR(3) model, for example.

The function fracdiff(), from the fracdiff library fits a specified ARMA(p,q) model to our data and
finds the optimal fractional value of d for an ARFIMA(p,d,q). Its syntax differs somewhat from the arima()
command.

> library(fracdiff)
> fracdiff(y,nar=2,nma=1)

finds the optimal d value using p=2 and q=1. Then it estimates the resulting ARFIMA(p,d,q) model.

5.4 ARCH/GARCH
5.4.1 Basic GARCH–garch()
R can numerically fit data using a generalized autoregressive conditional heteroskedasticity model GARCH(p,q),
written

y =C + (9)
σt2 = α0 + 2
δ1 σt−1 + ... + 2
δp σt−p + α1 2t + ... + αq 2t−q (10)

setting p = 0 we obtain the ARCH(q) model. The R command garch() comes from the tseries library. It’s
syntax is
> archoutput <- garch(y,order=c(0,3))
> garchoutput <- garch(y,order=c(2,3))

so that archoutput is the result of modeling an ARCH(3) model and garchoutput is the result of modeling
a GARCH(2,3). Notice that the first value in the order argument is q, the number of deltas, and the second
argument is q, the number of alpha parameters. The resulting coefficient estimates will be named a0, a1,
. . . for the alpha and b1, b2, . . . for the delta parameters. Estimated values of the conditional standard
deviation process are available via

fitted(garchoutput)

5.4.2 Advanced GARCH–garchFit()

Of course, we may want to include exogenous variables in the mean equation (9), which garch() does not
allow. For this we can use the more flexible function garchFit() in the fSeries package.

> garchFitoutput <- garchFit(~arma(0,1),~garch(2,3),y)

fits the same model as above, but the mean equation now is an MA(1).
This function returns an S4 class object, which means to access the data inside we use the @ operator

> coef <- garchFitoutput@fit$coef

> fitted <- garchFitoutput@fit$series$h

Here h gives the estimated σ 2 process, not σ, so it is the square of the “fitted” values from garch(), above.
As of this writing, garchFit() produces copious output as it estimates the parameters. Some of this can
be avoided by passing the parameter trace=FALSE.

25
5.4.3 Miscellaneous GARCH–Ox G@RCH
fSeries also provides an interface to some functions from the Ox G@RCH2 software, which is not free in the same
sense as R is, although as of this writing it was free for academic use. That interface provides routines for
estimation of EGARCH, GJR, APARCH, IGARCH, FIGARCH, FIEGARCH, FIAPARCH and HYGARCH
models, according to the documentation.

5.5 Correlograms
It is common practice when analyzing time series data to plot the autocorrelation and partial autocorre-
lation functions in order to try to guess the functional form of the data. To plot the autocorrelation and
partial autocorrelation functions, use the ts library functions acf() and pacf(), respectively. The following
commands plot the ACF and PACF on the same graph, one above (not on top of) the other. See section 6.5
for more details on arranging multiple graphs on the canvas.

> par(mfrow=c(2,1))
> acf(y)
> pacf(y)

These functions also return the numeric values of the ACF and PACF functions along with some other
output. Plotting can be suppressed by passing plot=F.

Series y
0.0 0.4 0.8
ACF

0 5 10 15 20 25

Lag

Series y
0.4 0.8
Partial ACF

−0.2

0 5 10 15 20 25

Lag

5.6 Predicted Values

The predict() command takes as its input an lm, glm, arima, or other regression object and some options
and returns corresponding predicted values. For time series regressions, such as arima() the argument is
the number of periods into the future to predict.

> a <- arima(y,order=c(1,1,2))

> predict(a,5)

returns predictions on five periods following the data in y, along with corresponding standard error estimates.
2 Ox and G@RCH are distributed by Timberlake Consultants Ltd. Timberlake Consultants can be contacted through the

web site http://www.timberlake.co.uk

26
5.7 Time Series Tests
5.7.1 Durbin-Watson Test for Autocorrelation
The Durbin-Watson test for autocorrelation can be administered using the durbin.watson() function from
the car library. It takes as its argument an lm object (the output from an lm() command) and returns
the autocorrelation, DW statistic, and an estimated p-value. The number of lags can be specified using the
max.lag argument. See help file for more details.

> library(car)
> results <- lm(Y ~ x1 + x2)
> durbin.watson(results,max.lag=2)

5.7.2 Box-Pierce and Breusch-Godfrey Tests for Autocorrelation

In order to test the residuals (or some other dataset) for autocorrelation, we can use the Box-Pierce test
from the ts library.

> library(ts)
> a <- arima(y,order=c(1,1,0))
> Box.test(a$resid)

Box-Pierce test

data: a$resid
X-squared = 18.5114, df = 1, p-value = 1.689e-05

would lead us to believe that the model may not be correctly specified, since we soundly reject the Box-Pierce
null. If we want to the Ljung-Box test instead, we include the parameter type="Ljung-Box".
For an appropriate model, this test is asymptotically equivalent to the Breusch-Godfrey test, which is
available in the lmtest() library as bgtest(). It takes a fitted lm object instead of a vector of data as an
argument.

5.7.3 Dickey-Fuller Test for Unit Root

The augmented Dickey-Fuller test checks whether a series has a unit root. The default null hypothesis is
that the series does have a unit root. Use the adf.test() command from the tseries library for this test.

> library(tseries)
> adf.test(y)

Augmented Dickey-Fuller Test

data: y
Dickey-Fuller = -2.0135, Lag order = 7, p-value = 0.5724
alternative hypothesis: stationary

5.8 Vector Autoregressions (VAR)

The standard ar() routine can do the estimation part of a vector autoregression. In order to do this type of
regression, one need only bind the vectors together as a dataframe and give that dataframe as an argument
to ar(). Notice that ar() by default uses AIC to determine how many lags to use, so it may be necessary
to specifiy aic=FALSE and/or an order.max parameter. Remember that if aic is TRUE (the default), the
function uses AIC to choose a model using up to the number of lags specified by order.max.

> y <- ts.union(Y1,Y2,Y3)

> var6 <- ar(y,aic=FALSE,order=6)

27
 Unfortunately, the ar() approach does not have built in functionality for such things as predictions and
impulse response functions. The reader may have to code those up by hand if necessary.
Alternately, the ARMA() function in the dse1 library can fit multivariate time series regression in great
generality, but the programming overhead is correspondingly great.

6 Plotting
One of R’s strongest points is its graphical ability. It provides both high level plotting commands and the
ability to edit even the smallest details of the plots.
The plot() command opens a new window and plots the the series of data given it. By default a single
vector is plotted as a time series line. If two vectors are given to plot(), the values are plotted in the x-y
place using small circles. The type of plot (scatter, lines, histogram, etc.) can be determined using the type
argument. Strings for the main, x, and y labels can also be passed to plot.

> plot(x,y,type="l", main="X and Y example",ylab="y values",xlab="x values")

plots a line in the x-y plane, for example. Colors, symbols, and many other options can be passed to plot().
For more detailed information, see the help system entries for plot() and par().
After a plotting window is open, if we wish to superimpose another plot on top of what we already have,
we use the lines() command or the points() command, which draw connected lines and scatter plots,
respectively. Many of the same options that apply to plot() apply to lines() and a host of other graphical
functions.
We can plot a line, given its coefficients, using the abline() command. This is often useful in visualizing
the placement of a regression line after a bivariate regression

> results <- lm(y ~ x)

> plot(x,y)
> abline(results$coef)

abline() can also be used to plot a vertical or horizontal line at a particular value using the parameters v
or h respectively.
To draw a nonlinear deterministic function, like f (x) = x3 , we don’t need to generate a bunch of data
that lie on the function and then connect those dots. We can plot the function directly using the curve()
function. If we want to lay the function on top of an already created plot, we can pass the add=TRUE
parameter.

> x <- 1:10

> y <- (x+rnorm(10))^3
> plot(x,y)
> curve(x^3,add=TRUE)

6.1 Plotting Empirical Distributions

We typically illustrate the distribution of a vector of data by separating it into bins and plotting it as a
histogram. This functionality is available via the hist() command. Histograms can often hide true trends in
the distribution because they depend heavily on the choice of bin width. A more reliable way of visualizing
univariate data is the use of a kernel density estimator, which gives an actual empirical estimate of the PDF
of the data. The density() function computes a kernel estimator and can be plotted using the plot()
command.

> d <- density(y)

> plot(d,main="Kernel Density Estimate of Y")

28
 Kernel Density Estimate of Y

0.12
0.10
0.08
Density

0.06
0.04
0.02
0.00

0 5 10 15

N = 25 Bandwidth = 1.386

We can also plot the empirical CDF of a set of data using the ecdf() command from the stepfun library,
which is included in the default distribution. We could then plot the estimated CDF using plot().

> library(stepfun)
> d <- ecdf(y)
> plot(d,main="Empirical CDF of Y")

6.2 Contour Plots

The command contour() from the graphics package takes a grid of function values and optionally two vectors
indicating the x and y values of the grid and draws the contour lines. Contour lines can be added to another
plot using the contourLines() function in a similar manner. The lattice package provides a functions called
levelplot() and contourplot() that are more flexible but less simple to use in my experience. A contour
example appears in appendix 13.5.

6.3 Adding Legends and Stuff

After plotting we often wish to add annotations or other graphics that should really be placed manually.
Functions like text() (see below) and legend() take as their first two arguments coordinates on the graph
where the resulting objects should be placed. In order to manually determine the location of a point on the
graph, use the locator() function. The location of one or several right clicks on the graph will be returned
by this function after a left click. Those coordinates can then be used to place text, legends, or other add-ons
to the graph.
An example of a time series, with a predicted curve and standard error lines around it

> plot(a.true,type="l",lty=1,ylim=c(11.6,12.5),main="Predicted vs True",xlab="",ylab="")

> lines(a.predict$pred,lty=2,type="l")
> lines(a.predict$pred+a.predict$se,lty=3,type="l")
> lines(a.predict$pred-a.predict$se,lty=3,type="l")
> legend(145,11.95,c("true values","predicted"),lty=c(1,2))

29
 Predicted vs True

12.4
12.0 true values
predicted
11.6

146 148 150 152 154 156

6.4 Adding Arrows, Text, and Markers

After drawing a plot of some type, we can add arrows using the arrows() function from the graphics library.
It takes “from” and “to” coordinates. Text and markers can be added anywhere on the plot using the text()
and points() functions. For points() the type of marker is determined by the pch parameter. There are
many values this can take on, including letters. A quick chart of possible values is the last output of running
the command
> example(points)
An example plot using some of these features is in appendix 13.5.

6.5 Multiple Plots

We can partition the drawing canvas to hold several plots. There are several functions that can be used to
do this, including split.screen(), layout(), and par(). The simplest and most important is probably
par(), so we will examine only it for now. The par() function sets many types of defaults about the plots,
including margins, tick marks, and layout. We arrange several plots on one canvas by modifying the mfrow
attribute. It is a vector whose first entry specifies the number of rows of figures we will be plotting and the
second, the number of columns. Sometimes when plotting several figures, the default spacing may not be
pleasing to the eye. In this case we can modify the default margin (for each plot) using the mar attribute.
This is a four entry vector specifying the default margins in the form (bottom, left, top, right). The default
setting is c(5, 4, 4, 2) + 0.1. For a top/bottom plot, we may be inclined to decrease the top and bottom
margins somewhat. In order to plot a time series with a seasonally adjusted version of it below, we could
use
> op <- par(no.readonly=TRUE)
> par(mfrow=c(2,1),mar=c(3,4,2,2)+.1)
> plot(d[,1],main="Seasonally Adjusted",ylab=NULL)
> plot(d[,2],main="Unadjusted", ylab=NULL)
> par(op)
Notice that we saved the current settings in op before plotting so that we could restore them after our
plotting and that we must set the no.readonly attribute while doing this.

6.6 Saving Plots—png, jpg, eps, pdf, xfig

In order to save plots to files we change the graphics device via the png(), jpg(), or postscript() com-
mands, then we plot what we want and close the special graphics device using dev.off(). For example,

30
> png("myplot.png")
> plot(x,y,main="A Graph Worth Saving")
> dev.off()

creates a png file of the plot of x and y. In the case of the postscript file, if we intend to include the graphics
in another file (like in a LATEX document), we could modify the default postscript settings controlling the
paper size and orientation. Notice that when the special paper size is used, the width and height must be
specified. Actually with LATEX we often resize the image explicitly, so the resizing may not be that important.

> postscript("myplot.eps",paper="special",width=4,height=4,horizontal=FALSE)
> plot(x,y,main="A Graph Worth Including in LaTeX")
> dev.off()

One more thing to notice is that the default paper size is a4, which is the European standard. For 8.5x11
paper, we use paper="letter". When using images that have been generated as a postscript, then converted
to pdf, incorrect paper specifications are a common problem.
There is also a pdf() command that works the same way the postscript command does, except that
by default its paper size is special with a height and width of 6 inches.
Finally, many scientific diagrams are written using the free software xfig. R has the capability to export
to xfig format, which allows us complete flexibility in adding to and altering our plots. If we want to use R
to make a generic plot (like indifference curves), we remove the axis numbers and other extraneous marks
from the figure.

> xfig("myoutput.fig", horizontal=F)

> plot(x,(x-.3)^2,type="l",xlab="",ylab="",xaxt="n",yaxt="n")
> dev.off()

The xaxt and yaxt parameters remove the numbers and tic marks from the axes.

6.7 Adding Greek Letters and Math Symbols to Plots

R can typeset a number of mathematical expressions for use in plots using the substitute() command. I
illustrate with an example.

> plot(x,y,main=substitute(y==Psi*z-sum(beta^gamma)),type="l")
> text(3,40,substitute(Delta[K]==1))
> text(0.6,20,substitute(Delta[K]==epsilon))

y = Ψz − ∑ βγ
120
100
80
60
y

∆K = 1
40

∆K = ε
20
0
−20

0 1 2 3 4 5

31
 Capitalizing the first letter of the Greek symbol results in the “capital” version of the symbol. Notice
that to get the equal sign in the expression, one must use the double equal sign, as above. Brackets indicate
subscripts. We can optionally pass variables to substitute() to include their value in the formula. For
example

> for (g in seq(.1,1,.1)){

+ plot(f(g),main=substitute(gamma==x,list(x=g)))
> }

will make ten plots, in each plot the title will reflect the value of γ that was passed to f (). The rules for
generating mathematical expressions are available through the help for plotmath, which is the mathematical
typesetting engine used in R plots.
To mix text and symbols, use the paste() command inside of substitute()

plot(density(tstats),main=substitute(paste("t-stat of ",beta[0])))

7 Statistics
R has extensive statistical functionality. The functions mean(), sd(), min(), max(), and var() operate on
data as we would expect3 . If our data is a matrix and we would like to find the mean or sum of each row or
column, the fastest and best way is to use one of rowMeans(), colMeans(), rowSums(), colSums().

7.1 Working with Common Statistical Distributions

R can also generate and analyze realizations of random variables from the standard distributions. Commands
that generate random realizations begin with the letter ‘r’ and take as their first argument the number of
observations to generate; commands that return the value of the pdf at a particular observation begin with
‘d’; commands that return the cdf value of a particular observation begin with ‘p’; commands that return
the number corresponding to a cdf value begin with q. Note that the ‘p’ and ‘q’ functions are inverses of
each other.

> rnorm(1,mean=2,sd=3)
[1] 2.418665
> pnorm(2.418665,mean=2,sd=3)
[1] 0.5554942
> dnorm(2.418665,mean=2,sd=3)
[1] 0.1316921
> qnorm(.5554942,mean=2,sd=3)
[1] 2.418665

These functions generate a random number from the N(2,9) distribution, calculate its cdf and pdf value,
and then verify that the cdf value corresponds to the original observation. If we had not specified the mean
and standard deviation, R would have assumed standard normal.
Command Meaning
rX() Generate random vector from distribution X
dX() Return the value of the PDF of distribution X
pX() Return the value of the CDF of distribution X
qX() Return the number at which the CDF hits input value [0,1]
Note that we could replace norm with one of the following standard distribution names
3 Note: the functions pmax() and pmin() function like max and min but elementwise on vectors or matrices.

32
 Distribution R Name Possible Arguments
beta beta shape1, shape2, ncp
binomial binom size, prob
Cauchy cauchy location, scale
chi-squared chisq df, ncp
exponential exp rate
F f df1, df1, ncp
gamma gamma shape, scale
geometric geom prob
hypergeometric hyper m, n, k
log-normal lnorm meanlog, sdlog
logistic logis location, scale
negative binomial nbinom size, prob
normal norm mean, sd
Poisson pois lambda
Students t t df, ncp
uniform unif min, max
Weibull weibull shape, scale
Wilcoxon wilcox m, n
The mvtnorm package provides the multivariate normal and t distributions with names mvnorm and
mvt, respectively. Other distributions are found in other packages. For example, invgamma is available in
MCMCpack.

7.2 P-Values
By way of example, in order to calculate the p-value of 3.6 using an f (4, 43) distribution, we would use the
command

> 1-pf(3.6,4,43)
[1] 0.01284459

and find that we fail to reject at the 1% level, but we would be able to reject at the 5% level. Remember,
if the p-value is smaller than the alpha value, we are able to reject. Also recall that the p-value should be
multiplied by two if it we are doing a two tailed test. For example, the one and two tailed tests of a t statistic
of 2.8 with 21 degrees of freedom would be, respectively

> 1-pt(2.8,21)
[1] 0.005364828
> 2*(1-pt(2.8,21))
[1] 0.01072966

So that we would reject the null hypothesis of insignificance at the 10% level if it were a one tailed test
(remember, small p-value, more evidence in favor of rejection), but we would fail to reject in the sign-
agnostic case.

7.3 Sampling from Data

R provides a convenient and fast interface for sampling from data (e.g., for bootstrapping). Because it calls a
compiled function, it is likely to be much faster than a hand-written sampler. The function is sample(). The
first argument is either the data from which to sample or an integer—if an integer is given, then the sample
is taken from the vector of integers between one and that number. The second is the size of the sample to
obtain. The parameter replace indicates whether to sample with or without replacement. Finally, a vector
of sample probabilities can optionally be passed.

33
8 Math in R
8.1 Matrix Operations
8.1.1 Matrix Algebra and Inversion
Most R commands work with multiple types of data. Most standard mathematical functions and operators
(including multiplication, division, and powers) operate on each component of multidimensional objects.
Thus the operation A*B, where A and B are matrices, multiplies corresponding components. In order to
do matrix multiplication or inner products, use the %*% operator. Notice that in the case of matrix-vector
multiplication, R will automatically make the vector a row or column vector, whichever is conformable.
Matrix inversion is obtained via the solve() function. (Note: if solve() is passed a matrix and a vector,
it solves the corresponding linear problem) The t() function transposes its argument. Thus

β = (X 0 X)−1 X 0 Y (11)

would correspond to the command

> beta <- solve(t(X)%*%X)%*%t(X)%*%Y
or more efficiently
> beta <- solve(t(X)%*%X,t(X)%*%Y)
The Kronecker product is also supported and is specified by the the %x% operator.
> bigG <- g%x%h
calculates the Kronecker product of g with h. The outer product, %o% is also supported. When applied to
pure vectors (which we recall have only one dimension and thus are neither rows or columns), both matrix
products makes different assumptions about whether the arguments are row or column vectors, depending
on their position. For example
> h<-c(1,2,3)
> h%*%h
[,1]
[1,] 14
> h%o%h
[,1] [,2] [,3]
[1,] 1 2 3
[2,] 2 4 6
[3,] 3 6 9
> t(h)%*%h
[,1]
[1,] 14
> h%*%t(h)
[,1] [,2] [,3]
[1,] 1 2 3
[2,] 2 4 6
[3,] 3 6 9
Note that t(h)%o%h would produce a 1x3x3 array since the t() operator makes h into a row vector and
%o% makes the second h into a row vector. Strictly speaking those arguments are not conformable. That
combination should probably be avoided.
The trace of a square matrix is calculated by the function tr() and its determinant by det(). The Matrix
package provides the various matrix norms (norm()), sparse and symmetric matrix support, and other linear
algebra-ish functionality. It should be remembered that the Matrix package provides its own class Matrix,
which is distinct from the standard R type matrix. In order to use functions from the Matrix package, they
must be converted using Matrix().

34
8.1.2 Factorizations
R can compute the standard matrix factorizations. The Cholesky factorization of a symmetric positive
definite matrix is available via chol(). It should be noted that chol() does not check for symmetry in its
argument, so the user must be careful.
We can also extract the eigenvalue decomposition of a symmetric matrix using eigen(). By default this
routine checks the input matrix for symmetry, but it is probably better to specify whether the matrix is
symmetric by construction or not using the parameter symmetric.

> J <- cbind(c(20,3),c(3,18))

> j <- eigen(J,symmetric=T)
> j$vec%*%diag(j$val)%*%t(j$vec)
[,1] [,2]
[1,] 20 3
[2,] 3 18

If the more general singular value decomposition is desired, we use instead svd(). For the QR factoriza-
tion, we use qr(). The Matrix package provides the lu() and Schur() decompositions—just remember to
convert the matrix to type Matrix (not matrix) before using them.

8.2 Numerical Optimization

R can numerically minimize an arbitrary function using either nlm() or optim(). I prefer the latter because
it lets the user choose which optimization method to use (BFGS, conjugate gradients, simulated annealing,
and others), but they work in similar ways. For simplicity I describe nlm().
The nlm() function takes as an argument a function and a starting vector at which to evaluate the
function. The fist argument of the user-defined function should be the parameter(s) over which R will
minimize the function, additional arguments to the function (constants) should be specified by name in the
nlm() call.

> g <- function(x,A,B){

+ out <- sin(x[1])-sin(x[2]-A)+x[3]^2+B
+ out
+ }
> results <- nlm(g,c(1,2,3),A=4,B=2)
> results$min
[1] 6.497025e-13
> results$est
[1] -1.570797e+00 -7.123895e-01 -4.990333e-07

Here nlm() uses a matrix-secant method that numerically approximates the gradient, but if the return value
of the function contains an attribute called gradient, it will use a quasi-newton method. The gradient based
optimization corresponding to the above would be

> g <- function(x,A,B){

+ out <- sin(x[1])-sin(x[2]-A)+x[3]^2+B
+ grad <- function(x,A){
+ c(cos(x[1]),-cos(x[2]-A),2*x[3])
+ }
+ attr(out,"gradient") <- grad(x,A)
+ return(out)
+ }
> results <- nlm(g,c(1,2,3),A=4,B=2)

If function maximization is wanted one should multiply the function by -1 and minimize. If optim() is
used, one can instead pass the parameter control=list(fnscale=-1), which indicates a multiplier for the

35
objective function and gradient. It can also be used to scale up functions that are nearly flat so as to avoid
numerical inaccuracies.
Other optimization functions which may be of interest are optimize() for one-dimensional minimization,
uniroot() for root finding, and deriv() for calculating numerical derivatives. Also, constrOptim() provides
constrained optimization functionality.

8.3 Numerical Integration

We can use the function integrate() from the stats package to do unidimensional integration of a known
function. For example, if we wanted to find the constant of integration for a posterior density function we
could define the function and then integrate it
> postdensity <- function(x){
+ exp(-1/2*((.12-x)^2+(.07-x)^2+(.08-x)^2))
+ }
> const <- 1/integrate(postdensity,-Inf,Inf)$value

We notice that integrate() returns additional information, such as error bounds, so we extract the value
using $value. Also, in addition to a function name, integrate() takes limits of integration, which—as in
this case—may be infinite. For multidimensional integration we instead use adapt() from the adapt library,
which does not allow infinite bounds.

9 Programming
9.1 Writing Functions
A function can be treated as any other object in R. It is created with the assignment operator and
function(), which is passed an argument list (use the equal sign to denote default arguments; all other
arguments will be required at runtime). The code that will operate on the arguments follows, surrounded
by curly brackets if it comprises more than one line.
If an expression or variable is evaluated within a function, it will not echo to the screen. However, if it
is the last evaluation within the function, it will act as the return value. This means the following functions
are equivalent

> g <- function(x,Alpha=1,B=0) sin(x[1])-sin(x[2]-Alpha)+x[3]^2+B

> f <- function(x,Alpha=1,B=0){
+ out <- sin(x[1])-sin(x[2]-Alpha)+x[3]^2+B
+ return(out)
+ }

Notice that R changes the prompt to a “+” sign to remind us that we are inside brackets.
Because R does not distinguish what kind of data object a variable in the parameter list is, we should
be careful how we write our functions. If x is a vector, the above functions would return a vector of the
same dimension. Also, notice that if an argument has a long name, it can be abbreviated as long as the
abbreviation is unique. Thus the following two statements are equivalent

> f(c(2,4,1),Al=3)
> f(c(2,4,1),Alpha=3)
Function parameters are passed by value, so changing them inside the function does not change them
outside of the function. Also variables defined within functions are unavailable outside of the function. If a
variable is referenced inside of a function, first the function scope is checked for that variable, then the scope
above it, etc. In other words, variables outside of the function are available to code inside for reading, but
changes made to a variable defined outside a function are lost when the function terminates. For example,

36
> a<-c(1,2)
> k<-function(){
+ cat("Before: ",a,"\n")
+ a<-c(a,3)
+ cat("After: ",a,"\n")
+ }
> k()
Before: 1 2
During: 1 2 3
> a
[1] 1 2
If a function wishes to write to a variable defined in the scope above it, it can use the “superassignment”
operator <<-. The programmer should think twice about his or her program structure before using this
operator. Its need can easily be the result of bad programming practices.

9.2 Looping
Looping is performed using the for command. It’s syntax is as follows
> for (i in 1:20){
+ cat(i)
> }
Where cat() may be replaced with the block of code we wish to repeat. Instead of 1:20, a vector or matrix
of values can be used. The index variable will take on each value in the vector or matrix and run the code
contained in curly brackets.
If we simply want a loop to run until something happens to stop it, we could use the repeat loop and a
break
> repeat {
+ g <- rnorm(1)
+ if (g > 2.0) break
+ cat(g);cat("\n")
> }
Notice the second cat command issues a newline character, so the output is not squashed onto one line. The
semicolon acts to let R know where the end of our command is, when we put several commands on a line.
For example, the above is equivalent to
> repeat {g <- rnorm(1);if (g>2.0) break;cat(g);cat("\n");}
In addition to the break keyword, R provides the next keyword for dealing with loops. This termi-
nates the current iteration of the for or repeat loop and proceeds to the beginning of the next iteration
(programmers experienced in other languages sometimes expect this keyword to be continue but it is not).

9.3 Avoiding Loops

9.3.1 Applying a Function to an Array (or a Cross Section of it)
To help the programmer avoid the sluggishness associated with writing and executing loops, R has a command
to call a function with each of the rows or columns of an array. We specify one of the dimensions in the
array, and for each element in that dimension, the resulting cross section is passed to the function.
For example, if X is a 50x10 array representing 10 quantities associated with 50 individuals and we want
to find the mean of each row (or column), we could write
> apply(X,1,mean) # for a 50-vector of individual (row) means
> apply(X,2,mean) # for a 10-vector of observation (column) means

37
Of course, an array may be more than two dimensional, so the second argument (the dimension over which
to apply the function) may go above 2. A better way to do this particular example, of course, would be to
use rowMeans() or colMeans().
We can use apply() to apply a function to every element of an array individually by specifying more
than one dimension. In the above example, we could return a 50x10 matrix of normal quantiles using
> apply(X,c(1,2),qnorm,mean=3,sd=4)
After the required three arguments, any additional arguments are passed to the inside function, qnorm in
this case.
In order to execute a function on each member of a list, vector, or other R object, we can use the function
lapply(). The result will be a new list, each of whose elements is the result of executing the supplied function
on the list element. The syntax is the same as apply() except the dimension attribute is not needed. If a
different type of data type is passed, such as a vector or matrix, each element becomes an element of a list.
To get the results of these function evaluations as a vector instead of a list, we can use sapply().

9.3.2 Replicating
If the programmer wishes to run a loop to generate values (as in a simulation) that do not depend on the
index, the function replicate() provides a convenient and fast interface. To generate a vector of 50000
draws from a user defined function called GetEstimate() which could, for example, generate simulated data
and return a corresponding parameter estimate, the programmer could execute
> estimates<-replicate(50000,GetEstimate(alpha=1.5,beta=1))
If GetEstimate() returns a scalar, replicate() generates a vector. It it returns a vector, replicate()
will column bind them into a matrix. Notice that replicate() always calls its argument function with the
same parameters—in this case 1.5 and 2.

9.4 Conditionals
9.4.1 Binary Operators
Conditionals, like the rest of R, are highly vectorized. The comparison
> x < 3
returns a vector of TRUE/FALSE values, if x is a vector. This vector can then be used in computations.
For example. We could set all x values that are less that 3 to zero with one command
> x[x<3] <- 0
The conditional within the brackets evaluates to a TRUE/FALSE vector. Wherever the value is TRUE, the
assignment is made. Of course, the same computation could be done using a for loop and the if command.
> for (i in 1:NROW(x)){
+ if (x[i] < 3) {
+ x[i] <- 0
+ }
+ }
Because R is highly vectorized, the latter code works much more slowly than the former. It is good program-
ming practice to avoid loops and if statements whenever possible when writing in any scripting language.
The Boolean Operators
! x NOT x
x & y x and y elementwise
x && y x and y total object
x | y x or y elementwise
x || y x or y total object
xor(x, y) x xor y (true if one and only one argument is true)

38
9.5 The Ternary Operator
Since code segments of the form
> if (x) {
+ y } else {
+ z }
come up very often in programming, R includes a ternary operator that performs this in one line
> ifelse(x,y,z)
If x evaluates to TRUE, then y is returned. Otherwise z is returned. This turns out to be helpful because of
the vectorized nature of R programming. For example, x could be a vector of TRUE/FALSE values, whereas
the long form would have to be in a loop or use a roundabout coding method to achieve the same result.

9.6 Outputting Text

Character strings in R can be printed out using the cat() function. All arguments are coerced into strings
and then concatenated using a separator character. The default separator is a space.
> remaining <- 10
> cat("We have",remaining,"left\n")
We have 10 left
> cat("We have",remaining,"left\n",sep="")
We have10left
In order to print special characters such as tabs and newlines, R uses the C escape system. Characters
preceded by a backslash are interpreted as special characters. Examples are \n and \t for newline and tab,
respectively. In order to print a backslash, we use a double backslash \\. When outputting from within
scripts (especially if there are bugs in the script) there may be a delay between the output command and
the printing. To force printing of everything in the buffer, use console.flush().
To generate a string for saving (instead of displaying) we use the paste() command, which turns its
arguments into a string and returns it instead of printing immediately.

9.7 Pausing/Getting Input

Execution of a script can be halted pending input from a user via the readline() command. If readline()
is passed an argument, it is treated as a prompt. For example, a command to pause the script at some point
might read
> blah <- readline("Press <ENTER> to Continue.")
the function returns whatever the user inputted. It is good practice to assign the output of readline() to
something (even if it is just a throw-away variable) so as to avoid inadvertently printing the input to the
screen or returning it—recall that if a function does not explicitly call return() the last returned value
inside of it becomes its return value.
The function readline() always returns a string. If a numeric quantity is wanted, it should be converted
using as.numeric().

9.8 Timing Blocks of Code

If we want to know the compute time of a certain block of code, we can pass it as an argument to the
system.time() function. Suppose we have written a function called slowfunction() and we wish to know
how much processor time it consumes.
> mytime <- system.time(myoutput <- slowfunction(a,b))
> mytime
[1] 16.76666667 0.08333333 17.00000000 0.00000000 0.00000000

39
The output of slowfunction() is stored in myoutput and the elements of mytime are user, system and total
times (in seconds), followed by totals of user and system times of child processes spawned by the expression.
I often find it inconvenient to pass code to system.time(), so instead we can call proc.time(), which
tells how much time this R session has consumed, directly and subtract.

> mytime <- proc.time()

> myoutput <- slowfunction(a,b)
> proc.time() - mytime
[1] 16.76666667 0.08333333 17.00000000 0.00000000 0.00000000

We are generally interested only in the first number returned by system.time() or proc.time().

9.9 Calling C functions from R

Some programming problems have elements that are just not made for an interpreted language because
they require too much computing power (especially if they require too many loops). These functions can be
written in C, compiled, and then called from within R4 . R uses the system compiler (if you have one) to
create a shared library (ending in .so or .dll, depending on your system) which can then be loaded using
the dyn.load() function.

9.9.1 How to Write the C Code

A function that will be called from within R should have type void (it should not return anything except
through its arguments). Values are passed to and from R by reference, so all arguments are pointers. Real
numbers (or vectors) are passed as type double*, integers and boolean as type int*, and strings as type
char**. If inputs to the function are vectors, their length should be passed manually. Also note that objects
such as matrices and arrays are just vectors with associated dimension attributes. When passed to C, only
the vector is passed, so the dimensions should be passed manually and the matrix recreated in C if necessary.
Here is an example of a C file to compute the dot product of two vectors

void gdot(double *x,double *y,int *n,double *output){

int i;
*output=0;
for (i=0;i<*n;i++){
*output+=x[i]*y[i];
}
}

No header files need to be included unless more advanced functionality is required, such as passing complex
numbers (which are passed as a particular C structure). In that case, include the file R.h.
Do not use malloc() or free() in C code to be used with R. Instead use the R functions Calloc() and
Free(). R does its own memory management, and mixing it with the default C memory stuff is a bad idea.
Outputting from inside C code should be done using Rprintf(), warning(), or error(). These functions
have the same syntax as the regular C command printf(), which should not be used.
It should also be noted that long computations in compiled code cannot be interrupted by the user. In
order to check for an interrupt signal from the user, we include

#include <R_ext/Utils.h>
...
R_CheckUserInterrupt();

in appropriate places in the code.

4 My experience has been that the speedup of coding in C is not enough to warrant the extra programming time except for

extremely demanding problems. If possible, I suggest working directly in R. It’s quite fast—as interpreted languages go.

40
9.9.2 How to Use the Compiled Functions
To compile the library, from the command line (not inside of R) use the command

R CMD SHLIB mycode.c

This will generate a shared library called mycode.so. To call a function from this library we load the library
using dyn.load() and then call the function using the .C() command. This command makes a copy of each
of its arguments and passes them all by reference to C, then returns them as a list. For example, to call the
dot product function above, we could use

> x<-c(1,4,6,2)
> y<-c(3,2.4,1,9)
> dyn.load("mycode.so")
> product<-.C("gdot",myx=as.double(x),myy=as.double(y),myn=as.integer(NROW(x)),myoutput=numeric())
> product$myoutput
[1] 36.6

Notice that when .C() was called, names were given to the arguments only for convenience (so the resulting
list would have names too). The names are not passed to C. It is good practice (and often necessary) to use
as.double() or as.integer() around each parameter passed to .C(). If compiled code does not work or
works incorrectly, this should be checked first.
It is important to create any vectors from within R that will be passed to .C() before calling them. If
the data being passed to .C() is large and making a copy for passing is not desirable, we can instruct .C()
to edit the data in place by passing the parameter DUP=FALSE. The programmer should be very wary when
doing this, because any variable changed in the C code will be changed in R also and there are subtle caveats
associated with this. The help file for .C() or online documentation give more information.
There is also a .Fortran() function. Notice that .C() and .Fortran() are the simple ways to call
functions from these languages, they do not handle NA values or complicated R objects. A more flexible and
powerful way of calling compiled functions is .Call(), which handles many more types of R objects but adds
significantly to the complexity of the programming. The .Call() function is a relatively recent addition to
R, so most of the language was written using the simple but inflexible .C().

9.10 Calling R Functions from C

Compiled C code that is called from R can also call certain R functions (fortran can not). In particular,
the functions relating to drawing from and evaluating statistical distributions are available. To access
these functions, the header file Rmath.h must be included. Unfortunately these C functions are not well
documented, so the programmer may have to look up their definitions in Rmath.h on the local system. Before
calling these functions, GetRNGstate() must be called, and PutRNGstate() must be called afterward. Below
is a C function that generates an AR(1) series with N(0,1) errors and a supplied coefficient.

#include<Rmath.h>
void ar1(double *y,double *rho,double *N){
int i;
GetRNGstate();
for (i=1;i<N[0];i++){
y[i]=rho[0]*y[i-1]+rnorm(0.0,1.0);
}
PutRNGstate();
}

which could be called (as usual) from within R using

> dyn.load("ar1.so")
> X<-.C("ar1",x=double(len=5000),rho=as.double(.9),n=as.integer(5000))$x

41
Most common mathematical operations, such as sqrt() are also available through the C interface.
Actual R expressions can also be called from within C, but this is not recommended since it invokes a
new instance of R and is slower than terminating the C code, doing a computation in R, and calling another
C function. The method for doing it is the (now depreciated) call R() function.

10 Changing Configurations
10.1 Default Options
A number of runtime options relating to R’s behavior are governed by the options() function. Running
this function with no arguments returns a list of the current options. One can change the value of a single
option by passing the option name and a new value. For temporary changes, the option list may be saved
and then reused.

> oldops <- options()

> options(verbose=true)
...
> options(oldops)

10.1.1 Significant Digits

Mathematical operations in R are generally done to full possible precision, but the format in which, for
example, numbers are saved to a file when using a write command depends on the option digits.

> options(digits=10)

increases this from the default 7 to 10.

10.1.2 What to do with NAs

The behavior of most R functions when they run across missing values is governed by the option na.action.
By default it is set to na.omit, meaning that the corresponding observation will be ignored. Other possibil-
ities are na.fail, na.exclude, and na.pass. The value na.exclude differs from na.omit only in the type
of data it returns, so they can usually be used interchangeably.

10.1.3 How to Handle Errors

When an error occurs in a function or script more information may be needed than the type of error that
occurs. In this case, we can change the default behavior of error handling. This is set via the error option,
which is by default set to NULL or stop. Setting this option to recover we enter debug mode on error.
First R gives a list of “frames” or program locations to start from. After selecting one, the user can type
commands as if in interactive mode there. In the example below, one of the indices in my loop was beyond
the dimension of the matrix it was referencing. First I check i, then j.

> options(error=recover)
> source("log.R")
Error: subscript out of bounds

Enter a frame number, or 0 to exit

1: source("log.R")
2: eval.with.vis(ei, envir)
3: eval.with.vis(expr, envir, enclos)
4: mypredict(v12, newdata = newdata)

Selection: 4

42
Called from: eval(expr, envir, enclos)
Browse[1]> i
[1] 1
Browse[1]> j
[1] 301
Pressing enter while in browse mode takes the user back to the menu. After debugging, we can set error to
NULL again.

10.1.4 Suppressing Warnings

Sometimes non-fatal warnings issued by code annoyingly uglifies output. In order to suppress these warnings,
we use options() to set warn to a negative number. If warn is one, warnings are printed are printed as they
are issued by the code. By default warnings are saved until function completion warn=0. Higher numbers
cause warnings to be treated as errors.

11 Saving Your Work

11.1 Saving the Data
When we choose to exit, R asks whether we would like to save our workspace image. This saves our variables,
history, and environment. You manually can save R’s state at any time using the command
> save.image()
You can save one or several data objects to a specified file using the save() command.
> save(BYU,x,y,file="BYUINFO.Rdata")
saves the variables BYU, x, and y in the default R format in a file named “BYUINFO.Rdata”. They can be
loaded again using the command
> load("BYUINFO.Rdata")
R can save to a number of other formats as well. Use write.table() to write a data frame as a space-
delimited text file with headers, for example. Some other formats are listed in section 2.6.

11.2 Saving the Session Output

We may also wish to write the output of our commands to a file. This is done using the sink() command.
> sink("myoutput.txt")
> a
> sink()
The output of executing the command a (that is, echoing whatever a is) is written to “myoutput.txt”. Using
sink() with no arguments starts output echoing to the screen again. Of course, sink() hides the output
from us as we are interacting with R, so many times the easiest way to get a transcript of our session is to
copy and paste using the mouse.
If we are using a script file, a nice way to get a transcript of our work and output is to use sink() in
connection with source().
> sink("myoutput.txt")
> source("rcode.R",echo=T)
> sink()
R can save plots and graphs as image files as well. Under windows, simply click once on the graph so
that it is in the foreground and then go to file/Save as and save it as jpeg or png. There are also ways to
save as an image or postscript file from the command line, as described in section 6.6.

43
11.3 Saving as LATEX
R objects can also be saved as LATEX tables using the latex() command from the Hmisc library. The most
common use we have had for this command is to save a table of the coefficients and estimates of a regression.

> reg <- lm(educ~exper+south,data=d)

> latex(summary(reg)$coef)

produces a file named “summary.tex” that produces the following when included in a LATEX source file5

summary Estimate Std. Error t value Pr(¿—t—)

(Intercept) 17.2043926 0.088618337 194.140323 0.00000e + 00
exper −0.4126387 0.008851445 −46.618227 0.00000e + 00
south −0.7098870 0.074707431 −9.502228 4.05227e − 21
which we see is pretty much what we want. The table lacks a title and the math symbols in the p-value
column are not contained in $ characters. Fixing these by hand we get
OLS regression of educ on exper and south
summary Estimate Std. Error t value Pr(> |t|)
(Intercept) 17.2043926 0.088618337 194.140323 0.00000e + 00
exper −0.4126387 0.008851445 −46.618227 0.00000e + 00
south −0.7098870 0.074707431 −9.502228 4.05227e − 21
Notice that the latex() command takes matrices, summaries, regression output, dataframes, and many
other data types. Another option, which may be more flexible, is the xtable() function from the xtable
library.

12 Conclusion
R provides an effective platform for econometric computation and research. It has built-in functionality
sufficiently advanced for professional research and has a reasonably steep learning curve (if you put knowledge
on the y axis and effort on the x). Because R is a programming language as well as an econometrics program,
it allows for more complex, tailored computations and simulations than one would get in a prepackaged
system. On the other hand, it takes some time to become familiar with the syntax and reasoning of the
language. I hope that this guide eases the burden of learning to program and do standard data analysis in
the finest statistical environment available. Don’t forget to let me know if you feel like I didn’t do this or
have a suggestion about how I could do it better.

5 Under linux, at least, the latex() command also pops up a window showing how the output will look.

44
13 Appendix: Code Examples
13.1 Monte Carlo Simulation
The following block of code creates a vector of randomly distributed data X with 25 members. It then creates
a y vector that is conditionally distributed as

y = 2 + 3x + . (12)

It then does a regression of x on y and stores the slope coefficient. The generation of y and calculation of
the slope coefficient are repeated 500 times. The mean and sample variance of the slope coefficient are then
calculated. A comparison of the sample variance of the estimated coefficient with the analytic solution for
the variance of the slope coefficient is then possible.

>A <- array(0, dim=c(500,1))

>x <- rnorm(25,mean=2,sd=1)
>for(i in 1:500){
+ y <- rnorm(25, mean=(3*x+2), sd=1)
+ beta <- lm(y~x)
+ A[i] <- beta$coef[2]
+ }
>Abar <- mean(A)
>varA <- var(A)

13.2 The Haar Wavelet

The following code defines a function that returns the value of the Haar wavelet, defined by
 √
−1/

√
2 −1 < u ≤ 0
(H)
ψ (u) = 1/ 2 0<u≤1 (13)

0 otherwise


of the scalar or vector passed to it. Notice that a better version of this code would use a vectorized comparison,
but this is an example of conditionals, including the else statement. The interested student could rewrite
this function without using a loop.

> haar <- function(x){

+ y <- x*0
+ for(i in 1:NROW(y)){
+ if(x[i]<0 && x[i]>-1){
+ y[i]=-1/sqrt(2)
+ } else if (x[i]>0 && x[i]<1){
+ y[i]=1/sqrt(2)
+ }
+ }
+ y
+ }

Notice also the use of the logical ‘and’ operator, &&, in the if statement. The logical ‘or’ operator is
the double vertical bar, ||. These logical operators compare the entire object before and after them. For
example, two vectors that differ in only one place will return FALSE under the && operator. For elementwise
comparisons, use the single & and | operators.

45
13.3 Maximum Likelihood Estimation
Now we consider code to find the likelihood estimator of the coefficients in a nonlinear model. Let us assume
a normal distribution on the additive errors

y = aLb K c +  (14)
Notice that the best way to solve this problem is a nonlinear least squares regression using nls(). We do
the maximum likelihood estimation anyway. First we write a function that returns the log likelihood value
(actually the negative of it, since minimization is more convenient) then we optimize using nlm(). Notice
that Y, L, and K are vectors of data and a, b, and c are the parameters we wish to estimate.

> mloglik <- function(beta,Y,L,K){

+ n <- length(Y)
+ sum( (log(Y)-beta[1]-beta[2]*log(L)-beta[3]*log(K))^2 )/(2*beta[4]^2) + \
+ n/2*log(2*pi) + n*log(beta[4])
+ }
> mlem <- nlm(mloglik,c(1,.75,.25,.03),Y=Y,L=L,K=K)

13.4 Extracting Info From a Large File

Let 301328226.csv be a large file (my test case was about 80 megabytes with 1.5 million lines). We want to
extract the lines corresponding to put options and save information on price, strike price, date, and maturity
date. The first few lines are as follows (data has been altered to protect the innocent)

date,exdate,cp_flag,strike_price,best_bid,best_offer,volume,impl_volatility,optionid,cfadj,ss_flag
04JAN1997,20JAN1997,C,500000,215.125,216.125,0,,12225289,1,0
04JAN1997,20JAN1997,P,500000,0,0.0625,0,,11080707,1,0
04JAN1997,20JAN1997,C,400000,115.375,116.375,0,,11858328,1,0

Reading this file on my (relatively slow) computer is all but impossible using read.csv().

> LENGTH<-600000
> myformat<-list(date="",exdate="",cp="",strike=0,bid=0,ask=0,
+ volume=0,impvolat=0,id=0,cjadj=0,ss=0)
> date=character(LENGTH)
> exdate=character(LENGTH)
> price=numeric(LENGTH)
> strike=numeric(LENGTH)
> f<-file("301328226.csv")
> open(f,open="r")
> titles<-readLines(f,n=1) # skip the first line
> i<-1
> repeat{
+ b<-scan(f,what=myformat,sep=",",nlines=1,quiet=T)
+ if (length(b$date)==0) break
+ if (b$cp=="P"){
+ date[i]<-b$date
+ exdate[i]<-b$exdate
+ price[i]<-(b$bid+b$ask)/2
+ strike[i]<-b$strike
+ i<-i+1
+ }
+ }
> close(f)

46
This read took about 5 minutes. Notice that I created the vectors ahead of time in order to prevent having
to reallocate every time we do a read. I had previously determined that there were fewer than 600000 puts in
the file. The variable i tells me how many were actually used. If there were more than 600000, the program
would still run, but it would reallocate the vectors at every iteration (which is very slow).
This probably could have been much speeded up by reading many rows at a time, and memory could
have been saved by converting the date strings to dates using as.Date() at each iteration (see section 2.4).
I welcome suggestions on improvements to this example.

13.5 Contour Plot

This code produces a contour plot of the function posterior(), which I had defined elsewhere.

Posterior using a flat prior

1.3
1.2
1.1
gamma

1.0
0.9
0.8

Posterior Mode
0.7

0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

sigma squared

> x <- seq(0,.5,.005)

> y <- seq(0.7,1.3,.005)
> output <- matrix(nrow=length(x),ncol=length(y))
> for(i in 1:length(x)) {
+ for(j in 1:length(y)) {
+ output[i,j] <- posterior(c(x[i],y[j]))
+ }
+ }
> contour(output,x=x,y=y,xlab="sigma squared",ylab="gamma",main="Posterior using a flat prior")
> points( 0.04647009 , 0.993137,pch=8)
> arrows(.1,.75,0.04647009,0.993137)
> text(.09,.73,"Posterior Mode",pos=4)

14 Appendix: Other References

I didn’t buy any books to learn R and I don’t particularly think anyone else needs to either. Because of
the simplicity of searching either the R website or the world wide web in general for specific help, I do not
include many outside references here (who needs them?). I have found one website that is unusually helpful,
though. It is Paul Johnson’s collection of R tips (gleaned from a long history of R help mailing list questions).

http://www.ku.edu/∼pauljohn/R/Rtips.html

47
 Other manuals and books (both official and contributed) can be downloaded from the R website. If a
common econometric problem is not addressed in this text, I would like to hear about it so I can improve
the book.

48